1

General Chemistry
Common valencies:
Name
Acetate
Aluminate
Ammonium
Arsenate
Arsenite
Bicarbonate
Bisulphate
Borate
Carbide
Carbonate
Chlorate
Chromate
Cyanide
Dichromate
Ferricyanide
Ferrocyanide
Hydride
Hydrogen
Hydroxide
Hypochlorite
Manganate
Mercurous
Meta-aluminate
Nitrate
Nitride
Nitrite
Oxalate
Oxide
Permanganate
Peroxide
Phosphate
Phosphide
Phosphite
Silicate
Stannate
Sulphate
Sulphide
Sulphite
Thiosulphate
Zincate

Symbol Valency
Name
Symbol Valency
CH3COO
-1
Aluminium
Al
+3
AlO3
-3
Antimony
Sb
+3
NH4
+1
Auric
Au
+3
AsO4
-3
Aurous
Au
+1
AsO3
-3
Barium
Ba
+2
HCO3
-1
Berilium
Be
+2
HSO4
-1
Bismuth
Bi
+3
BO3
-3
Boron
B
+3
C
-4
Bromide
Br
-1
CO3
-2
Cadmium
Cd
+2
ClO3
-1
Calcium
Ca
+2
CrO4
-2
Chloride
Cl
-1
CN
-1
Chromium
Cr
+3
Cr2O7
-2
Cobalt
Co
+2
Fe(CN)6
-3
Cupric
Cu
+2
Fe(CN)6
-4
Cuprous
Cu
+1
H
-1
Ferric
Fe
+3
H
+1
Ferrous
Fe
+2
HO
-1
Fluoride
F
-1
ClO
-1
Hypobromite
BrO
-1
MnO4
-2
Iodate
IO3
-1
Hg2
+2
Iodide
I
-1
AlO2
-1
Lithium
Li
+1
NO3
-1
Magnesium
Mg
+2
N
-3
Manganic
Mn
+4
NO2
-1
Manganous
Mn
+2
C2O4
-2
Mercuric
Hg
+2
O
-2
Nickel
Ni
+2
MnO4
-1
Platinic
Pt
+4
O2
-2
Platinous
Pt
+2
PO4
-3
Plumbic
Pb
+4
P
-3
Plumbous
Pb
+2
HPO3
-2
Potassium
K
+1
SiO3
-2
Silicon
Si
+4
SnO3
-2
Silver/Argentum
Ag
+1
SO4
-2
Sodium
Na
+1
S
-2
Stannic
Sn
+4
SO3
-2
Stannous
Sn
+2
S2O3
-2
Strontium
Sr
+2
ZnO2
-2
Zinc
Zn
+2

2
Common names for
Sulphuric acid
Boric acid
Quick lime
Litharge
Vinegar
Silica (Sand)
Borax
Carbonic acid
Sulphurous acid
Oleum
Hydrochloric acid
Lime water
Milk of lime
(1)
(2)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(3)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

some chemicals:
H2SO4
Nitric Acid
HNO3
Phosphoric acid
H3PO4
H3BO3
Caustic soda
NaOH
Caustic potash
KOH
CaO
Slaked lime
Ca(OH)2(solid) Red lead
Pb3O4
PbO
Washing soda
Na2CO310H2O Baking soda
NaHCO3
CH3COOH Salt ammoniac
NH4Cl
Lime stone (Marble) CaCO3
SiO2
Milk of magnesia Mg(OH)2
Common/table salt NaCl
Na2B4O7 Laughing gas
N 2O
Nitre
KNO3
H2CO3 (CO2 dissolved in water)
H2SO3 (SO2 dissolved in water)
H2S2O7 (SO3 dissolved in sulphuric acid)
HCl (a solution of HCl gas in water)
Ca(OH)2 (aqueous solution containing dissolved calcium hydroxide)
Ca(OH)2 (a milky suspension in water which contains calcium hydroxide)
Practical Chemistry
2+
Flame test: Ca brick red, K1+ Lilac, Na1+ golden yellow, Cu2+ green.
Effect of heat on certain chemicals:
Ammonium Chloride no residue 2 colourless gases (NH3 & HCl) with white fume.
Ammonium Nitrate no residue 2 colourless gases (N2O & H2O).
Ammonium Nitrite no residue 2 colourless gases (N2 & H2O).
(Na/K) Nitrate white residue (Na/K NO2) 1 colourless gas (O2).
Ca(NO3)2 (colourless) white residue (CaO) 2 gases reddish brown (NO2) &
colourless (O2).
Zn Nitrate (colourless) yellow when hot, white when cold residue (ZnO) 2 gases
reddish brown (NO2) & colourless (O2).
Pb Nitrate (colourless) yellow residue (PbO) 2 gases reddish brown (NO2) &
colourless (O2).
Cu Nitrate (green) black residue (CuO) 2 gases reddish brown (NO2) & colourless
(O2).
Cu Carbonate (green) black residue (CuO) 1 colourless gas (CO2).
(Na/K) Carbonate (white) no effect of heat only water vapour will come out due to
water of crystallisation.
Ammonium di-chromate (Orange) green residue (Cr2O3) 2 colourless gases N2
and H2O.
Copper Sulphate (blue) white residue one colourless gas (H2O)
Test for gases:
H2: colourless, odourless, neutral, burns with pop sound.
O2: colourless, odourless, neutral, turns alkaline pyrogallol solution to brown.
Cl2: greenish yellow, pungent odour, acidic, gives white precipitate with silver nitrate
and turns starch iodide paper blue-black.
HCl: colourless (fumes in air), pungent odour, acidic, white fume with NH4OH.
CO2: colourless, odourless, comes out with brisk effervescence slightly acidic, turns
lime water milky but no effect on acidic KMnO4 or acidic K2Cr2O7 solution.
NO2: reddish brown, pungent, acidic, turns starch iodide paper brown.
H2O: colourless, odourless, neutral, turns white anhydrous copper sulphate to blue
and blue cobalt chloride paper to pink.
SO2: colourless, choking smell, acidic, turns lime water milky, turns acidic KMnO4
solution from pink to colourless and acidic K2Cr2O7 solution from orange to clear
green.

3
(i) H2S: colourless, rotten egg smell, acidic, gives black precipitate with lead acetate
solution.
(j) NH3: colourless, pungent, basic, gives white fumes with HCl and turns Nesser's
reagent brown.
Note:
Gases which can be oxidized (HCl, SO2 and H2S) turn acidic KMnO4 (pink to
colourless) and K2Cr2O7 solutions (orange to green) but H2S make the solutions dirty
because of formation of Sulphur.
(4)
Tests for Acids:
(a) Sour in taste.
(b) Turn blue litmus to red.
(c) Give: CO2 with carbonates/bi-carbonates; SO2 with sulphites/bi-sulphites; H2S with
sulphides; NO2 with nitrites.
(5)
Tests for Bases/Alkalis:
(a) Bitter in taste and slippery to touch.
(b) Turn red litmus to blue.
(c) Give Ammonia with ammonium chloride.
Note:
Acidic or alkaline nature of solution can be determined by pH of solution:
pH: 0 to 7 (acidic), 7 (neutral) and 7 to 14 (alkaline).
(6)
Reactions of NaOH and NH4OH with salt solutions:
Cation
Effect of addition of NaOH
Effect of addition of NH4OH
present
drops
excess
drops
excess
Mg2+
dull white
insoluble
dull white
insoluble
Fe2+
dirty green
insoluble
dirty green
insoluble
Fe3+
reddish brown
insoluble
reddish brown
insoluble
2+
Cu
pale blue
insoluble
pale blue
soluble (deep blue)
Zn2+
gelatinous white soluble (colourless) gelatinous white soluble (colourless)
Pb2+
chalky white soluble (colourless) chalky white
insoluble
Al3+
gelatinous white soluble (colourless) gelatinous white
insoluble
Ca2+
milky white
insoluble
no effect
no effect
Reactions: Reaction of basic radicals with NaOH and NH4OH:
(i) Mg2+; MgCl2 + 2NaOH Mg(OH)2 (dull white) + 2NaCl
MgCl2 + 2NH4OH Mg(OH)2 (dull white) + 2NH4Cl
(ii) Fe2+; FeSO4 + 2NaOH Fe(OH)2 (dirty green) + Na2SO4
FeSO4 + 2NH4OH Fe(OH)2 (dirty green) + (NH4)2SO4
3+
(iii) Fe ; FeCl3 + 3NaOH Fe(OH)3 (reddish brown) + 3NaCl
FeCl3 + 3NH4OH Fe(OH)3 (reddish brown) + 3(NH4)Cl
2+
(iv) Cu ; CuSO4 + 2NaOH Cu(OH)2 (pale blue) + Na2SO4
CuSO4 + 2NH4OH Cu(OH)2 (pale blue) + (NH4)2SO4
Cu(OH)2 + 2NH4OH + (NH4)2SO4 [Cu(NH3)4]SO4 (inky blue) + 4H2O
(v) Zn2+; ZnSO4 + 2NaOH Zn(OH)2 (gelatinous white) + Na2SO4
Zn(OH)2 + 2NaOH Na2ZnO2 (colourless) + 2H2O
ZnSO4 + 2NH4OH Zn(OH)2 (gelatinous white) + (NH4)2SO4
Zn(OH)2 + 2NH4OH + (NH4)2SO4 [Zn(NH3)4]SO4 (colourless) + 4H2O
2+
(vi) Pb ; Pb(NO3)2 + 2NaOH Pb(OH)2 (chalky white) + 2NaNO3
Pb(OH)2 + 2NaOH Na2PbO2 (colourless) + 2H2O
Pb(NO3)2 + 2NH4OH Pb(OH)2 (chalky white) + 2NH4NO3
(vii) Al3+; Al(NO3)3 + 3NaOH Al(OH)3 (gelatinous white) + 3NaNO3
Al(OH)3 + NaOH NaAlO2 (colourless) + 2H2O
Al(NO3)3 + 3NH4OH Al(OH)3 (chalky white) + 3NH4NO3
2+
(viii) Ca ; Ca(NO3)2 + 2NaOH Ca(OH)2 (milky white) + 2NaNO3

