Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
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Transmission types
Manual
Sequential manual
Non-synchronous
Preselector
Automatic
Manumatic
Semi-automatic
Electrohydraulic
Saxomat
Dual-clutch
Continuously variable
Bicycle gearing
Derailleur gears
Hub gears
3Operation
4History
o
4.1Alfa Romeo
4.2Chevrolet
4.3Chrysler
4.5Daihatsu
4.6Ferrari
4.7Ford
4.8General Motors
4.9Honda
4.10Hudson
4.11Isuzu
4.12Mercedes-Benz
4.13NSU
4.14Opel
4.15Packard
4.16Plymouth
4.17Renault
4.18Reo
4.19SAAB
4.20Simca
4.21Smart
4.22Volkswagen
5Other applications
o
5.1Racing
5.3Bristol/Daimler/Leyland buses
5.4Motorcycles
5.5ATVs
6Marketing names
7Types
8See also
9References
Operation[edit]
Semi-trailer truck
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"18 wheeler" and "eighteen wheeler" redirect here. For other uses, see 18 wheeler (disambiguation).
"Big Rig" redirects here. For other uses, see Big Rig (disambiguation).
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Semi-trailer tractor with sleeper behind the cab and oversize load on lowboy trailer
A semi-trailer truck is the combination of a tractor unit and one or more semi-trailers to carry
freight. It is variously known as a transport (truck) in Canada; semi or single in
Australia; semi, tractor-trailer, big rig, or eighteen-wheeler in the United States; and articulated lorry,
abbreviated artic, in Britain and Ireland.
A semi-trailer attaches to the tractor with a fifth wheel hitch, with much of its weight borne by the
tractor. The result is that both tractor and semi-trailer will have a distinctly different design than a
rigid truck and trailer.
Contents
[hide]
1Regional configurations
o
1.1North America
1.2Europe
1.2.1United Kingdom
1.2.2Continental Europe
1.2.3Scandinavia
1.3Australia
2Construction
o
2.1Types of trailers
2.3Braking
2.4Transmission
2.5Lights
2.7Skirted trailers
2.8Underride guard
2.9Semi-truck manufacturers
3Driver's license
o
3.1Canada
3.2United States
3.3Taiwan
3.4Europe
3.5Australia
3.6New Zealand
4Role in trade
5Media
o
5.1Television
5.2Films
5.3Music
5.4Video games
6See also
7References
8External links
Regional configurations[edit]
North America[edit]
In North America, the combination vehicles made up of a powered truck and one or more
semitrailers are known as "semis", "semitrailers",[1] "tractor-trailers", "big rigs", "semi trucks",
"eighteen-wheelers", or "semi-tractor trailers".
The tractor unit typically has two or three axles; those built for hauling heavy-duty commercialconstruction machinery may have as many as five, some often being lift axles.
The most common tractor-cab layout has a forward engine, one steering axle, and two drive axles.
The fifth-wheel trailer coupling on most tractor trucks is movable fore and aft, to allow adjustment in
the weight distribution over its rear axle(s).
Ubiquitous in Europe, but less common in North America since
Electronic publishing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
for it enables content and analytics combined - for the benefit of students. The use of electronic
publishing for textbooks may become more prevalent with iBooks from Apple Inc. and Apple's
negotiation with the three largest textbook suppliers in the U.S.[4] Electronic publishing is increasingly
popular in works of fiction. Electronic publishers are able to respond quickly to changing market
demand, because the companies do not have to order printed books and have them delivered. Epublishing is also making a wider range of books available, including books that customers would
not find in standard book retailers, due to insufficient demand for a traditional "print run". Epublication is enabling new authors to release books that would be unlikely to be profitable for
traditional publishers. While the term "electronic publishing" is primarily used in the 2010s to refer to
online and web-based publishers, the term has a history of being used to describe the development
of new forms of production, distribution, and user interaction in regard to computer-based production
of text and other interactive media.
