RSO Class PDF

CourseBook
RadiationSafetyOfficer
RadiationSafetyOfficerRefresher
NevadaTechnicalAssociates
P.AndrewKaram,Ph.D.,CHP
(585)2474510(voiceandfax)
paksbi@rit.edu
TableofContents
1ABRIEFHISTORYOFRADIATIONPROTECTION ........................................................ 4
2RADIATIONPROTECTIONBASICS................................................................................. 10
3 NATURALLY OCCURRING RADIATION AND RADIOATIVITY................................... 21
4THEBIOLOGICALEFFECTSOFIONIZINGRADIATION........................................... 26
5RADIATIONDETECTORSANDDOSIMETERS ............................................................. 40
6 RESPONDING TO RADIOLOGICAL INCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES...................... 46
710 CFRPART19 ..................................................................................................................... 57
810CFRPART20 ..................................................................................................................... 66
910CFRPART40 ................................................................................................................... 154
10EXAMPLESOFCOMMONPROCEDURES.................................................................. 216
11RUNNINGANEFFECTIVEHEALTHPHYSICSPROGRAM................................... 245
COURSESLIDES..................................................................................................................... 272
APPENDIXA:GLOSSARYOFTERMINOLOGY ............................................................. 386

APPENDIX B: HOW NUCLEAR REACTORS WORK ......................................................... 390
APPENDIX C: THE NATURAL NUCLEAR REACTOR IN OKLO ..................................... 417
APPENDIX D: REGULATORY GUIDE 8.36 - RADIATION DOSE TO THE
EMBRYO/FETUS ...................................................................................................................... 425
ABRIEFHISTORYOFRADIATIONPROTECTION
Thestudyofradiationbeganwiththediscoveryofxraysin1895.Theinitial
experimentersdidnotrealizethepotentialadverseeffectsofradiationduetoalackof
experiencewithit.Theynotedthatxrayscouldpenetratematterandexpose
photographicplates,evenwhilebeinginvisibleandassumedthattheypresentedaunique
waytodiagnoseandtreatdiseasesfromwithinthebody.Intheabsenceofanyimmediate
physicaleffects(withtheexceptionofreddeningoftheskin)itwasassumedthatthere
wouldbenoadversebiologicaleffectsfromthistreatment.
Ittookonlyafewyearstodiscoverthatxrayscould,indeed,causebodilyharminlarge
enoughdosespromptingradiationuserstobegintouseshielding.Thefield,however,
wasstillinitsinfancyandresearcherssimplyhadnothadthetimetoamasssufficient
informationtoreallycometoanyunderstandingabouttheeffectsofexposuretoxrays.In
theabsenceofanynegativeinformation,doctorsandthepublicwentunderthe
assumptionthatexposuretoxrayswasmorebeneficialthanharmful.
Inaclassicexperimentinthatsameyear,aphysicistdecidedtodetermineforhimself
whetherornotxrayscouldcauseburns.Inthisexperiment,ElihuThompsonexposedhis
littlefingertoxraysforashorttimeeachdayuntiltheskinstartedtoreddenandhis
fingerbecamepainful.Bysodoing,hedeterminedthatlowdosesofxrayscancause
cumulativeharmthatmaynotappearforsometime.Discoveryofevenlongerterm
effects,delayedcancers,wasyearsinthefuture,leadingtothegeneralperceptionthat,so
longastherewasnoshorttermeffect,therewasnorisk.(Incidentally,aroundthistime,a
commonmethodofcalibratingxraymachineswastoplaceoneshandinthepathofthe
beamuntiltheskinbegantoredden.)
Thenextseveralyearssawincreasinguseofxraysandradiationforavarietyof
treatments.Xrayswereusedfortreatmentoftuberculosis,chronicachesandpains,
criminalbehavior,andtoremovewomensunwantedfacialhair.Thislastusealonekept
manyplasticsurgeonsinbusinessforanumberofyears.Evenlegitimateusesofxrays,
suchasdiagnosticimaging,ledtogreatoverexposurefrompoorlyshieldedmachines,
inefficientfilmemulsions,andalackofconcernfordosereduction.
