Concrete Frame

Structures

Assignment 2
By : Syifa Tri Rahmawati [1113050026]
Construction Technology 4

Construction Management Class 2

Civil Engineering Department
2014-2015
Preface

In the name of Allah SWT, Most Gracious, Most Merciful. Thank God i pray
to God the Almighty, because with His help me can complete a paper entitled
Precast Concrete in Building. Despite the many hurdles and obstacles that i
encounter in the course of the work, i finally managed to finish well.
Not forgetting to thank our lecturers who have helped me in working on
this paper. I also wish to thank my fellow students who also contribute either
directly or indirectly in the preparation of this paper.
Surely there are things that i want to give to friends through this paper.
Therefore i hope that this paper can be something useful for us together.
Hopefully this paper can make us achieve a better life.

Depok, March 2015

Syifa Tri Rahmawati

Table of contents

Preface ....................................................................................................................
...................................................
Contents .................................................................................................................
...................................................
1.1Introduction of
Frame .................................................................................................................
.................
1.1.1 Column ...................................................................................................
.....................................
1.1.2 Beam ..................................................................................................
..........................................
1.2Function of
Frame .................................................................................................................
.........................
1.2.1 Column ...............................................................................................
.........................................
1.2.2 Beam ..................................................................................................
...........................................
1.3Principles or Criteria of
Design ...............................................................................................................
.
1.3.1 Column ...............................................................................................
..........................................
1.3.2 Beam ..................................................................................................
...........................................
1.4Type of
Frame .................................................................................................................
..................................
1.5Concrete Frame
Structures ..........................................................................................................
...............
1.5.1 Reinforced Concrete
Frame ................................................................................................
1.5.1.1 Advantages of Concrete
Frame .................................................................
1.5.1.2 Disadvantages of Concrete
Frame ...........................................................
1.5.2 Precast Concrete
Frames ......................................................................................................

1.5.2.1

Advantage of Precast Concrete

Frame ...................................................
1.5.2.2 Disadvantage of Precast Concrete
Frame .............................................
1.6Concrete
Benefits .............................................................................................................
................................
Bibliography ............................................................................................................
...................................................

FRAMES

1.1 INTRODUCTION OF FRAME

Frame building mean anything composed of parts fitted and
united together; a fabric, a structure, the constructional system whether
of timber or metal, that gives to a building vessel, its model and strength
and it is the skeleton of a structure.

Framing, in construction known as light frame construction, is a

building technique based around structural members, usually called studs,
which provide a stable frame to which interior and exterior wall coverings
are attached, and covered by a roof comprising horizontal ceiling joists
and sloping rafters (together forming a truss structure) or manufactured
pre-fabricated roof trussesall of which are covered by various sheathing
materials to give weather resistance. The main components of framing are
column and beam.

Frames and their components

1.1.1 Column
A column in architecture and structural engineering is a vertical
structural element that transmits, through compression the weight of the
structure above to other structural elements below. Other compression
members are often termed columns because of the similar stress
conditions. Columns can be either compounded of parts or made as a
single piece. Columns are frequently used to support beams or arches on
which the upper parts of walls or ceilings rest. Column in architecture
refers specifically to such a structural element that also has certain
proportional and decorative features.
1.1.2 Beam
A beam is a structural element which is usually horizontal and
narrow in proportion to its depth, whose main function is to carry loads
transverse to its longitudinal axis by its internal resistance to
bending. During the erection of the frame, the beam is self-supporting and
when incorporated in the final construction, interacts with the floor and
can thereby support heavy loads. The beam can be used in the
construction of office buildings, apartment houses and industrial buildings.
It has a large load-bearing capacity and excellent fire-resistance
characteristics. The principal structural materials for beams are: steel,
light alloy, timber, reinforced concrete and composite materials.

1.2 FUNCTION OF FRAME

The purpose of any framed building is to transfer the loads of the
structure plus any imposed loads through the members of the frame to a
suitable foundation. This form of construction can be clad externally with
lightweight non-loadbearing walls to provide the necessary protection
from the elements and give to the required degree of comfort in terms of
sound and thermal insulation. Framed building is particularly suitable for
medium-and high-rise structures and for industrialized low-rise building
such as single-storey factory building.
1.2.1 Column

Column is a vertical member which carries the loads transferred by

the beam to the foundations. The column also can use in basements to
support the house structure. Thus, column can help to date buildings and
understand architecture. Furthermore, column use to support or take up
the load from the floor, wall, roof.
1.2.2 Beam
Beams generally carry vertical gravitational forces but can also be
used to carryhorizontal loads that are loads due to an earthquake or wind.
The loads carried by a beam are transferred to columns, walls, or girders,
which then transfer the force to adjacent structural compression
members.
Main Beams: span between columns and transfer the live and imposed
loads placed upon them to the columns.
Secondary Beams: span between and transfer their loadings to their
loadings to the main beams. Primary function is to reduce the spans of the
floor or roof being supported by the frame.