Contents
[hide]
1Process
2Academic publishing
3Copyright
4Examples
5Business models
6See also
7References
8External links
Process[edit]
The electronic publishing process follows some aspects of the traditional paperbased publishing process[5] but differs from traditional publishing in two ways: 1) it does not include
using an offset printing press to print the final product and 2) it avoids the distribution of a physical
product (e.g., paper books, paper magazines, or paper newspapers). Because the content is
electronic, it may be distributed over the Internet and through electronic bookstores, and users can
read the material on a range of electronic and digital devices, including desktop
computers, laptops, tablet computers, smartphones or e-reader tablets. The consumer may read the
published content online a website, in an application on a tablet device, or in a PDF document on a
computer. In some cases, the reader may print the content onto paper using a consumer-grade inkjet or laser printer or via a print on demand system. Some users download digital content to their
devices, enabling them to read the content even when their device is not connected to the Internet
(e.g., on an airplane flight).
Distributing content electronically as software applications ("apps") has become popular in the
2010s, due to the rapid consumer adoption of smartphones and tablets. At first, native apps for each
mobile platform were required to reach all audiences, but in an effort toward universal device
compatibility, attention has turned to using HTML5 to create web apps that can run on any browser
and function on many devices. The benefit of electronic publishing comes from using three attributes
of digital technology: XML tags to define content,[6] style sheets to define the look of content,
and metadata (data about data) to describe the content for search engines, thus helping users to
find and locate the content (a common example of metadata is the information about a
song's songwriter, composer, genre that is electronically encoded along with most CDs and digital
audio files; this metadata makes it easier for music lovers to find the songs they are looking for).
With the use of tags, style sheets, and metadata, this enables "reflowable" content that adapts to
various reading devices (tablet, smartphone, e-reader, etc.) or electronic delivery methods.
Because electronic publishing often requires text mark-up (e.g., Hyper Text Markup Language or
some other markup language) to develop online delivery methods, the traditional roles of typesetters
and book designers, who created the printing set-ups for paper books, have changed. Designers of
digitally published content must have a strong knowledge of mark-up languages, the variety of
reading devices and computers available, and the ways in which consumers read, view or access
the content. However, in the 2010s, new user friendly design software is becoming available for
designers to publish content in this standard without needing to know detailed programming
techniques, such as Adobe Systems' Digital Publishing Suite and Apple's iBooks
e-commerce
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Electronic commerce)
It has been suggested that Web commerce be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since
September 2015.
Part of a series on
E-commerce
Online goods and services
Digital distribution
E-books
Software
Streaming media
Retail services
Banking
DVD-by-mail
Flower delivery
Food ordering
Grocery
Pharmacy
Travel
Marketplace services
Advertising
Auctions
Comparison shopping
Social commerce
Trading communities
Wallet
Mobile commerce
Payment
Ticketing
Customer service
Call centre
Help desk
Live support software
E-procurement
Purchase-to-pay
Gathering and using demographic data through web contacts and social media
1Timeline
2Business application
3Governmental regulation
4Forms
5Global trends
8Social impact
9Distribution channels
11See also
12References
13Further reading
14External links
Timeline[edit]
A timeline for the development of e-commerce:
1971 or 1972: The ARPANET is used to arrange a cannabis sale between students at
the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
later described as "the seminal act of e-commerce" in John Markoff's book What the Dormouse
Said.[1]
1979: Michael Aldrich demonstrates the first online shopping system.[2]
1982: Minitel was introduced nationwide in France by France Tlcom and used for online
ordering.
Edison cylinder phonograph ca. 1899. The phonograph cylinder is a storage medium. The phonograph may be
considered a storage device.
On a reel-to-reel tape recorder (Sony TC-630), the recorder is data storage equipment and the magnetic tape is
a data storage medium.
A data storage device is a device for recording (storing) information (data). Recording can be done
using virtually any form of energy, spanning from manual muscle power in handwriting, to acoustic
vibrations in phonographic recording, to electromagnetic energy modulating magnetic
tape and optical discs.
A storage device may hold information, process information, or both. A device that only holds
information is a recording medium. Devices that process information (data storage equipment) may
either access a separate portable (removable) recording medium or a permanent component to
store and retrieve data.
Electronic data storage requires electrical power to store and retrieve that data. Most storage
devices that do not require vision and a brain to read data fall into this category. Electromagnetic
data may be stored in either an analog data or digital data format on a variety of media. This type of
data is considered to be electronically encoded data, whether it is electronically stored in
a semiconductor device, for it is certain that a semiconductor device was used to record it on its
medium. Most electronically processed data storage media (including some forms of computer data
storage) are considered permanent (non-volatile) storage, that is, the data will remain stored when
power is removed from the device. In contrast, most electronically stored information within most
types of semiconductor (computer chips) microcircuits are volatile memory, for it vanishes if power is
removed.