Addingtotheexposureproblemwasthelackofpersonneldosimetry,thelackofa
standardunitforthemeasurementofradiationdose,thelackofanyquantitative
measurementsrelatingradiationdosewithbiologicaldamage,andthelackofexposure
limits.Withoutanymethodofmeasuringtheexposurereceivedandwithoutevena
standardunitofmeasurement,noradiationprotectionwasevenpossibleatthistime.This
4
overexposurewasmoreofaconcernforthetechnicianwhoworkedwiththeequipment
dailythanforthepatient,butbothwere(bytodaysstandards)overexposedroutinely.
By1904radiumhadbeendiscoveredandwashailed,asxrayshadbeen,asanewmedical
miracle.Radiumbearingmedicineswereacommontreatmentforavarietyofproblems
thatwouldexpandoverthenext30yearstoincludeover160ailments,including,
ironically,lethargy,impotence,andbaldness1.Someradiumlacedproductsthatwere
soldduringthistimeframeweretoothpastes,hairtonics,skincreams,andwater
treatmentunitsthatinfusedradiumorthoriumintodrinkingwaterasapreventative
medicine.Anotherpopularuseforradiumwasinthepaintingofluminouswatchdials.
Studiesdoneinthemid1920srevealedmanycasesofdeathfromradiumpoisoningin
boththeradiumwatchdialpainters,mostlyyounggirls,andamongtheregularusersof
radiumbearingnostrums.Theseinvestigationsgenerallyhadlittleeffectontheofficial
perceptionofthedangersofradiumuntilthedeathofafamousindustrialist,EbenByers,
in1934fromradiumpoisoning.ByershadbeendrinkingamedicinenamedRadiothorin
anefforttoimprovehisvirility,consuminganaverageof8uCidailyforseveralyears.
Thisresultedinanuntimelyandhorribledeathandledtothebanningofradiuminany
consumerproductsin1936.Theestimatedbodyburdenoftheradiumwatchdialpainters
rangedupto36uCi,ascomparedwithtodayslegalbodyburdenlimitof0.1uCi.This
providedthefirstdefinitelinkbetweenradioactivematerialsandcancer.
Inthemidandlate1920scametheadoptionofastandardunitofmeasurement(the
Roentgen),radiationdetectionequipment,andthefirstrecommendeddoselimitsof200
mr/day.Thisdoselimitwasbasedonreceivingonetenthofthedosethatwasneededto
produceskinerythema(reddeningoftheskin).Thisdoselimitrecommendationwas
repeatedin1931bytheNationalBureauofStandards.In1932,recognizingthevarying
tolerancesofdifferentpartsofthebodytoradiation,itwassuggestedthatthedailydose
limitbe100mrtothewholebodyor500mrtothehands.In1949,thiswasreducedeven
furtherbytheNationalCouncilonRadiationProtection(NCRP)to300mr/wkand,in
1956,thecurrentlimitsof5REM/yrtothewholebodyforoccupationallyexposed
individualsand0.5REM/yrforeveryoneelsewasadopted.
ThefieldofHealthPhysicswasofficiallybornin1942whenaphysicistfortheManhattan
Project,ErnestWollen,wasassignedthetaskofdeterminingtheeffectsofradiationon
Projectworkers,recommendingpropertechniquestocontroltheirexposure,andto
developreliablemethodsofmeasuringthisexposure.Theresultwas,inthespaceofjusta
fewyears,amassingenoughinformationtofoundanewprofessionandtolaythe
groundworkforyearsofstudies.
1
The irony is that excessive radiation exposure can cause hair loss, temporary sterility, and lethargy.

FollowingtheatomicbombingofJapan,ManhattanProjectscientistsweredispatchedto
HiroshimaandNagasakitostudytheeffectsofradiationonhumansoverbothshortterm
andlongtermtimeframes.Otherhealthphysicistscoveredtheatomicandhydrogen
bombtestsinNevadaandinthePacific,studyingtheeffectsoftheexplosions,the
immediateradiation,andthefalloutonplantandanimallife,includingtheireffectson
humans.Fromthesestudies,aswellasfromaccidentalreleasesoffissionproductsand
frommorelaboratorywork,ourpresentlimitsforexposuretoradiationandradioactive
isotopeswerederived.Mostoftodaysexposureandconcentrationlimitsareadirect
resultoftheworkdonebytheManhattanProjecthealthphysicists.