Tie Beams: internal beams spanning between columns at right angles to

the direction of the main beams and have the same function as a main
beam.
Edge Beams: as tie beam but spanning between external columns.

1.3 PRINCIPLE OR CRITERIA OF DESIGN

As already indicated, the primary function of a skeleton frame is to
carry safely all the loads imposed on the building and this is must do
without deforming excessively under load as a whole or in its parts. In
order to fulfill this function efficiently it must provide in its design and
construction adequate:

Strength and stability

Fire resistance
Strength and stability: These are ensured by the use of appropriate
materials in suitable forms applied with due regard to the manner in which
a structure and its parts behave under load.
Building frame may be classified according to the stiffness or rigidity
of the joints between the members, especially between column and beam.
A non-rigid frame is one in which the nature of the joints is such that the
beams are assumed to be simply supported and the joints non-rigid.
Rigidity in the frame structure as a whole is ensured by the inclusion of
some stiffening elements in the structure, often in the form of
triangulating members. Steel and timber frames are commonly jointed in
this manner and sometimes precast concrete frames. A semi-rigid frame is
one in which some all joints are such that some rigidity is obtained ; a
technique usually limited to steel frame that effects some saving in
materials. In a fully rigid frame, all the joints are rigid. Depending upon
the nature of the structure, the joints alone may provide the stiffness
necessary to prevent the frame as a whole deforming under lateral wind
pressure, although additional stiffening elements are often required. This
type of building frame can be constructed in steel and concrete.

Fire resistance: An adequate degree of fire resistance in the frame is

essential in order that its structural integrity may be maintained in the
event of fire, either for the full period of a total burn-out or for a long
period at least long enough to permit any occupants of the building to
escape. Concrete is highly fire resistances but steel, in many
circumstances, required the provision of fire resistances, of which a
number of forms exist, such as encasure by concrete or by fire resistant
fireboard. Timber, although a combustible material which will easily burn
in the form of thin boards, burns less readily when in thicknesses greater
that about 150mm.
1.3.1 Column
Columns and struts carry load primarily in compression along their
length, and are found in most building structures. Columns, sometimes
referred to as stanchions, and struts are structural elements which
support compressive loads primarily along their longitudinal axes.. As a
concrete is strong in compression it may be conclude that, provided the
compressive strength of the concrete is not exceeded, no reinforcement
will be required. For this condition to be true the following condition must
be exist:

Loading must be axial.

Column must be short, which can be defined as a column where the
ratio of its effective height to its thickness does not exceed 12.
Cross-section of the column must be large.

To prevent the slender main bars from buckling , and hence causing
spalling of the concrete , links or binders are used as a restraint . The
pitch or spacing is no greather than the least of :
The least lateral column dimension
12 times the smallest longitudinal reinforcement
300mm
So, principles or criteria of column design can explain as:

Columns are commonly found in many types of building.

Columns carry load principally by axial compression.
The strength of stocky columns is related to material strength.
The strength of slender columns is limited by buckling.
In practice steel columns have to allow for both buckling and
material failure, and for interaction between the two.
The resistance of a cross-section to buckling is represented by its
radius of gyration.

End conditions influence buckling behaviour and are accounted for

by using an effective length.
In practice columns are subject to a combination of compression
and bending.
Because buckling resistance and actual stress are both related to
the size of the cross-section, iterative design procedures must be
used.

1.3.2 Beam
The composite beam design is concerned with sizing the steel
section. The philosophy of designing composite beams is to utilize the
implicit strength of the concrete slab. The form and thickness of this will
have been determined by its functional requirements as a slab, taking
account of the span between supporting beams, load and fire resistance
requirements. The sizing of the composite beam therefore starts with the
thickness of the slab predetermined, and the process is to select a
suitable steel cross-section (normally a Universal Beam) which, in
conjunction with the slab, will satisfy the requirements of the beam in
terms of strength and stiffness. The beam must be designed to have
sufficient bending strength and stiffness, and secure connection to the
slab. The principal aspects of the behavior of the composite beam which
need to be considered in this respect are bending strength, the adequacy
of the connection between the slab and beam, and its deflection
performance.
For the design of beams, two design criteria to major-axis beams
and minor-axis beams are list as follows. The major-axis beams and minoraxis beams may be summarized as follows:

