WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

Chapter 2.4
Direct Reading Magnetic Compass
Introduction
The Direct Reading Magnetic Compass (DRC) is based on a simple magnetic needle, and
points towards the northern end of the earth's magnetic field. It is also installed in an instrument
of dimensions and weight that makes it suitable for use in aeroplanes. Under JAR 25 it is a
mandatory requirement that all modern civil transport aeroplanes carry a direct reading nonstabilised magnetic compass as a standby direction indicator. The most commonly found direct
reading compass is the E type, which is illustrated below.

Properties of a Direct Reading Compass

For a direct reading compass to function efficiently, the magnetic element must possess the
following properties:Horizontality. This ensures that the magnet system remains as near horizontal as
possible, thereby sensing only the horizontal or directive component of the earth's
magnetic field. This is achieved by making the magnet system pendulous, by mounting
the magnet, below the needle pivot, as shown in the diagram above. The magnet
system when freely suspended in the earths magnetic field will tend to align itself with
the direction of that field, ie. align itself in the direction of the total field (T), where T is
the resultant of the earths horizontal (H), and vertical (Z) fields. If the system is tilted
the C of G will move out from beneath the pivot, and will introduce a righting force upon
the magnet system, which will tend to oppose and reduce the overall Z component.
The compass will thus take up a position along the resultant of the two forces, H and
the reduced effect of Z, thus minimising the effect of dip. In temperate latitudes the
final inclination of the needle will be approximately 2 to 3 to the horizontal, but this
inclination will increase when flying nearer the poles, such that, by about 70 north or
south, the compass is virtually useless. The displacement of the C of G is purely a
function of the system's pendulosity, and is not a mechanical adjustment, so it will work
in either hemisphere, without further adjustment.
Sensitivity. This ensures that the DRC is capable of operating effectively down to low
H values, and is achieved by increasing the pole strengths of the magnet being used,
so that it remains firmly aligned with the local magnetic meridian. Sensitivity is also

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aided by keeping pivot friction to a minimum by using an iridium-tipped pivot, which is
free to move in a sapphire jewelled cup. The compass bowl is additionally filled with a
liquid, which reduces the overall effective weight of the magnet system, and also helps
to lubricate the pivot.
Aperiodicity. This ensures that the oscillation of the sensitive element about a new
heading, following a turn, is minimised, ie. a Deadbeat Return characteristic. If a
suspended magnet is deflected from its position of rest and then released, it will tend to
oscillate around the correct direction for some time before stabilising. This is obviously
undesirable, as it could, at worst, lead to the pilot chasing the needle. The compass
needle should thus come to rest with minimal oscillation, which is achieved by:1. Filling the bowl with methyl alcohol or a silicon fluid, and fitting damping
filaments to the magnet system.
2. Keeping the lever arm of the magnet system as short as possible, but
keeping its strength high. This has the effect of maximising its directional
force, whilst reducing its moment of inertia.
3. Using the fluid to reduce the apparent weight of the system.
4. Concentrating the weight as close to the pivot point as possible, to further
reduce the turning moment.
"E" Type Compass
The majority of standby compasses in use today are of the card type, an example of which is
shown below.

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The compass consists of a single circular cobalt steel magnet, to which a light metal compass
card is attached, and is mounted so that it rotates as close as possible to the inner face of the
bowl, thus keeping parallax errors to a minimum during reading. The card is graduated with
white markings on a black background, every 10, with any intermediate indications being
estimated by interpolation. Figures are also shown every 30 and the cardinal points are
marked with appropriate letters, N, S, E and W. A white, vertical lubber line is engraved on the
inner face of the bowl, against which the actual heading is observed.
The system is suspended on an iridium-tipped pivot that revolves in a sapphire jewelled cup,
which is in turn secured to a central stem, and is firmly attached by a bracket to the base of the
bowl. This gives the magnet system freedom of movement of + 20 from the horizontal, and
360 in azimuth.
The bowl is moulded from plastic, and is painted on the outside with black enamel, except for a
small area at the front through which the vertical card can be seen. This part of the bowl is also
moulded so that it has a magnifying effect on the compass card.
The bowl is filled with a silicone fluid, which has no detrimental affect on the plastic bowl, and
also because its properties are not significantly affected by its temperature/viscosity. The liquid
used in the compass bowl is also transparent and has a high resistance to corrosion. It must
also not discolour during its use. Furthermore a bellows type expansion chamber is located at
the rear of the bowl and compensates for changes in liquid volume, due to any variation in
temperature, which ensures that the liquid neither bursts a seal, or contracts, leaving vacuum
bubbles in the fluid.
One disadvantage of using a liquid in the compass bowl however is that, in a prolonged turn, it
will tend to turn with the aeroplane, thus taking the magnet system with it, and affecting the
compass readings. This is known as Liquid Swirl, which is minimised by providing a good
clearance between the damping wires, and the sides of the compass bowl. Liquid swirl also
tends to delay the immediate settling of the system when a new compass heading is selected.
The effects of deviation co-efficient B and C are compensated for by permanent magnet
corrector assemblies, which are secured to the compass mounting plate.
Pre-flight Checks
Prior to flight the flight crew should carry out the following checks:

