History Ebook: Careeranna

History
EBook
CAREERANNA
2016

HISTORY
WHAT, WHERE, HOW AND WHEN

Pre-Historic Period

Earth is very old and so is the antiquity of man. The earliest human fossils have been found in
Africa dating about 4.2 million years. Homo sapiens evolved over a period of these years about
50,000 years ago. Humans have been using stone tools and their life story is, therefore, divided
into -
Paleolithic age
Mesolithic age
Neolithic age

The designation of the cultural past of man was done by P.F. Suhm in as early as 1776.
C.J.Thomsen, in 1836, followed the same to arrange the exhibits in Danish museums. Lubbock in
France divided the stone age further into Paleolithic and Neolithic. In 1930, Gabriel de Mortillet, a
French investigator, started the practice of naming cultural divisions in the manner of
compartments or stages.

ANCIENT INDIA

Palaeolithic Age (50,000 - 1,00,000 BC)
It was basically a hunting and food gathering culture 'Palaeo' means 'old' and 'lithic' means 'stone'.
Palaeolithic age in India is divided into three phases:
1. Early or Lower Palaeothic (50,000 - 100,000 BC) : It covers the greater part of the Ice Age
and its characteristic feature is the use of hand-axe, cleaners and choppen
2. Middle Palaeothic (100,000 - 40,000 BC): The Middle Palaeothic culture is characterised by
flakes. The principal tools are variety of blades, points and scrappers made of flakes.
3. Upper Palaeolithic (40,000 - 10,000 BC) : It marks the appearance of Homo Sapiens and
new flint industries; widespread appearance of a figurines and other artifacts reflecting art
and rituals; the appearance of wide range of bone tools, including needles, fishing tools,
harpoons, blades and burin tools.

Mesolithic Age (10,000 - 4,000 BC)
It was the transitional between Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages. Its characteristic tools are
microliths all made of stone.

Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) (6,000-1,000 BC)
The civilisation and culture of the Neolithic age shows distinct traces of progress. The Neolithic
men had a settled life. They practised agriculture and grew fruits and corn. Animals, such as the
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cow, dog, ox, goat etc. were domesticated. The art of producing fire by the friction of bamboos or
pieces of stones was known to them. Instead of eating the uncooked flesh of various animals, they
now started roasting it. Besides this, bows and arrows were invented and were used for the
purpose of hunting.

Towards the end of the Neolithic period began the use of metals. First metal to be used was
copper and the culture of that time is called Chalcolithic culture. The earliest settlements
belonging to this phase are extended from the Chhotanagpur plateau to the copper Gangetic
basin. Some sites are found at Brahmagiri near Mysore and Navada Toli on the Narmada.

Bronze Age and Indus valley Civilization (IVC)

The beginning of IVC or Harappan Culture coincided with the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age literally
referred to the times when most advanced metal working used Bronze.

The Indus Valley Civilization encompassed most of Pakistan, extending from Balochistan to modern
day Indian states of Haryana, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Punjab. It also extends to Ropar and the
upper Sutlej. The civilizations mainly flourished in the towns of Harappa and Mohenjadaro. The
main inhabitants of the civilizations were from the Dravidians.

IVC was considered to be the first ever urban civilization. The towns developed during that time
were well planned and well executed. Mohenjo-Daro was a scientifically constructed city. The
streets laid out at right angles and they had a well developed drainage system which can be
compared to any modern day drainage system. The Great Bath, the most important structure, was
treated as the main meeting point for the community.

The Harappan people knew the measuring tools of length, mass, and time. They were the first in
the world in developing a system of uniform weights and measures.

By around 1700 B.C various factors like the invasion by Aryans, ecological changes resulted in the
decline of Indus Valley civilization.

Indus Valley Facts at a Glance :
The state which has accounted for highest number of Harappan sites after independence
: Gujarat
Three Harappan sites that have yielded three stages of Harappan Civilization (PreHarappan, Harappan and post-Harappan : Rojde, Desalpur and Surkotada )
Most commonly engraved animal on Harappan seals :Humpless bull or unicorn
Site which have yielded evidence of a pre-Harappan settlement: Kot-Diji, Kalibangan and
Harappa
Major Harappan cities that acted as ports : Lothal, Balakot, Suktagendor and Allahdin
(Pakistan)
The Harappan city with most impressive drainage system : Mohenjo-daro
The geometric shape of the region covered by the Indus civilisation : Triangle
Wheeler said: Indus Valley is the colony of Sumerians
Lions have not been found anywhere in Harappa.
Mother goddess was not worshipped at Rangpur.
A Kushana period Stupa has been found from Mohenjo-daro.
Evidence of cultivation of peas. Till has been traced from Harappa, paddy from Lothal
Harappans had trade relations with Mesopotamians around 2300 BC.
Largest Harappan site in India is situated in Haryana Rakhigarhi, second largest is Dholavira
in Gujarat.
Dimension of Brick-length 11 inches, width -5.5 inches, depth -2.75 inches, ratio 4 2:1
Harappan wheels were axeless
Mohenjo-daro had 10.5 mt wide road.
In Harappa, perhaps because of river Ravi the Granery is outside the fort.
In the Lothal Port, there was a dockyard which is 216 meters in length and 37 meters in
breadth
Sukotada is the only Indus site where remains of a horse have actually been found.
Terracoota seals found at Mehargarh were the earliest precussors of Harappan seals.
Wider road of Harappa was 30 foot.
Most common materials used for the Harappan stone sculpture : Limestone and steatite

Vedic Age
It is the period of Aryans (1500-500 BC).

Aryan means high born
Most probable home of Aryans is central asia( theory of max muller).
Term veda is derived from word vid which means knowledge.
Rigvedic terms: jana(tribe), kula(family), kulupa (head of family), visah(cluster of gramas),
aghanya(cow).
Sabha, samiti, vidhata and gana were important tribal assemblies.

Vedic Literature
FOUR VEDAS
Rigveda

starts with line agnimele purohitum
contains 1028 hymns and divided into 10 mandalas.
hymns Sung by priests called Hotris
contains famous gayatri mantra composed by Vishwamitra
10th mandal contains purush sukta that describes caste system.

Samveda

Rhthmic compilation of hymns for Rigveda

"Book for Chants" contains 1,549 hymns, meant to be sung at the 'soma' sacrifice by a
special class of Brahmanas called Udgatris.

Has only 75 fundamental hymns- Karnataka Jaiminga, Gujarat Kanthun, Maharashtra
Ranayani

Yajurveda

Book of sacrifical prayers
Rituals of yajnas
Is sung by priest "Adhavaryu"

Its mantras tell us how the sacrifices were to be performed and what part the "Adhvaryus"-
the Brahmanas who performed the manual work in the arrangement of sacrifice were to play at
the time of sacrifice.

Has been compiled in "fourth path"
Has been divided into, Krishna(black) Yajurveda & Shukla(white) Yajurveda

Atharvaveda

Mantras for magic spells
Populate ritualistic system & superstitions
Associated with "Saunkiya" and "Paiplad" community
Not included in 'Trai'
Has been divided in 20 "Kandas"
18th, 19th & 20th 'Kandas' are later works
Provides freedom from evils spirits.
Oldest text on Indian Medicine.

The vast literature of the Aryans is divided into two parts - Sruti and Smriti

Sruti Literature
The word Veda has been divided from the Sanskrit word Ved, which means 'spiritual knowledge'.
The Vedas are four in number - Rig Veda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The Rig Veda
contains a references only to the first three Vedas, which suggests that the fourth Veda was
composed at some later date.

Aranyaka

Literarily, it means 'Jungle'
Provides description of Moral Science and Philosophy
Provides details of hermits and saints who lived in Jungles
Give stress on meditation
Protests the system of 'Yajnas'

Upanishada
It would be appropriate to describe Upanishadas as mystic writings. There are 108 Upanishads in
all, the most prominent of them being Ish, Prasana, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogaya,
Kathoupanishad, Ishopanishad, Brehadaranyaka, etc.
1.
Literary meaning is 'Satra' (to sit near masters feet) in which Guru offers band of knowledge
to their disciples
2.
Is a combination of Tatva-mimansa and philosophy
3.
They are also called "Vedanta"
4.
Primitive upanishada are "Brahadaranyaka" and "Chandogya"
5.
Later Upnishada like "Katha" and "Swetaswatar" have been written in poetic forms.
6.
Brahma is the summary of philosophy, which is the only a 'truth' in the world.
7.
Knowledge awards salvation says Upanishadas
8.
Oldest possibility Narsinghpurvatapani
9.
Latest possibility Allopanishada in Akbar's reign

Smriti Literature
Smriti is traditional knowledge and designates almost the entire body of post-Vedic classical
Sanskrit literature. Smriti literature generally includes the following overlapping subjects:-

a.
The Vedangas: They refer to certain branches of post-Vedic studies regarded as auxiliary to
the Vedas. The Vedangas are conventionally divided into six heading namely:- (i) Kalpa or the ritual
canon, including the dharma shastras or legal codes, (ii)Jyotisha or astronomy, (iii) Siksha or
phonetics, (iv)Chhanda or metre (v) Nirukta or etymology (vi)Vyakarana (Grammer)
b.
The Shad-Darsana: Six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, namely Nyaya, 'Vaiseshikha',
Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.
c.
Itihasa: Legendary or semi-legendary works, specifically the Ramayana and Mahabharata
and often extended to the Puranas.
d.
Puranas: Being a fairly late description of ancient legends, they are heavily coloured with
the superstitions. The Puranas represent the most corrupt form of Hinduism. They are 18 in
number .
e.
Upaveda: Also known as the auxiliary Vedas, they deal with medicine, architecture, erotics,
archery and various arts and crafts. These were partly derived from original Vedic texts and were
traditionally associated with one or other of the Vedas.
f.
Tantras: Tantras are the writings of Shakta or Shaivite sects and also of certain antinomian
Buddhist scholars
g.
Agamas: They are scriptures of sectarian Hindus like Vaishnavites, Shaivites and Shaktas.
h.
Upangas: They are a generic name for any collection of treatises although traditionally
confined to the philosophical systems of 'Nyaya' and 'Mimansa' - the 'Dharma Sutras' the 'Puranas'
and the 'Tantras'
Epics
Some historians regard the Later Vedic Period as the Period of Epics. The Mahabharata and the
Ramayana are the two great epics of this period.
Ramayana: It is said to have been composed by the sage, Valmiki. It contains 24000 hymns and is
divided into 7 parts. The story of Ramayana is of indigenous origin and had existed in ballad form
in Prakrit, in more than one version. It was rewritten in Sanskrit and augmented with many
'Shlokas'. It is also known as Adi Kavya. Evidence places the oldest part of the Ramayana to before
350 BC..
Mahabharata: The Mahabharata is the bulkiest epic consisting of 100,000 verses and is divided
into 18 paravas (books).

Emergence of Mahajanapadas (600-321 BC)

In the later Vedic period, the tribal organisations changed its identity and gradually shifted to the
territorial identity, and the area of settlement were now regarded as janapadas or states. Each
janapada tried to dominate and subjugate other janapadas to become Mahajanapadas.

The 16 Mahajanapadas
Mahajanapadas Capitals
Locations
Gandhara
Taxila
Covering the region between Kabul and Rawalpindi in

North Western Province.
Kamboja
Rajpur
Covering the area around the Punch area in Kashmir
Asmaka
Potana
Covering modern Paithan in Maharashtra; on the bank

of River Godavari
Vatsa
Kaushambi
Covering modern districts of Allahabad and Mirzapur
Avanti
Ujjain
Covering modern Malwa (Ujjain) region of Madhya

Pradesh.
Surasena
Mathura
Located in the Mathura region at the junction of the

Uttarapath & Dakshinapath
Chedi
Shuktimati
Covering the modern Budelkhand area
Maila
Kushinara, Pawa
Modern districts of Deoria, Basti, Gorakhapur in

eastern Uttar Pradesh. Later merged into Maghada
Kingdom
Kurus
Hastinapur/Indraprastha
Covering the modern Haryana and Delhi area to the

west of River Yamuna
Matsya
Virat Nagari
Covering the area of Alwar, Bharatpur and Jaipur in

Rajasthan
Vaishali
Located to the north of the River Ganga in Bihar. It was

the seat of united republic of eight smaller kingdoms
of which Lichhavis, Janatriks and Videhas were also
members.
Anga
Champa
Covering the modern districts of Munger and

Bhagalpur in Bihar. The Kingdoms were later merged
by Bindusara into Magadha.
Kashi
Banaras
Located in and around present day Varanasi in Uttar

Pradesh.
Kosala
Shravasti
Covering the present districts of Faizabad, Gonda,

Bahraich, etc.
Magadga
Girivraja/Rajgriha
Covering modern districts of Patna, Gaya and parts of

Shahabad.
Panchala
Ahichhatra
(W.Panchala),
Kampilya (S. Panchala)
Present day Rohilkhand and part of Central Doab in

Uttar Pradesh.
Vajjis
Alexander Invasion
In the fourth century BC, the Greeks and the Iranians fought for the supremacy of the world. The
Greek ruler Alexander conquered not only Asia Minor and Iraq but also Iran. From Iran, he
marched to India, obviously attracted by its great wealth. Alexander conquered principalities one
by one. Among the rulers of these territories, two were well-known: Ambhi, the prince of Taxila,
and Porus whose kingdom lay between the Jhelum and the Chenab. After the conquest of Iran,
Alexander moved on to Kabul, from where he marched India through the Khyber Pass. Ambhi, the
ruler of Taxila, readily submitted to the invader, augmented his army and replenished his treasure.
Alexander remained in India for 19 months (326-325 BC), which were full of fighting.

