Chapter 8

Chapter 8:
Optical Fibers and Components

TOPICS
WDM optical networks

Light transmitted through an optical fiber
Types of optical fibers
Impairments
Components: Lasers, optical amplifiers, couplers,
OXCs
Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros
WDM optical networks

1
Tx
W
Tx
Power
amplifier
optical
fiber
In-line
amplification
optical
fiber
Rx
Preamplifier
Wavelength
multiplexer
W
Rx
Wavelength
demultiplexer
A point-to-point connection
An example of an optical network

Mesh network
Ring 4
Ring 1
Ring 2
Ring 3
How light is transmitted through an

optical fiber
Wave
Electric
field
Source
Waves and electrical fields
An optical fiber
Cladding
Core
Cladding
Core and cladding
Cladding
Cladding
Core
n1
Refractive index
Refractive index
Core
n2
Radial distance
n1
n2
Radial distance
a) Step-index fiber
b) graded-index fiber
Refraction and reflection of a light ray

f
Refracted ray
n2
n1
Incident ray
r
Reflected ray
Angle of launching a ray into the fiber

Cladding
Cladding
Core
Core
Cladding
Cladding
Cladding
Optical
transmitter
Core
Cladding
Multi-mode and single-mode fibers

Core/diameter of a multi-mode fiber:
50/125 m,
62.5/125 m,
100/140 m
Core/diameter of single-mode fiber

9 or 10 / 125 m
Electric fields
Cladding
Core
A
2
1
Cladding
Electric field amplitudes for

various fiber modes
Cladding
Core
Cladding
m=0
m=1
m=2
10
Propagation of modes
Cladding
Cladding
a) step-index fiber
Cladding
Cladding
b) Graded-index fiber
11
Single-mode fiber
Cladding
Cladding
12
Impairments
The transmission of light through an
optical fiber is subjected to optical
effects, known as impairments.
There are:
linear impairments, and
non-linear impairments.
13
Linear impairments
These impairments are called linear because
their effect is proportional to the length of
the fiber.
Attenuation:
Attenuation is the decrease of the optical power
along the length of the fiber.
Dispersion
Dispersion is the distortion of the shape of a
pulse.
14
Attenuation
2.5
Attenuation, dB
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
800
1000
1200
1400
Wavelength, nm
1600
1800
15
Dispersion
Dispersion is due to a number of
reasons, such as
modal dispersion,
chromatic dispersion,
polarization mode dispersion.
16
Modal dispersion
Power
Power
Power
Time
Time
Time
In multi-mode fibers some modes travel a longer

distance to get to the end of the fiber than others
In view of this, the modes have different delays,
which causes a spreading of the output pulse
17
Chromatic dispersion
It is due to the fact that the refractive index
of silica is frequency dependent. In view of
this, different frequencies travel at different
speeds, and as a result they experience
different delays.
These delays cause spreading in the
duration of the output pulse.
18
Chromatic dispersion can be corrected using

a dispersion compensating fiber. The length
of this fiber is proportional to the dispersion
of the transmission fiber. Approximately, a
spool of 15 km of dispersion compensating
fiber is placed for every 80 km of
transmission fiber.
Dispersion compensating fiber introduces
attenuation of about 0.5 dB/km.
19
Polarization mode dispersion (PMD)

It is due to the fact that the core of the fiber is not
perfectly round.
In an ideal circularly symmetric fiber the light gets
polarized and it travels along two polarization
planes which have the same speed.
When the core of the fiber is not round, the light
traveling along the two planes may travel at
different speeds.
This difference in speed will cause the pulse to
break.
20
10
Non-linear impairments
They are due to the dependency of the
refractive index on the intensity of the
applied electrical field. The most important
non-linear effects in this category are: selfphase modulation and four-wave mixing.
Another category of non-linear impairments
includes the stimulated Raman scattering
and stimulated Brillouin scattering.
21
Types of fibers
Multi-mode fibers: They are used in LANs
and more recently in 1 Gigabit Ethernet and
10 Gigabit Ethernet.
Single-mode fiber is used for long-distance
telephony, CATV, and packet-switched
networks.
Plastic optical fibers (POF)
22
11
Single-mode fibers:
Standard single-mode fiber (SSMF): Most
of the installed fiber falls in this category. It
was designed to support early long-haul
transmission systems, and it has zero
dispersion at 1310 nm.
Non-zero dispersion fiber (NZDF): This
fiber has zero dispersion near 1450 nm.
23
Negative dispersion fiber (NDF): This type

of fiber has a negative dispersion in the
region 1300 to 1600 nm.
Low water peak fiber (LWPF): The peak in
the attenuation curve at 1385 nm is known
as the water peak. With this new type of
fiber this peak is eliminated, which allows
the use of this region.
24
12
Plastic optical fibers (POF)