Check the security of the compass.

Carry out a visual check for signs of any external damage.

Check that the liquid is free from bubbles, discoloration and sediment.

Check that the compass illumination system is serviceable.

Test for pivot friction by deflecting the magnet system through 10-15 each way,
and note the readings on return, which should be within 2 of each other.

Principle of a Pendulum
Consider a plain pendulum that is freely suspended in the aeroplane fuselage. If the aeroplane
maintains a constant direction and speed, the pendulum will remain at rest, but if the aeroplane
turns, accelerates or decelerates the pendulum will be displaced from its true vertical position.
This will occur because the inertia of the pendulum will cause the centre of gravity to lag behind
the pendulum pivot, thus deflecting it away from its normal vertical position, directly beneath its
point of suspension.

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The magnet system (in the compass) is pendulous, so any acceleration or deceleration in flight
will similarly result in a displacement of the C of G away from its normal position. This will result
in a torque being established about the vertical axis of the compass, and unless the compass is
on the magnetic equator, where the earths field vertical component Z is zero, it will be subject
to dip.
Acceleration Errors
The force applied by an aeroplane when accelerating or decelerating on a fixed heading is
applied to the magnet system at the pivot, which is the magnet's only connection with the rest
of the instrument. The reaction to this force will be equal and opposite, and will act through the
C of G of the magnet system, which is below and offset from the pivot (except at the magnetic
equator), as shown below. The two forces will thus constitute a couple which, dependent on the
aeroplanes heading, will cause the magnet system to alter its angle of dip, ie. attempt to restore
the magnet to its horizontal position, or to rotate it in azimuth.

The diagram above shows how the forces affect a magnet system when an aeroplane is
accelerating on a northerly heading. The resulting acceleration force is similarly applied to the
magnet system at the pivot, whilst an equal and opposite reaction R will act through the C of G,
which is below, but offset from the pivot. The resultant couple will cause the northern end of the
magnet system to dip further, thus increasing the angle of dip without any rotation in azimuth.
This will occur because the pivot P, and C of G, are both in the plane of the local magnetic
meridian. Conversely, if the aeroplane decelerates when flying in a northerly direction, the
resultant couple will tilt the magnet system down at its southern end. The opposite will be
observed when accelerating/decelerating in a northerly direction along the magnetic meridian in
the Southern Hemisphere. If the aeroplane is flying in either hemisphere, any changes in speed
on headings other than northerly or southerly, will also result in azimuth rotation of the magnet
system, and will produce errors in the heading indication, as shown below.

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Acceleration errors are also caused by the vertical component of the earths magnetic field,
which occurs because of the magnet systems pendulous mounting, and causes the compass
card to tilt during changes of speed. This deflection will cause a further error, which will be most
apparent on easterly and westerly headings. When an aeroplane is operated in the Northern
Hemisphere and accelerates on either of these headings, the resulting error will cause the
magnet system to rotate, and the compass to indicate a turn to the north. Conversely if an
aeroplane decelerates on either of these headings, the resulting error will cause the magnet
system to rotate, and the compass to indicate a turn to the south.

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CONSIDER AN AEROPLANE IN
THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
INCREASING SPEED WHILST
HEADING WEST

These indications will however be reversed in the Southern Hemisphere. If the aeroplane
decelerates when flying in a westerly direction, the action and reaction of P and R
respectively, will have the opposite effect, and will cause the assembly to turn in the opposite
direction, with all of the forces again turning in the same direction.