4
(1)

Note:
(2)
(a)

(b)

(3)

(a)
(b)

(4)

(a)

(b)
(i)
(ii)

Periodic Table
Mendeleev's Periodic Law: The physical and chemical properties of the elements are
periodic functions of their atomic masses.
Modern Periodic Law: The physical and chemical properties of the elements are
periodic functions of their atomic numbers.
Modern periodic law is based on Mosley's Experiment. Atomic number equals number
of protons in the nucleus of an atom of the element.
Features of periodic table:
There are 7 horizontal rows known as periods; numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4... 7. The 1st
period is the shortest period (2 elements- H and He), the 2nd and 3rd periods are
short periods (8 elements each- Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Ne and Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl,
Ar). 4th and 5th periods are long periods (18 elements each). 6th Period is the
longest period (32 elements) and 7th period is incomplete (23 elements).
There are 18 vertical columns known as groups; numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4... 18.
Groups
General Name
1
Alkali metal (react with water to form alkaline solution)
2
Alkaline earth metals (salts are alkaline in nature)
17
Halogens (extracted from sea)
18
Noble gases (least reactive, valence shell complete)
1, 2, 13, 14, 15, Normal / Representative elements (only valence shell
16, 17
incomplete)
3, 4, 5... 12
Transitions Elements (valence shell and one previous shell are
incomplete)
La and Ac
Inner Transition Elements (valence shell and two previous
shells are incomplete)
Metalloids: Elements with characteristics between metallic and non-metallic
elements: B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po.
Diagonal relationship: Elements of 2nd period show properties similar to the
elements of 3rd period which are placed diagonally.
Li
Be
B
C
Na
Mg
Al
Si
Periodic Properties: Variation of properties is due to 3 factors: (i) charge on nucleus,
(ii) number of shells (distance of last shell from nucleus) and (iii) number of
electrons in the last shell.
While moving across a period the number of shells remains same but charge on
nucleus keeps on increasing by 1 unit this increases the attractive force between
nucleus and electrons. On moving down the group (i) and (ii) change; but effect of
change of (ii) dominates due to which attractive force between electrons and the
nucleus decreases.
Property
Change across a period Change down the group
Atomic size
Decreases
Increases
Ionization Energy
Increases
Decreases
Electron Affinity
Increases
Decreases
Electro-negativity
Increases
Decreases
Non-metallic Character Increases
Decreases
Metallic Character
Decreases
Increases
Definitions:
Atomic size: Distance from centre of nucleus to the valence shell.
Ionization Energy: The amount of energy required to remove a valence electron
from an isolated gaseous atom.

5
(iii) Electron Affinity: The amount of energy released when an electron is added to the
valence shell of an isolated gaseous atom.
(iv) Electro-negativity: The tendency of an atom to attract the shared pair of electrons of
a covalent bond towards itself.
(v) Metallic character: Tendency to form cation.
(vi) Non-metallic character: Tendency to form anion.
Note:
There are 2 liquids- Br (red), Hg (silvery); 11 gases and rest solids.
Chemical Bonding
(1)
Kossel and Lewis Approach: To form a chemical bond atoms lose, gain or share
electrons in order to attain stable noble gas electronic configuration (8 valence
electrons/Octet rule).
Note:
H and Li cannot form octet so they form duplet. Metals have 1/2/3 electrons in the
valence shell while non-metals have 4/5/6/7 electrons in their valence shell.
(2)
Electrovalent/Ionic bond: Formed between metals (donor) and non-metals
(acceptor) by transfer of electrons. Metals form cations while non-metals form
anions. The force between ions is strong electrostatic force and is non-directional
due to which ions form a lattice and have crystalline structure.
Properties:
(a) Crystalline solids (strong force and lattice structure).
(b) High m.p. and b.p. (strong force).
(c) Hard and brittle (strong force and lattice structure).
(d) Do not show stereoisomerism (non directional nature).
(e) Soluble in water/polar solvents (force between ions become weak due to high dielectric constant of H2O) but insoluble in non-polar solvents.
(f) In solid state ions are fixed in the lattice and are not free to move but in aqueous
solution or in molten state ions become free and can conduct electricity
(Electrolytes).
(g) Give fast ionic reactions (already exist in broken state (as ions) in the aqueous
solution).
(3)
Covalent bond: Formed between non-metals and non-metals by sharing of electrons.
The forces between molecules are weak forces and are directional.
Properties:
(a) May exist as solid, liquid or gas (weak force).
(b) Low m.p. and b.p. (weak force)
(c) Not hard but brittle (weak force but directional).
(d) Non-electrolyte (do not contain ions).
(e) Show stereoisomerism (directional nature).
(f) Give slow molecular reactions.
(g) Solubility: Soluble in non-polar solvents but insoluble in polar solvents.
Note:
The covalent molecules / bond is of two types: polar / non-polar. When
electronegativities of the atoms differ then shared pair of electrons get shifted
slightly towards the higher electronegative atom and it acquires partial negative
charge and the other atom acquires partial positive charge. Overall the molecule
acquires a slight ionic character hence shows properties of electrovalent compounds
(solubility in water etc...). Water itself is polar. Example- HCl.
(4)
Coordinate bond: Formed between non-metals and non-metals by sharing of
electrons but the shared pair comes from only one atom. The forces between
molecules are weak forces and are directional. (It is a form of covalent bond)

(5)

6
Electron dot structure: NaCl, MgCl2, CaO, H2, Cl2, N2, H2O, NH3, CCl4, CH4, NH4Cl,
H3O+.
(i) Formation of NaCl:

(ii) Formation of MgCl2:

(iii) Formation of CaO:

(iv) Formation of H2:

(v) Formation of Cl2:

(vi) Formation of N2:

(vii) Formation of H2O:

(viii) Formation of NH3:

(ix) Structure of CCl4:

(x) Structure of CH4:

(xi) Formation of NH4+:

(xii) Formation of H3O+:

(1)

Acids, Bases and Salts

Acids: Compounds which when dissolved in water give H3O+ as the only cation.
HA + H2O H3O+ + A-.
(A) Preparation of Acids:
(a) Direct combination: H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)
(b) Dissolving non-metallic oxides in water:
(i) CO2 + H2O H2CO3 (ii) SO3 + H2O H2SO4 (iii) P2O5 + 3H2O 2H3PO4
(c) Displacement method: Strong and less volatile acids displace weak and more volatile
acids from there salts.
200C
KHSO4 + HNO3
(i) KNO3 + H2SO4
200C

NaHSO4 + HCl
(ii) NaCl + H2SO4
(d) Oxidation of non-metals gives acidic oxides, which dissolve in water to give acids:
(i) S + 6HNO3 H2SO4 + 6NO2 + 2H2O

7
Note:

Above reaction can be understood as:

Conc. nitric acid breaks as:

2HNO3 H2O 2NO2 O -------(1)

O will react with S

S 3O SO3 -------(2)

SO3 will react with water

SO3 H2O H2SO4 -----------(3)

(1) x 3 + (2) + (3)

6HNO3 3H2O 6NO2 3O ------(4)