Single-mode and multi-mode fibers have a high
cost and they require a skilled technician to install
them.
POFs on the other hand, are very low-cost and they
can be easily installed by an untrained person.
The core has a very large diameter, and it is about
96% of the diameter of the cladding.
Plastic optic fibers find use in digital home
appliance interfaces, home networks, and cars
25
Components
Lasers
Photo-detectors and optical receivers
Optical amplifiers
The 2x2 coupler
Optical cross connects (OXC)
26
13
Light amplification by stimulated

emission of radiation (Laser)
A laser is a device that produces a very strong and
concentrated beam.
It consists of an energy source which is applied to
a lasing material, a substance that emits light in all
directions and it can be of gas, solid, or
semiconducting material.
The light produced by the lasing material is
enhanced using a device such as the Fabry-Perot
resonator cavity.
27
Fabry-Perot resonator cavity.

It consists of two partially reflecting parallel flat
mirrors, known as facets, which create an optical
feedback that causes the cavity to oscillate.
Light hits the right facet and part of it leaves the
cavity through the right facet and part of it is
reflected.
Left facet
Right facet
28
14
Since there are many resonant wavelengths,

the resulting output consists of many
wavelengths spread over a few nm, with a
gap between two adjacent wavelengths of
100 to 200 GHz.
A single wavelength can be selected by
using a filtering mechanism that selects the
desired wavelength and provides loss to the
other wavelengths.
29
Tunable lasers
Tunable lasers are important to optical
networks
Also, it is more convenient to manufacture
and stock tunable lasers, than make
different lasers for specific wavelengths.
Several different types of tunable lasers
exist, varying from slow tunability to fast
tunability.
30
15
Modulation
Modulation is the addition of information
on a light stream
This can be realized using the on-off keying
(OOK) scheme, whereby the light stream is
turned on or off depending whether we want
to modulate a 1 or a 0.
31
WDM and dense WDM (DWDM)

WDM or dense WDM (DWDM) are terms used
interchangeably.
DWDM refers to the wavelength spacing
proposed in the ITU-T G.692 standard in the 1550
nm window (which has the smallest amount of
attenuation and it also lies in the band where the
Erbium-doped fiber amplifier operates.)
The ITU-T grid is not always followed, since there
are many proprietary solutions.
32
16
The ITU-T DWDM grid

Channel
code
18
(nm)
(nm)
1563.05
Channel
code
30
(nm)
1553.33
Channel
code
42
(nm)
1543.73
Channel
code
54
19
1562.23
31
1552.53
43
1542.94
55
20
1561.42
32
1551.72
1533.47
44
1542.14
56
21
1560.61
33
1532.68
1590.12
45
1541.35
57
22
1559.80
1531.90
34
1550.12
46
1540.56
58
23
1531.12
1558.98
35
1549.32
47
1539.77
59
1530.33
24
1558.17
36
1548.52
48
1538.98
60
1529.55
25
1557.36
37
1547.72
49
1538.19
61
1528.77
26
1556.56
38
1546.92
50
1537.40
62
1527.99
27
1555.75
39
1546.12
51
1536.61
28
1554.94
40
1545.32
52
1535.82
29
1554.13
41
1544.53
53
1535.04
1534.25
33
Photo-detectors and optical receivers

The WDM optical signal is demultiplexed
into the W different wavelengths, and each
wavelength is directed to a receiver.
Each receiver consists of a
photodetector,
an amplifier, and
signal-processing circuit.
34
17
Optical amplifiers
The optical signal looses its power as it
propagates through an optical fiber, and
after some distance it becomes too weak to
be detected.
Optical amplification is used to restore the
strength of the signal
35
Tx
W
Tx
Power
amplifier
optical
fiber
In-line
amplification
optical
fiber
Rx
Preamplifier
W
Rx
Wavelength
multiplexer
Wavelength
demultiplexer
Amplifiers:
power amplifiers,
in-line amplifiers,
pre-amplifiers
36
18
1R, 2R, 3R
Prior to optical amplifiers, the optical signal
was regenerated by first converting it into
an electrical signal, then apply
1R (re-amplification), or
2R (re-amplification and re-shaping) or
3R (re-amplification, re-shaping, and re-timing)
and then converting the regenerated signal

back into the optical domain.
37
The Erbium-doped fiber amplifier

(EDFA)
Coupler
Signal to be amplified
1550 nm
Erbium-doped
fiber
Isolator
Isolator
Laser
850 nm
38
19
Two-stage EDFA
Coupler
Coupler
Signal to be
amplified
1550 nm
Erbium-doped
fiber
Isolator
Laser
850 nm
Isolator
Laser
850 nm
39
The 2x2 coupler