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The errors due to acceleration and deceleration are summarised in the following table:Heading

Speed

Needle Turns

Visual effects

East

Increase

Clockwise

Apparent turn to north

West

Increase

Anti-clockwise

Apparent turn to north

East

Decrease

Anti-clockwise

Apparent turn to south

West

Decrease

Clockwise

Apparent turn to south

Note:
1. In the Southern Hemisphere, the errors are in the opposite sense.
2. Similar errors can occur in turbulent flight conditions.
3. No errors occur at the magnetic equator, as the value of Z is zero and hence the
pivot point and C of G will be co-incident with each other.
Turning Errors
During a turn, the compass pivot is carried along the same curved path as the aeroplane. The
centre of gravity (of the magnet system), being offset from the pivot, which is used to counter
the effect of Z, is thus subject to centrifugal acceleration. Furthermore, in a correctly banked
turn the magnet system will tend to maintain a position parallel to the athwartships (wingtip to
wingtip) axis of the aeroplane, and will thus be tilted in relation to the earth's magnetic field. This
will place the pivot and C of G out of alignment with the local magnetic meridian. The magnet
system will thus be subject to a component of Z, and this will cause it, when turning through
North in the Northern Hemisphere, to rotate in the same direction as the turn. This will further
increase the turning error, and will cause the compass to under-indicate, as shown below.

The magnitude and direction of the turning error is thus dependent on the aeroplanes heading,
its angle of bank (the degree of tilt of the magnet system), and the local value of Z (dip). The
turning error will be a maximum value on northerly/southerly headings, and will be particularly
significant within 35 of these headings.
If an aeroplane turns east, as soon as the turn is commenced, the magnet systems C of G will
be subject to a centrifugal acceleration, and will cause the system to rotate in the same direction
as the turn. This will in turn tilt the magnet system, and will allow the earth's vertical component
Z to exert a pull on the northern end, which will cause further rotation of the system. The same
effect will occur if the heading change is from north to west in the Northern Hemisphere.

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The speed of rotation of the system is a function of the aeroplane's bank angle and rate of turn.
As a result of these factors, the following indications may be registered by the compass:

A turn in the correct sense, but smaller than that carried out when the magnet
system turns at a slower rate than the aeroplane.

No turn when the magnet system turns at the same rate as the aeroplane.

A turn in the opposite sense because the magnet system turns at a faster rate than
the aeroplane.

When turning from a southerly heading in the Northern Hemisphere onto an easterly or westerly
heading, the rotation of the system and indications registered by the compass will be the same
as when turning from north, except that the compass will over-indicate the turn.

The effects of turning through North and South in the Northern Hemisphere are summarised in
the following table:Turn
Direction
Through
North

Needle
Movement
Same as
aeroplane

Visual
Effect
Under
Indication

Liquid
Swirl
Adds to Error

Through
South

Opposite to
aeroplane

Over
Indication

Reduces
Error

Corrective
Action
Turn less
than needle
shows
Turn more
than needle
shows

The liquid in the bowl not only provides damping, but it also tends to turn with, and in the same
direction as the turn. This is referred to as Liquid Swirl, and its motion will either add to, or
subtract from, the overall needle error, which is dependent on its relative movement.
In the Southern Hemisphere the south magnetic pole will dominate and, in counter-acting its
downward pull on the compass magnet system, the C of G will move to the northern side of the
pivot. The errors will thus be in the opposite sense. If an aeroplane turns from a northerly
heading onto a easterly heading, the centrifugal acceleration acting on the C of G will cause the
needle to rotate more rapidly in the opposite direction to the turn, thus indicating a turn in the
correct sense but of greater magnitude than that actually carried out. The turn will thus be overindicated. Turning from a southerly heading onto an easterly or westerly heading in the
Southern Hemisphere will, because of its C of G, which is still north of the compass pivot, result
in the same effect as turning through north in the Northern Hemisphere.

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Note:

1.

In the Southern Hemisphere, the errors are opposite to those occurring in the
Northern Hemisphere.

2.

The Northerly turning error is greater than southerly, as liquid swirl is additive to
the compass magnet system movement.

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