Persian Invasion
The Achaemenian rulers of Iran, who expanded their empire at the same time as the Magadhan
kings, took advantage of the political disunity on the north-west frontier. The Iranian ruler, Darius,
penetrated into north-west India in 518 BC and annexed Punjab, west of the Indus, and Sindh.
Chronology of Foreign Invasions
518-486 BC
King Darius or Darus invaded India
326 BC
Alexander invaded India
190 BC
Indo Greeks or Bactrians invaded India
90 BC
Sakas invaded India
Ist century AD Pahalavas invaded India

45 AD
Kushanas or Yue-chis invaded India
Rise of Magadha
Between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE, Magadha (in present day Bihar) became the most
powerful Mahajanapada.
The Haryankas: Magadha came into prominence under the leadership of Bimbisara (542-493 BC),
who belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. He strengthened his position by marriage alliances. He
took three wives. His first wife was the daughter of the king of Kosala and the sister of Prasenajit.
His second wife Chellana was a Lichchhavi Princess from Vaishali, and his third wife was the
daughter of the chief of the Madra clan of Punjab. Marriage relations with the different princely
families gave enormous diplomatic prestige and paved the way for the expansion of Magadha
westward and northward.
The earliest capital of Magadha was at Rajgir, which was called Girivraja at that time..Bimbisar was
succeeded by his son Ajatasatru (492-460 BC). Ajatasatru was succeeded by Udayin (460-444 BC),
His reign is important because he built the fort upon the confluence of the Ganga and Son at
Patna. This was done because Patna lay in the centre of the Magadhan kingdom.
The Sisunagas: Udayin was succeeded by the dynasty of Sisunagas, who temporarily shifted the
capital to Vaishali. Their greatest achievement was the destruction of the power of the Avanti with
its capital at Ujjain. This brought to an end the 100 years old rivalry between Magadha and Avanti.
The Nandas: The Sisunagas were succeeded by the Nandas, who proved to be the most powerful
rulers of Magadha. So great was their power that Alexander, who invaded Punjab at that time, did
not dare to move towards the east. The Nandas added to the Magadhan power by the conquering
Kalinga from where they brought an image of the Jina as a victory trophy. The Nandas were the
first non-kshatriya rulers. The last Nanda ruler Dhana Nanda was defeated by Chandragupta
Maurya who founded the Maurya Empire.

Significant Persons In World History During The Six Century BC
Zoraster(Persia)
founder of Zorastrianism
Isaiah (Palestine)
the preacher
Confucius(China)
the philosopher
Laotse (China)
the philosopher
Selone (Greece)
the philosopher
Mahavira (India)
24th Thirtankara of Jainsim
Buddha (India)
founder of Buddhism

The Mauryas (321 BC-185 BC)
There are mainly two literally sources of the Mauryan period.

One is the Arthashastra written by Kautilya or Chanakya, the Prime Minister of Chandragupta
Maurya, which explains how a good government should be organised. The other source
is Indica written in Greek by Magasthenes, the ambassador of Seleucus Nicator head the court of
Chandragupta. Magasthenes wrote not only about the capital city of Pataliputra but also about the
Maurya Empire as a whole and about the society.

Arthashastra
1. Written by Chankaya/Vishnugupta/Kautilya
2. Divided in 15 Adhikarnas and 180 Prakarnas
3. Is related to money and politics

4. Is divided into 15 parts
5. 6000 sholakas
6. Comment-Pratipada Panchika commented by-Bhataswamy
7. Manuscript discovered by Arya Sharma Shastri in 1904.

Chandragupta Maurya (321-293 BC)

The Maurya dynasty was founded by Chandragupta Maurya. He took advantage of the growing
weakness and unpopularity of the Nandas in the last days of their rule. With the help of Chanakya,
he overthrew the nandas and established the rule of Maurya dynasty.

Chandragupta built up a vast empire which included not only Bihar and good portions of Bengal,
but also western and North-Western India, and the Deccan. Leaving Kerala, Tamil Nadu and parts
of north-eastern India, the Mauryas ruled over the whole of the subcontinent. In the north-west,
they held sway over certain areas which were not included even in British Empire.

The Ashoka (273-232 BC)

Asoka was greatest of the Mauryan rulers. He occupies a high position not only in the history of
India but in the world history also. He was coronated four years after the death of his father,
Bindusara (273 BC). From the Buddhist traditions we learn that he was originally called
'Chandasoka' or the fierce Asoka owing to his many evil deeds.
Like his predecessors, Asoka assumed the title of Priyadarshi (pleasing to look at) and
Devanampriya (beloved of God). In the Sarnath inscription, he adopted the third title,
i.e.Dharmasoka.

Asoka's Epic and Inscriptions and they are subject
First
First major rock

Prohibition on animal slaughter
edict
Second
Second major Mention of places of Cholas, Pardayans. Satayaputras and

rock edit
Keralputras
Third
Third
major Directions to Predeshikas. Yuktas and Rajukas for propagation of
rock edit
.Dhamma
Forth
Forth
major
Impact of Dhamma on society.
rock edit
Fifth
Fifth major rock

Appointments of Dhammamahamatras.
edit
Sixth
Sixth major rock

Welfare majors.
edit
Seventh
Seventh major
Propagation of peace, balance of mind and faith
rock edit
Eighth
Eighth major
Details of visit to Bodhi tree.
rock edit
Ninth
Ninth
major
Stress on ceremony of Dhamma
rock edit
Tenth
Tenth
major
Asoka's desire to gain popularity for Dhamma
rock edit
Eleventh
Eleventh major
Appraisal of Dhamma
rock edit
Twlevth
Twlevth major
Promotion to religion of different faiths
rock edit
Thirteenth
Thirteenth
Largest of all, victory over Kalinga's destruction of war, mention of
major rock edit Greek rulers
Nature of all other rock edicts Inclusion of Asoka into Sangha It is

Fourteenth
Fourteenth
bilingual. It tells that fishermen and hunters gave up hunting Faith
major rock edit
of ruler and kingdom in Dhamma.

India after Mauryas (200 BC-A.D. 100)

Following are some of the major dynasties which came in existence after Mauryas.

The Sunga dynasty (185-71 BC)

The founder of Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga, Vasumitra, the commander in chief of
Brihadratha, the last Mauryan king. According to Puranas, Pushyamitra ruled for 36 years and his
reign ended in 149 four 148 BC. Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son Agnimitra. From Kalidasa's
drama Malvikagnimitram, we learned that Agnimitra was the governor of Vidisha during his
father's regin. He ruled for eight years. Agnimitra was succeeded by Jyestha. The next important
king of this dynasty was Vasumitra, who was the son of Agnimitira.
The last king of this dynasty was Devabhuti or Devabhumi.

The Sunga dynasty's greatest achievement was the safeguarding of India from invasion of Hunas.
They valiantly resisted the Huna's attacks and saved India from being destroyed. The contributed a
lot to the development of culture also.

Kanva dynasty (72 BC-27 BC)

The rule of the Kanvas lasted for about 45 years. For kings ruled during this period. Vasudeva ruled
for a period of nine years and Bhumimitra for 14 years. Narayana held the reigns of administration
for 12 years --Susharma was the last of the Kanvas. He was a peek King wholly devoid of
administrative ability. He could roll hardly for 10 years.

Cheta (Chetis) dynasty of Kalinga

It is evident that Kalinga succeded from the Mauryas Empire in the years following the death of
Asoka, though it's history is not known with any degree of certainty till the first century BC. It
records the exploits of Kharavela belonging to the Cheta or Cheti line of kings, founded by Maha
Meghavahana. He assumed the title of Kalingadhipati or Kalinga Chakravartin as a mark of his
paramountcy. A follower of Jainism, Kharavela was a liberal patron of Jain monks for whose
residence he constructed caves on the Udayagiri hills, near Bhubaneswar in Orrisa.

Age of Satavahanas (235 BC-100 BC)

The most important of the native successors of the Mauryas in the Deccan and in Central India
were the Satavahanas. The Satavahanas are considered to be identical with the Andhras
mentioned in the Puranas. The early Satavahanas kinks appeared not in Andhra, but in
Maharashtra where most of their early inscriptions have been found.Gautamiputra Satakarni
(A.D. 106-130) was the most powerful Satavahana king. The successors of Gautamiputra rulled till
A.D.200.

The Kushanas (45 A.D.-73 A.D.)

The Parthians were followed by Kushanas, who are also called Yuehis or Tocharians. The Kushans
were one of the five clans ino which the Yuechi tribe was divided. There were two successive
dynasties of Kushans. The first dynasty was founded by a house of Chief who were called
Kadphises and who ruled for 28 years from about A.D. 50. It has two Kings the first Kadphises I,
who issued coins South of the Hindukush. Kadphises I was succeeded by his sone kadphises II or
Vima Kadphises. Kanishka was the greatest Kushana king. He spread his kingdom in and beyond
the western Himalayas, including Khotan in Sinkiang. He is credited with popularizing Buddhism in
Tibet, China, Central Asia and other parts of the world.

The Sangam age (first to third century A.D.)

'Sangam' is the Tamil form of Sanskrit word "Sangha" meaning a group of persons or an
association. The Tamil Sangam was an Academy of poets, who flourished in three different periods
and in different places under the patronage of the Tamil kings. According to tradition, the first
Sangam was founded by Sage Agastya and its seat was at Thenmadurai (South Madurai). The
Sangam literature speaks of three South Indian kingdoms - Chola, Pandya and Chera. The three
ancient kingdoms of the Cholas, the Pandas and the Chera combined with were known as
Tamilakha ,or the Tamil realm.

The Three Sangam Kingdoms
Kingdoms Capital
Emblems
Famous sport
Cholas
Uraiyur, later Puhar Tiger
Puhar(Kaveripattam)
Cheras
Vanji or Karur
Bow
Muzris, Tondi, Bandar
Pandyas
Madurai
Carp (Fish) Korkai, Saliyur

The Cholas

The homeland of the Cholas was the Kaveri delta and the adjoining region of modern Tanjore and
Trichinopoly. They were the first to acquire ascendancy in the far south with kaveripattanam, or
Puhar as their capital. Its ugly capital was Uraiyur . Towards the beginning of the fourth century
A.D. the power of the Chola's big gain to decline mainly because of the rise of Pallavas on one hand
and the continuous war waged by the Pandyas and the Cheras on the other.

The Pandyas

The ancient kingdom of the Pandas, with its capital at Madurai, compromised the modern districts
of Madura, Ramnad, Tirunelveli and southern parts of Travancore. The Pandyas were first
mentioned by Megarthanese. According to the Magashense, the kingdom was once ruled by a
woman. According to Asoka edicts, the Pandyas were independent people living beyond the South
than border of the Maurya Empire.

The greatest Pandya king was Nedunchezhian who defeated the Chera and Cholas.

The Cheras

The earliest reference to the Chera (Keralaputra) kingdom cards in the Ashokan inscriptions. It
compromised the mordern districts of Malabr, Cochin and Northern Travancore. Its Capital
was Vanji. The greatest Chera king was Senguttuvan, the red or good Chera. He is credited with
having invaded the north and crossed the river Ganga.

The age of the Guptas (A.D. 320-550)

The classical age:

The classical age referred to the period when most of the north India was reunited under the
Gupta Empire. It was, perhaps, sometimes late in the period of third century A.D. that the Gupta
dynasty emerged. One Sri Gupta, who brought Magadha under his control, was the founder of the
Gupta dynasty.

Sri Gupta was succeeded by Ghototkacha Gupta.
The first two kings of the dynasty

were
described
as
Maharajas.

Chandragupta I (320 A.D.-335 A.D.)