S + 6HNO3 H2SO4 + 6NO2 + 2H2O

(B) Properties of Acids:
(a) All acids react with bases (Metallic oxides or hydroxides) to give salt and water:
(i) CuO (black) + H2SO4 CuSO4 (blue) + H2O
(ii) NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
(iii) PbO + 2HNO3 Pb(NO3)2 + H2O
(iv) Fe(OH)2 + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2O
(v) NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O
(vi) Cu(OH)2 + H2SO4 CuSO4 + 2H2O
(b) Strong and less volatile acids when react with salt; displace weak and volatile acids:
200C
NaHSO4 + HCl,
(i) NaCl + H2SO4
200C
Na2SO4 + 2HCl
(ii) 2NaCl + H2SO4
200C
NaHSO4 + HNO3
(iii) NaNO3 + H2SO4
200C

Na2SO4 + 2HNO3
(iv) 2NaNO3 + H2SO4
(v) Na2CO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2
(vi) 2NaHCO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2
(vii) Na2SO3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2O + SO2
(viii) NaHSO3 + HCl NaCl + H2O + SO2
(ix) FeS/Zns + 2HCl FeCl2/ZnCl2 + H2S
(c) Metals which are above hydrogen in reactivity series react with acids to give
hydrogen:
(i) Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2
Note:
HCl and dil. H2SO4 give above reaction but Nitric acid is a good oxidizing agent and
doesn't give hydrogen when react with metals; only Mg and Mn react with cold and
very dilute nitric acid to give hydrogen.
(2)
Bases: Compounds which on reaction with acids form salt and water. (Water soluble
bases are known as Alkalis they produce [OH-] ions as the only negative ions).
(3)
Classification:
(a) Strong Acids/Bases: Which dissociate completely. Example: HCl, H2SO4, HNO3 / KOH,
NaOH.
(b) Weak Acids/Bases: Which dissociate partially. Example: CH3COOH, H2CO3 / NH4OH.
(c) Mono basic/acidic: Have one replaceable H+/OH-. Example: HCl, HNO3 / NaOH, KOH.
(d) Di basic/acidic: Have two replaceable H+/OH-. Example: H2SO4 / Ca(OH)2.
(e) Tri basic/acidic: Have three replaceable H+/OH-. Example: H3PO4 / Al(OH)3.
Note:
H3PO3 is a dibasic acid as it has only two replaceable H atoms.
(4)
Properties of bases:
(a) React with acids to give salt and water.
(b) Strong bases when react with metallic salts displace weak base.
(c) Strong bases displace ammonia (weak base) from ammonium salts.
(d) Some metals when heated with strong bases give hydrogen:
(i) Zn + 2NaOH Na2ZnO2 (sodium zincate) + H2

8
(ii) Zn + 2KOH K2ZnO2 (potassium zincate) + H2
(iii) Pb + 2NaOH Na2PbO2(sodium plumbate) + H2
(iv) Pb + 2KOH K2PbO2 (potassium plumbate) + H2
(v) 2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O 2NaAlO2 (sodium meta aluminate) + 3H2
(vi) Al + 2KOH + 2H2O 2KAlO2 (potassium meta aluminate) + 3H2
(f) Concentrated and dilute: Acids or bases are usually used as their aqueous solutions,
when water is present in relatively higher percentage than acid/base then it is
known as dil. otherwise conc.
Reactions: Preparation of bases/alkali (water soluble bases):
(a) by heating active metals in Oxygen: 4Na + O2 2Na2O
(b) by dissolving metallic oxides in water: K2O + H2O 2KOH
(c) by reaction of active metals with cold water/hot water/steam: 2K + H2O 2KOH
(d) by reaction of salt with strong bases:
(i) AlCl3 + 3NaOH 3NaCl + Al(OH)3
(ii) FeSO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + Fe(OH)2
(iii) CuCl2 + 2NaOH 2NaCl + Cu(OH)2
(iv) FeCl3 + 3NaOH 3NaCl + Fe(OH)3
(v) NH4Cl + NaOH NaCl + H2O + NH3
(vi) 2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 CaCl2 + H2O + NH3
(e) by heating salts:

(i) ZnCO3
ZnO + CO2 (ii) 2Pb(NO3)2
2PbO + 4NO2 + O2
(5)
Types of salts:
(a) Acidic: Which produce H3O+/H+ ion in their aqueos solution. (NaHSO4, NaH2PO4,
Na2HPO4)
(b) Basic: Which produce OH ion in their aqueous solution. (Mg(OH)Cl, Cu(OH)NO3)
(c) Normal: Which produce only one metallic cation and only one anion. (NaCl, Na2SO4,
KNO3, CH3COONa, NH4Cl, Na3PO4)
(d) Double: Which produce two or more metallic cations and two or more anions.
(FeSO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2O)
(e) Complex: Which produce one complex ion. (Na[Ag(CN)2], K4[Fe(CN)6])
(f) Mixed: Which produce two or more cations or two or more anions. (Na2KPO4,
Ca(OCl)Cl)
(6)
Preparation of salts:
(a) Combination: NaCl, FeCl3, PbS, FeS, ZnS, HgS, AlCl3.
(b) Double decomposition: AgCl, BaSO4, PbCl2, CuS, CaCO3, ZnCO3.
(c) Simple displacement method: Metal + Acid: MgCl2, ZnSO4, FeSO4, FeCl2.
(d) Neutralization: Insoluble base + Acid: Pb(NO3)2, CuSO4.
(e) Titration: Alkali + Acid: Na2SO4, KNO3, NH4Cl, NaCl.
(f) Carbonate + CO2: NaHCO3.
Reactions:
(i) 2NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O (titration)
(ii) CuO + H2SO4 CuSO4 + H2O (Neutralization)
(iii) Cu(OH)2 + H2SO4 CuSO4 + 2H2O (Neutralization)
(iv) Fe + H2SO4 FeSO4 + H2 (simple displacement)
(v) Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2 (simple displacement)
(vi) Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2 (simple displacement)
(vii) 2Fe (red hot) + 3Cl2 2FeCl3 (combination)

(viii) Zn + S

ZnS (combination)

Note:

(7)
(a)
(b)

(8)

(c)
(a)
(b)

(c)
Note:
(d)

(9)

(9)
(i)
(1)

(ix) Pb(NO3)2 + 2NaCl PbCl2 + 2NaNO3 (double decomposition)

(x) CaCl2 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2NaCl (double decomposition)
PbSO4 cannot be prepared directly from PbO/Pb(OH)2 + H2SO4, because PbSO4 so
formed is insoluble in water and forms a layer over PbO/Pb(OH)2 thus prevents
further reaction. Hence we follow: PbO/Pb(OH)2 + HNO3 Pb(NO3)2 (Soluble) +
Na2SO4 PbSO4.
Amphoteric oxides and hydroxides dissolve in NaOH to produce salts:
(i) ZnO + 2NaOH Na2ZnO2 + H2O
(ii) Zn(OH)2 + 2NaOH Na2ZnO2 + 2H2O
(iii) PbO + 2NaOH Na2PbO2 + H2O
(iv) Pb(OH)2 + 2NaOH Na2PbO2 + 2H2O
(v) Al2O3 + 2NaOH 2NaAlO2 + H2O (vi) Al(OH)3 + KOH KAlO2 + 2H2O
Solubility in water:
All salts of Na+/K+/NH4+ are soluble.
All nitrates/nitrites/bicarbonates/chlorides (except of Pb, Ag, and Hg. PbCl2 is soluble
in hot H2O)/sulphates (except Pb, Ba, Ca and Sr) are soluble.
All sulphides/carbonates/hydroxides/phosphates/oxides are insoluble.
Water of crystallization: Water molecules present in loose chemical combination with
the molecule of a salt. e.g. CuSO4.5H2O.
Efflorescence: Loss of water of crystallization when hydrated salt is exposed to
atmosphere. During the process the crystal changes to powder form. (Na2CO3.10H2O
washing soda)
Deliquescence: Salts which absorb moisture from atmosphere and dissolves in it to
become moist and may start flowing. Example: MgCl2, ZnCl2, FeCl3, CaCl2, Cu(NO3)2.
Table salt NaCl is not deliquescent but due to impurity of MgCl2 and ZnCl2 it absorbs
moisture and become moist.
Hygroscopic: Substances which absorb moisture from atmosphere but do not
dissolves in it. Example: Conc. H2SO4, P2O5, CaO, Silica gel. They are used as drying
agent.
Uses of some common acids:
Acids
Use
Acids Use
Tartaric
baking powder
Boric
eye wash / antiseptic
Carbonic soft drinks
Oxalic ink stain remover
Acetic
as vinegar
Citric food preservative
Benzoic
food preservative Nitric toilet cleaner
Uses of some common bases/Alkali:
NaOH/KOH in making soap. (ii) Mg(OH)2 in antacids. (iii) Ca(OH)2 in white washing.
Mole Concept and Stochiometry
1 mole
= 22.4 L = 22400 ml (cm3) of a gas at STP.
= Molecular mass of a compound.
= 6.022 x 1023 particles.
Number of moles, n =

(2)

(3)

mass
volume (in liter) number of particles

molecular mass
22.4
6.022 1023

(a) Avogadro's Law: At same temperature and pressure equal volumes of all the gases
contain equal number of molecules.
(b) Gay Lussac's Law: Gases react in simple ratio of their volumes and if the product is
also a gas then its volume will also be in simple ratio. (This is in accordance with
Avogadro's Law).
Numerical:
(a) There is 5.5 g of CO2 (C = 12, O = 16) in a vessel at STP. Find:
(i) Volume of CO2.
(ii) Number of molecules in CO2.

