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Bridging the digital divide - The role of

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EL
26,2

Bridging the digital divide

The role of librarians and information
professionals in the third millennium

226

Seyed Vahid Aqili

Department of Communication, Islamic Azad University,
Sciences and Research Campus, Tehran, Iran, and

Received 23 March 2007

Revised 24 April 2007
Accepted 29 May 2007

Alireza Isfandyari Moghaddam

Department of Library and Information Studies, Islamic Azad University,
Hamedan Branch, Iran
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to show how the digital divide has become a common
metaphor originating from now nearly obsolete phrases such as information have and have nots and
information rich and information poor. The article aims to focus on several dimensions of the digital
divide that pertain to service as well as the responsibilities of libraries.
Design/methodology/approach This article places emphasis on the role of librarians and
information professionals in bridging the digital divide by indicating some aspects related to it as
evidenced in the literature including its definition, aspects, factors affecting, and internet users.
Findings Libraries are treated as one of the major social tools which can solve the information
divide rooted in the digital divide and contribute to the realization of democratic society.
Research limitations/implications This article revolves around the authors points of view. So,
further studies, especially comparative research between developed and developing countries which
vary in terms of digital divide rate, can help to understand the real role librarians and information
professionals play.
Practical implications Rethinking the digital divide, librarians must redesign and redefine their
service menu for their customers through thinking functionally. They also need to review the various
IT devices and information services available and examine which can be employed to present a more
effective library service. In addition, policy-makers should consider the vital role that librarians can
play in the realization of knowledge-based society and sustainable development.
Originality/value This paper provides a theoretical basis for librarians to be more active and
sedulous and policy-makers to be vigilant and place much value for information sector and its
professionals, particularly librarians working in various libraries.
Keywords Digital communication systems, Librarians, Information profession
Paper type Viewpoint

Librarians are expected to be leaders like conductors of symphony orchestras to carry all the
members working together to a single goal (Yamazaki, 2007).
The future is here. Its just unevenly distributed (Gibson; quoted in OReilly, 2002).
The Electronic Library
Vol. 26 No. 2, 2008
pp. 226-237
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0264-0473
DOI 10.1108/02640470810864118

Introduction
Information and communications technology (ICT) can be considered as an important
weapon in the war against world challenges. When used effectively, it offers huge
potential to empower people in developing countries and disadvantaged communities

to overcome obstacles, address the most important social problems they face,
strengthen communities, democratic institutions, a free press, and local economies and
maybe above all, facilitate information flow with which real information society can
come true. But, a digital divide separates those who can access and use ICT to gain
these benefits, and those who either do not have access to such technology or who are
unable to use it for one reason or another. The digital divide has become a common
metaphor originating from now nearly obsolete phrases such as information have and
have nots and information rich and information poor.
Rao (2005) suggests that the digital divide can never be contained in isolation but
the effort has to be multi-dimensional and multi-pronged; As a result, the present
article focuses on some of several dimensions of the digital divide that have a
meaningful relationship to the service as well as responsibility of libraries, or to be
more precise, the information sector where librarians and information professionals
play influential and substantial roles by which goals and missions of a democratic and
dynamic society can be considerably met. At the World Summit of the Information
Society (WSIS) in December 2003, heads of state and governments from all over the
world declared that the global challenge for the new millennium is to build a society
where everyone can access and share information, enabling individuals and
communities to achieve their full potential in promoting their development and
improving their quality of life. This commitment was reaffirmed in the second phase of
the summit in November 2005 (WSIS, 2003, 2005; quoted in Rosalia Vicente Cuervo and
Lopez Menendez, 2006).
Nowadays, terms such as knowledge-based society, sustainable development,
and so forth are frequently heard. In the world today, information is a resource for
development, and the absence of reliable information is an epitome of
underdevelopment (Kargbo, 2002; quoted in Huang and Russell, 2006). In fact,
development on the basis of information and knowledge will be possible provided that
ICT is properly and equally used and that also the digital divide once named the
knowledge gap (Husing and Selhofer, 2002) is bridged or diminished. In this respect,
familiarity with its definition helps to cope with such a phenomenon as well as
elaborate the main idea of this article which aims to emphasize the role of librarians
and information professionals in bridging the digital divide by indicating some aspects
relating to it available in the existing literature.