Chandragupta I, grandson of Sri Gupta and son of Ghatotkacha Gupta, was the first to great ruler
of the dynasty. He increased power and prestige of the empire to a great extent by matrimonial
alliance and conquests. He married Kumaradevi, the Lichchavi Princess. His empire included
modern Bihar, Oudh, Allahabad, Tirhut, in addition to Magadha.

Samudragupta (335 A.D.-375 A.D.)
Samudragupta increased the throne in 335 A.D. The basic information about his reign is provided
by an inscription Prayaga Prasasti composed by Harisena, the poet at his court, and engraved on
an Ashokan pillar at Allahabad Pilair Inscription.

Samudragupta embarked upon a policy of conquest. In fact,Digvijay became the ultimate call of his
life. For his military achievements, he has been aptly complemented by the historian V.A Smith as
the Indian Napoleon. He has described Samudragupta as the Hero of Hundred Battles.

Chandragupta II (380 A.D.-412 A.D.)

The reign of Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) was the largest watermark of the Gupta Empire. He
extended the limits of the empire by marriage alliance and conquests.
Chandragupta I married his daughter Prabhavati with a Vakataka Prince who belonged to the
Brahmana cast and ruled in central India. The prince died and was succeeded by his young son. So,
Prabhavati became the virtual ruler.
Chandragupta exercised indirect control over the Vikataka kingdom. This afforded a great
advantage to him. With his great influence in this area, Chandragupta II conquered western Malwa
and Gujarat, which had been under the role of Saka Kshtrapas for about four centuries. The
conquest gave Chandragupta the eastern seacoast, famous for trade and commerce. This also
contributed to the prosperity of Malwa, and its chief city Ujjain. Ujjain seems to have been made
the second capital by Chandragupta II.
Chandragupta II adopted the title of Vikramaditya which had been first used by an Ujjain ruler in
57 BC as a mark of his victory over the Saka Kshatrapas of western India. The Court of
Chandragupta II at Ujjain was adorned by an numerous scholars such as Kalidasa and
Amarashimha.

It was in Chandragupta's regin that the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien (399-414) visited India and abroad
and elaborate account of the life of its people.
Skandagupta, the last ruler of the Gupta dynasty, literary saved the Gupta Empire by defeating the
Hunas and in maintaining the integrity of his ancestral empire. Success in repelling the Hunas
scenes to have been celebrated by the assumption of the title Vikramaditya.

The decline of the empire begin soon after his death. The Hunas later became the rulers of Punjab
and Kashmir.
Gupta Architecture
Gupta age is known as Golden Age.

Gupta age marks the beginning of the main styles of temple architecture in India namely
the Nagara style andDravida style.
The finest example of temple architecture is the Dasavatara Temple at Deogarh. It is also
an example of early stone temple with a Shikara.
It has a square grabhagriha with exquisitely carved doorway.
The Bhitragaon temple of Kanpur is made entirely of bricks.
Other examples of temple architecture are Parvati Temple at Nachna Kuthira, Shiva temple
at Khoh, Cave temple at Udayariti etc.

Ajanta Paintings
The greatest specimen of Buddhist art in Gupta Times is provided by Ajanta paintings. They
depict the various events in the life of Gautama Buddha and previous Buddhas, of jataka
stories.
Bagh Caves had the folk culture as the basic theme.
The paintings in the cave number 9 and 10 belong to the first and second century BC
Cave number 10 belong to the early Gupta eight, approximately 350 A.D.
Paintings in the cave number 16, 17 and 19 belong to the later period approximately to 650
A.D.
Painting of the cave number 1 and 2 belong to the post Gupta period.
Development of literature during Gupta period

During the Gupta period, Sanskrit literature greatly encouraged. Prose and poetry both were
written during the Gupta period. The Allahabad pillar inscription indicates that Harisena was a
great poet. The manner in which, he has described the samundragupta by Chandragupta indicates
that he was a pirate of great calibre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Medieval India

Early Medieval India (650-1206 AD)

North India and the Decan :

In the post Harsha period, three great centres of powers emerged in North India and Deccan:
Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakutas.
Kashmir Kashmir was ruled by three dynasties- the Karkota, Utpala and Loharas. Lalitaditya was
the most famous ruler of Kashmir during this period.

The Cholas
Cholas were the most civilised race of the south. It is believed that this dynasty was founded
by Karikala. Chola empire was called Cholamandalam. It included in itself Trichnopoly, Tanjore and
some districts of Mysore and Madras (Now Chennai). Kaveripattam was its capital. The real
founder of the Chola dynasty of Tanjore was Vijayalaya, a feudatory of the Pallavas. His dynasty
rose to its eminence and lasted for more than two centuries.
Then Chola empire reached its zenith during the reigns of Rajaraja (985-1014) and his
son, Rajendra I(1014-1041)
Rajaraja's major achievements were :-
1.
2.
3.
4.
conquering Madurai and capturing the Pandyan ruler

invading northern part of Sri Lanka and making it a Chola province
conquering Maldive islands
emerging as a strong naval power by destroying the stongest naval power of the Chera
kingdom.
Rajendra I's major achievements were :-

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
conquering several trans-Ganga kingdoms and assuming the title of Gangai Kondachola
founding a new capital called Gangai Kondacholapuram
conquering the whole of Ceylon or Sri Lanka
Indianisation of several lands of the south-East Asia
defeating the kings of Sumatra in a naval campaign and annexing a part of Sumarata
kingdom to his kingdom
Kulottunga (1178-1210) was the last greatest Chola emperor. After him, the Chola empire
collapsed and its place was taken by the Pandyas and Hoysalas.

Other Kingdoms of South

Kingdom
Capital
Western/Later Chalukyas Kalyani,Karnataka
Real founder
Tailap II
Kakatiyas (1110-1326)
Warangal, Andhra Pradesh Prolaraja II
Yadavas (1187-1312)
Devagiri,Maharashtra
Hoyasalas (1173-1342)
Dwarasamudra, Karnataka Vittigadev 'Vishnuvardhan'
Bhillam V

Note: The temple of Hoyasaleshwara at Dwarasamudra (Modern Halebid) is the greatest
achievement of Hoyasala art.

Emergence of Rajputs
In northern India, the smaller states were ruled by people known as Rajputs. With the breakup of
Pratihara empire, a number of Rajput states came into existence in north India. The period
between 647 AD and 1192 AD i.e. 500 years is known as the Rajput period in the history of India.

Origin
There is no agreement among modern scholars regarding the origins of Rajputs. According to one
tradition, the Rajputs are the descendants of the ancient Kshatriyas belonging to either sun family
(Suryavansha) or moon family (Chandravansha) mentioned in the Mahabharata.

Rajputs Ruling Dynasties
The most important Rajputs dynasties were the Gahadavalas of Kanauj,the Paramaras of
Malwa, and the Chauhans of Ajmer. There were other smaller dynasties in different parts of the
country, such as the Kalachuris in the are around modern Jabalpur, the Chandellas of Mahoha in
Bundelkhand, the Chalukyas of Gujarat, the Tomars of Delhi etc.
Chandradeva and Govindachandra were the famous rulers of the Ghadavala family. The
Paramara ruler, was a great patron of art and literature. He himself was a great poet and
scholar. Prithvijar Chauhan or Rai Pithora was the famous Chauhan ruler. He defeated
Muhammad Ghori in the first battle of Tarain(1191). However, Ghori defeated him in the second
battle of Tarain(1192). Dhanga was the most powerful king of the Chandella family.

Rajputs Art and Architecture :

The fort structure reached perfection under the Rajputs. The palaces of Jaipur and Udaipur and the
forts of Chittor, Mandu, Jodhpur and Gwalior are fine specimens of Rajputs architecture. Dilwara
temples at Mount Abu, the Vimla Vasahi and the Luna Vasahi were built by Solankis of Gujarat.
Rajputs Paintings
The Rajputs paintings are divided into the Rajput School of Art and the Pahari School of Art. The
Rajasthani School flourished in Mewar, Bikanar, Jaipur, Jodhpur adn Jaisalmer and specialized in
depicting scenes from Krishna Lila, Nayika Veda and Ritu Charita. The Pahari School was
patronized by the rulers of Himalayan states especially in the regions of Basoli, Mandi, Jammu,
Kangra and Garhwal.

Attacks of Muhmud of Ghazni
Mahmud of Ghazni raided India for the first time in AD 1000 . He wanted to make Ghazni, a
principality of Afghanistan, into a region wielding formidable power in the politics of Central Asia.
In a short period of 25 years, he made 17 raids. He destroyed many temple e.g. Somnath temple in
Gujarat (1025 AD) as they were depositories of vast quantitites of wealth.

Attacks of Muhammed Ghori

The second attack from north-west was made by the Muhammed Ghori at the end of 12th
century, for which India was not prepared. He attacked from Gomal Pass in 1182, and conquered
Sindh. In 1182, he conquered Lahore and soon after, an attack was commenced on the Rajputs
kingdoms controlling the Ganges plain. Prithviraj Chauhan led the Rajputs against Muhammed
Ghori at the First battle of Tarain in 1191 and the Rajputs became victorious. At the Second battle
of Tarain in 1191 at the same place, Prithviraj was defeated by the kingdom of Delhi fell to Ghori.
Muhammad Ghori defeated and killed Jayachandra, the king of Kanauj, in the Battle of Chadawar.
Before his assassination in 1206, Turks had conquered the Ganga-Yamuna doab and its
neighbouring
areas,
and
Bihar
and
Bengal
were
also
overrun.
The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526)

Introduction: The defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan in the second battle of Tarain in 1192 by
Shahabuddin Muhammad Ghori inaugurated an era of Muslim rule in India. The sudden death of
Muhammad Ghori in 1206 and his failure to specify succession procedures pitted his three slaves
Tajuddin Yalduz, Nasiruddin Qubacha and Qutbuddin Aibek against each other.

The period between 1206 and 1526 in the Indian history is known as the"Period of the Sultan
Rulers" . During this period, rulers belonging to five different dynasties- The Slaves, the Khiljis, the
Tughlaqs, the Sayyids and the Lodhis-ruled over India.

The Background of Delhi Sultanate
First Muslim Invasion - Mohammad Bin Qasim's Invasion (712 AD) : Mohammad Bin
Qasim invaded India in 712 AD and conquered Sindh which became the province of
Omayyad Khilafat.
First Turk Invasion-Mahmud Ghaznavi's Invasion (998-1030 AD) :Sultan Mahmud of
Ghazni led about 17 expeditions to India to enrich himself by taking away the wealth from
India. In 1025 he attacked and raided the most celebrated Hindu temple of Somnath that
lies on the coast in the extreme south of Kathiwar. The temple was destroyed in 1026 AD.
Second Turk Invasion-Mohammad Ghori's Invasion (1175-1206 AD) :Mohammad Ghori
invaded India and laid the foundation of the Muslim domination in India. He may be
considered the founder of muslim rule in India.
Mohammad Ghori's conquests became the nucleus of a new political entity in India-the Delhi
Sultnate. This period can be divided into 5 distint periods viz
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The Slave dynasty (1206-1290)

The Khijli Dynasty (1290-1320)
The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414)
The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451)
The Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526)
The Slave Dynasty (1206-1290)

All the Muslim rules that ascended the throne of Delhi after the death of Muhammad Ghori in
1206 till 1290 were either themselves slaves or the descendants of these slave rulers. That is why
the rulers belonging ot this dynasty are generally are known as the "Slave Rulers" or the Mameluk
Sultans and the dynasty is called the "Slave dynasty. " Muhaammad Ghori had left Indian
possessions in the care of his former slave, Qutub-ud-bin Aibek, who on the death of his master,
severed his links with Ghazni and asserted his independence, becuase he use to give (harity.)
Qutubuddin Aibek: 1206-1210
A Turkish slave by origin, he was purchased by Mohammad Ghori who later made him his
Governor. After the death of Ghori, Aibek became the master of Hindustan and founded
the Slave dynasty in 1206. For his generosity, he was given the title of Lakh Bakhsh (give of
Lakhs.)
He died in 1210 while playing Chaugan or Polo
He constructed two mosques-Quwat-ul-Islam at Delhi and Adhai din ka Jhonpra at Ajmer.
He also began the construction of Qutub Minar, in the honour of famus Sufi Saint Khwaja
Qutubuddin Bakhityar Kaki.
Aibek was great patron of learning and patronised writers like Hasan-un-Nizami, author of
'Taj-ul-Massir' andFakhruddin,author of 'Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shah'

Shamsuddin Iltutmish: 1211-1236
He was a slave of Qutubuddin Aibak and occupied the throne of Delhi in 1211 after
deposing Aram Bakhsh.
He was a very capable ruler and is regarded as the 'real founder of the DelhiSultanate'. He
made Delhi the capital in the place of Lahore.
He saved Delhi Sultanate from the wrath of Chengiz Khan, the Mongol leader, by refuing
shelter to Khwarizm Shah, whom Chengiz was chasing.
He introduced the silver coin (tanka) and the copper coin (jital). He organised the lqta
System and introduced reforms in civil administration and army, which was now centrally
paid and recruited.
He set up an official nobality of slaves known as Chahalgani/Chlisa(group of 40)
He completed the construction of Qutub Minar which was started by Aibeks
He patronised Minhaj-us-Siraj, author of 'Tabaqat-i-Nasiri'.