Fiber 1
Input 1
Output 1
Input 2
Output 2
Fiber 2
Tapered
region
Coupling
region
Tapered
region
The 2x2 coupler is a basic device in optical networks, and

it can be constructed in variety of different ways. A
common construction is the fused-fiber coupler.
40
20
3-dB coupler
A 2x2 coupler is called a 3-dB coupler when the
optical power of an input light applied to, say
input 1 of fiber 1, is evenly divided between
output 1 and output 2.
41
If we only launch a light to the one of the

two inputs of a 3-dB coupler, say input 1,
then the coupler acts as a splitter.
If we launch a light to input 1 and a light to
input 2 of a 3-dB coupler, then the two
lights will be coupled together and the
resulting light will be evenly divided
between outputs 1 and 2.
In the above case, if we ignore output 2, the
3-dB coupler acts as a combiner.
42
21
A banyan network of 3-dB couplers

1,2..,8
1,2..,8
1,2..,8
1,2..,8
1,2..,8
1,2..,8
1,2..,8
1,2..,8
43
Optical cross connects (OXCs)

CPU
Input
fibers
Output
fibers
1
Fiber 1
...
...
Fiber 1
Switch fabric
Fiber N
W
Fiber N
A logical diagram of an OXC
44
22
OXC functionality
It switches optically all the incoming
wavelengths of the input fibers to the
outgoing wavelengths of the output fibers.
For instance, it can switch the optical signal
on incoming wavelength i of input fiber k
to the outgoing wavelength i of output
fiber m.
45
Converters:
If it is equipped with converters, it can switch the
optical signal of the incoming wavelength i of
input fiber k to another outgoing wavelength j of
the output fiber m.
This happens when the wavelength i of the
output fiber m is in use.
Converters typically have a limited range within
they can convert a wavelength.
46
23
Optical add/drop multiplexer (OADM):

An OXC can also be used as an OADM.
That is, it can terminate the optical signal of a
number of incoming wavelengths and insert new
optical signals on the same wavelengths in an
output port.
The remaining incoming wavelengths are
switched through as described above.
47
Transparent and Opaque Switches

Transparent switch:
The incoming wavelengths are switched to the
output fibers optically, without having to convert
them to the electrical domain.
Opaque switch:
The input optical signals are converted to
electrical signals, from where the packets are
extracted. Packets are switched using a packet
switch, and then they are transmitted out of the
switch in the optical domain.
48
24
Switch technologies
Several different technologies exist:
micro electronic mechanical systems (MEMS)

semiconductor optical amplifiers (SOA)
micro-bubbles
holograms
Also, 2x2 directional coupler , such as the
electro-optic switch, the thermo-optic switch,
and the Mach-Zehnder interferometer, can be
used to construct large OXC switch fabrics
49
2D MEMS switching fabric

Input
ports
Up
Down
Actuator
Mirro
r
Output
ports
50
25
A 2D MEMS OADM
Add
wavelengths
1,2..,W
1,2..,W
1,2..,W
Drop wavelengths
1,2..,W
Terminate
wavelengths
Add
wavelengths
Logical design
2D MEMS implementation
51
3D MEMS switching fabric

Output wavelengths
y axis
MEMS
array
Inside
ring
Input wavelengths
Mirro
r
x
axis
MEMS
array
52
26
Semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA)

A SOA is a pn-junction that acts as an
amplifier and also as an on-off switch
Current
p-type
n-type
Optical signal
53
2x2 SOA switch

Wavelength 1 is split into two optical signals, and each
signal is directed to a different SOA. One SOA amplifies
the optical signal and permits it to go through, and the
other one stops it. As a result 1 may leave from either the
upper or the lower output port.
Switching time is currently about 100 psec.
Polymer
waveguides
SOAs
Polymer
waveguides
54
27

Chapter 8

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Chapter 8

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Chapter 8:

Optical Fibers and Components

WDM optical networks

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

WDM optical networks

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

An example of an optical network

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

How light is transmitted through an

Waves and electrical fields

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Core and cladding

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Refraction and reflection of a light ray

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Angle of launching a ray into the fiber

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Multi-mode and single-mode fibers

Core/diameter of single-mode fiber

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Electric field amplitudes for

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

In multi-mode fibers some modes travel a longer

Chromatic dispersion can be corrected using

Polarization mode dispersion (PMD)

Negative dispersion fiber (NDF): This type

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Plastic optical fibers (POF)

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Light amplification by stimulated

Fabry-Perot resonator cavity.

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Since there are many resonant wavelengths,

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

WDM and dense WDM (DWDM)

The ITU-T DWDM grid

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Photo-detectors and optical receivers

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

and then converting the regenerated signal

The Erbium-doped fiber amplifier

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

The 2x2 coupler

The 2x2 coupler is a basic device in optical networks, and

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

If we only launch a light to the one of the

A banyan network of 3-dB couplers

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Optical cross connects (OXCs)

A logical diagram of an OXC

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Optical add/drop multiplexer (OADM):

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Transparent and Opaque Switches

micro electronic mechanical systems (MEMS)

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

2D MEMS switching fabric