10
(iii) Total number of electrons in CO2.
(iv) Total number of oxygen atoms in CO2.
Answers:
Molecular mass of CO2 = 12 + 2 x 16 = 44 g/mol
(i) volume = 5.5 22.4 = 2.8 L
44

23
(ii) number of molecules = 5.5 6.022 10 7.5275 1022

44

(iii) number of electrons = 7.5275 x 1022 x 22 = 1.65605 x 1024

(each C atom has 6 electrons while each O atom has 8 electrons, total 22)
(iv) number of oxygen atoms = 2 x 7.5275 x 1022 = 1.5055 x 1023
(each CO2 molecule contains two oxygen atoms and one carbon atom)
(b) 120 ml ammonia reacts with 50 ml chlorine at STP according to the following
reaction:
8NH3 + 3Cl2 6NH4Cl(s) + N2(g)
Find:
(i) Mass of NH4Cl produced
(ii) Volume of N2 (at STP) produced.
Answer: According to Gay Lussac's law, 8 ml of ammonia (NH3) reacts with 3 ml of chlorine
(Cl2), hence 120 ml of NH3 requires 120 3 45ml of Cl2 which is present in excess
8

(50 ml). Therefore ammonia is a limiting reagent (present in lesser amount).

(i) Mass of NH4Cl = 120 53.5 0.2866 g (MNH4Cl = 14 + 4 x 1 + 35.5 = 53.5).
22400

(ii) Volume of N2 produced = 120 1 = 15 ml. (NH3 : N2 = 8 : 1)

8

Note:
(c)

Answer:

(d)

Answer:

All calculations should be done by using given data of limiting reagent and
stochiometric coefficients taken from the given reaction)
100 ml methane was ignited with 300 ml oxygen at 1000C according to the following
reaction: CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g). Find composition of the resulting
mixture.
According to Gay Lussac's law, 1 ml of methane (CH4) reacts with 2 ml of oxygen
(O2) to give 1 ml of CO2 and 2 ml of H2O, hence 100 ml of CH4 requires 200 ml of O2
which is present in excess. Therefore CH4 is the limiting reagent. Hence:
volume of CH4 used = 100 ml, remaining = 0 ml (100 - 100),
volume of O2 used = 200 ml, remaining = 100 ml (300 - 200),
volume of CO2 produced = 100 ml,
volume of H2O produced = 200 ml.
Composition of mixture: CH4 = 0 ml, O2 = 100 ml, CO2 = 100 ml, H2O = 100 ml.
10 g calcium carbonate reacts with 12 g sulphuric acid according to the following
reaction: CaCO3 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + H2O. Find mass of CaSO4 produced.
[Ca=40, C=12, H=1, O=16, S=32, N=14, Cl=35.5]
Molecular mass of CaCO3 = 100 g/mol and of H2SO4 = 98 g/mol.
According to reaction 100 g of CaCO3 reacts with 98 g of H2SO4, hence 10 g CaCO3
will require 9.8 g of H2SO4 which is present in excess (12 g). Therefore CaCO3 is the
limiting reagent.
Mass of CaSO4 produced = 10 136 13.6 g
100

(CaSO4 = 136 g/mol)

(e) A gaseous hydrocarbon contains 82.76% of carbon, if its vapour density is 29 then
find its empirical and molecular formula.
Answer: Percentage of hydrogen in the hydrocarbon = 100 - 82.76 = 17.24%.

11
Elements Percentage Molecular mass

Note:

(1)
(a)
(b)
Note:

(c)
(d)
(e)

(f)
(g)

(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
Note:
(2)

82.76

12

17.24

Relative ratio
of moles

Simple ratio
of moles

82.76
6.8967
12
17.24
17.24
1

6.8967
1 2 2
6.8967
17.24
2.499 2.5 2 5
6.8967

Simple ratio should be a natural number hence 1 and 2.5 are multiplied by 2.
Empirical formula = C2H5. (empirical formula mass = 12 x 2 + 1 x 5 = 29)
Molecular mass = 2 x vapour density = 2 x 29 = 58
molecular mass
58
n=

2
empirical formula mass 29
Molecular formula = (empirical formula)n = (C2H5)2 = C4H10.
Electrolysis
Definitions:
Electrical conductors: The substances which allow the passage of electric current.
Insulators: The substances which do not allow the passage of electric current.
Current can pass through a substance either by movement of electrons or by
movement of ions. Movement of electrons takes place in metals while movement of
ions take place in electrolytes.
Electrolytes: Substances which conduct electricity either in the fused (molten) state
or in aqueous solution.
Strong electrolytes: Which dissociate almost completely in solution and solution mainly
contains ions. Example: HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, NaOH, KOH, NaCl, KCl, KBr, NH4Cl.
Weak electrolytes: Which dissociate feebly in solution and solution contains ions and
molecules both. Example: HCN, H2CO3, CH3COOH, NH4OH, Ca(OH)2, Na2CO3,
NaHCO3, CH3COONH4.
Non-electrolyte: Which do not dissociate in solution and solution contains only
molecules. Example: Acetone, Carbon tetra chloride, Sugar, Glucose, Starch.
Electrolysis: The chemical reaction which takes place when current is passed through
an electrolyte. In electrolysis a chemical change takes place when current is passed
but there is no chemical change when current is passes through a metal.
Electrolytic cell/Voltameter: Device in which electrolysis takes place.
Electrodes: Rods used to pass current through electrolyte.
Cathode: The electrode at which reduction takes place, it is joined to negative
terminal of the battery.
Anode: The electrode at which oxidation takes place, it is joined to positive terminal
of the battery.
Electrodes which participate in the electrolytic reaction are called active electrodes
(eg.- copper), if not then are called passive electrodes (eg.- platinum and graphite).
Electrolytic reactions:
Reaction at
Electrolyte
Ions present
Reaction at Anode
Cathode
+
acidified water
H , OH ,
4OH- 2H2O + O2 + 4e- 4H+ + 4e- 2H2
H2O + H2SO4
SO42acidified copper
H+, Cu2+,
Cu Cu2+ + 2e- (Cu
Cu2+ + 2e- Cu
2sulphate solution
OH , SO4
anode)
acidified copper
H+, Cu2+,
4OH- 2H2O + O2+ 4e2Cu2+ + 4e- 2Cu
sulphate solution
OH-, SO42(C/Pt anode)
molten lead bromide
Pb2+, Br2Br- Br2 + 2ePb2+ + 2e- Pb

Note:

(3)
(a)
Note:

Note:
(b)
Note:
(c)

Note:

Note:

(d)

12
In case of 2nd reaction the blue colour of solution does not fade because
concentration of Cu2+ ions remains constant while in 3rd reaction blue colour fades
away as the concentration of cu2+ ions keep on decreasing; cathode gets a golden
red coating of Cu.
In case of 4th reaction reddish liquid/vapour of Br2 comes out at anode and a silvery
metal Pb get deposited at cathode.
Applications:
Electroplating: Coating an inferior (more reactive) metal with a superior (less
reactive - Au/Ni/Ag) metal.
To get a smooth, long lasting and even coating small amount of current should be
passed for longer time and electrolyte should be weak.
Silver Na[Ag(CN)2] instead of AgNO3 (anode-Ag), Nickel NiSO4 (anode-Ni).
Metal getting plated should always be placed at cathode.
Electro refining: Example Cu.
Anode: Impure copper, Cathode: Pure copper, Electrolyte: CuSO4 (aq)
In case of CuSO4 (aq) or NiSO4 (aq) few drops of dil H2SO4 are added to prevent
hydrolysis.
Electrolytic extraction of Metals: Example- Al
Electrolyte: Fused mixture of Alumina (Al2O3), Cryolite (Na3AlF6) and fluorspar
(CaF2).
Cryolite and fluorspar are added to alumina to make it a good conductor and to
lower down the m.p. from 950C to 209C.
Anode (graphite rods): O2- 2e- + O2; C(s) + O2(g) CO2.
Cathode (carbon lining): Al3+ + 3e- Al.
(i) A layer of carbon powder is sprinkled over the fused mixture to prevent heat loss
and burning of carbon anodes.
(ii) Oxygen produced at anode burn the graphite anodes and they need to be
changed frequently that's why many graphite rods are used instead of one.
Diagram of metallurgy of Aluminium (Hall Heroult Process):