Razia Sultan: 1236-1240
Though Iltutmish had nominated his daughter Razia as the successor, the nobles placed
Ruknuddin Firoj on the throne. However, Razia got rid of Ruknuddin and ascended the
throne.
She was the 'first and only Muslim lady who ever ruled India'
She was popular among the people but she was not acceptable to the nobles and
theologians. She further offended the nobles by her perference for an Abyssian slave Yakut.
Soon after her accession, the governors of Multan, Badaun, Hansi & Lahore openly revolted
against her. There was a serious rebellion in Bhatinda. Altunia, governor of Bhatinda
refused to accept suzerainity of Razia. Razia accompained by Yakut marched against
Altunia.
However, Altunia got Yakut murdered and imprisoned Razia. Subsequently, Razia married
Altunia and both of them marched towards Delhi.
In 1240 AD, Razia became the victim of a conspiracy and was assassinated near Kaithal
(Haryana)
Bahram Shah: 1240-1242
After Razia, Iltutmish' third son Bahram Shah was put on throne by powerful turkish
council Chalisa.
He was considered only as de jure ruler, while Naib-e-mamlakat (the regent) was de facto
ruler.
Bahram Shah lost his life after failed attempt to assert his authority once on the throne.

Masud Shah: 1242:1246
He was son of Raknuddin but was disposed after Balban and Nasiruddin Mahamud'
Mother, Malika-e-Jehan,conspired against him and established Nasiruddin Mahamud as
the new Sultan.
Nasiruddin Mahamud: 1246-1266

He was the son of Iltutmish and was known as the Darvesi King as he was very pious and
noble. He died in 1266.
Ghiyasuddin Balban: 1266-1287
Balban ascended the throne in 1266.

He broke the power of Chalisa and resorted the prestige of the crown. That was his
greatest contribution towards the stability of the Sultanate.
To keep himself well-informed Balban appointed spies.
He created a strong centralised army to deal with internal disturbances and to cheek
Mongols who were posing a serious danger to Delhi Sultante.
He established the military department Diwani-i-Arz
The Persian court model influenced balban's conception of Kingship. He took up the title
of Zil-i-Ilahi (Shadow of God)
He destroyed Mewati Rajputa brigandage in the doab, where forests were cut and forts
built.
In his last days he overlooked Sultanate affairs due to dealth of his eldest and most loving
son, Muhammad, and rebellion by his closed and most loved slave, Tughril. Muhammad
died fighting Mongolians in 1285 and Tughril was captured and beheaded.
Kaiqubad: 1287-1290
A grandon of Balban was established on the throne by Fakruddin, the Kotwal of Delhi who
assumed high political authority during last days of Balban. But Kaiqubad was killed by the
Khiliji family, which saw end of Slave dynasty and beginning of Khiliji dynasty at Delhi
throne.

The Khilji Dynasty
Jalaluddin khilji (1290-96)
Also known as Malik Firoz, he founded khilji dynasty.

Defeated Mongols in 1292.
Alauddin khilji (1296-1316)
Early name was Ali Gurshap.

Attacked chittor capital of mewar in 1303.
First muslim ruler to attack south india.
Assumed the title Sikander-i-sani or second Alexander.
Abolished zamindari system.
Maintained a permanent standing army.
Constructed alai darwaza , gateway to qutub minar and built the city of siri at delhi.
Mubarak shah khilji
Last ruler of khilji dynasty.

Killed by khusrau khan.

The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 AD)
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325 AD)
Khusrau Khan, the last king of the Khilji dynasty was killed by Ghazni Malik, and Ghazni
Malik ascended the throne assuming the title Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
He died in an accident and his sone Jauna (Ulugh Khan) succeeded him under the title
Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq.
Mohammad-bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 AD)
Prince Jauna, Son of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq ascended the throne in 1325

He tried to introduce many administrative reforms. He had 5 ambitious projects for which
he has became particulary debatable.
1. Taxation in the Doab (1326)
2. Transfer of Capital (1327)
3. Introduction of Token Currency (1329)
4. Proposed Khurasan Expedition (1329)
5. Qarachil Expedition (1330)
His five projects have led to revolts all around his empire. His last days were spent in
checking the revolts
1335
-- Mudurai became independent (Jalaluddin Ahsan Shah)
1336
-- Foundation of Vijayanagar (Harihar & Bukka), Warrangal became independent

(Kanhaiya)
134147
-- Revolts of Sada Amirs & Foundation of Bahamani in 1347 (Hasan Gangu)
He died in Thatta while campaigning in Sindh against Taghi, a Turkish slave.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq(1351-1388 AD)
He was a cousin of Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq. After his death the nobles and the theologians
of the court selected Firoz Shah as the next Sultan.
Established of Diwan-i-Khairat (department for poor and needy people) and Diwan-lBundagan (department of slaves)
Making Iqtadari system hereditary.
Construction of canals for irrigation from
1. Yamuna to the city of Hissar
2. From the Sutlej to the Ghaggar

3. From the Ghaggar to Firuzabad
4. From Mandvi and Sirmour Hills to Hansi in Haryana.
Establishment of four new towns, Firuzabad, Fatebabad, Jaunpur and Hissar.

After Firoz Shah Tughlaq(1388-1414 AD)
The Tughlaq dynasty would not survive much after Firoz Shah's death. The Malwa, Gujarat
and Sharqi (Jaunpur) Kingdoms broke away from the Sultanate.
Timur Invasion : (1398-99)Timur, a Turk, invaded India in 1398 during the reign
of Muhammad Shah Tughlaq , the last ruler of Tughlaq dynasty. His army mercilessely
sacked and plundered Dellhi. Timur returned to Central Asia, leaving a nominee to rule to
Punjab which ended the Tughlaq dynasty.

The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-50 AD)

Points for Sayyid Dynasty
Khizr Khan (1414-1421):Timur's nominee captured Delhi and was proclaimed the new
Sultan and the first of the Sayyid Dynasty. They ruled over Delhi and surroundings districts.
Mubarak Shah (1421-1434):He succeeded Khizr at the throne after his successful
expeditions against Mewatis, Katehars and the Gangetic Doab area. He was killed by the
nobles in his own court.
Muhammad Shah (1434-1443):The nobles put Muhammad Shah on the throne, but could
not survive the in-fighting among the nobles in the court. He was authorized to rule a
meagre area of around 30 miles and rest of the Sultnate was ruled by the nobles.
Alam Shah (1443-1451):The last Sayyid king descended in favour of Bahlol Lodhi and
himself retired. Thus began the Lodhi dynasty, which confined to Delhi and a few
surrounding areas.

The Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD)

Lodhi or Pathans Sultans
Bahlol Lodhi (1451-88 AD)
Bahlol Lodhi was one of the Afghan sardars who established himself in Punjab afer
invasion of Timur
He founded the Lodhi dynasty. He founded the rule of the Lodhi dynasty by usurping the
throne from the last of the Sayyid rulers.
He was a strong and brave ruler. He tried to restore the glory of Delhi by conquering
territories around Delhi and after continuous war for 26 years, he succeeded in extending
his authority over Jaunpur, Rewail, Itawah, Mewar, Sambhal, Gwalior etc.
He was a kind and generous ruler. He was always prepared to help his subjects. Though he
was himself illiterate, he extended his patronage to art and learning. He died in 1488.
Sikandar Lodhi (1489-1517 AD)
Sikandar Lodhi was the son of Bahlol Lodhi who conquered Bihar and Western Bengal.
He shifted his capital from Delhi to Agra, a city founded by him.
Sikandar was a fanatical Muslim and he broke the sacred images of the Jwalamukhi
Temple at Naga Kot and ordered the temples of Mathura to be destroyed.
He took a keen interest in the development of agriculture. He introduced the Gaz-i
Sikandari (Sikandar's yard) of 32 digits for measuring cultivated fields.
He was a staunch Sunni and a Muslim fanatic. He lacked religious tolerance. In the name
of religion, he perpetuated untold cruelties on the Hindus.
Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-26 AD)
He was the last king of Lodhi dynasty and the last Sultan of Delhi
He was the son of Sikandar Lodhi
The Afghan nobility was brave and freedom-loving people but it was because of its
fissiparous and individualistic tendencies that the Afghan monarchy was weakened.
Moreover, Ibrahim Lodhi asserted the absolute power of the Sultan.
At last Daulat Kan Lodhi, the governor of Punab invited Babur to poverthrow Ibrahim

Lodhi, Babur accepted the offer and inflicated a crushing defeat on Ibrahim Lodhi in
the first battle of Panipat in 1526.
No Sultan of India except Sultan Ibrahim had been killed on the battle field.

Beginning of Indo Islamic culture

The arrival of Islam in India resulted in a unique combination of cultural tradition. This combination
led to the growth of a composite religion in the country's top evidences of this contact can be seen
in the religion, architecture, literature, music and painting.

Sufism
Sufism Li presents the spiritual and mystical and I mention of a slump. The term Sufi probably
came from the Arabic word Sof(wool). This was perhaps due to the result of old ascetic practice of
wearing only a coarse woollen garment.
This movement was first born in Iran well some of the religious scholars and liberal thinkers in the
country released that there was little difference among the various beliefs, such as Shia and the
Sunni sects.

Sufism
Sufism springs from the doctrine of Wahadat-ul-wajud or unity of being. This doctrine was
propounded by Ibn-ul-Arabi (1165-1240).
One of the earliest Sufis was a women saint (8th AD) Rabia of Basra who laid great
emphasis on love as bond between God and individual soul.
The Sufi orders are widely divided into two: Ba-Shara, that is, those who followed Islamic
law and Be-Shara, that is, those who were not bound by it. Of the Be-Shara movement, only
two acquired signifcant influence: the Chishti and Suhrawardi Silsilas.

Sikhism

The Sikh Gurus
1 Guru Nanak (1469-1539): First Guru of Sikhs, Founder of Sikhism
(1504-1552): Compiled the biography of Guru Nanak Dev, known as Janam
2 Guru Angad Sakhi; introduced Gurmukhi Script; 63 hymns of Guru Angad Dev included in
Guru Granth Sikh.
3
Guru Amar (1479-1574): He promoted inter-caste dining at his kitchen. Akbar granted
Das
villages to finance the scheme, out of which grew Amritsar
(1534-1581): Son-in-law of Guru Das; All subsequent Gurtis descended from Ram
Guru Guru
4
Das' family. The standard Sikh marriage ceremony known as Anand Karaj, four
Ram Das
stanza hymn composed by Guru Ram Das.
5 Guru Arjun (1563-1606): Of Guru Run Task Died after torture in Mughal (Jhangir) detention
Dev
for sheltering rebellious Mughal prince Khusrau, He constructed the famous

Golden Temple at Amritsar and prepared a summary of Sikh teaching
named Sukmani; compiled the Guru Granth Sahib in 1604; 2312 hymns from
Guru Arjan Dev included in it.
Guru
Hargobind
(1595-1644): Son Of Guru Arjun Dev; put on two swords-one signifying Miri
(secular power) and other Piri (spiritual power); built the Akal Takht in 1608.
Guru
Rai
Guru
Harkishan
Guru Teg (1621-1674): Son of Guru Harargobind; Gurudwara Rakab Ganj Sahib in New
Bahadur
Delhi is where Guru body was cremated.
Guru
10 Govind
Singh
Har (1630-1661): Son of Guru Hargobind. Supported Dara's claim in the wars of
succession between Shah Jahan's sons
(1656-1664): Of Guru Har Rai; Gurudwara Bangla Sahib in New Delhi was
constructed in his memory.
(1666-1700): Executed on Mughal order: Son of Guru Teg Bahadur; Babtized the
Sikhs and created Khalsa; instructed the Sikhs to keep five Ks, compiled the 1428
page Dasam Granth Sahib
Emergence of Provincial Kingdoms

Provincial Kingdoms During And After The Sultanate
Kingdom
Capital
Founder/Most Important Ruler
1. Shah Mir dynasty in Kashmir
Kashmir
Shah Mirza or Sams-ud-din; Zainul

