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Mathematical Model
Model: equations or statements used to describe the behaviour of a
system.
Dynamic model is considered as a set of equations that describe
the dynamic behaviour of the system in the control engineering. In
control system study, the model is developed for dynamical system
analysis and control system design. This means a simplification is
required.
System
Models
Simulation Models
Dynamic Models
Computer
simulation
models
Dynamic analysis
models
Scale simulation
models
obtained by
physical
analysis
obtained by
observation
replication &
inference
Dynamic
identification
models
Modelling Process
Start
End
If unsatisfactory
Vaidation
Modelling
Controller
Design
Linear Systems
Why linearized process is needed?
The advantages of using linear system model are
1). The principle of superposition can be applied.
2). Operational methods of analysis can be used.
3). The magnitude scale factor is preserved in a linear
system. (The property of homogeneity)
Linearization
1). Small-signal linearization
2). Linearization by feedback
3). Transformation method
(linearization)
y=f(x)
y = kx + y0
y=f(x0)
y0
x0
Example
2-12-3--
( f = kx 3 )
m&x& + cx& + kx 3 = F + mg
1 x0
x& = &x& = 0,
F = F0
x = x0
x
F
1
3
F + mg
kx03 = F0 + mg x0 = 0
2 F F = F0 + F
x0 x = x0 + x
x
x0
F
F0
m ( x0 + x ) + c ( x0 + x ) + k ( x0 + x )3 = F0 + F + mg
x0 kx03 = F0 + mg
m&x& + cx& + 3kx0 x 2 + 3kxo 2 x + kx 3 = F
x (x )2
m&x& + cx& + 3kx02 x = F
3 x x, F F
m &x& + c x& + 3kx02 x = F
Small-signal Linearization
Linearization about an operation point (equilibrium state)
Consider a system with input x(t) and output y(t)
y = f ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn )
If the normal operating condition are
x and y , then
i=1
df
dxi
1 n d2 f
xi = xi ( xi xi ) +
2! i = 1 dxi 2
2
(
x
x
)
+ ...(HOT )
xi = xi
i
i
y= y+
i =1
df
dxi
xi = xi
( xi xi )
Therefore,
y =
Ax
i
i=1
where
f
Ai =
xi
xi = xi
Example
The output y and input x of a device are related
by y = x + 0.4 x 3
(a). Find the values of the output for steady-state
operation at the two operating point x 0 = 1
and xo = 2
(b). Obtain a linearized model for both operation points.
y (1 ) = 1 + 0 . 4 = 1 . 4
y ( 2 ) = 2 + 0 .4 8 = 5 .2
y y0 =
y
x
x = x0
( x x 0 ) = (1 + 1 . 2 x 0 2 )( x x 0 )
y 1.4 = (1 + 1.2)( x 1)
= 2.2( x 1)
y = 2.2 x 0.8
10
8
y = 5.8 x 6.4
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
0.5
1.5
2.5
Remark:
Consider the following dynamic system
x& = f ( x, u )
with
f (0,0) = 0
where
f
f
A=
, and B =
u x = 0, u = 0
x x = 0, u = 0
z2 = ax2 + sin x1
then, the new state equations are
z&1 = 2 z1 + z2
z&2 = 2 z1 cos z1 + cos z1 sin z1+ au cos(2 z1 )
Electrical
Systems
Magnetic
Systems
Typical Control
Systems
Thermal
Systems
Hydraulic
Systems
System A
Energy port
System B
Sink
Source
Effort
System
(power = currentvoltage)
voltage
power
out
e
ideal flow source
f
f
power
out
e1
e1
f a = f dt
0
= ( e)
q = i dt
=c v
c
Energy
Capacitor
t
U = ef dt
0
fa
= e df a
0
fa
U = e df a
0
1 2
q
2c
ea = e dt
0
= ( f )
= e dt
Inductor
= Li
f
T*
Energy
t
T = ef dt
ea
T = f dea
ea
1 2
=
2L
= f dea
T
ea
e
U*
0
U
fa
e = ( f )
v=iR
Resistor
G+J
e f = e df + f de
=
+
G
dissipator
J
dissipator
content
co - content
= e df + f de
=
R 2 1 &2
q& +
2
2R
= Fqi
dt q&i qi
where qi denotes the generalized coordinate and Fq denotes
i
the generalized force relative to coordinate qi .