(e) Purification of aluminium by Hoopes process:

13
Metallurgy
(1) (a) Properties of metals: Metals are- solid (Hg), malleable (Zn,Hg), ductile (Zn),
lustrous, with high m.p. & b.p. (Na, K, Hg), elastic (Zn), hard (Na, K, Hg, Pb),
sonorous (Na, K) highly dense (Na, K, Ca) and good conductor of heat & electricity
(W). Note: Exceptions are in ().
(b) Non metals do not show above properties but exceptions are: Lustre- graphite & I,
m.p. & b.p.- C & Si, density- diamond, ductility & malleability- carbon fibre,
conductivity- graphite.
(2) (a) Metallic oxides are either basic or amphoteric while non metallic oxides are either
acidic or neutral; metals are good reducing agents (donors of electrons) while non
metals are good oxidising agents (acceptors of electrons).
(3)
Metal activity series: K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Ni, Sn, Pb, H, Cu, Hg, Ag, Pt, Au.
(4)
Ores: The minerals from which a metal can be extracted profitably.
(a) Iron- Haematite (Fe2O3), Magnetite (Fe2O3.FeO), Iron pyrites (FeS).
(b) Aluminium- Bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O), Cryolite (Na3AlF6).
(c) Calcium- Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O), Lime stone (CaCO3), Fluorspar (CaF2).
(d) Zinc- Zinc blende (ZnS), Calamine (ZnCO3).
(e) Copper- Copper pyrite (CuFeS2), Malachite (CuCO3.Cu(OH)2).
(f) Lead- Galena (PbS).
(5)
Metallurgy: It is a combination of many processes to get metal from ore.
(a) Concentration of ore:
(i) Crushing and grinding.
(ii) Magnetic separation (ores containing Fe)/Froth floatation (preferential wetting of
Sulphide ores)/Leaching.
(b) Roasting (heating in presence of air, applied over sulphide ores) / Calcination
(heating in absence or limited supply of air, applied over carbonate ores).
(c) Reduction: by C or CO or electrolytic.
(d) Refining: Liquation/Electrolytic/Zone.
(6)
Leaching: Bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O) contains impurity of silica (SiO2) and iron oxide
(FeO). When heated with conc. NaOH at 150C dissolves silica and bauxite and other
impurities can be filtered off. Solution when diluted with water gives Al(OH)3 which
on heating at 1200C gives Al2O3.
(7)
Alloys and their uses:
Name
Constituents
Properties
Uses
tough, can be worked on
balances and machine
Magnalium
Al + Mg
lathe
articles
Duralumin
Al + Cu
light, strong and tough
aeroplanes
Brass
Cu + Zn
malleable and ductile
utensils, wires, machinery
hard, easy to cast, takes
Bronze
Cu + Sn
coins and statues
polish
Steel
Fe+Cr+Ni+C
resistant to corrosion
utensils, blades
Soft solder
Pb + Sn
Low melting point
soldering, electric fuse
Type
Pb + Sb +
Low m.p., easy to cast
type letters for printing
metal
Sn
Reactions:
processes
reduction
Metal
(a) Concentration of ore: Ore Oxide
(i) Leaching of bauxite:
150200C

2NaAlO2 + 3H2O
Al2O32H2O + 2NaOH
(ii) Precipitation of aluminium hydroxide from solution:

14
50 60C

Al(OH)3 + NaOH
NaAlO2 + 2H2O
1100C
(iii) Conversion of aluminium hydroxide to alumina: 2Al(OH)3 Al2O3 + 3H2O
electric current

4Al + 3O2
(iv) Electrolysis of alumina: 2Al2O3
800C
(v) Roasting of ore to convert it to oxides: 2ZnS + 3O2 2ZnO + 2SO2
400C
ZnO + CO2
ZnCO3
1400C

(vi) Reduction of zinc oxide to zinc: ZnO + C Zn + CO

(vii) Removal of silica from iron oxide using flux (CaO) to form slag (CaSiO3):

CaCO3
CaO + CO2
CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3
(viii) Reduction of ferric oxide:
C + O2 CO2 +

CO2 + C
2CO
Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2
(b) Heating metals with non metals:

burning

Al2O3
(i) Burning of aluminium in air: 2Al + 3O2
(ii) Heating aluminium in chlorine: 2Al + 3Cl2 2AlCl3
(iii) Heating the mixture of aluminium powder with sulphur: 2Al + 3S Al2S3

(c) Reaction with water/steam to displace hydrogen:

(i) Reaction of aluminium with steam: 2Al + 3H2O Al2O3 + 3H2
(ii) Reaction of red hot iron with steam: 2Fe + 3H2O
Fe2O3 + 3H2
(iii) Thermite reaction: Fe2O3 + 2Al Al2O3 + Fe + heat (highly exothermic reaction)
Note:
Ferric oxide when ignited with aluminium powder, a lot of heat is produced which
melts the iron produced in the reaction, reaction is used in iron welding. Metals are
very good reducing agents and are used in metallurgy to reduce metallic oxides.
Metals higher in activity series displace lower metals from their oxides.
Study of Compounds
(1)
HCl (hydrogen chloride gas): Prepared in lab by heating NaCl with conc. H2SO4 at
temperature below 200C and is dried by passing through conc. H2SO4.
(i) If the temperature goes over 2000C then Na2SO4 is produced which forms a crust in
the flask and is difficult to remove and due to crust there is a heat loss also.
(ii) Conc. HNO3 can't be used in place of conc. H2SO4 as it is more volatile
than H2SO4 and is a good oxidizing agent.
(iii) NH4Cl can't be used in place of NaCl as it is costly and sublime.
(iv) HCl gas can't be collected by downward displacement of water
as it is highly soluble in water, which can be proved by Fountain
Experiment:
The bottom flask contains water and blue litmus, upper flask
contains HCl gas. When water is forced from the bottom flask to
the upper flask it dissolves all HCl gas due to which vacuum is
created, which sucks water from the bottom flask to develop a red fountain due to
acidic nature of HCl gas.
Same result is shown by ammonia gas also but it turns red litmus water to blue
fountain due to its basic nature.
(v) HCl (hydrochloric acid) can be prepared by dissolving HCl gas in water using Funnel
arrangement to avoid back suction.

15

Funnel just touches the water surface when water moves up the connection between
funnel and water breaks which avoids back suction.
Note:
HCl is a polar covalent compound because of high electronegativity of chlorine. Being
covalent it is soluble in non-polar solvents such as toluene but do not ionize hence
its solution in toluene will not give any test of Cl- ions but in water it ionizes and the
solution gives tests of Cl- ions (curdy white precipitate with silver nitrate solution).
Reactions:
(a) Preparation:
(i) by direct combination of hydrogen and chlorine: H2 + Cl2 2HCl
(ii) Laboratory preparation:

200C
NaHSO4 + HCl
NaCl + H2SO4
200C
Na2SO4 + 2HCl
2NaCl + H2SO4

(b) Properties:
500C

H2 + Cl2
(i) heating hydrogen chloride gas: 2HCl
(c) Reactions showing acidic nature:
(i) with ammonia (base salt): NH3 + HCl NH4Cl
(ii) with hot aluminium (metal H2 is released): 2Al + 6HCl 2AlCl3 + 3H2
(iii) with cupric oxide (base salt + water): CuO+2HCl CuCl2+H2O
(iv) with ammonium hydroxide (base salt + water): NH4OH + HCl NH4Cl + H2O
(v) with sodium carbonate ( CO2): Na2CO3+2HCl2NaCl+H2O+CO2
(vi) with sodium bicarbonate ( CO2): NaHCO3 + HCl NaCl + H2O + CO2
(vii) with sodium sulphite ( SO2): Na2SO3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2O + SO2
(viii) with sodium bisulphite (SO2): NaHSO3 + HCl NaCl + H2O + SO2
(ix) with iron(II) sulphide ( H2S): FeS + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2S
(d) Tests:
(i) When glass rod dipped in ammonia solution is brought over the test tube then
dense white fumes of ammonium chloride are formed: NH4OH + HCl NH4Cl + H2O
(ii) With silver nitrate curdy white ppt is obtained: AgNO3 + HCl AgCl + HNO3
Note:
The curdy white precipitate of AgCl is soluble in NH4OH.
(iii) with lead nitrate white ppt is obtained: Pb(NO3)2 + 2HCl PbCl2 + 2HNO3
Note:
White precipitate of PbCl2 is soluble in hot water.
(iv) With copper nitrate solution (blue) white ppt is obtained:
Cu(NO3)2 + 2HCl CuCl2 + 2HNO3
(e) Oxidation of HCl (2HCl + O H2O + Cl2):
(i) by lead di-oxide: PbO2 + 4HCl PbCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2
(ii) by red lead: Pb3O4 + 8HCl PbCl2 + 4H2O + Cl2
Note:
White precipitate of PbCl2 is obtained.
(iii) by potassium permanganate: 2KMnO4 + 16HCl MnCl2 + 2KCl + 8H2O + 5Cl2
Note:
Pink colour of KMnO4 solution becomes colourless.
(iv) by potassium di-chromate: K2Cr2O7 + 14HCl CrCl3 + 2KCl + 7H2O + 3Cl2
Note:
Orange colour of K2Cr2O7 changes to green.
(v) by manganese di-oxide: MnO2 + 4HCl MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2