Abidin
2. Sisodia dynasty in Mewar
Chittor
Rana Hamir; Rana Kumbha
3. Rathore dynasty in Marwar
Jodhpur
Rao Chunda: Rao Jodha and Maldeva
4. Kachhawaha dynasty of Amber

Ajmer
or Amer
5. Muzaffarshahi dynasty in Anhilvada
Gujart
Ahmedabad)
6. Sultanate of Bengal
Dullah Rao: Hammir Deva

(later Zafar Khan or Muzzaffarshah: Ahmad
Shah I, Mahmud
Gaud
IIyas Shah: Ala-ud-din Shah
7. Suryavansi or Gajapati dynasty

Jajnagar
in Orrisa
Kapilendra: Kapilendra
8. Khalji dynasty in Malwa
Mandu
Dilawar Khan Ghori; Mahmud Khalji
9. Sharqi dynasty in Jaunpur
Jaunpur
Malik Sarwar; Ibrahim Shah Sharqi
10. Ahom dynasty in Kamrup and Charaido

Assam
Charqua)
11. Farukki dynasty in Khandesh Burhanpur
(later
Sukapha; Suhungmung
Malik Raja Farukki; Malik Raja Farukki
12. Bahmani in Karnataka
Gulbarga (later Bidar)
Hasan Gangu Bahman Shah; Firuz Shah,

Ahmad Shah I
13. Vijaynagar
1.
2.
3.
4.
Sangam dynasty
Suluva dynasty
Tuluva dynasty
Aravidu dynasty
Hastinavati or Hampi
Thirumala; Thirumala
Penugonda

The Mughals (1526-1540 and 1555-1857)

The Mughul era, which began with the Babur's victory over Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle Of
Panipat (1526) is a new beginning in the history of Muslim rule in India.
Unlike the Sultanate period when the state resembled a theatre of war, the Mughal rule is
regarded as time when conentius issues of religion and politics were placed on the backburner and
the splendour of monarchy took centrestage.

Babur (1526-1530) Facts

Babur was the first Mughal Emperor of India. He was born in Ferghana (1483), Central Asia, in the
princely family of mixed Mongol and Turkish blood. Failure to record his father's land caused him
to turn reluctantly to South-East. After defeating Ibrahim Lodhi with the support of Punjab's
Governor, Daulat Khan Lodhi, Babur turned his attention to the Rajput confederacy and defeated
Mewar ruler Rana Sanga in the Battle Of Khanwa in 1527. This victory secured Babur's position in
the Delhi Agra region.

Babur's reign ended in 1530 and was succeeded by his son Humayun.

Important Battles Fought By Babur
Battle Of Panipat (1526) : He defeated Ibrahim Lodhi. This was his fifth expedition in India
in which he was successful.
Battle of Khanwa (1527) : He defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar
Battle of Chanderi (1528) : Barbur defeated Medini Rai. He was the first to entitle himself
as the 'Padshah'. After the Kushanas, he was the first to bring Kabul and Kandahar into the
Indian Empire.
Battle of Ghaghra (1529) : He fought against the Allied forces of Afghans in Bihar and
Bengal. Sultan Nusrat Shah of Bengal faced crushing defeat.

Architectural development by Babur
He built two mosques: one at Kabulibagh in Panipat and the other at Sambhal in Rohilkhand.

Humayun (1530-1556)

Humayun succeeded the Babur at the young age of 23. When he occupied the throne, he found
himself surrounded by enemies on all sides. In the east were Mahmud Lodhi and other Afghans
under share Khan. In the South was Sultan Bahadur Shah, and the ruler of Gujarat, and in the
north-west, Kamran, the younger brother of Humayun.

Humayun Expeditions
Expectation of Kalinjar (1531) : Humayun besieged the fourth of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand.

Humayun was forced to make peace and accept a huge indemnity from the Raja.
Battle of Dauhariya (1532) : Humayun defeated Mahmood Lodi, the Afghan of Bihar.
Siege of Chunar (1532) :Humayun besieged for fort of Chunar under Sher Shah, who
offered nominal submission. It proved to be a mistake on the part of Humayun to accept it.
Wars with Bahadur Shah (1535-1536) :Bahadur Shah annexed Malwa in 1531, captured the
fourth of Raisin and defeated the Chief of Chittor in 1533.
Battle of Chausa (1539) : Humayun's return to our was blocked by Sher Shah. Both armies
delayed the attack and rains started. Leaving the Mughal encampment flooded. Humayun
was defeated.
Battle of Kanauj (1540) : After reaching Agra, Humayun and his brother Kamran decided to
fight Sher Shah but due to the differences between the brothers, Humayun for the Battle of
Kanauj and lost. Humayun became a fugitive and Sher Shah became the ruler of Agra and
Delhi.
Architectural development by Humayun
He laid the foundation of the city Din Panah at Delhi.

Humayun's Tomb is called the prototype of Taj Mahal. It has a double dome of marble,
while the central dome is octagonal. It was built by his widow Haji Begum

Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545)
Original name- Farid

Defeated humanyu in battle of chausa in 1539 and in battle of kannauj in 1540.
Introduced the national highway concept for the first time by constructing grand trunk road
from Calcutta to Amritsar.
Built Purana quila in delhi and also constructed Khooni darwaza at Firozshah kotla.
Akbar (1556-1605)

Though Humayun reconquered his empire, he was not destined to reap the fruits of his success. He
fell from staircase of his library and died soon due to its effect. The death of Humayun placed the
responsibility
of
the
kingdom
over
the
young
shoulders
of
Akbar.
Akbar was crowned at Kalanaur at the age of 13 years. Bairam Khan, the tutor of the Prince,
adopted the title of Khan-i-Khana and rallied the Mughal forces.

Second Battle of Panipat: Akbar's earliest conflict was with Hemu, a general of Adil Shah. Hemu
proceeded to Delhi with the Mugul Governor, Tardi Beg Khan, offered a feeble resistance and
suffered defeat (1526). On receipt of the News of the all of the Agra and Delhi, Bairam Khan
marched to meet Hemu. The two armies met at Panipat (fifth of November 1556). Hemu bought
bravely but was defeated and Akbar reoccupied Delhi and Agra.

Akbar's Political Compaigns
Akbar's earliest compaigns were against Durgawa of Garh-Katanga (Gond & Rajput
principalties) followed by Chittor
The two powerful forts of Rajasthan: Ranthambor and Chittor (gaurded by Jaimal) were
captured by the Mughals.
Akbar's Deccan campaign began with the siege of Ahmednagar (defended by Chand Bibi).
Ahmednagar soon resurrected itself under the leadership of Malik Amber.
Akbar's last campaign was against Asirgarh, resulting in the annexation of Khandesh (1601).
Akbar conquered Qandahar in 1595.
Bhagwan Das (500 zat) amd Man Singh (7000 zat) enjoyed a privileged position in the
Mughal court.
Akbar faced a rebellion in Gujrat in 1572, which was crushed and following which he built
the Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri. Opened the fort of Aasirgadh with Gold keys.

Akbar's first victory in Rajasthan was won without bloodshed. In 1562, he made his first pilgrimage
to the mausoleum of the Sufi Saint, Sheikh Moin-ud-Din Chishti, at Ajmer. On the way, he received
Raja Bhar mal of Ajmer who made his submission without fighting.

Akbar conquered Gujarat (1572-1573) and Bengal (1574-1576). In 1591, Akbar sent four missions
to the rulers of Khandesh, Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda, calling upon them to recognize his
suzerainty and pay him tribute.
Khandesh ruler offered his submission. Ahmednagar was captured in 1600. By 1595, Akbar's
armies had conquered Kashmir, Sindh, Orrisa, Central India and Qandhar.

Akbar's Nine Jewels or Nav-Ratnas

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Abdul Rahim
Abdul Fazal
Birbal
Faizi
Hamim Human
Raja Man Singh
Shaikh Mubarak
Tansen
Todar Mal

Architectural development by Akbar
Building built by Akbar are : Agra Fort (1565), Lahore Palace(1572), Fatehpur Sikri, Bulan
Darwaza and Allahabad fort (1583)
The architecture at Fatehpur Sikri is an excellent blending of Persian, Central Asia and
various Indian (Bengal and Gujarat) styles. It is also known as Epic Poem in Red Sandstone.
Two unusual building at Fatehpur Sikri are Panch Mahal and Diwan-i-Khas
Panch Mahal has the plan of Buddhist Vihara.
The Jodhabai's Palace, Diwan-i-Aam and Diwan-i-Khas are Indian in theri plan.
Buland Darwaja (built after Gujarat victory) formed the main entrance to Fatehpur Sikri. It
is built in the Iranian Style of half dome portal.
He built the Jahangiri Mahal in Agra fort according to Hindu design based on Man Mandir
He also began to build his own tomb at Sikandara which was later completed by Jahangir.
Jehangir (1605-1627) Facts

Ain-E-Jahangiri is the collection of Jehangir 12 points on judicial probes. In 1612, Jehangir saw the
need of earning the goodwill of the plans in order to disarm them against the Mughals. He
therefore, followed a conciliatory policy.

Most military success of Changi and was his trimph over the Rajput's of Mewar. In 1613, Jehangir
personally proceed to Ajmer to guide the expedition, the supreme commander of which was given
to Prince Khurram. Though the Rajputs displayed dauntless heroism, the suffered heavy losses.
That pretty that was signed between the Rana and the emperor (1615) recognised Jehangir as the
suzerain of Mewar.

Architectural development by Jehangir
Nur Jahan built Itimad-ud-Daula's (another name of Mirza Ghiyas Beg) Marble tomb at
Agra, which is noticable for the first use of peitra dura made up of semi-precious stones
technique.
He built Moti Mahal in Lahore and his own Mausoleum at Shahdara (Lahore)
He also changed the plan of Akbar's Tomb at Sikandara. It is an unusual tomb as it is not
surmounted by a dome and built ont he model of a Buddhist pagoda.
Shah Jahan (1627-1658)

After putting an end of the short reign of his nephew, Dawar Bakshi, the son of Khusru, Shah Jahan
found himself in undisputed possession of the throne in 1627 when he was at the age of 36. After
he became emperor, he exhibited modernisation as a ruler. He was Married to Anjumand Baanu
Begum also known as Mumtaj Mahal -1612.

He had to face two revolves, at Bundelkhand and Deccan. Jujhar singh, the son of Bir Singh
Bundela, revolted in Bundelkhand, difficult to region to the south of the Yamuna.

Architectural development by Shah Jehan
He was the most prolific and magnificant builder.

Mosque buildings activity reached its climax in Taj Mahal at Agra. Ustad Isa was the master
architect under whose guidance, the Taj Mahal was designed and constructed in Agra. It
constructed took 22 years. He also built the Jama Masjid (sand stone) in Delhi.
Many stone buildings were destroyed by him and replaced by marble.
He laid the foundation of Shahjahanabad in 1637 where he built the Red Fort and Taqt-iTaus (Peacock Throne)
Shah Jehan built Nahar-i-Faiz.
Aurangzeb (1658-1707)

Aurangzeb ruled for almost 50 years. His Empire stretched from Kashmir in the north to Jinji in the
South, and from the Hindukush in the West to Chittagong in the East. Within the Empire, he had to
deal with a number of different problems, such as problems of the Marathas in the Deccan, the
Jats, and Satnamis and Rajputs in north India, and that of Chip khans and Sikh in the north-west.

Aurangzeb's direct attention was concentrated on the affairs of north India. During 1681, the
affairs of the South Central around the rise of the Marathas power under Shivaji.
For about 25 years (1682-7007) he made desperate efforts to crush the Marathas, exhausting
himself and his Empire in the process.
Highlights of Aurangzeb's reign
The second coronation of Aurangzeb took place when he defeated Dara (1659).
He took the title of Alamgar in 1659.
He was also called as Zinda Pir the living saint.
In 1662, Mir Jumta, Aurangzeb's ablest general, led the expedition against Ahoms.
He forbade inscription of Kalma on the coins.
He ended the celebration of Navroz Festival.
He forbade music in the court.
He ended Jarokha Darsha , use of almanacs and weighing of the emperor.
Aurangzeb compiled Fatwa-i-Alamgir.
Jaziya was reintroduced. However the Hindu mansabdars maintained their high proportion
during his rule.
The Mughul conquest reached a climax during his reign, as Bijapur and Golconda were
annexed in 1686 and 1687 respectively.
Later Mughals

Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712)

Jahandar Shah (1712-13)
Acended the throne with the aid of Zulfikhar Khan. His nephew, farrukhsiyar, dethroned him.