Thereisstillongoingresearchwithrespecttotherecommendedradiationlimits.The
Chernobylaccidentyieldedalargeamountofdataontheeffectsofradiationdoseson
humans,andreassessmentsoftheradiationreleasefromtheatomicbombsisstillgoing
on,aswell.Therehasbeenmoreresearchdoneontheeffectsofionizingradiationthanon
anytoxicsubstanceandthereismoreknownaboutradiationseffectsonhumansthan
aboutanyotherharmfulphenomenon.
Itisalsointerestingtonotethat,despiteradiationsbeingundetectabletooursenses,itis
moreeasilydetectedthanvirtuallyanyothersubstanceknown.Radiationdetectorscan
reliablydetect,dependingontheisotope,aslittleas1023gramsofradioactivematerial.
Thestandardsthatwefollowandtheradiationlimitstowhichweadherearebasedupon
nearlyacenturyoftrialanderror.Mostofthepracticesofthepastseemridiculous,
antiquated,naive,orjustplainstupidwithourcurrentknowledgeoftheeffectsof
radiationandradioactivity.However,withoutthisstupidityandnaivetewemightstillbe
blissfullyunawareofthepotentialhazardsofradiation.EbenByersandtheradiumwatch
dialpaintersdiedprematurelyandhorriblybuttheirdeathsledtostudiesthat
emphasizedtheimportanceofminimizingbodyburdensofradiumand,byextension,of
allradioisotopes.Theatomicbombsurvivorssufferedgreatlybutthissufferingledtoa
muchmorethoroughunderstandingoftheshortandlongtermeffectsofradiationonthe
bodyand,shortlythereafter,theadoptionofnewandlowerstandardsforradiation
exposure.
Despiteanyclaimsthathavebeenmadeoverthedecades,radiationisnotourfriend.
However,neitherisitanenemy.Itismoreanalogoustoatablesaworamillingmachine
ausefultoolthat,ifnottreatedwiththeproperrespect,willinjureorkillthosewhouseit
withouttherespectthatitisdue.
ABriefChronologyofRadiationPracticesAndStandards
1784 W.Morganproduces(butdoesnotrecognize)xraysinanexperimentwitnessed
byBenjaminFranklin
1895 Roentgendiscoversxrays(Nov)
1896 Becquereldiscoversradioactivity(Feb)
firstdocumenteddamagetoeyesfromxrays(Mar)
firstuseofprotectiveshielding(July)
firstdocumentedskinburnsfromxrays
public exhibition at Central Park in NY lets people use a fluoroscope to view

internalbodyparts
1897 xray baths used in treatment of tuberculosis, criminal behavior, and other
ailments
xray therapy used for removal of unwanted facial hair in women results in
scarringanddisfigurement
1898 firstuseofprotectiveglovesforxraytechnicians
1899 firstmalpracticeawardgivenformisuseofxraytherapy
1901 firstallegedlethalityfromoverexposuretoxrays
firstdocumentedskinburnfromradioactivematerial
1904 firstdeathattributedtocumulativeoverexposuretoxrays
introductionofradiumandradiumbasedmedicinesforpersonaluse
1907 firstfilmbadgeusedforpersonalmonitoring
1913 first use of radioactive tracers in research (lead compounds used in solubility
research)
1924 investigationofradiumwatchdialpaintersearlycaseofradiumpoisoningand
radiuminducedcancerspaintershadbodyburdensofupto36uCi
1925 firstrecommendeddailyxraydoselimitof200mr/day
1928 adoptionoftheRoentgenastheunitofradiationexposure
1930s use of water irradiators to infuse radium and thoriuminto water for health
resultedinupto0.026uCi/yrofbodyburden(26,000pCi/yr)
1931 firstnationaldoselimitof200mr/day
1932 industrialist Eben Byers died after consuming 8 uCi/day of Radiothor, a New
andEffectiveRemedy(pertheAMA)forseveralyears
1934 FDAoutlawstheuseofradiuminfood,drink,anddrugs
firstuseofradioactivetracersinhumanresearch(P32)
foot fluoroscopy becomes popular, remains so through the 1950s until linked
withcancersgavedosesinthetensofREM,causedsomeskinburns
1936 alloweddoselimitloweredto100mr/day
USFDAnotedincreasedsalesofradiumcontaininghealthandbeautyproducts
1940s avarietyofradioactivetabletsandnostrumssoldascuresforupto160various
ailments,includingimpotence
radiumandthoriumfoundinhairtonics,skincreamsandothercosmetics,and
chocolatebars
radiumfertilizerusedinU.S.