Note:

Note:
(2)
Note:

16
In all these reactions (given above) a greenish yellow chlorine gas of pungent odour
comes out.
(vi) by nitric acid (formation of aquaregia): HNO3 + 3HCl NOCl + 2H2O + 2[Cl]
Chlorine produced above is called nascent chlorine, it is highly reactive hence
aquaregia can dissolve metals like gold and platinum.
NH3(ammonia): Prepared in lab by heating a mixture of NH4Cl and Ca(OH)2 and is
dried over CaO.
(i) Ammonia can't be dried over P2O5, conc. H2SO4 and CaCl2 as it reacts with these
drying agents.
(ii) Ammonia is collected by downward displacement of air as it is lighter than air
and is highly soluble in water (Fountain Experiment).
(iii) Industrial manufacture (Haber process):

Reactants: Nitrogen gas and Hydrogen gas in the ratio 1:3 by volume,
Catalyst: Finely divided iron (Fe),
Promoter: Molybdenum (Mo) [to enhance the activity of catalyst]
Temperature: 4500C to 5000C
Pressure: 200 to 900 atm
(iv) Ammonia is highly liquefiable (converts to liquid at 330C and 8 atm pressure)
therefore can be stored in liquid form at high pressure in steel tanks.
Reactions of ammonia:
(a) Preparation:
(i) 2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 CaCl2 + 2NH3 + 2H2O
(ii) NH4Cl + NaOH NaCl + NH3 + H2O
(iii) (NH4)2SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + 2NH3 + 2H2O
(iv) (NH4)2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 CaSO4 + 2NH3 + 2H2O
(b) Ammonia cannot be dried over H2SO4, P2O5 & CaCl2:
(i) 2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4
(ii) 6NH3 + P2O5 + 3H2O 2(NH4)3PO4
(iii) 8NH3 + CaCl2 CaCl28NH3
(c) Ammonia can be prepared by action of warm water over metal nitrides:
(i) Mg3N2 + 6H2O 3Mg(OH)2 + 2NH3
(ii) Ca3N2 + 6H2O 3Ca(OH)2 + 2NH3
(iii) AlN + 3H2O Al(OH)3 + NH3
(d) Burning of Ammonia:
(i) 4NH3 + 3O2 2N2 + 6H2O
Pt/800C

(ii) 4NH3 + 5O2 4NO + 6H2O

(e) Basic nature of ammonia:
(i) NH3 + HNO3 NH4NO3
(ii) 2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4
(iii) NH3 + HCl NH4Cl
(iv) NH4OH + HCl NH4Cl + H2O
(NH3 + H2O NH4OH)
(v) NH4OH + HNO3 NH4NO3 + H2O
(vi) 2NH4OH + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4 + 2H2O
(f) Reducing nature of ammonia (2NH3 + 3O N2 + 3H2O):
(i) 3CuO + 2NH3 N2 + 3H2O + Cu
(ii) 3PbO + 2NH3 N2 + 3H2O + Pb
(iii) 3Cl2 (excess) + NH3 NCl3 + 3HCl

17
(iv) 3Cl2 + 8NH3 (excess) N2 + 6NH4Cl
Tests: Ammonia gives white fumes when passed over a glass rod dipped in conc.
HCl, it gives reddish brown precipitate when passed through neutral ferric chloride
solution or through alkaline Nessler's reagent.
(3)
HNO3(Nitric acid): Prepared in lab by heating KNO3 with conc. H2SO4 at temperature
less than 200C.
(i) Industrial manufacture (Ostwald's process):
(a) Ammonia is oxidized to nitric oxide,
(b) Nitric oxide is oxidized to nitrogen dioxide by air at 500C,
(c) Nitrogen dioxide is dissolved in water in presence of excess air.
Note:
Nitric acid in lab or kept in sun light breaks and contains dissolved NO2 (reddish
brown) which in low concentrations gives yellow colour.
Reactions of nitric acid:
(a) Preparation:
200C

KHSO4+HNO3
(i) KNO3+H2SO4
200C

Na2SO4+2HNO3
(ii) 2NaNO3+H2SO4
(b) Industrial process: (Ostwald's process):
Pt/800C

(i) 4NH3 + 5O2 4NO + 6H2O

(ii) 2NO + O2 2NO2
(iii) NO2 + H2O HNO3 + HNO2
(iv) 2NO2 + H2O + O2 2HNO3
(c) Acidic nature:
(i) NaOH + HNO3 NaNO3 + H2O
(ii) PbCO3 + 2HNO3 Pb(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2
(iii) Ca(HCO3)2 + 2HNO3 Ca(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2CO2
(iv) Ca(HSO3)2 + 2HNO3 Ca(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2SO2
(d) Oxidising nature (2HNO3 (conc) H2O + 2NO2 + O):
(i) C + 4HNO3 (conc) CO2 + 2H2O + 2NO2
(ii) S + 6HNO3 (conc) H2SO4 + 2H2O + 6NO2
(iii) P + 5HNO3 (conc) H3PO4 + H2O + NO2
(iv) Cu + 4HNO3(conc) Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2
(v) Zn + 4HNO3 (conc) Zn(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2
(vi) Fe + 6HNO3(conc) Fe(NO3)3 + 3H2O + 3NO2
(e) Oxidising nature (2HNO3 (dil) H2O + 2NO + 3O):
(i) 3Cu + 8HNO3 (dil) 3Cu(NO3)2 + 4H2O + 2NO
(ii) 3Zn+8HNO3(dil) 3Zn(NO3)2 + 4H2O + 2NO
(iii) 3Fe + 8HNO3 (dil) 3Fe(NO3)2 + 4H2O + 2NO
(iv) 3SO2 + 2H2O + 2HNO3 3H2SO4 + 2NO
(v) 3H2S + 2HNO3 3S + 4H2O + 2NO
(vi) 6FeSO4 + 3H2SO4 + 2HNO3 3Fe2(SO4)3 + 4H2O + 2NO
(f) Reaction with metals like Mg and Mn:
(i) Mg + 2HNO3 (cold & very dilute) Mg(NO3)2 + H2
(ii) Mn + 2HNO3 (cold & very dilute) Mg(NO3)2 + H2
(g) Effect of heat on nitrates:
(i) NH4NO3
(ii) 2KNO3

(iii) 2NaNO3

N2O (nitrous oxide) + 2H2O

2KNO2 + O2

2NaNO2 + O2

(iv) 2Ca(NO3)2
(v) 2Zn(NO3)2

(vi) 2Pb(NO3)2
(vii) 2Cu(NO3)2
(viii) 2AgNO3

18

2CaO + 4NO2 + O2
2ZnO + 4NO2 + O2

2PbO + 4NO2 + O2
2CuO + 4NO2 + O2

2Ag + 2NO2 + O2

(ix) 2Hg(NO3)2
2Hg + 2NO2 + O2
Tests: Nitric acid when heated with Cu turnings gives reddish brown gas and gives
brown ring test when conc. sulphuric acid is poured by the side of the test tube
containing mixture of nitric acid and ferrous sulphate solution.
(4)
H2SO4: Manufactured by Contact Process:
(i) Sulhpur or sulphide ores are burnt to get sulphur dioxide gas, which is washed
with water to remove impurities and dried.
(ii) Sulphur dioxide is oxidized to sulphur trioxide in presence of excess air.
(iii) Sulphur trioxide is dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid to get oleum.
Note:
Sulphur trioxide can't be dissolved directly in water because the reaction is highly
exothermic and forms mist which can't be condensed easily.
(iv) Oleum is mixed with water to get sulphuric acid of required concentration.
Reactions:
(a) Industrial preparation (Contact process):
(i) S + O2 SO2
Pt/V2O5 500C

2SO3
(ii) O2 + 2SO2
(iii) SO3 + H2SO4 H2S2O7 (oleum)
(iv) H2S2O7 + H2O 2H2SO4
(b) Acidic nature:
(i) Na2O + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2O
(ii) K2CO3 + H2SO4 K2SO4 + H2O + CO2
(iii) Na2SO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2O + SO2
(iv) 2NaHSO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O + 2SO2
(v) FeS + H2SO4 FeSO4 + H2S
(c) Oxidising nature (conc. H2SO4 H2O + SO2 + O):
(i) C + 2H2SO4 (conc) CO2 + 2H2O + 2SO2
(ii) S + 2H2SO4 (conc) 2H2O + 3SO2
(iii) 2P + 5H2SO4 (conc) 2H3PO4 + 2H2O + 5SO2
(iv) Cu + 2H2SO4 (conc) CuSO4 + 2H2O + SO2
(v) Zn + 2H2SO4 (conc) ZnSO4 + 2H2O + SO2
(vi) 2HI + H2SO4 (conc) I2 + 2H2O + SO2
(vii) H2S + H2SO4 (conc) S + 2H2O + 2SO2
(d) As dehydrating agent:
Conc. H SO
6C + 6H2O
(i) C6H12O6
2

Conc. H SO
12C + 11H2O (a black porous mass is produced)
(ii) C12H22O11
2

Conc. H SO
CO + H2O
(iii) HCOOH
2

Conc. H SO
CO + CO2 + H2O
(iv) H2C2O4
2

Conc. H2SO4

Note:

CuSO4 + 5H2O (colour changes from blue to white)

(v) CuSO45H2O
When conc. H2SO4 is used to prepare other acids it shows non volatile nature.
Tests: It gives white precipitate with lead nitrate/barium chloride solution. The white
precipitate is insoluble in conc. HCl.