Example
x
k
F(t)
m
b
1 2
1 2
T = mx& , U = kx , L = T U , Fqi = Fx bx&
2
2
Equation of motion:
d L L
= Fqi
dt q&i qi
m&x& + kx = Fx bx&
e
f
f1
f2
f1
2
f
e1
1
e1
e2
f = f1 = f 2
e = e 1 + e2
f2
2
e2
f = f1 + f 2
e = e 1 = e2
e1
1
en
n
ek
k
f
ek = 0
k =1
n
n
fk = 0
k =1
System Modelling
Interconnective
Constrains
Compatibility of
effort
Continuity of
flow
Constitutive
relation
State
space
equations
Dynamical
relation
Mathematical
model
Differential
equations
Example
Constitutive relations
p = m vm , Fk = k xk , Fb = b vb
Dynamical relation
x&k = vk , p& = Fm
F(t)
m
b
Interconnection
F (t ) = Fk + Fb + Fm continuity of flow
v = vm = vb = vk
compatibility of effort
p
m
&
p
m
x& = 1
k
m
Output equation
p
y = [0 1]
xk
k p 1
x + 0 F ( t )
0 k
Mechanical
system
flow
current: i
effort
voltage: v
flow store
capacitance: C
v =
force: f
velocity: v
i
sC
q = i dt
= Cv
mass: M
v =
f
sM
P = f dt
= Mv
effort store
inductance: L
dissipater
resistance: R
v = sLi
v=IR
= v dt
= Li
spring: K
v =
sf
K
x = v dt
f
=
K
damper: B
v =
f
B
System
flow
effort
flow store
Fluid system flow rate: Q pressue diff.: fluid capacitance:
P
C
f
P =
Q
sC f
V = Q dt
= C f P
effort store
fluid inertia: Lf
dissipater
fluid resistance: Rf
P = sL f Q
P1 / = R f Q
= P dt
= Lf Q
[1, 2]
= 1, Re < 1100
laminar flow
= 2, Re > 105
turbulence
Thermal
system
heat flow
rate: q
temperature
thermal
diff.: T
capacitance: Ct
T =
q
sCt
H = q dt
= Ct T
thermal resistance: Rt
T =
lq
= Rt q
cA
q
A
Example
Vo ( s )
Determine the transfer function (
) of the following network.
Vin ( s )
R2
+
Vin
_
+
C
C
R1
Vo
_
R2
i1
C
+
Vin
_
Vo
i2
R1
1
1
i1 + (i1 i2 ) + R2i1 = 0
sc
sc
1
i1 =
i2
2 + scR2
2 sc + s 2 c 2 R2
i2 =
Vin
1 + scR2 + 2 scR1 + scR1 R2
sc
i1 =
Vin
1 + scR2 + 2 scR1 + scR1 R2
1
Vo = i1 + R1i2
sc
Vo ( s )
1 + 2 scR1 + s 2c 2 R1R2
=
Vin ( s ) 1 + sc( R2 + 2 R1 ) + s 2c 2 R1R2
1
2
3
4
DC Motor
Armature-Controlled DC Motor
Laplace Transform
The Laplace transform exists for linear differential equation for which the
transformation integral converges. Therefore, for f(t) to be transformable,
it is sufficient that
t
f (t ) e 1 dt <
for some real, positive 1. If f (t ) < Met for all positive t, the integral will
converge for > 1 > , and 1 is known as the abscissa of absolute
convergence. The Laplace transformation for a function of time, f(t), is
F ( s ) = f (t )e st dt = L{ f (t )} .
0
2j j
Transformation
p()
M 1
P()
()
L()
()
()
L1 ()
()
Example
Consider the following dynamic equation
dy
d2y
M 2 + f
+ Ky = r (t )
dt
dt
(
0
)
dy
) + f ( sY ( s ) y (0 )) + KY ( s ) = R ( s )
M ( s 2Y ( s ) sy (0 )
dt
Ea ( s ) = R ( s ) B( s ) = R( s ) H ( s )Y ( s )
Y ( s ) = G ( s ) Ea ( s )
= G ( s )[ R( s ) H ( s )Y ( s )]
Y ( s )[1 + G ( s ) H ( s )] = G ( s ) R( s )
Y ( s)
G( s)
=
R( s ) 1 + G ( s ) H ( s )
Signal-flow Graphs
The method consists of drawing a set of interconnected nodes,
which represents the signals in the system. The lines
connecting the nodes are the branches and show the signal
flow in the system. The signal at a node is the sum of all
incoming signals and is transmitted to the other parts of the
system by the outgoing branches.
G6
node:
a variable or signal
branch:
gain of branch:
source
forward
path
G 2 node G 5
1
gain
G1
G3
loop
G4
source (I/P):
sink (O/P):
path:
forward path:
loop:
path gain:
loop gain:
branch
y
sink
Masons Rule
The input-output transfer function associated with a signalflow graph is given by
Y( s )
1 N
M( s ) =
=
Gi ( s ) i ( s )
U ( s ) ( s ) i =1
where
Gi : path gain of the ith forward path
: 1-(all individual loop gains)+ (gain products of all
possible two loops that do not touch)- (gain products of
all possible three loops that do not touch)+ .
i : value of for that part of the block diagram that does
not touch the ith forward path
Example
G6
u
source
gain
G1
G2
G3
forward
path
node G
1
5
loop
branch
G4
G I = G5G2G1 ,
G II = G6G1
= 1 G3G1 G4G2G1
I = 1,
II = 1
G5G2G1 + G6G1
G=
1 G3G1 G4G2G1
y
sink
Example
-,