Major-axis beams are designed in accordance with plastic theory,

using factored loading but subject to conditions of shear, lateral
restraint and deflection.
Minor-axis beams must provide elastic and restraint to the
columns in factored-load conditions and are therefore designed for
factored load in accordance with elastic theory to a limiting stress
equal to the yield stress, subject to conditions of shear, lateral
restraint and deflection.
Design may be governed by any of the following criteria:

Deflection - the stiffness of the beam will be chosen to minimize

deformation.

Vibration - the stiffness and mass are chosen to prevent

unacceptable vibrations, particularly in settings sensitive to
vibrations.
Bending failure by yielding - where the stress in the cross section
exceeds the yield stress.
Bending failure by lateral torsion buckling - where a flange in
compression tends to buckle sideways or the entire cross-section
buckles torsionally.
Bending failure by local buckling - where the flange or web is so
slender as to buckle locally.
Local yield - caused by concentrated loads, such as at the beam's
point of support.
Shear failure - where the web fails. Slender webs will fail by
buckling, rippling in a phenomenon termed tension field action, but
shear failure is also resisted by the stiffness of the flanges.
Buckling or yielding of components - for example, of stiffeners used
to provide stability to the beam's web

1.4 TYPE OF FRAME

Types of frame available :

Cast-In-Situ Concrete Frames

Precast Concrete Frames
Reinforced Concrete Frames
Steel Frame
Timber Frame

1.5 CONCRETE FRAME STRUCTURES

Concrete frame structures are a very common - or perhaps the most
common- type of modern building. As the name suggests, this type of
building consists of a frame or skeleton of concrete. Horizontal members
of this frame are called beams, and vertical members are called columns.
Humans walk on flat planes of concrete called slabs. Of these, the
column is the most important, as it is the primary load-carrying element of
the building (See figure 2 at the bottom of the page for an illustration of
each of the major parts of a frame structure). If you damage a beam in a
building, it will usually affect only one floor, but damage to a column could
bring down the entire building.

Working out the exact 'recipe', or proportions of each ingredient, is a

science in itself. It is called concrete mix design. A good mix designer will
start with the properties that are desired in the mix, then take many
factors into account, and work out a detailed mix design. A site engineer
will often order a different type of mix for a different purpose. For
example, if he is casting a thin concrete wall in a hard-to-reach area, he
will ask for a mix that is more flowable than stiff. This will allow the liquid
concrete to flow by gravity into every corner of the formwork. For most
construction applications, however, a standard mix is used. Common
examples of standard mixes are M20, M30, M40 concrete, where the
number refers to the strength of the concrete in n/mm2 or newtons per
square millimeter. Therefore M30 concrete will have a compressive
strength of 30 n/mm2. A standard mix may also specify the
maximum aggregate size. Aggregates are the stone chips used in
concrete. If an engineer specifies M30 / 20 concrete, he wants M30
concrete with a maximum aggregate size of 20mm. He does NOT want
concrete with a strength of between 20-30 n/mm2, which is a common
misinterpretation in some parts of the world.
So the structure is actually a connected frame of members, each of
which are firmly connected to each other. In engineering parlance, these
connections are called moment connections, which means that the two
members are firmly connected to each other. There are other types of
connections, including hinged connections, which are used in steel
structures, but concrete frame structures have moment connections in
99.9% of cases. This frame becomes very strong, and must resist the
various loads that act on a building during its life.

These loads include:

Dead Loads: the downwards force on the building coming

from the weight of the building itself, including the structural
elements, walls, facades, and the like.
Live Loads: the downwards force on the building coming
from the expected weight of the occupants and their
possessions, including furniture, books, and so on. Normally
these loads are specified in building codes and structural
engineers must design buildings to carry these or greater
loads. These loads will vary with the use of the space, for
example, whether it is residential, office, industrial to name a
few. It is common for codes to require live loads for residential
to be a minimum of about 200 kg/m2, offices to be 250 kg/m2,
and industrial to be 1000 kg/m2, which is the same as 1T/m2.
These live loads are sometimes calledimposed loads.
Dynamic Loads: these occur commonly in bridges and
similar infrastructure, and are the loads created by traffic,
including braking and accelerating loads.
Wind Loads: This is a very important design factor,
especially for tall buildings, or buildings with large surface
area. Buildings are designed not to resist the everyday wind
conditions, but extreme conditions that may occur once every
100 years or so. These are called design windspeeds, and are
specified in building codes. A building can commonly be
required to resist a wind force of 150 kg/m2, which can be a
very significant force when multiplied by the surface area of
the building.
Earthquake Loads: in an earthquake, the ground vigorously
shakes the building both horizontally and vertically, rather like
a bucking horse shakes a rider in the sport of rodeo. This can
cause the building to fall apart. The heavier the building, the
greater the force on it. Its important to note that both wind
and earthquake impose horizontal forces on the building,
unlike the gravity forces it normally resists, which are vertical
in direction.