Definition of digital divide

The digital divide has been frequently defined. Here, some definitions relevant to our
discussion are considered as follows:
.
The lack of access to information and communications technologies by segments
of the community. The digital divide is a generic term used to describe this lack
of access due to linguistic, economic, educational, social and geographic reasons
(Scrutiny of Acts and Regulations Committee, 2005).
.
The gap [gulf] between those people and communities who can access and make
effective use of information technology and those who cannot (www.
mountainpartnership.org/glossary.html ).

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The growing gap between those parts of the world which have easy access to
knowledge, information, ideas and works of information through technology and
those who do not (Deschamps, 2001; quoted in Mphidi, 2004).
A term used to describe the discrepancy between people who have access to and
the resources to use new information and communication tools, such as the
Internet, and people who do not have the resources and access to the technology.
The term also describes the discrepancy between those who have the skills,
knowledge and abilities to use the technologies and those who do not. The digital
divide can exist between those living in rural areas and those living in urban
areas, between the educated and uneducated, between economic classes, and on a
global scale between more and less industrially developed nations (Webopedia,
2007).

From the above definitions, it is self-evident that accessing information and resources
is a determinant factor. In other words, this concept has been used to characterize
differences in access to information through the internet and other information
technologies and services in the knowledge, skills, and abilities to use information. The
authors posit that librarians and information professionals can play a vital role in
making information accessible, bridging the digital divide or at least, diminishing it via
their information services. These include reference, collection building (Salinas, 2003),
inter-library loan, selective dissemination of information (SDI), current awareness
services (CAS), digital libraries, and resource sharing (In relation to this aspect,
Adeogun (2003; quoted in Mphidi, 2004) suggests that:
. . . libraries need to establish effective resource sharing schemes. As a result of present
proliferation of information, high costs of information resources, and dwindling library
budget, it is difficult for any library to provide all the information needs of its clients. Sharing
this available resource will assist in meeting user information needs hence reducing the
digital divide.

Also included is life-long learning (Cullen, 2003), and so on as well as user education
programs such as training on how to use reference resources and web search tools
effectively (Fourie and Bothma, 2006), information literacy instruction (Cullen, 2003;
Bradley, 2001; quoted in Mutula, 2005) and even making people familiar with ethical
issues in the digital age. Here, The Sophist (2004; quoted in Mphidi, 2004) supports this
perspective:
Libraries, especially public libraries can play a vital role in bridging the digital divide by
providing access to computer and the internet to those who do not have such facilities. The
perception that libraries are for the elite in universities should be eradicated. Libraries are for
everyone, educated and uneducated, rich and poor. They are equalizers and democratic force
in access to computers, the internet, information, learning and training.

The digital divide in literature

In order to understand the digital divide in related literature one must pay attention to
how the concept was introduced, how has it been influenced by some factors, and how
it is identified. Doubtless, this may lead to overcoming the digital divide. According to
Mun-cho and Jong-Kil (2001), problems of information inequality within the media

began in the 1970s. When the Internet began to be widely used, many including
scholars and leaders of international organizations such as the World Bank, the
European Union, the United Nations, and the G8, began to look at the different factors
affecting the information gap.
In this regard, Norris (2001) has concentrated on the economic and political aspects
of the nature of the digital divide, and has distinguished three hierarchical levels: the
macro-level, the technological and economic resources available and their distribution,
the meso-level, the role played by political institutions, and the micro-level, individual
resources and individual motivation. Compaine (2001) indicates that the various kinds
of gaps that exist among societies are related to the state of the economy. In addition,
Compaines work pays attention to other factors affecting the digital divide including
technological and political ones. Also, Kuttan and Peters (2003) believe that the digital
divide is at least a technological problem having to do with IT training, personal
computers, and access to broadband internet.
In association with access rate, Foulger (2001) declares that:
People who live in digital have countries have greater access to a variety of communication
media and information. While Internet access may or may not be ubiquitous, it is certainly set
up in most schools, companies, and communities in order that people who want Internet
access can get it. Therefore, the digital divide is really a continuum of choice. The choice is a
fundamental issue informed by psychological and social concerns, not just economic
concerns. Some people choose to make extensive use of digital resources. Others do not. Most
people fall somewhere in between.