Except for barcodes, optical character recognition (OCR), and magnetic ink character
recognition (MICR) data, electronic data storage is easier to revise and may be more cost effective
than alternative methods due to smaller physical space requirements and the ease of replacing
(rewriting) data on the same medium.[2]
Contents
[hide]
2See also
3References
4Further reading
5External links
"ECAD" redirects here. For the Brazilian music licensing organization, see Escritrio Central de
Arrecadao e Distribuio. For other uses, see ECAD (disambiguation).
Electronic design automation (EDA), also referred to as electronic computer-aided
design (ECAD),[1] is a category of software tools for designing electronic systems such as integrated
circuits and printed circuit boards. The tools work together in a design flow that chip designers use to
design and analyze entire semiconductor chips. Since a modern semiconductor chip can have
billions of components, EDA tools are essential for their design.
This article describes EDA specifically with respect to integrated circuits.
Contents
[hide]
1History
o
1.1Early days
2Current status
3Software focuses
3.1Design
3.2Simulation
3.4Manufacturing preparation
4Companies
4.1Old companies
4.2Acquisitions
6See also
7References
History[edit]
Early days[edit]
Before EDA, integrated circuits were designed by hand, and manually laid out. Some advanced
shops used geometric software to generate the tapes for the Gerber photoplotter, but even those
copied digital recordings of mechanically drawn components. The process was fundamentally
graphic, with the translation from electronics to graphics done manually. The best known company
from this era was Calma, whose GDSII format survives.
By the mid-1970s, developers started to automate the design along with the drafting. The first
placement and routing (Place and route) tools were developed. The proceedings of the Design
Automation Conference cover much of this era.
The next era began about the time of the publication of "Introduction to VLSI Systems" by Carver
Mead and Lynn Conway in 1980. This ground breaking text advocated chip design with
programming languages that compiled to silicon. The immediate result was a considerable increase
in the complexity of the chips that could be designed, with improved access to design
verification tools that used logic simulation. Often the chips were easier to lay out and more likely to
function correctly, since their designs could be simulated more thoroughly prior to construction.
Although the languages and tools have evolved, this general approach of specifying the desired
behavior in a textual programming language and letting the tools derive the detailed physical design
remains the basis of digital IC design today.
The earliest EDA tools were produced academically. One of the most famous was the "Berkeley
VLSI Tools Tarball", a set of UNIX utilities used to design early VLSI systems. Still widely used are
the Espresso heuristic logic minimizer and Magic.
Another crucial development was the formation of MOSIS, a consortium of universities and
fabricators that developed an inexpensive way to train student chip designers by producing real
integrated circuits. The basic concept was to use reliable, low-cost, relatively low-technology IC
processes, and pack a large number of projects per wafer, with just a few copies of each projects'
chips. Cooperating fabricators either donated the processed wafers, or sold them at cost, seeing the
program as helpful to their own long-term growth.
In 1981, the U.S. Department of Defense began funding of VHDL as a hardware description
language. In 1986, Verilog, another popular high-level design language, was first introduced as a
hardware description language by Gateway Design Automation. Simulators quickly followed these
introductions, permitting direct simulation of chip designs: executable specifications. In a few more
years, back-ends were developed to perform logic synthesis.
3D PCB layout
Current status[edit]
Current digital flows are extremely modular (see Integrated circuit design, Design closure,
and Design flow (EDA)). The front ends produce standardized design descriptions that compile into
invocations of "cells,", without regard to the cell technology. Cells implement logic or other electronic
functions using a particular integrated circuit technology. Fabricators generally provide libraries of
components for their production processes, with simulation models that fit standard simulation tools.
Analog EDA tools are far less modular, since many more functions are required, they interact more
strongly, and the components are (in general) less ideal.
EDA for electronics has rapidly increased in importance with the continuous scaling
of semiconductor technology.[2] Some users are foundry operators, who operate the semiconductor
fabrication facilities, or "fabs", and design-service companies who use EDA software to evaluate an
incoming design for manufacturing readiness. EDA tools are also used for programming design
functionality into FPGAs.