The concrete frame rests on foundations, which transfer the forces from the building and on the building - to the ground.

Some other important components of concrete frame structures are:

Shear Walls are important structural elements in high-rise

buildings. Shear walls are essentially very large columns - they
could easily measure 400mm thick by 3m long - making them
appear like walls rather than columns. Their function in a building is
to help take care of horizontal forces on buildings like wind and
earthquake loads. Normally, buildings are subject to vertical loads gravity. Shear walls also carry vertical loads. It is important to
understand that they only work for horizontal loads in one direction the axis of the long dimension of the wall. These are usually not
required in low-rise structures.
Elevator Shafts are vertical boxes in which the elevators move up
and down - normally each elevator is enclosed in its own concrete
box. These shafts are also very good structural elements, helping to
resist horizontal loads, and also carrying vertical loads.

WALLS IN CONCRETE FRAME BUILDINGS

Concrete frame structures are strong and economical. Hence almost
any walling materials can be used with them. The heavier options
include masonry walls of brick, concrete block, or stone. The lighter
options include drywall partitions made of light steel or wood studs
covered with sheeting material. The former are used when strong, secure,
and sound-proof enclosures are required, and the latter when quick,
flexible lightweight partitions are needed.
When brick or concrete blocks are used, it is common to plaster the
entire surface - brick and concrete - with a cement plaster to form a hard,
long-lasting finish.
CLADDING OF CONCRETE FRAME STRUCTURES

Concrete frame buildings can be clad with any kind of cladding

material. Common cladding materials are glass, aluminum panels, stone
sheets, and ceramic facades. Since these structures can be designed for
heavy loading, one could even clad them in solid masonry walls of brick or
stone.
1.5.1 Reinforced Concrete Frame

Reinforced concrete is one of the most widely used modern building

materials. Concrete is artificial stone obtained by mixing cement, sand,
and aggregates with water. Fresh concrete can be molded into almost any
shape, which is an inherent advantage over other materials. The
compressive strength of normal structural concrete is about one-sixteenth
that of steel, but its tensile strength is only about one-fourteenth to oneeighth of its compressive strength. Its stiffness is low compared with steel
and its strength or weight ratio is low. To overcome this weakness, steel
bars are embedded in concrete to form a composite material
called reinforced concrete. Unlike steel, concrete production does not
require expensive manufacturing mills. Reinforced concrete (RC) frames
consist of horizontal elements (beams) and vertical elements (columns)
connected by rigid joints.
The Concrete Frame A Beam system is extremely economic, it
requires no painting, finishing or fire protection. It is a suitable structural
form for industrial buildings, warehousing, sports halls, community halls
etc.
The frame building system consists of pre-stressed precast
and reinforced precast concrete 4 A beams fixed to reinforced
concrete columns, in spans up to 24.40m in bay centres of up to 9.0m.;
Clear working height of up to 9.145m between finished floor level and the
soffit of the beam can be obtained. The system incorporates the use of

precast concrete gutters which can be used in both eaves and valley
situations.

1.5.1.1 Advantages of Reinforced Concrete Frame

Reinforced Value in Building Construction

After construction is complete concrete continues to reinforce its
value with aesthetic quality, energy savings, built-in-fire resistance,
durability, strength and low maintenance.
Energy Savings
Industry studies prove that compared to steel construction, concrete
buildings have decreased heating and cooling expenses. Over a 24 hour
period, heat gain calculated by btu / ft 2, can be up to 50 percent less
adding up to a substantial savings.
Fire Resistance
Concrete is naturally fire-resistant. Concrete buildings typically
qualify for reduced fire insurance ratesup to 60 percent less on fire and
extended coverage for warehouses and storage buildings.
Durability, Strength, Low Maintenance
Because concrete can withstand catastrophic loading and there is
less movement with concrete structures, buildings have a longer life
expectancy. They also are weather-tight, require lower maintenance and
have greater resale value than other structures.
Aesthetic Value
Today's concrete technologies provide innovative solutions for
architectural interest and versatility in design. New coloring admixtures