It should be added that people who are multi-skillful, or to be precise, information

literate, can deal with digital resources effectively and have little technophobia.
A study by Mun-cho and Jong-Kil (2001) signifies three stages of digital divide:
information accessibility, information utilization, and information receptiveness. At
the first stage, information accessibility is closely associated with the economic factors
under which the user can have access or not in terms of digital opportunity. The next
stage, information utilization is related to obtaining and creating added value in using
the information. Information receptiveness refers to whether the user can use the
information to enrich quality of his/her life.
Based on the points mentioned above, it can be concluded that the focus of the
digital divide is information inequality which can be reduced through information
accessibility, information use and information sharing as well as dissemination. Given
that ICT infrastructure is partly prepared, information society citizens can rely on
librarians roles in the increased utilization of information. Furthermore, librarians can
help people interact intimately as well as efficiently with new information technologies
to locate, use, process, organize, create, communicate and manipulate information and
information resources and somehow find an appropriate identity and status in the
electronic virtual world. In this respect, Mphidis view seems to be supportive:
Librarians need to train their patrons in modern information retrieval strategies, particularly
in the use of the internet, World Wide Web, electronic databases and many more. Libraries
need to equip themselves with good online information databases and other electronic
resources. This will provide patron with more access to information, communication and
technologies in order to bridge this digital divide.

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In addition, categorization of multiple dimensions of the digital divide by Rosalia

Vicente Cuervo and Lopez Menendez (2006) ICT infrastructure and use and costs and
the availability of online public services supports this idea that librarians at least can
serve in relation to two of four components mentioned by them namely use and
availability of online public services. To sum up, librarians by means of their
information services mentioned earlier, can engage in and contribute to the micro-level
introduced by Norris (2001), diminish technological problems or factors put forward by
Compaine (2001) and Kuttan and Peters (2003) and meet particularly stages first and
second signified by Mun-cho and Jong-Kil (2001). Moreover, as Salinas (2003)
maintains, libraries can address the digital divide through collection development in
some of ways.
The digital divide in the light of internet users
According to WSIS (2005), sentences such as there are more than eight times as many
internet users in the USA than on the entire African continent, there are more than
three times as many internet users in Japan as on the entire African continent, there
are more than twice as many internet users in Germany than on the entire African
continent, the entire African continent home to over 50 countries has fewer
internet users than France alone, there are more internet users in Seoul (Republic of
Korea), than all of sub-Saharan Africa, excluding South Africa, there are more
internet users in London than in the whole of Pakistan and Switzerland, host of the
first World Summit on the Information Society, has five times the internet penetration
rate of Tunisia, host of the second Summit have meaningful implications. It is
generally accepted that along with numbers of fixed phone lines and mobile
subscribers, the number of Internet users highly affects the rate of digital divide but it
can be said that, under equal conditions and regardless of ICT infrastructure, if
non-internet users are given relevant training, the number of them will reduced and in
fact, the number of internet users will increase. Using the phrase lack of ICT skills and
support, Cullen (2003) confirms this idea. Thus, as mentioned earlier, the more
effective the role librarians play, can play and will play may result in improvement of
current situation.
On the other hand, when we have a look at indices suggested for measuring digital
divide (for example, Bridges.org (an international non-profit organization based in
Cape Town which promotes policies and laws that foster widespread ICT use and
works at the grassroots level to help people understand ICT and its practical utility)
Bridges.org (2001); International Telecommunication Union (ITU), 2003; Chen and
Wellman, 2003 and Barzilai-Nahon and Rafaeli, 2004, some important indices related to
internet users. These include use which in turn has some subcategorizes including
frequency, time one-line, sophistication of use, users skill and autonomy of use
training and knowledge (adult literacy as well as information literacy). As said before
and based on authors viewpoints, librarians can have significant impacts on increased
use of internet, quality of training and managing index knowledge through
principles of knowledge management (KM). Additionally, relevant content is another
index considered in digital divide measurement. In relation to this index, librarians also
can contribute to quality and relevancy of content of resources via content