radiumandthoriumtoothpastesintroducedbyGermans
1941 introductionofbodyburdenlimitsforradium
recommendeddoselimitloweredto20mr/day
1942 the field of Health Physics born with the appointment of Ernest Wollan (a
ManhattanProjectphysicist)tostudythebiologicaleffectsofradiation
19421950 Manhattan Project scientists develop first good survey instruments, study
effects of radiation and radioactive elements on humans, gather dose effect and
bodyburdeninformation,andmore
recommended treatmentfor accidentalentry ofplutonium into a cut orscratch

wasimmediatehighamputationoftheaffectedlimb
19451946 studies of Japanese atomic bomb survivors led to first statistically valid
exposurelimits
1950s abovegroundnuclearbombtestingandfalloutscaresheightenpublicopposition
toanyusesofradioactiveisotopes
1955 firstcommercialnuclearreactorbuilt
1956 firstnuclearsubmarinebuilt
1960s increased push for the Atoms for Peace and Operation Plowshare programs to
lowerpublicoppositiontonuclearpoweranduseofradiationinresearch
1960s aboominorderingofciviliannuclearpowerplants
1979 ThreeMileIslandaccidentandgrowingpublicantinuclearsentimentshutdown
domesticnuclearpowerindustry
1986 Chernobylaccident
beginningsofpublicconcernwithrespecttoradonlevelsindwellings
Today people still drink radioactive water from hot springs and visit mines to breathe
radonfortheirhealth
thorium, americium, uranium, and other radioactive elements still used, or

appearascontaminants,innumerousconsumerproducts
useofradioactiveisotopesinnuclearmedicineandforresearchcontinuestobe
valuable
growingbodyofknowledgepointstopossiblethresholdorhormesis(beneficial)
effectsofexposuretolowlevelsofradiationresearchcontinues
RADIATIONPROTECTIONBASICS
ReviewofAtomicStructureandtheBasicTypesofRadiation
Atomsarethefundamentalunitsofmatter.Theybondtogethertoformchemical
compounds.Thesizesofatomsrangefromonetenthofanangstromtonearlytwo
angstroms(108A=1cm).
Atomicnucleiarecomposedofprotonsandneutrons.Thenumberofprotonspresent
determinesanatomschemicalproperties.Protonsallhaveapositivecharge,sotheytend
torepeleachotherelectrically.Becauseofthis,neutronsareneededtohelpholdanatom
togetherneutronscarrythestrongnuclearforcethatovercomestheelectrostatic
repulsionoftheprotons.Thestrongnuclearforcehasaveryshortrangeso,asanatom
increasesinsize,moreneutronsareneededtostabilizethenucleus.Whenneutronsare
addedtoorsubtractedfromanatomicnucleus,theenergylevelofthenucleusisaltered
andtheatommaybecomeunstable.So,forexample,acarbonatomwith6protonsand6
neutronsisstablecarbon12whileacarbonatomwith6protonsand8neutronsis
unstablecarbon14.Carbon12and14arecalledtwoisotopesofcarbonbecausetheyhave
thesamenumberofprotonsbutdifferentnumbersofneutrons.
Thetwomostimportantintrinsicpropertiesoftheseparticlesaretheirmassandtheir
electricchargeasthesebothhaveabearingontheirinteractionswithmatterandtheir
abilitytocausedamage.Thehigherthechargeandthemoremassthataparticlecontains,
themoredamagethatitcando.
Electronsandpositronsarethelightestoftheseparticles.Theycarryachargeof12and
haveamassofonetwothousandththatoftheprotonorneutron.Theycaninteractwith
mattereitherbydirectionization,orbybremsstralung.Highenergyelectronsarereferred
toasbetaradiation.
Directionizationconsistsofanelectronstrikinganatomandknockinglooseoneofthat
atomselectrons.Thiscreatesanionpair(apositivelychargedatomandanegatively
chargedelectron)thatcangoontocausemoreionizationswithinthecell.Bremsstralung
isGermanforbrakingradiationandiscausedbyanelectronpassingneartoaheavy
atom.Theatomandelectroninteractelectrostatically,theatomdeflectingtheelectron
2
Positrons are the anti-matter equivalents of electrons identical in all ways, but with a positive electrical charge.