provide attractive, economical alternatives to exterior finishing. And

concrete is adaptable to a variety of surface treatments and shapes
resulting in structures that set graciously into any environment.
It has a relatively high compressive strength;
It has better resistance to fire than steel;
It has a long service life with low maintenance cost;
In some types of structures, such as dams, piers, and footings, it is
the most economical structural material;
It can be cast to take the shape required, making it widely used in
precast structural components. It yields rigid members with
minimum apparent deflection.
1.5.1.2 Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete Frame

Buildings cannot resist the temperature and moisture effect due to

the small thickness of walls.
It is much affected by earthquake loads.
Very heaving.
Can become a time consuming process when there is an error on
pouring concrete frames.
It has a low tensile strength of about one-tenth of its compressive
strength;
It needs mixing, casting, and curing, all of which affect the final
strength of concrete;
The cost of the forms used to cast of concrete placed in the forms;
It has a low compressive strength as compared to steel (the ratio is
about 1:10, depending on materials), which leads to large sections
in columns of multistory buildings;
Cracks develop in concrete due to shrinkage and the application of
live loads.

1.5.2 Precast Concrete Frames

The concept of precast construction includes those buildings where
the majority of structural components are standardized and produced in
plants in a location away from the building, and then transported to the
site for assembly. These components are manufactured by industrial
methods based on mass production in order to build a large number of
buildings in a short time at low cost. The main features of this
construction process are as follows:
The division and specialization of the human workforce

 The use of tools, machinery, and other equipment, usually

automated, in the production of standard, interchangeable parts and
products.

These frames are suitable for single storey and low rise applications,
the former usually in the form of portal frames which are normally studied
separately. Precast concrete frames provide the skeleton for the building
and can be clad externally and finished internally by all the traditional
methods. The frames are usually produced as part of a manufacturers
standard range of designs and are therefore seldom purpose made due
mainly to the high cost of the moulds.
1.5.2.1 Advantage of Precast Concrete Frame

Frames are produced under factory controlled conditions resulting in

a uniform product of both quality and accuracy.
Repetitive casting lowers the cost of individual members.
Off site production releases site space for other activities.
Frames can be assembled in cold weather and generally by semiskilled labour.

1.5.2.2 Disadvantage of Precast Concrete Frame

Although a wide choice of frames is available from various

manufacturers these systems lack the design flexibility of cast-insitu purpose made frames.
Site planning can be limited by manufacturers delivery and
unloading programmes and requirements.
Lifting plant of a type and size not normally required by traditional
construction methods may be needed.

1.6 CONCRETE BENEFITS

When using concrete for the structural frame, it comes with a whole
range of additional benefits, many of which can save resources on other

elements of the building. The range of benefits is listed below, click on the
links for further information.
Economic

Social

Environmental

Costs

Inherent fire
resistance

Flexibility

Programme

Low vibration
characteristics

Thermal mass

Buildability

Good acoustic
performance

Locally sourced
materials

Mouldability

Reduced skilled
labour on site

Prestressing

Continuity

Inherent
robustness

Long clear spans

Speed of
construction

High-quality
finishes

Durability

Short lead-in
times

Vandal resistant

Recyclable

Whole life
value

Air tight

Building
services

Aesthetics

Low
maintenance

Bibliography
http://www.concretecentre.com/technical_information/building_solutions/fr
ame_elements.aspx
http://www.shaymurtagh.ie/our-products/concrete-frame-buildings/
http://www.understandconstruction.com/concrete-frame-structures.html
http://nisee.berkeley.edu/turkey/Fturkch3.pdf

http://www.world-housing.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/RCFrame_Yakut.pdf
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precast_concrete
http://www.shaymurtagh.co.uk/precast-concrete-products/concrete-framebuildings/
http://www.eborconcrete.co.uk/products-structures-frames.htm
http://precast.org/precast-possibilities/case-studies/precast-concreteframing-element-lofts-project/
http://bahkalimantap.blogspot.com/2011/10/advantages-anddisadvantages-of.html
http://construction-greatopportunity.blogspot.com/2012/03/frames.html
http://www.ehow.com/about_4617185_advantages-disadvantagesconcrete-building.html
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0141029606004743
http://www.building.co.uk/specialist-costs-concrete-frames/3040951.article