management, e-content management, digital preservation, information

organization and information audit, etc.
Also, in support of authors perspective, paying attention to Cullen (2001) and Peters
(2003) seems to be useful. In association with diminishing the digital divide in
developed nations, particularly the USA, Cullen (2001) pointed out some solutions
including funds to train all new teachers in the effective use of IT and promotion of
innovative use of technology for under-served communities. In this regard, Peters
(2003) through posing the question what more is needed? and replying real access,
indicates that providing access to technology is critical, but it must be about more
than just physical access. Computers and connections are insufficient if the technology
is not used effectively because it is not affordable; people do not understand how to put
it to use; people are discouraged from using it . . . . One of main results of Ono and
Zavodnys (2006) study strongly supports Peterss view: access to IT does not
necessarily translate into use. As a result, librarians responsibility in relation to
meeting these recommendations especially increased use of available ICT facilities and
potentials is tangible as well as self-evident.
A step forward in theory and practice
Theory
Considering what has been said so far in the present article, it is important to remind
ourselves that libraries are treated as one of the major social tools which can solve the
information divide rooted in digital divide and contribute to the realization of
democratic society. Given that, the Governing Board of IFLA, in its anniversary
meeting in Glasgow, Scotland (2002) approved the following declaration (Anon, 2002;
quoted in Williams and Poh-Sze, 2003):
.
Libraries can ensure their services respect equity, the general quality of life for
all people and the natural environment.
.
Library and information services provide access to information, ideas and works
of imagination in various formats, supporting personal development of all age
groups and active participation in society and decision-making process.
.
Library and information services provide essential support for lifelong learning,
independent decision-making and cultural development for all.
.
Library and information services contribute to the development and
maintenance of intellectual freedom and help safeguard basic democratic
values and universal civil rights. They respect the identity, independent choice,
decision-making and privacy of their users without discrimination.
.
To this end, library and information services acquire, preserve and make
available to all users without discrimination the widest variety of materials,
reflecting the plurality and cultural diversity of society and the richness of our
environments.
.
Library and information services are helping to tackle information inequality
demonstrated in the growing information gap and the digital divide. Through
their network of services, information on research and innovation is made
available to advance sustainable development and the welfare of peoples
worldwide.

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Also, we should not neglect the important roles that national libraries (NLs) can play to
meet library and information services outlined by IFLA and bridge the digital divide.
Some of significant contributions of NLs from the perspective of Lor (2003) are:
.
Providing technical support for its branch libraries.
.
Playing a leadership role in terms of standardization and specifications for
suitable workstations and software.
.
Assessing resources such as grant funding to contribute to research and
development.
.
Adding to the critical mass of national content on the internet.
.
Providing digitized full-text content through digitization programs focused on
local information.
.
Providing national portals of digital information resources, especially to
information relevant to their countries.
.
Providing services that reflect their society and providing content in all the
countries languages if possible and relevant to minorities and disadvantaged
groups.
.
Promoting literacy and information literacy.
.
Providing appropriate services to the private sector.
.
Playing an advocacy role to help garner more funds for the countrys libraries and
information services, to put forward appropriate adjustments to laws and
regulations, to establish information policy, and to promote moral and ethical
principles.
Practice
In order to meet the above roles and work in digital libraries more effectively (and so
contribute to bridging the digital divide), Urs (2002) recommends five main areas
(Table I) in which librarians and information professionals should be proficient and
learn skills and knowledge needed so that they can more effectively help users and
citizens interact better with changing technological information tools and navigate
properly through the chaos of information world.
It is notable that because of changing conditions, emergence of digital libraries and
a variety of new ICT-based library services, librarians should concentrate more on
areas value addition processes and information technology highlighted in Table I.
Conclusion
Solving the digital divide, according to the Digital Divide Organization (2006) is
considered as the precondition for reducing poverty, resolving terrorism and achieving
sustainable world markets. In this respect, it is emphasized that the major challenge for
librarians especially from developing countries in the digital era is to bridge the digital
divide. As Omekwu (2006) declares
. . . a clearly defined information technology policy is critical to the development of the
information technology infrastructure. . . As more and more libraries in developing move to
the electronic frontier, their librarians would have the dual responsibility of not only

Area

Tasks

Information user

Understanding the user

Information
resources

Value addition
processes

Information
technology

Requisite knowledge and skills

Theoretical underpinnings of use

studies
Identifying and analysing user needs Qualitative research methods
Reference interview
Quantitative research methods
Query formulation
Psychological tools
Search strategy
Identification
Types print and electronic
Evaluation
Nature and characteristics
Selection
Meta sources
Searching and search engines
Norms, techniques and procedures of
evaluation
Compilation of bibliographies,
Theoretical (logical, linguistic,
databases
psychological) foundations of
knowledge organization
Developing virtual libraries
Paradigms of knowledge organization
Design and development of user
Indexing languages, tools and
interfaces
techniques for knowledge
representation
Organizing (classification, cataloguing, Resource cataloguing and description:
record formats, METADATA,
indexing, abstracting) information
organizing INTERNET resources
resources; information analysis and
consolidation
Design and development of e-content Programming languages, DBMS
Development of digital libraries
Authoring software tools, multimedia /
hypermedia tools
Electronic Publishing,: SGML, HTML,
DHTML, XML, PDF
Digitization techniques
Systems study/analysis and
Understanding of information and
requirement analysis
communication technology hardware:
computer, telecommunication,
networking and storage technologies
IT market survey
Network processors-routers, gateways,
bridges, etc.
Identification and selection of suitable Operating systems: WINDOWS, UNIX,
hardware and software for automation, LINUX
LANs, internet, intranets, etc.
Setting up the system
Network operating systems
Data conversion
Office automation
Web site development and registration Networking topologies and protocols
OOPS: C, C , Visual Basic, Java,
ASP, API, PHP etc
CGI Scripting Languages: Perl, Java
scripting
WEB site management
Digital document creation files and
formats
Preservation techniques digital
watermarking and digital signatures
(continued)