Software focuses[edit]
Design[edit]
Main article: Design flow (EDA)
Logic synthesis translation of RTL design description (e.g. written in Verilog or VHDL) into
a discrete netlist of logic gates.
Schematic capture For standard cell digital, analog, RF-like Capture CIS in Orcad by
Cadence and ISIS in Proteus
Layout usually schematic-driven layout, like Layout in Orcad by Cadence, ARES in Proteus
Simulation[edit]
Main article: Electronic circuit simulation
Hardware emulation Use of special purpose hardware to emulate the logic of a proposed
design. Can sometimes be plugged into a system in place of a yet-to-be-built chip; this is
called in-circuit emulation.
Technology CAD simulate and analyze the underlying process technology. Electrical
properties of devices are derived directly from device physics.
Electromagnetic field solvers, or just field solvers, solve Maxwell's equations directly for
cases of interest in IC and PCB design. They are known for being slower but more accurate than
the layout extraction above.[where?]
Functional verification
Clock Domain Crossing Verification (CDC check): Similar to linting, but these checks/tools
specialize in detecting and reporting potential issues like data loss, meta-stability due to use of
multiple clock domains in the design.
Formal verification, also model checking: Attempts to prove, by mathematical methods, that
the system has certain desired properties, and that certain undesired effects (such as deadlock)
cannot occur.
Physical verification, PV: checking if a design is physically manufacturable, and that the
resulting chips will not have any function-preventing physical defects, and will meet original
specifications.
Hybrid vehicle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Sustainable energy
Energy conservation
Cogeneration
Green building
Heat pump
Low-carbon power
Microgeneration
Anaerobic digestion
Geothermal
Hydroelectricity
Solar
Tidal
Wind
Sustainable transport
Carbon-neutral fuel
Electric vehicle
Fossil fuel phase-out
Green vehicle
Plug-in hybrid
Environment portal
A hybrid vehicle uses two or more distinct types of power, such as internal combustion
engine+electric motor,[1] e.g. in diesel-electric trains using diesel engines and electricity from
overhead lines, and submarines that use diesels when surfaced and batteries when submerged.
Other means to store energy include pressurized fluid, in hydraulic hybrids.
Contents
[hide]
1Power
2Vehicle type
o
2.2Heavy vehicles
3Engine type
o
4.1Parallel hybrid
4.4Series hybrid
5Environmental issues
o
5.4Charging
9Marketing
10Adoption rate
12See also
13References
14External links
Power[edit]
Power sources for hybrid vehicles include:
Electric batteries/capacitors
Overhead electricity
Hydraulic accumulator
Hydrogen
Flywheel
Solar
Wind
Vehicle type[edit]
In a parallel hybrid bicycle human and motor torques are mechanically coupled at the
pedal or one of the wheels, e.g. using a hub motor, a roller pressing onto a tire, or a connection
to a wheel using a transmission element. Most motorized bicycles, mopeds are of this type.[2]
In a series hybrid bicycle (SHB) (a kind of chainless bicycle) the user pedals a generator,
charging a battery or feeding the motor, which delivers all of the torque required. They are
commercially available, being simple in theory and manufacturing. [3]
The first published prototype of an SHB is by Augustus Kinzel (US Patent 3'884'317) in 1975. In
1994 Bernie Macdonalds conceived the Electrilite[4] SHB with power electronics allowing regenerative
braking and pedaling while stationary. In 1995 Thomas Muller designed and built a "Fahrrad mit
elektromagnetischem Antrieb" for his 1995 diploma thesis. In 1996 Jrg Blatter and Andreas Fuchs
of Berne University of Applied Sciences built an SHB and in 1998 modified a Leitra tricycle
(European patent EP 1165188). Until 2005 they built several prototype
SH tricycles and quadricycles.[5] In 1999 Harald Kutzke described an "active bicycle": the aim is to
approach the ideal bicycle weighing nothing and having no drag by electronic compensation.
A SHEPB prototype made by David Kitson in Australia[6] in 2014 used a lightweight brushless DC
electric motor from an aerial drone and small hand-tool sized internal combustion engine, and a 3D
printed drive system an