Farrukhsiyar (1713-19)
Ascended the throne with help of Sayyid brothers, Abdullah Khan and Hussain Khan, who were
Wazir and Mir Bakshi respectively. Farrukhsiyar was killed by the Sayyid brothers in 1719. Sikh
leader Banda Bahadur was captured at Gurdaspur and executed.

Mohammad Shah (1719-48)
During his reign, Nadir Shah provided India and took away the peacock throne and Kohinoor
diamond. He was a pleasure loving King and was nicknamed Rangeela. During Muhammad Shah'
reign, autonomous states of Hyderabad, Bengal and Awadh were established by Nizam-ul-mulk,
Murshid Quli Khan and Saddat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk respectively.

Ahmed Shah (1748-1754)

Alamgir (1754-1759)

Shah Alam II (1759-1806)

Akbar Shah II (1806-37)

Bahadur Shah II (1837-1862)
The story Of Kohinoor Diamond

After the battle of Panipat, Babur ordered his son Humayun to secure the treasures at Agra, which
had been the capital of the Lodhi dynasty since 1502.

When Babur joined Humayun at Agra, Humayun presented him a magnificent diamond. It has
always been a matter of some disputs, but it seems almost certain that his splendid gem
was Kohinoor (mountain of light), making its first appearance in history. The Kohinoor was given
to Humayun by the family of the Raja of Gwalior, whom he had given protection. Humayun later
gave the diamond to Shah Tahmasp of Persia. The Shah sent it as a present to Nizam Shah in the
Deccan. Somehow, the gem returned during the 17th century into the treasury of the Mughal
emperor,Shah Jehan. When Nadir Shah plundered Delhi in 1739, he seized the diamond along with
the other Moghul jewels and named it Koh-i-noor. The Kohinoor passed through several hands
before finally resting in the Tower of London, where it remains on display.
The Marathas (1649-1748)

At the beginning of the 17th century, most of the territory in the Maharashtra were under the
position of Nizamshah of Ahmednagar and the Adilshah of Bijapur. They took the help of local,
Marathi speaking people to run their administration. They recruited a large number of Maratha
sardas and soldiers in their armies.

Shahji Bhonsle (1627-1680)
The Bhonsle family of the Poona district acquired military and political advantage in the
Ahmadnagar
kingdom
at
the
close
of
the
16th
century.

Shivaji (1627-1680 A.D.)
Shivaji was the son of Shahji Bhonsle. Shivaji's responded to the aspiration of masses.
Shivaji visit to Agra: Shivaji reached Agra in 1666, and was admitted in the hall of public audience.
The emperor gave him a cold reception by making him stand among the mansabdars. A humiliated
and angry Shivaji walked out of the court. He, along with his son, was put under house arrest.
However, they tricked their guards and managed to escape in a basket of sweets which was to be
sent as a gift to the consolidating his position and reorganising his administration, Shivaji renewed
his was against the Mughals and gradully recovered many of his forts.
Important Events In Shivaji's Life
Birth : 1627
Conquest of Tornana: 1646
Conquest of Kondana fort : 1647
Shivaji kills Afzal Khan : 1659
Attack on Surat : 1664; 1670
Coronation: 1674

Shivaji Adminstration

Shivaji laid the foundation of a sound system of administration. Shivaji system of administration
was a largely borrowed from the administrative practice of the Deccan States. Although he
designated eight ministers, sometimes called the Ashtapradhan it was not in the nature of the
Council of ministers, each minister being directly responsible to the ruler.

Military system
In Army administration, Shivaji prefer to give cash raise to the regular soldiers. His regular army
consisted of about 30,000 to 40,000 soldiers.

Shivaji laid the foundation of a strong state by curbing the power of deshmukhs .

The Rise of Peshwas

Balaji Viswanath (1713-1720) : He began his career as a small revenue official and was given the
title of Sena Karte (maker of the Army) by Shahu 1708. He became Peshwa in 1730 and made the
post of most important and powerful as well as hereditary. He played a crucial role in the final
victory of Shahu over the Mughuls by winning over almost all the Marathas Sardars to the side of
Shahu.

Baji Rao (1720-1740) : Baji Rao, the eldest son of Balaji Viswanath, became Pashwa at the yound
age of 20. He was considered the greatest exponent of gurrilla tactic after Shivaji and Maratha
Power reached zenith under him. He also defeated the Nizar-ul-Mulk near Bhopal and concluded
the Treaty of Durai Sarai by which he got Malwa and Bundelkhand from the latter (1737).

Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61) : Known as Nana Saheb, he succeeded his father at the age of 20. After
the death of Sahu (1749), the management of all state of affairs was left in his hands. In an
agreement with the Mughul emperor, the Peshwa (1752) was to protect the Mughal empire from
internal
and
external
enemies
in
return
for
the Chauth.

Third Battle of Panipat: Faught in 1761, the Maratha forces were routed by the forces of Ahmad
Shah Abdali. Vishwas Rao, son of Nana Saheb, lost his life.

Modern India
In 1498, Vasco de Gama discovered the sea route to India and reached Calicut (now Kozhikode).

His discovery made the Portuguese to be the first among the European nations to trade with India
and found settlements along the coasts. Following them were the Dutch, the English, the Danes
and the French. Eventually the English and the French were left in the field to contend for the
Indian Trade.
Advent of European Commerce

The Portuguese
Vasco-da-Gama Discovers Sea Route to India : India had commerical relations with the countries
of the west from time immemorial. But from the seventh century AD, her sea borne trade passed
into the hands of the Arabs, who began to dominate the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. It was
from then that the enterprising merchants of Venice and Genos purchased Indian Goods.
Bartholomew Diaz doubled the Cape of Good Hope, or the Stormy Cape, as he called it, in 1487;
and Vasco de Gama found out a new route to India and reached the famous port of Calicut on the
17th May, 1498.

Portuguese Chronology
1498
Vasco de Gama found a new roue to India and reached the port of Calicut.
1502
Vasco de Gama established a factory at Cochin
1505
Francis co de Almeida became the first Portuguese governor in India
1510
Albuquerque succeeded Almeida as governor. Defeat of the combined fleet of

Gujarat, Egypt and Zamorin at the hands of Almeida
1530
Governor Nino da Cunha transferred his capital from Cochin to Goa.
1534
Diu and Bassein were acquired from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
1535
Subjugation of Diu
1542
Martin Alfonso de Souza became new governor during his governorship. The famous
Jesuit Saint Franciso Xaveir arrived in India
1559
Subjugation of Diu
1612
Loss of Surat to the English
1631
Loss of Hugli to Qasim Khan, a Mughal role
1661
Portuguese King presents Bombay to his
1739
Salsethte and Bassein are lost to the Marathas

Vasco-de-Gama estblished a factory at Cochin in 1502. He was followed by Alfonso de
Albuquerque in 1503. In 1505, the portuguese decided to appoint a governor to look after their
Indian affairs. Franicsco de Almeida became the first governor. Albuquerque succeeded him in
1509. Albuquerque was the real founder of the Portuguese empire in the east.

The French

In the middle of the seventeenth century Louis XIV's finance minister Colbert formed a French East
India Company named Compagnie des Indes Orientales in 1664. Louis XIV provided the Company
with an interest-free loan of 3 million livre. The Company was thus, created and financed by the
State. After initial attempts made to colonise Madagascar had proved a failure, the Company
undertook a fresh expedition in 1667 under the command of Francis Caron accompanied by
Marcara, a native of Ispahan reached India and set up the first French factory at Surat in 1668.

The English

Before the East India Company established trade in India, John Mildenhall, a merchant adventurer,
was the first Englishmen who arrived in India in 1599 by the over land route, ostensibly for
purpose of trade with Indian merchants.

On 31st December, 1600, Queen Elizabeth granted a Charter to the Company named 'The
Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading in the East Indies' the right to carry on
trade with all countries of the East. This company is commonly known as the English East India
Company.

Chronology of English East India Company
1600
Establishment of English East India Company
1608
Captain William Hawkins visited the Mughal Court of Jehangir.
1609
Emperor Jehangir issued farman permitting the English to establish a factory at Surat.
1613
The English East India Company's factory was set up at Surat.
1615
Sir Thomas Roe was successful in obtaining two farmans from the Mughal Court
confirming free trade with exemption from inland toll.
1616
The East India Company established its branch factory at Masulipatnam.
1632
The English obtained the Golden Farman with the right to trade in the kingdom of
Golkunda for a fixed customs duty, from the Sultan of Golkunda.
1633
The eastern branch factory of East India Company was established in Hariharpur,
Balasore.
1639
The local king of Madras(Now Chennai) granted the Company a lease.
1651
Nawab Shuja-ud-din of Bengal granted the English, the right to carry on their trade on
payment of a fixed duty.
1662
King Charles II of England was given Bombay (Now Mumbai) as dowry after marrying
the Portuguese princess
1667
The English obtained the royal farman to trade in Bengal from the Mughal Emperor
Aurangzeb.
1687
The English East India Company replaced its headquarters from Surat to Bombay.
1691
The Governor of Bengal gave the English Company Dastaks (Free trade passes) on the
payment of a fixed duty.
1717
English obtained a number of trade concessions from the Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar
after the Emperor was cured of a painful disease by the English Surgeon William
Hamilton.

In 1714, an Englishman John Surman was sent to Delhi Court for securing trading facilities for the
company. He succeeded in obtaining from Emperor Farukhsiyar a farman in 1717, by which the
Company was permitted to carry on trade in Bengal, Bombay and Madras free of customs duty.
The Company was also permitted to mint its own coins. The Nawabs of Bengal, however, showed
scant regard for the imperial farman .

East India Company and Bengal Nawabs

Siraj-ud-Daula (1756-57)
He seiged the English factory at Kasim bazar on 20th June 1756. Fort William surrendered
but Robert Clive recovered Calcutta
On 2nd January 1757, Treaty of Alinagar was signed, whereby Siraj conceded practically all
the demands. British then captured Chandernagore, the French settlement, on March
1757.
Battle of Plassey was fought on 23 June 1757, Owing to the conspiracy, the Nawab was
defeated.

Mir Jafar (1757-60)
The Company was granted undisputed right to free trade in Bengal, Bihar and Orrisa. It
received the Zamindari of 24 Parganas. Mir Jafar, however, fell into arrears and was forced
to abdicate in favour of his son-in-law Mir Qasim
Mir Qasim (1760-64)
Mir Qasim ceded Burdwan, Midnapore and Chittagong. He shifted his capital
Mir Jafar (1763) was again placed on the throne.
Nizam-ud-Daulah (1765-72)
On Mir Jafar's death, his son Nizam-ud-daulah was placed on the throne and signed a treaty
on 20th Feburary, 1765 by which the Nawab was to disband most of his army and to
administer Bengal through a Deputy Subahdar nominated by the Company.
Dual system of government started in Bengal. The Company acquired both Diwani and
Nizamat rights from Najam-ud-Daula (1765-66), the new nawab of Bengal. But the
Company did not take over direct administration and revenue collection. Warren Hastings
ended the Dual system of Government in 1772.

British Expansion in India

Acquisitions of Indian States in British Empire
Under Subsidiary Alliance: Hyderabad(1798), Mysore(1799), Awadh(1801), Peshwa(1802),

Bhonsle and Scindia(1803), Udaipur, Jodhpur and Jaipur(1818)
Under Doctrine of Lapse: Satara(1848), Jhansi, Sambhalpur of Orrisa(1849), Baghat(1850),
Jaipur of Bundelkhand(1849),Udaipur in Rajputana(1852), Jhansi(1853) and Nagpur(1854)

British Conquest of Bengal

The East India Company secured valuable privileges in 1717 under a royal farman by the Mughal
Emperor, which had granted the Company the freedom to export and import their goods in Bengal
without paying taxes and right to issue passes or dastaks for the movements of such goods. The
Company servants were also permitted to trade but were not covered by this farman. All the
Nawabs of Bengal from Mushid Quli Khan to Alivardi Khan, had objected to the English
interpretation of the farman of 1717.

Situation was worsened in 1756, when the young and quick tempered Siraj-ud-Daulah succeeded
his grandfather, Alivardi Khan.They met for the battle on the field of Plassey, 20 miles from
Murshidabad, on 23rd June 1757.

Battle of Plassey
The Battle of Plassey was a battle only in name. The major part of the Nawab's ( siraj-ud-daulah)
army led by the traitors Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh, took no part in the fighting. Mir Jafar's treasury
was soon emptied by the demands of the Company's officials for presents and bribes.