When positrons meet normal electrons, they annihilate each other, converting their mass into energy and emitting
twin gamma ray photons, each with an energy of 511 keV
10
whichgivesoffradiation(usuallyinthexrayregion)asitchangescourse.Athinlead
shieldthatisplacedaroundabetasourcewillshieldallofthebetaradiationbutwillemit
xraysduetobremsstralung.Betaradiationisweaklypenetratingandusuallyconstitutes
askindoseonly,althoughthelensoftheeyeisalsosusceptible.Duetoitslowmassand
chargeof1,thebetacan(andshould)beshieldedbyplastic.
Thenumberofionizationscausedbybetaradiationisproportionaltotheenergy(velocity)
ofthebetaradiationandtothemassoftheatomsthatitispassingthrough.So,ingeneral,
higherenergybetaparticleswillcausemoreionizationsandthosethatareinteractwith
heavieratomswillcausemorebremstralungxrays.
Anothertypeofparticulateradiationisthealphaparticle.Alphaparticlesarehelium
atomsthathavehadtheirelectronsremoved,givingthemachargeof+2.Theyarealso
massivewithamassof4amu.Thismeansthattheyarecapableofcausingmoredamage
thananyotherformofradiation,andalsothattheyarefarlesspenetrating.Apieceof
paperisanadequatealphashieldandtheygenerallycannotpenetratethedeadlayerof
skinthatweallhave.Thesepropertiesmakealphaparticlesaconcernforinternaldose
becausetheycausealotofdamagetolivingcells,buttheyarenotanexternalrisk.
Athirdformofradiationisthegammaray,ahighenergyphotonthatisgivenoffby
atomicnucleithathavebeenexcitedbybetaemission,neutroncapture,electroncapture,
orsomeothermeans.Mostradioactivedecayswillproducegammaradiation.Anatomic
nucleuscontainsprotonsandneutronsindiscreteenergystates,muchliketheelectrons
surroundingit.Duringradioactivedecay,thedecayparticlescarryoffenergy.Unlessthis
energyistheexactamountneededfortransitiontothenextlowerenergylevel,the
nucleusisstillinanexcitedstate.Thenucleuswilldeexcitebyemissionofagamma
containingtheenergydifferencebetweentheenergystatethatthenucleusisinandthe
nextlowerenergylevel.Thereareafewnuclides,suchastritium(H3)thatemitaparticle
containingtheexactamountofradiationthatisrequiredforthistransitiontoastable
configuration;therestofthenuclideswillemitgammaradiationwhentheydecay.
Gammashavenomassandnochargeandinteractbyeitherdirectcollisionwithelectrons,
knockingthemoutoftheirorbits(thephotoelectriceffect),productionofan
electronpositronpairifitpassesnearaheavynucleus(pairproduction),orbyabsorption
andreemissionbyanatom,usuallyinadifferentdirectionandatadifferentenergy
(Comptonscattering).Photonsinteractveryweaklywithmatterandarebestshieldedby
densematerialssuchaslead.Photons,alongwithneutrons,areconsideredtobea
wholebodydoseastheywillpenetratethroughtheentirebody.
11
RadioactiveDecay
Theusualreasonforanatomtobeunstableiseitheranexcessoradeficitofneutronsin
thenucleus.Theneutronsprovidetheforcewhichkeepsthepositivelychargedprotons
fromrepellingeachotherandrippingtheatomsapart.Anatomwithaninsufficient
numberofneutronsismorelikelytodecayradioactively,asisanatomwithanexcessive
numberofneutrons.Inaddition,whenatomsreachacertainsize,thedistanceacrossthe
atombecomesgreatwithrespecttotherangeoftheforcethatistryingtoholdthem
together.Thismakestheseelementsmorelikelytobeunstable.Thetwomajordecay
mechanismsforverylargeatomsarealphaemission(givingofftwoprotonsandtwo
neutrons)andspontaneousfission(breakingintotwoormorepartsofsimilarsize).The
bestwaytogiveanelementanexcessofneutronsistobombarditwithneutronsfroma
neutrongeneratororintheinteriorofanuclearreactor.