Bridging the
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233

Table I.
Tasks and requisite
knowledge and skills in
the five areas

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Area

Tasks

Requisite knowledge and skills

Management

Planning: strategic and tactical

Resource management: finance, human
resources
Developing decision support systems
Organizational re-engineering
Knowledge management: information
flow management
Workflow management
Project management

Theories and schools of management

Information economy

234

Market research
Pricing and marketing
Evaluation
Quality certification

Table I.

Psychology of the consumer

Management principles and techniques
Methods of forecasting
Principles of marketing
Techniques and tools of market
research
Strategies and methods of marketing
Project management tools
Budgeting techniques: OR techniques,
linear programming
Performance evaluation: measurement
techniques
TQM: ISO 9000 series and other
standards
Intellectual property rights

managing information but also the technology systems that enable the information
production, - processing provision chain.

As a result of this and on the basis of Arthur Andersens (1998) words; quoted in
Omekwu, 2006) librarians would emerge as:
.

Technology experts ensuring that members of the knowledge communities

understand the available technology and use it to its potential. This role is a
technology trainer and cheerleader.

Guides directing members of knowledge community to outside information

when appropriate and maintaining high-level information about sources outside
the community.

Scouts ferreting out information useful to the knowledge community and

bringing it into the knowledge base.

Research librarians helping users define information needs and prioritizing

highly relevant information from a pool of interesting information according to
user preferences.

Analysts adding value to information by creating a context for understanding

and by looking for pattern of information that points to new arrears of interest.

As information providers librarians can make available much more widely

collections which now can be used not only within a single physical library
location. A wide range of publications and access formats can be accommodated,
from remote login catalogues and indexes, to provision of electronic copies of
entire collection or works, in print or other formats.

Consequently, first, librarians should confirm themselves even stronger than before
through their knowledge as well as skills and being flexible, changing their attitude
towards the new environment. In this respect, Yamazaki (2007) puts forward as
following:
We [librarians] must redesign our service menu for our customers through thinking
functionally. Under the present conditions where the Internet has become very popular as a
means for everyone to have access to information, it is important for us to concentrate the
service focus on the services which can be provided only by libraries or information
professionals. For this purpose, we need to clarify our service concept and invent a set of new
services. It will be practical to coordinate existing commercial information services,
databases, e-journals and IT applications to develop a new product or service from the
library. For that purpose, we need to review the various IT devices and information services
available and examine which can be employed to present an effective library service.

And second, policy-makers should consider the vital role that librarians can play in the
realization of a knowledge-based society and sustainable development. Consequently,
it is expected that the place of information and library services as well as librarians
namely those who make mission of these services viable and operational is regarded
alongside other influential sectors. Considering libraries commitment to freedom of
access to information, all must believe that library and information services can
contribute highly to the development of equal opportunities.
In conclusion, it is emphasized that regardless of the role of libraries and librarians
and the information sector at large, cooperation as well as collaboration among all
related bodies, both at the national and the international level, is the key to alleviate the
obstacles to information access, and so diminish the educational and information
divide and totally digital divide within each country. Yet we must not overlook that
there are basic, essential requirements economic, social, political, and cultural that
must be taken into consideration to overcome the digital divide and thus gain equally
access to information.
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About the authors
Seyed Vahid Aqili is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication at Islamic
Azad University Sciences and Research Campus, Tehran, Iran. He has a PhD in mass
communication.
Alireza Isfandyari Moghaddam is a PhD student in the Department of Library and
Information Studies at Islamic Azad University Sciences and Research Campus, Tehran, Iran.
Alireza Isfandyari Moghaddam is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
ali.isfandyari@gmail.com

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Bridging the
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