19
(5)

Sulphur dioxide:
(a) Preparation:
(i) Na2SO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2O + SO2
(ii) 2NaHSO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O + 2SO2
(iii) Na2SO3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2O + SO2
(iv) NaHSO3 + HCl NaCl + H2O + SO2
(v) CaSO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + SO2
(vi) Cu + 2H2SO4 CuSO4 + 2H2O + SO2
(vii) 2ZnS + 3O2 2ZnO + 2SO2
(viii) 4FeS2 + 11O2 2Fe2O3 + 8SO2
(ix) 2CuFeS2 + O2 Cu2S + 2FeS + SO2
(b) Oxidizing nature:

2MgO + S
(i) 2Mg + SO2
(ii) 4K + 3SO2 K2SO3 + K2S2O3 (potassium thio-sulphate)
(iii) 3Mg + SO2 2MgO + MgS
(iv) 2H2S + SO2 2H2O + SO2
(c) Acidic nature:
(i) H2O + SO2 H2SO3 (sulphurous acid)
(ii) 2NaOH + SO2 Na2SO3 + H2O
(iii) Na2SO3 + H2O + SO2 (excess) 2NaHSO3
(iv) Ca(OH)2 + SO2 CaSO3 + H2O
(v) CaSO3 + H2O + SO2 (excess) Ca(HSO3)2 (soluble)
(vi) Na2CO3 + H2O + 2SO2 2NaHSO3 + CO2
(vii) K2CO3 + H2O + 2SO2 2KHSO3 + CO2
(viii) Na2O + SO2 Na2SO3
(ix) CaO + SO2 CaSO3
(d) Combination reactions:
Pt/V O 500C
2SO3
(i) O2 + 2SO2
2 5

sunlight
SO2Cl2
(ii) Cl2 + SO2

(6)

PbSO4
(iii) PbO2 + SO2
(e) Reducing nature:
(i) Cl2 + 2H2O + SO2 2HCl + H2SO4
(ii) Fe2(SO4)3 + 2H2O + SO2 2FeSO4 + 2H2SO4
(iii) 2FeCl3 + 2H2O + SO2 2FeCl2 + H2SO4 + 2HCl
(iv) 2HNO3 + SO2 2NO2 + H2SO4
(v) K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 + 3SO2 Cr2(SO4)3 + K2SO4 + H2O
(vi) 2KMnO4 + 2H2O + 5SO2 2MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 2H2SO4
Hydrogen sulphide:
(a) Burning:
(i) H2S + O2 (scarce) H2O + S
(ii) 2H2S + 3O2 (excess) 2H2O + 2SO2
300C

(iii) H2S H2 + S
(b) Reducing nature:
(i) Cl2 + H2S 2HCl + S
(ii) SO2 + 2H2S 2H2O + 3S
(iii) H2SO4 + H2S SO2 + S + 2H2O
(iv) 2HNO3 + H2S 2NO2 + S + 2H2O

20
(v) 2FeCl3 + H2S 2FeCl2 + 2HCl + S
(c) Formation of metallic sulphides:
(i) Pb(CH3COO)2 + H2S PbS + 2CH3COOH
(ii) CuSO4 + H2S CuS + H2SO4
(iii) 2AgNO3 + H2S Ag2S + 2HNO3
(iv) Zn(NO3)2 + H2S ZnS + 2HNO3
Note:
Except ZnS (white) all other sulphides mentioned above are black.
Organic Chemistry
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds except oxides, carbonates,
bicarbonates and carbides. They are mostly derived from animal and plants. They
exist in very large number in the environment. Since they are covalent compounds
they show properties of covalent compounds as well as isomerism (usually not
shown by inorganic compounds).
Carbon compounds are unique in nature due to:
(i) Carbon shows tetravalency (can form four bonds).
(ii) Carbon can form multiple (C-C, C=C, CC/single, double, triple) bonds with itself as
well as with other elements like: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, halogen, sulphur,
phosphorous etc....
(iii) Carbon can form long chains (Catenation). These chains may be open or closed. This
is due to highest bond energy of C-C.
(1)
Classification of Organic Compounds:

(2)

Isomerism: Compounds having same molecular formula but differ in structure and
properties are called isomers, the property exhibited is called isomerism.

(a) Chain Isomerism: arises due to difference in branching of chain

(i) Chain isomers of butane (C4H10):

(ii) Draw chain isomers of pentane (C5H12) as exercise (3 n-pentane, 2-methyl butane,
2,2-dimethyl propane).
(b) Position isomerism: arises due to difference in positions of double/triple bond or
substituent groups. Position isomers of butene (C4H8):

21

Note:

(3)

(4)

Organic compounds consist of two parts- Alkyl group (carbon chain), which usually
determines physical properties and Functional group, which determines chemical
properties.
Homologous Series: Organic compounds with same functional group and different
alkyl groups form a family called homologous series.
Example: CH3OH, C2H5OH, C3H7OH, C4H9OH, .....
(i) Members have same chemical properties but different physical properties.
(ii) Molecular mass of successive members differ by 14 unit.
(iii) Molecular formula of successive members differ by -CH2-.
IUPAC nomenclature:
(i) Find the longest chain, the number of carbons will determine the prefix.
(ii) Number the chain from the side which gives lowest number to the first substituent. C
containing the functional group always gets lowest possible position.
(iii) For alkyl groups (CnH2n1) add -yl to the prefix.
(iv) For compounds containing CC add -ane to the prefix.
(v) Add suffix to alkan, (e is removed from alkane) as per functional group.
(vi) Write name of substituent in alphabetical order with position. Add di/tri/tetra as per
the number of substituents.
(vii) Write the name without space.
Number of C/Group
Prefix
Functional group Suffix
1
meth
CC/CnH2n+2
ane
2
eth
C=C/CnH2n
ene
3
prop
CC/CnH2n2
yne
4
but
OH/OH
ol
5

pent

CHO/

hex

COOH/

hept

oct

9
10
F/Cl/Br/I
RO
R

non
dec
fluoro/chloro/bromo/iodo
alkoxy
alkyl

COO/
CO/

al
oic acid
oate
one

22
Example:

(5)

1] methane,
2] ethane,
3] propane,
4] butane,
5] ethene
6] propene
7] but-1-ene
8] but-2-ene
9] ethyne
10] propyne
11] but-1-yne
12] but-2-yne
13] methanol
14] ethanol
15] propan-1-ol
16] popan-2-ol
17] methanal
18] ethanal
19] propanal
20] butanal
21] methanoic acid 22] ethanoic acid
23] propanoic acid 24] butanoic acid
25] chloromethane
26] dichloromethane
27] trichloromethane
28] tetrachloromethane
29] sodium ethanoate
30] sodium propanoate
31] iodomethane
32] bromoethane
33] methoxy methane
34] 1,2-dichoroethane
35] 1,2-dibromoethane
36] propanone-2
37] 1,2-ethandiol
38] 1,2-dichloroethene
39] 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane
40] 1,2-dibromoethene
41] bromoethene
42] 1,2-ethandioic acid
43] 3-methylpropanal
44] ethyl ethanoate
45] 2-methylpropanoic acid
46] 2-methyl propane
47] 2-methylbutane
48] 2,2-dimethylpropane
Methane:
(a) (i) Lab preparation: In lab methane is prepared by heating a mixture of sodium
ethanoate with soda lime (a mixture of NaOH and CaO). Methane is collected by
downward displacement of water.