Themajordecaymodeforlighteratomsiseitherbetaemissionorelectroncapture.Inbeta
emission,theunstableatomwillemitanelectronorapositron(or+)fromaneutronor
aproton,givingtheneutronanetpositivechargeandturningitintoaprotonorturninga
protonintoaneutron.Eitherofthesewillchangetheatomfromoneelementtoanother
sincethechemicalpropertiesofanelementareduetothenumberofprotonsthatthe
nucleuscontains.
Anothermethodofreleasingenergyfromatomsisintheformofhighenergyphotons,
knownasgammaradiation.Anychangeinthenuclearstructureofanatomshouldresult
intheemissionofagammaasthenucleusrevertstoalessexcitedenergystate.The
energyofthegammadependsupontheexcitationstateofthenucleusandonwhetherthe
nucleusdeexcitesbyemittingonegammaorseveral.Onoccasion,too,theemissionofa
gammafromthenucleuswillknockanorbitalelectronout,turningtheatomintoanion
pair.TheseelectronsareknownasAuger(pronouncedozhay)electrons.
Yetanothercommonmeansforradioactivedecayiscalledelectroncapture.Thisoccurs
whenanucleuscapturesanorbitalelectron,mergingitwithaprotontoformaneutron.
This,too,willchangetheatomicnumberandusuallyresultsintheemissionofagamma.
TYPE
MASS
CHARGE PENETRATING RELATIVE SHIELDING
(amu)
ABILITY
DAMAGE
alpha
4
+2
verylow
20
skin,paper
beta
~0.005
1
low
1
clothing,plastic
gamma
0
0
high
1
lead,water
12
MethodsofRadiationExposureControl
Therearethreebasicmethodsforreducingtheradiationdosethatisreceived;time,
distance,andshielding.
Timeislargelyselfexplanatory.Thelesstimethatisspentinthevicinityofaradiation
source,thelessexposurewillbereceived.Methodsofreducingtheamountoftimethatis
spentinaradiationfieldincluderapidtransitthroughtheareasofhighestradiationlevels,
preplanningofanyactivitiesthataretotakeplaceintheradiationfield,practicingon
mockupsofaworkareapriortotheworktobedoneinordertoimprovefamiliaritywith
theprocedure,andthoroughtrainingpriortoperforminganywork.
Distanceisanotherfactorthatcanbeusedinreducingradiationdose.Theintensityofa
radiationsource,forthemostpart,fallsoffasthesquareofthedistancefromthatsource.
Therefore,ifyoudoubleyourdistanceyouwillreduceyouexposurebyafactoroffour.
Waystoutilizedistanceincludefamiliaritywiththeworkarea,allowingfordose
reductionbyskirtingthehigherradiationlevelsandhotspots,workingasfaraspossible
fromthehottestareas,orremovingitemsfromthehighestradiationareas(ifpossible)for
workinanareawithlowerradiationlevels.
Shieldingisthefinalmajormethodusedtoreducethereceiveddose.Anymaterialwill
providesomeamountofshielding.Themorematerialthatisbetweenyouandthesource
oftheradiation,thelowerwillbethedosethatyoureceive.Densermaterialprovides
bettershieldingthanlightermaterialdoesforbetaandgammaradiation.Neutronisbest
shieldedbyhydrogenousmaterial,andalpharadiationcanbeshieldedbyvirtually
anything.Methodsofutilizingshieldingincludehangingtemporaryshieldingaroundany
hotspots(althoughthismaycausemoreradiationexposuretotheinstallersthanissaved
bytheworkers),andmakinguseofinstalledequipmentsuchaspumps,walls,waterfilled
pipes,tanks,andsoontoreducetheintensityoftheradiationfield.
ALARAisatermthatformsthebasisformostradiationsafetypractices.Itstandsfor
keepingyourradiationdoseAsLowAsReasonablyAchievable.Utilizationoftime,
distance,andshieldingisamajorpartofALARA.Theothermajorpartisensuringthat
eachtripintoaradiationareaisreallynecessary.ALARAalsoappliestoinstitutions,as
wellaspeople.Institutionsarerequiredtomaintaintheircumulativeradiationexposure
aslowasreasonableachievable.Therefore,itisinthebestinterestsofeveryonetodowhat
theycantoassistinthisgoal.