Battle of Buxar
Mir Qasim belied English hopes and soon emerged as a threat to their position and designs in
Bengal. Mir Qasim was defeated in series of battles in 1763 and fled to Avadh, where he formed an
alliance with Shuja-ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Avadh, and Shah Alam, the fugitive ruler of Mughal
Empire.
Company became the real master of Bengal at least from 1765. Its army was in sole control of its
defence and the supreme political power was in its hands.
In May 1765, Robert Clive became the Governor of Bengal for the first time.
Treaty of Allahabad
The Treaty of Allahabad was concluded by Clive with Shuja-ud-Daula and the Mughal Emperor
Shah Alam II, according to which the British got the right of free trade in Awadh and they were
allowed to keep a British Army at the expense of the Nawab of Awadh.

Dual System of Administration in Bengal (1765-1772)

Under this system, the administration was divided between the Company and the Nawab but the
whole power was actually concentrated in the hands of the Company. This complex system
remained in practice during the period from 1765 to 1772.

Anglo Maratha Rivalry
The third Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao could not withstand the shock of the defeat of the Marathas in
the Third Battle of Panipat and died on June 23, 1761. He was succeeded by his son Madhav
Rao.The English became conscious of the growing power of the Marathas and wanted to crush
their re-establishment. They got this opportunity very soon after the death of Madhav Rao in 1772.
There were three wars :
The First Anglo Maratha War (1775-1782
The Second Anglo Maratha War (1803-1805)
The Third Anglo Maratha War (1817-1818)

Anglo Maratha Treaties At a Glance
Treaty of Surat,1775
was signed by Raghunath Rao wherein he promised to hand over Bassein

and Salsette and a few islands near Bombay to the British.
Treaty of Purandhar
,1776
was signed by Madhav Rao II. The company got a huge was indemnity and
retained Salsette.
Treaty of Wadgoan
,1779
was signed by British and Bombay government to relinquish all territories

acquired by the Bombay office of the East India Company since 1773.
Treaty of Salbai,1782
was signed by Mahadji Scindia whereby the British influence in Indian

politics and mutual conflicts increased amongst the Marathas.
Treaty of Bassein,1802
was signed between Baji Rao II. This treaty gave effective control of not
only Maratha but also Deccan regions to the Company.
Treaty of Deogaon
,1803
by Bhonsle assured British supremacy over the Maratha Kingdom.
Treaty
of
Surjiby Daulat Rao Scindia assured the same.
Arjangaon,1803

Conquest of Mysore
Highlights of the Reigns of Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan
Hyder Ali
1. Hyder become the Sultan of Mysore after the death of Nanjaraj, who had usurped power
reducing its king Chikka Krishna Raj (belonging to the Wodeyar dynasty)
2. He took steps to train his army on European lines and preferred infantry to equestrian
troops.
3. He set up a modern artillery.
4. He won Sera, Hoskote, Dod, Bellapur, Nandidurg, Gudi and Sunda

Tipu Sultan
1. Introduction of a new system of coinage, new scales of weights and measures.
2. Improvisations in the fields of agriculture, trade and commerce.
3. Abandonment of the custom of giving jagirs and reduction in the hereditary possessions of
the poligars.
4. Missions to France and Constantinople to manage some aid for the state but without
success.
5. Organisations and training to army on European line; Arming the infantry with rifles.
6. Attempt to establish a navy on modern line for which two dockyards were established.
7. Check on the jagirdars and poligars by reducing the jagirs
8. Collection of many books on diverse subjects and setting up a big library
9. Support to the French soldiers in setting up a Jacobin club in Serinagpatnam in 1797.

Treaties signed by Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan
Treaty of Madras, 1769, restored the conquered territories to their respective owners
Treaty of Manglore, 1784, restored the conquered territories mutually and liberated war
prisoners.
Treaty of Srirangapatanam, 1792, was signed by Tipu Sultan by which he had to cede half
of his territory to the Company and paid a huge war reparation.

Annexation of Punjab
Ranjit Singh, the chief of the Sukarchakiya misl (one of the 12 misls or confederations of Punjab,)
conquered in 1799. In 1805, he also snatched Amritsar from Bhangi Misl. He attacked the areas
across the river Sutlej and brought many sikh chieftains under his suzerainty. Soon Ranjit Singh
took over Multan, Kashmir and Peshwa also. However, he signed the Treaty of Amritsar, also
called the Treaty of Perpetual Friendship, in 1809 under which he accepted the East India
Company's greater right over the cis-Sutlej territories

GOVERNOR GENERALS OF INDIA

Warren Hastings (1772 1785):

Brought the Dual Govt, of Bengal to an end by the Regulating Act, 1773.
The First Anglo Maratha War (1776 82), which ended with the Treaty of Salbai
(1782), and the Second Anglo Mysore War (1780 84), which ended with the Treaty
of Mangalore (1784), were fought during Hastings period.

Lord Cornwallis (1786 1793) :

Did the Permanent Settlement of Bengal (also called Zamindary System).
The civil service was brought into existence.

Lord Wellesley (1798 1805) :

Adopted the policy of Subsidiary Alliance a system to keep the Indian rulers under
control and to make the British the paramount power.
He defeated the Mysore force under Tipu Sultan in the Fourth Anglo Mysore War in
1799.

Lord Minto I (18071813):

Concluded the treaty of Amritsar with Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1809).
Charter Act of 1813 was passed.

Lord Hasting India (1813 1823) :

The Anglo-Nepal War (1814 16) was fought during his reign which ended with the
Treaty of Sagauli (1816).

Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835):

Carried out the social reforms like Prohibition of Sari (1829) and elimination of thugs
(1830).
Made English the medium ofhighereducation inthe country (Afterthe
recommendations of Macaulay
Charter Act of 1833 was passed; made him the first Governor General of India

Sir Charles Mercalfe (1835 1836) :

Abolished all restrictions on vernacular press (called Liberator of the Press).

Lord Auckland 1842 (1836 1842):

The most important event of his reign was the First Afghan War, which proved to be a
disaster for the English.

Lord Dalhousie Reforms (1848 1856) :

Opened the first Indian Railway in 1853 (from Bombay to Thane).
Laid out the telegraph lines in 1853 (First was from Calcutta to Agra).
Introduced the Doctrine of Lapse and captured Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambhalpur
(1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1854) and Nagpur (1854) through it.
Established the postal system on the modern lines through the length and breadth
of the country, which made communication easier.

REVOLT OF 1857

Causes of Revolt of 1857:

Immediate Cause --> Soldiers made to bite off ends of greased cartridges in Enfield
Rifles having fat of cows and pigs
Barrackpore Mangal Pande refused to use cartridges and attacked Adjutant of his
regiment, for fear of moss of his caste and religion. (Arrested and hanged on 8th
April, 1857)
Delhi :- Revolutionaries killed British soldiers, captured Delhi, and proclaimed Bahadur
Shah II the ruler of India
Kanpur :- Led by Nana Sahib, adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II
Lucknow :- Led by Begum of Oudh; Sir Henry Lawrence shot dead. Defeated and
recaptured by Sir Colin Campbell in 1858.
Central India :- Led by Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi and Tantia Tope. Occupied Gwalior

INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT

Partition of Bengal:

By Lord Curzon on Oct 16, 1905, through a royal Proclamation, reducing the old
province of Bengal in size by creating East Bengal and Assam out of rest of Bengal.
The objective was to set up a communal gulf between Hindus and Muslims.
A mighty upsurge swept the country against the partition.National
movement found
real expression in the movement against the partition of Bengal in 1905.

Swadeshi Movement (1905):

Lal, Bal, Pal, and Aurobindo Ghosh played the important role.
INC took the Swadeshi call first at the Banaras Session, 1905 presided over by
G.K.Gokhale. Bonfires of foreign goods were conducted at various places.

Formation of Muslim League (1906):

Setup in 1906 under the leadership of Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka and Nawab
Mohsin- ul-Mulk.
It was a loyalist, communal and conservative political organization which supported
the partition of Bengal, opposed the Swadeshi movement, and demanded special
safeguards to its community and a separate electorate for Muslims.

Demand for Swaraj:

In Dec 1906 at Calcutta, the INC under Dadabhai Naoroji adopted Swaraj (Self-govt) as
the goal of Indian people


Surat Session of Indian National Congress (1907):

The INC split into two groups The extremists and the moderates, at the Surat
session in 1907. Extremists were led by Bal, Pal, Lal while the moderates by G.K.Gokhale.

Indian Councils Act or Minto Morley Reforms (1909):

Besides other constitutional
measures,it envisaged a separate electorate for
Muslims Aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks and at rallying the Moderates and the
Muslims to the Governments side.

Ghadar Party (1913):

Formed by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das and Sohan Singh Bhakna. HQ was at San
Francisco.

Home Rule Movement (1916):

Started by B.G.Tilak (April, 1916) at Poona moreover Annie Besant and
S.Subramania Iyer at Adyar, near Madras (Sept, 1916)
Objective: Self government for India in the British Empire. Tilak linked up the
question of Swaraj with the demand for the formation of Linguistic States and
education in vernacular language. He gave the slogan: Swaraj is my birth right and I will
have it.

Lucknow Pact (1916):

Happened following a war between Britain and Turkey leading to anti-British feelings
among Muslims. Both INC and Muslim League concluded this (Congress accepted the
separate electorates and both jointly demanded for a representative government and
dominion status
for
the country).

August Declaration (1917):

After the Lucknow Pact, a British policy was announced which aimed at increasing
association of Indians in every branch of the administration for progressive
realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British empire.
This came to be called the August Declaration.

Rowlatt Act (March 18, 1919):

This gave unbridled powers to the govt. to arrest and imprison suspects without trial for
two years maximum. This law enabled the Government to suspend the right of Habeas
Corpus, which had been the foundation of civil liberties in Britain.
Caused a wave of anger in all sections. It was the first country-wide agitation by
Gandhiji and marked the foundation of the Non Cooperation Movement.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919):

People were agitated over the arrest of Dr. Kitchlu and Dr. Satyapal on April 10,
1919.
General O Dyer fires at people who assembled in the Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar.
As a result hundreds of men, women and children were killed and thousands
injured.
Rabindranath Tagore returned his Knighthood in protest. Sir Shankaran Nair
resigned from Viceroys Executive Council after this.
Hunter Commission was appointed to enquire into it.
On March 13, 1940, Sardar Udham Singh killed ODyer when the later was addressing a
meeting in Caxton Hall, London.

Khilafat Movement (1920):

Muslims were agitated by the treatment done with Turkey by the British in the
treaty that followed the First World War.
Two brothers, Mohd.Ali and Shaukat Ali started this movement.

Non-cooperation Movement (1920):

It was the first mass-based political movement under Gandhiji.
Congress passed the resolution in its Calcutta session in Sept 1920

Chauri Chaura Incident (1922):

A mob of people at Chauri Chaura (near Gorakhpur) clashed with police and
burnt 22 policemen on February 5, 1922.
This compelled Gandhiji to withdraw the Non Cooperation movement on Feb.12, 1922.

Simon Commission (1927):

Constituted under John Simon, to review the political situation in India and to
introduce further reforms and extension of parliamentary democracy.
Indian leaders opposed the commission, as there were no Indians in it.
The Government used brutal repression and police attacks to break the popular
opposition. At Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was severely beaten in a lathi-charge. He
succumbed to his injuries on Oct.30, 1928.

Lahore Session (1929):

On Dec.19, 1929 under the President ship of J.L.Nehru, the INC, at its Lahore Session,
declared Poorna Swaraj (Complete independence) as its ultimate goal.
On Dec.31, 1929, the newly adopted tri-colour flag was unfurled and an.26, 1930 was
fixed as the First Independence Day, was to be celebrated every year.

Dandi March (1930):

Also called the Salt Satyagraha.
Along with 78 followers, Gandhiji started his march from Sabarmati Ashram on
March 12, 1930 for the small village Dandhi to break the salt law. He reached the
seashore on Apr.6, 1930. He picked a handful of salt and inaugurated the Civil
Disobedience Movement.

First Round Table conference (1930):

It was the first conference arranged between the British and Indians as equals. It was
held on Nov.12, 1930 in London to discuss Simon commission.
Boycotted by INC, Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, Liberals and some others were
there.

Gandhi Irwin Pact (1931):

Moderate Statesman, Sapru, Jaikar and Srinivas Shastri initiated efforts to break the ice
between Gandhiji and the government.
The two (government represented by Irwin and INC by Gandhiji) signed a pact on March
5, 1931.
In this the INC called off the civil disobedience movement and agreed to join the
second round table conference
The government on its part released the political prisoners and conceded the right to
make salt for consumption for villages along the coast.

Second Round Table Conference (1931):

Gandhiji represented the INC and went to London to meet British P.M. Ramsay Macdonald.
However, the session was soon deadlocked on the minorities
issue and this time

separate electorates was demanded not only by Muslims but also by
Depressed Classes, Indian Christians and Anglo Indians.