(ii) General method:

23
(b) Properties: methane gas is colourless, odourless, lighter than air, insoluble in water.
Methane is a saturated hydrocarbon (contains CC). Saturated hydrocarbons mainly
give substitution reactions.
(i) Complete combustion:
CH4 + O2 CO2 + 2H2O (excess air)
(ii) Incomplete combustion: 2CH4 + 3O2 2CO + 4H2O (limited air)
CH4 + O2 C + 2H2O (scarce air)
(iii) Catalytic oxidation:

(iv) Controlled oxidation:

(v) Reaction with chlorine in presence of diffused sunlight:
CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl,
CH3Cl + Cl2 CH2Cl2 + HCl
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 CHCl3 + HCl (CHCl3 is also known as chloroform)
CHCl3 + Cl2 CCl4 + HCl (CCl4 is also known as carbon tetrachloride)

(6)

(vi) Pyrolysis:
(c) Uses: Methane is used as fuel. It is the main constituent of natural gas.
Ethane:
(a) (i) Lab preparation: In lab ethane is prepared by heating a mixture of sodium
propanoate with soda lime (a mixture of NaOH and CaO). Ethane is collected by
downward displacement of water.

(ii) General method:

(b) Properties: ethane gas is colourless, odourless, insoluble in water. Ethane is also a
saturated hydrocarbon.
(i) Complete combustion:
2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O (excess air)
(ii) Incomplete combustion: 2C2H6 + 5O2 4CO + 6H2O (limited air)
2C2H6 + 3O2 4C + 6H2O (scarce air)
(iii) Catalytic oxidation:

(iv) Controlled oxidation:

(v) Reaction with chlorine in presence of diffused sunlight:
C2H6 + Cl2 C2H5Cl + HCl,
C2H5Cl + Cl2 C2H4Cl2 + HCl
C2H4Cl2 + Cl2 C2H3Cl3 + HCl
C2H3Cl3 + Cl2 C2H2Cl4 + HCl
C2H2Cl4 + Cl2 C2HCl5 + HCl
C2HCl5 + Cl2 C2Cl6 + HCl (C2Cl6 is used as artificial camphor)

24
(vi) Pyrolysis:
(c) Uses: Ethane is also used as fuel.
(7)
Ethene:
(a) Preparation:
(i) Lab preparation: by heating ethanol with conc. H2SO4 at 1700C or by passing
vapours of ethanol over alumina at 3500C: C2H5OH H2C=CH2 + H2O
(ii) General method: by boiling a mixture of ethyl bromide and alcoholic KOH:
C2H5Br + KOH (alcoholic) H2C=CH2 + KBr + H2O
(b) Properties: Ethene is a colourless gas with pleasant odour, it is lighter than air and
slightly soluble in water. Ethene is an unsaturated hydrocarbon (contains C=C).
Unsaturated hydrocarbons mainly give addition reactions.
(c) Reactions with:
(i) Hydrogen in presence of Ni (catalyst) at 3000C, known as hydrogenation.
H2C=CH2 + H2 H3CCH3
(ii) Chlorine (dissolved in CCl4): H2C=CH2 + Cl2
Note:

Note:

Bromine and Iodine also give similar reaction. In case of bromine yellow colour of
the solution changes to colourless, it is used as test of unsaturation. Bromine water
(Br2 dissolved in H2O) also gives the same test.
(iii) Hydrogen bromide (HBr): H2C=CH2 + HBr H3CCH2Br (or C2H5Br)
HCl gives the same reaction.
(iv) Conc. H2SO4: H2C=CH2 + H2SO4 H3CCH3HSO4
(v) Heating with dil. H2SO4: H2C=CH2 + H2O H3CCH2OH (hydration reaction)
(vi) Bayer's reagent (cold, dilute alkaline KMnO4): H2C=CH2 + H2O + O
(vii) Ozone in presence of ether as solvent: H2C=CH2 + O3

(d)
(8)
(a)

(b)
(c)

(viii) Combustion: C2H4 + 3O2 2CO2 + 2H2O

(ix) Polymerisation: n (H2C=CH2) (H2CCH2)n (polythene)
Uses: in welding, in artificial ripening of fruits, in production of polythene.
Ethyne:
Preparation:
(i) Lab preparation: by reaction between Calcium carbide and water:
CaC2 + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + HCCH
(ii) General method: by boiling the mixture of 1,2-dibromoethane and alcoholic KOH:
BrH2C=CH2Br + 2KOH HCCH + 2KBr + 2H2O
Properties: ethyne gas is colourless, odourless, slightly soluble in water and lighter
than air. Ethyne is unsaturated hydrocarbon (contains CC).
Reactions with:
(i) Hydrogen in presence of Ni (catalyst) at 3000C, known as hydrogenation.
HCCH + H2 H2C=CH2
H2C=CH2 + H2 H3CCH3
(ii) Chlorine (dissolved in CCl4):
HCCH + Cl2

Note:

Note:

25
Bromine also gives similar reaction. In case of bromine yellow colour of the solution
changes to colourless, it is used as test of unsaturation. Bromine water (Br2
dissolved in H2O) also gives the same test.
(iii) Hydrogen bromide (HBr):
HCCH + HBr H2C=CHBr
H2C=CHBr + HBr H3CCHBr2
HCl gives the same reaction.
(iv) Bayer's reagent (cold, dilute alkaline KMnO4): HCCH + 4[O]
oxalic acid
(v) Ozone in presence of ether as solvent: HCCH + O3

(vi) Combustion: 2C2H2 + 5O2 4CO2 + 2H2O

(vii) Ammonical cuprous chloride gives red precipitate, used as test:
HCCH + 2CuCl + 2NH4OH CuCCCu + 2NH4Cl + 2H2O
copper acetylide (red)
(viii) Ammonical silver nitrate gives white precipitate, used as test:
HCCH + 2AgNO3 + 2NH4OH AgCCAg + 2NH4NO3 + 2H2O
silver acetylide (white)
(d) Uses: in welding, in artificial ripening of fruits.
(9)
Ethyl alcohol (ethanol):
(a) Preparation:
(i) Lab preparation: by boiling a mixture of ethyl halide with an alkali:
C2H5Cl + NaOH (aqueous) C2H5OH + NaCl
C2H5Br + KOH (aqueous) C2H5OH + KBr
(ii) Industrial preparation: by fermentation of cane sugar:

(b) Properties: Colourless volatile and inflammable liquid with characteristic odour.
(c) Reactions with:
(i) Oxidation with acidic K2Cr2O7: C2H5OH + O CH3CHO
(ii) Combustion: C2H5OH + 3O2 3CO2 + 3H2O
(iii) Sodium: 2C2H5OH + 2Na 2C2H5ONa + H2 (test of ethanol)
(iv) acetic acid in presence of conc. H2SO4: C2H5OH+CH3COOHCH3COOC2H5+H2O
Note:
This reactions is known as esterification reaction. Used as a test of ethanol.
(v) Conc. H2SO4: when heated gives two different products in different conditions:
C2H5OH C2H4 + H2O (at 1700C with excess conc. H2SO4)
2C2H5OH H5C2OC2H5 + H2O (at 1400C with excess C2H5OH)
(d) Uses: as fuel, as solvent, in thermometer and spirit level.
(e) Definitions:
(i) Rectified sprit: Mixture of 95% ethanol with 5% water.
(ii) Absolute alcohol: 100% pure ethanol.
(iii) Methylated/Denatured/Spurious alcohol: methanol/pyridine/copper sulphate is
added to ethanol to make it unfit for human consumption.
(iv) Power alcohol: ethanol mixed with ether is used as fuel.
(10)
Acetic acid (ethanoic acid):

26
(a) Preparation:
(i) by oxidation of ethanol with acidic K2Cr2O7: C2H5OH + 2[O] CH3COOH + H2O
(ii) by hydrolysis of ethyl acetate with conc. H2SO4:
CH3COOC2H5 + H2O CH3COOH + C2H5OH
(b) Properties: colourless liquid with pungent odour like vinegar. Pure acetic acid is
known as glacial acetic acid as it freezes below 16.50C forming crystals like ice.
(c) Reactions with:
(i) It turns blue litmus to red (acidic nature).
(ii) It forms salt with alkalis (acidic nature): CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O
Note:
Ca(OH)2, NH4OH and KOH give similar reaction.
(iii) Gives out CO2 with Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 (acidic nature).
(iv) Gives hydrogen with active metals like - Na and Mg (acidic nature).
(v) Gives ethyl acetate when reacts with ethanol in presence of conc. H2SO4:
C2H5OH + CH3COOH CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
Note:
This reactions is known as esterification reaction.
(vi) When reduced with LiAlH4, gives ethanol: CH3COOH + 4[H] C2H5OH + H2O
Test:
All above reactions. When added to neutral ferric chloride it produces wine red
colour.
(d) Uses: as food preservative, as solvent, as a coagulant.
_____________