The Communal Award (Aug 16,1932):

Announced by Ramsay McDonald. It showed divide and rule policy of the British.
Envisaged representation of Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo Indians, women
and even Backward classes.

Gandhiji, who was in Yeravada jail at that time, started a fast unto death against it.
Poona Pact (September 25, 1932):
After the announcement of communal award and subsequent fast of Gandhiji, mass
meeting took place almost everywhere.
Political leaders like Madan Mohan Malviya, B.R.Ambedkar and M.C.Rajah became
active.
Eventually Poona pact was reached and Gandhiji broke his fact on the sixth day (Sept 25,
1932).
In this, the idea of separate electorate for the depressed classes was abandoned,
but seats reserved to them in the provincial legislature were increased.

Third Round Table Conference (1932):

Proved fruitless as most of the national leaders were in prison. The discussions led to
the passing of the Government of India Act, 1935.

Demand for Pakistan

In 1930, Iqbal suggested that the Frontier Province, Baluchistan, Sindh and
Kashmir be made the Muslim State within the federation
Chaudhary Rehmat Ali gave
the term Pakistan in 1923.
Mohd. Ali Jinnah of Bombay gave it practicality.
Muslim League first passed the proposal of separate Pakistan in its Lahore session in
1940

The Cripps Mission 1942:

In Dec. 1941, Japan entered the World War II and advanced towards Indian borders.
By March 7, 1942, Rangoon fell and Japan occupied the entire S E Asia.
The British govt. with a view to getting cooperation from Indians sent Sir Stafford
Cripps, leader of the House of Commons to settle terms with the Indian leaders.
He offered a draft which proposed dominion status to be granted after the war
Rejected by the Congress as it didnt want to rely upon future promises.
Gandhiji termed it as a post dated cheque in a crashing bank.

The Revolt of 1942 & The Quit India Movement:

Called the Vardha Proposal and Leaderless Revolt.
The resolution was passed on Aug.8, 1942, at Bombay. Gandhiji gave the slogan Do or
Die.
On Aug 9, the Congress was banned and its important leaders were arrested

The arrests provoked indignation among the masses and, there being no program of
action, the movement became spontaneous and violent. Violence spread throughout
the country.
The movement was however crushed

The Indian National Army:

Founded by Rasbehari Bose with Captain Mohan Singh
S.C.Bose secretly escaped from India in Jain 1941, and reached Berlin. In July 1943, he
joined the INA at Singapore. There, Rasbehari Bose handed over the leadership to him.
The soldiers were mostly raised from Indian soldiers of the British army who had
been taken prisoners by the Japanese after they conquered S.E.Asia.
Two INA head quarters were Rangoon and Singapore (formed in Singapore).
INA had three fighting brigades named after Gandhiji, Azad and Nehru. Rani Jhansi
Brigade was an exclusive women force

The Cabinet Mission Plan (1946):

The struggle for freedom entered a decisive phase in the year 1945-46. The new
Labour Party PM.Lord Attlee, made a declaration on March 15, 1946, that British Cabinet
Mission (comprising of Lord Pethick Lawrence as Chairman, Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V.
Alexander) will visit India.
The mission held talks with the INC and ML to bring about acceptance of their proposals
On May 16, 1946, the mission put towards its proposals. It rejected the demand for
separate Pakistan and instead a federal union consisting of British India and the
Princely States was suggested
Both Congress and Muslims League accepted it.

Formation of Interim Government (Sept 2, 1946):

Based on Cabinet Mission Plan, an interim government consisting of Congress
nominees was formed on Sept.2, 1946. J.L. Nehru was its Vice- President and the
Governor-General remained as its President.

Jinnahs Direct Action Resolution (Aug 16, 1946):

Jinnah was alarmed at the results of the elections because the Muslim League was in
danger of being totally eclipsed in the constituent assembly.
Therefore, Muslim League withdrew its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan on
July 29, 1946.
It passed a Direct action resolution, which condemned both the British
Government and the Congress (Aug 16, 1946). It resulted in heavy communal riots.
Jinnah celebrated Pakistan Day on Mar 27, 1947.

Formation of Constituent Assembly (Dec 9, 1946):

The Constituent assembly met on Dec 9, 1946 and Dr.Rajendra Prasad was elected as its
president. Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947):
On June 3, 1947, Lord Mountbatten put forward his plan which outlined the steps for
the solution of Indias political problem. The outlines of the Plan were:
The British govt. passed the Indian Independence Act of 1947 in July 1947, which
contained the major provisions put forward by the Mountbatten plan
Aug.15, 1947 was the date fixed for handing over power to India and Pakistan.

VICEROYS OF INDIA (1858-AUG 14, 1947)

Lord Canning (18561862)

The last Governor General and the first Viceroy. Mutiny took place in his time.
On Nov.1858, the rule passed on to the crown. Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse.
The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were established in 1857. Indian Councils
Act was passed in 1861

Lord Elgin (1862-1863) Lord Lawrence (1864-1869)

Telegraphic communication was opened with Europe.
High courts were established at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1865. Expanded canal
works and railways

Lord Mayo (1869-1872)

Started the process of financial decentralization in India.
Established the Rajkot College at Kathiarwar and Mayo college at Ajmer for the Indian
princes.
For the first time in Indian history, a census was held in 1871.
Organised the Statistical Survey of India
Was the only Viceroy to be murdered in office by a Pathan convict in the Andamans in
1872.

Lord Northbrook (1872-1876) Lord L. Ytton (1876-1880)

Known as the Viceroy of reverse characters.
Organised the Grand Delhi Durbar in 1877 to decorate Queen
Victoria with the title of Kaiser-i-Hind.
Arms Act (1878) made it mandatory for Indians to acquire license for arms.
Passed the infamous Vernacular Press Act (1878).

Lord Ripon (1880-1884)

Liberal person, who sympathized with Indians.
Vernacular Press Act (1882)
Passed the local self government Act (1882).
Took steps to improve primary & secondary education (on William
Hunter Commissions recommendations).
The I Factory Act, 1881, aimed at prohibiting child labour was passed.

Lord Dufferin (1884-1888)

Indian National Congress was formed during his tenure.

Lord Lansdowne (1888-1894)

II Factory Act (1891) granted a weekly holiday and stipulated working hours for
women and children, although it failed to address concerns such as work hours for men.
Categorization of Civil Services into Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate.
Indian Council Act of 1892 was passed

Lord Elgin II (1894-1899)

Great famine of 1896-1897. Lyall Commission was appointed.

Lord Curzon (1899-1905)

Passed the Indian Universities Act (1904) in which official control over the
Universities was increased.
Partitioned Bengal (October 16, 1905) into two provinces Bengal (proper) East Bengal &
Assam.
Appointed a Police Commission under Sir Andrew Frazer to enquire into the police
administration of every province.
The risings of the frontier tribes in 1897-98 led him to create the
North Western Frontier Province (NWFP). Extended railways to a great extent

Lord Minto (1905-1910)

There was great political unrest in India. Various acts were passed to curb the
revolutionary activities. Extremists like Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh (in May, 1907) and
Bal Gangadhar Tilak (in July, 1908) were sent to Mandalay jail in Burma.
The Indian Council Act of 1909 or the Morley- Minto Reforms was passed.

Lord Hardinge (1910-1916)
Held a durbar in Dec, 1911 to celebrate the coronation of King George V.

Partition of Bengal was cancelled (1911); capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi (1911).
Delhi was made capital in place of Calcutta.
A bomb was thrown at him, but he escaped unhurt (Dec, 23 1912). Gandhiji came
back to India from South Africa (1915).
Annie Besant announced the Home Rule Movement.

Lord Chelmsford (1916-1921)

August Declaration of 1917, whereby control over the Indian government would be
gradually transferred to the Indian people. The government of India Act in 1919
(Montague-Chelmsford)

Lord Reading (1921-1926)

Rowlatt Act was repealed along with the Press Act of 1910.
Communal riots of 1923-25 in Multan, Amritsax Delhi, etc.
Swami Shraddhanand, a great nationalist and a leader of the Arya
Samajists, was murdered in communal orgy.

Lord Irwin (1926-1931)

Simon Commission visited India in 1928.
Congress passed the Indian Resolution in 1929.
Dandi March (Mar 12, 1930).
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930).
First Round Table Conference held in England in 1930.
Gandhi - Irwin Pact (Mar 5, 1931) was signed and Civil Disobedience Movement was
withdrawn.
Martyrdom of Jatin Das after 64 days hunger strike (1929).

Lord Willingdon (1931-1936)

Second Round Table Conference in London in 1931.
On his return Gandhiji was again arrested and Civil Disobedience Movement was
resumed in Jan. 1932.
Communal Awards (Aug 16, 1932) assigned seats to different religious communities.
Gandhiji went on a epic fast in protest against this division.
Third Round Table Conference in 1932

Lord Linlithgow (1936-1944)

Govt. of India Act enforced in the provinces. Congress ministries formed in 8 out
of 11 provinces. They remained in power for about 2 years till Oct 1939, when they
gave up offices on the issue of India having been dragged into the II World War. The
Muslim League observed the day as Deliverance Day
Churchill became the British PM in May, 1940. He declared that the

Atlantic Charter (issued jointly by the UK and US, stating to give sovereign rights to those
who have been forcibly deprived of them does not apply to India.
Outbreak of World War II in 1939.
Cripps Mission in 1942.
Quit India Movement (August 8, 1942).

Lord Wavell (1944-1947)

Arranged the Shimla Conference on June 25, 1945 with Indian National Congress and
Muslim League; failed.
Cabinet Mission Plan (May 16, 1946).
Elections to the constituent assembly were held and an Interim
First meeting of the constituent assembly was held on Dec. 9, 1946.

Lord Mountbatten (MAR.1947-AUG.1947)

Last Viceroy of British India and the first Governor General of free India.
Partition of India decided by the June 3 Plan.
Indian Independence Act passed by the British parliament on July 4, 1947, by
which India became independent on August 15, 1947

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History

Bronze Age and Indus valley Civilization (IVC)

Indus Valley Facts at a Glance :

It is the period of Aryans (1500-500 BC).

starts with line agnimele purohitum

contains 1028 hymns and divided into 10 mandalas.

hymns Sung by priests called Hotris

contains famous gayatri mantra composed by Vishwamitra

10th mandal contains purush sukta that describes caste system.

Rhthmic compilation of hymns for Rigveda

Book of sacrifical prayers

Is sung by priest "Adhavaryu"

Has been compiled in "fourth path"

Has been divided into, Krishna(black) Yajurveda & Shukla(white) Yajurveda

Mantras for magic spells

Populate ritualistic system & superstitions

Associated with "Saunkiya" and "Paiplad" community

Not included in 'Trai'

Has been divided in 20 "Kandas"

18th, 19th & 20th 'Kandas' are later works

Provides freedom from evils spirits.

Oldest text on Indian Medicine.

Literarily, it means 'Jungle'

Provides description of Moral Science and Philosophy

Provides details of hermits and saints who lived in Jungles

Give stress on meditation

Protests the system of 'Yajnas'

Is a combination of Tatva-mimansa and philosophy

They are also called "Vedanta"

Primitive upanishada are "Brahadaranyaka" and "Chandogya"

Knowledge awards salvation says Upanishadas

Oldest possibility Narsinghpurvatapani

Latest possibility Allopanishada in Akbar's reign

Emergence of Mahajanapadas (600-321 BC)

Covering the region between Kabul and Rawalpindi in

Covering the area around the Punch area in Kashmir

Covering modern Paithan in Maharashtra; on the bank

Covering modern districts of Allahabad and Mirzapur

Covering modern Malwa (Ujjain) region of Madhya

Located in the Mathura region at the junction of the

Covering the modern Budelkhand area

Modern districts of Deoria, Basti, Gorakhapur in

Covering the modern Haryana and Delhi area to the

Covering the area of Alwar, Bharatpur and Jaipur in

Located to the north of the River Ganga in Bihar. It was

Covering the modern districts of Munger and

Located in and around present day Varanasi in Uttar

Covering the present districts of Faizabad, Gonda,

Covering modern districts of Patna, Gaya and parts of

Present day Rohilkhand and part of Central Doab in

King Darius or Darus invaded India

Alexander invaded India

Indo Greeks or Bactrians invaded India

Sakas invaded India

Ist century AD Pahalavas invaded India

Kushanas or Yue-chis invaded India

24th Thirtankara of Jainsim

3. Is related to money and politics

First major rock

Second major Mention of places of Cholas, Pardayans. Satayaputras and

Fifth major rock

Sixth major rock

Nature of all other rock edicts Inclusion of Asoka into Sangha It is