13

Physicalinformationforselectedradionuclides
Nuclide
halflife
12.27y
C
Co
5930y
5.27y
8.0d
40
1.28x109y
90
Sr
28.6yrs
14
60
131
Tc
6.0hrs
137
Cs
30.17yrs
222
Rn
3.8days
226
Ra
1600yrs
232
Th
1.4x1010yrs
235
7.04x108yrs
238
4.47x109yrs
238
Pu
87.8yrs
239
Pu
24,100yrs
241
Am
432.2yrs
208
Tl
3.05min
99m
decaymode
(energy)+
(18KeV)
*
(R/hr)/Ci
N/A
(156KeV)
2(1.17,1.33
MeV)
(606KeV)
(364KeV)
(1.31MeV)
(1.46MeV)
(546KeV)
(480KeV)
(141KeV)
N/A
1.37
(512KeV)
(662KeV)
(5.49MeV)
(512KeV)
(4.78MeV)
(186KeV)
(4.01MeV)
(12KeV)
(4.40MeV)
(186KeV)
(4.20MeV)
(13KeV)
(5.50MeV)
(13.6KeV)
(5.16MeV)
(13.6KeV)
(5.49MeV)
(13.9KeV)
(1.79MeV)
(2.6MeV)
0.283
formation
method
ncapture,
cosmogenic
cosmogenic
ncapture
0.0790
fission
fragment
primordial
NORM
fission
fragment
99Modecay
(fiss.Frag.)
fission
fragment
238Udecay
series
238Udecay
series
primordial
NORM
primordial
NORM
primordial
NORM
ncapture
0.0301
ncapture
0.314
ncapture
1.70
232
0.0817
0.487
0.123
0.382
2.73x104
0.0121
0.0684
0.339
0.0652
Thdecay
series
Uses
research
research
radiation
therapy
thyroid
treatments
geologic
dating
instrument
checksource
medical
soildensity
gages
patent
medicines
luminous
products
gaslantern
mantles
nuclear
reactorfuel,
militaryuses
(armor,shells)
pacemakers,
RTGs
nuclear
weapons
smoke
detectors
none
+betaenergiesgivenaremaximumdecayenergy,alphaandgammaenergiesarefor
themostprobabledecayenergy
*givengammaconstantreflectsradiationdoseinairasdistanceofonemeter
14
Equationsandcalculations
TheLawofRadioactiveDecay
N t = N o e t
NoandNtarethenumberofatomsofaradioactiveisotopeoriginallyandatanygiven
time(t),istheisotopesdecayconstantandisequaltothenaturallogarithmof2
dividedbythehalflifeoftheisotope,andtistheelapsedtimebetweenthetwo
measurements.
TheLawofRadioactivity
A = N
ThiscanbecombinedwiththeLawofRadioactiveDecaytoproducethefollowing:
A t = A o e t
Radiationattenuationduetoshielding
I sh = I o e ( )( ) x
Radiationdosefromapointsource
D2 = D1
r12
r22
whereD1andD2aretheradiationdoseatdistancesr1andr2,respectively.
Radiationdosefromalinesource
D
L
L
D2 = 1 tan 1 1 + tan 1 2
r1
r
r
whereL1andL2arethedistancefrombothendsofthelinesourcetoaperpendicular
lineextendingtothemeasuringlocation.
15
Radiationdosefromadisk(orplane)source
h2 + r 2
D 2 = D 1 ln
h2
whereristheradiusofthediskandhisthedistancefromthecenterofthedisk.Foran
irregularlyshapedareaaneffectiveradiusiscalculatedbydeterminingtheareaofthe
source,dividingbythree,andcalculatingthesquareroot.
Radiationdoseinairfromradioactivematerial
A
D= 2
r
whereAisthesourceactivityinBqandDisthedoserateinmSv/hr
Doseconversionfactorsandriskfactorsforselectedradionuclides
Nucl IngestionDoseConversion
InhalationDoseConversion RiskFactor
ide
Factor*(mrem/Ci)
Factor+(mrem/Ci)
(Ci1)
3H
0.064(wholebody**)
0.064(wholebody)
3.84x108
14C
2.09(wholebody)
2.09(wholebody)
1.25x106
60Co
26.2(lowerlargeintestinalwall) 208(lung)
1.57x105
131I
88.5(thyroid)
54.5(thyroid)
1.43x105
40K
18.6(stomachwall)
12.3(lungs)
7.46x106
90Sr
115(bonesurface)
1300(lungs)
9.13x104
99mTc
7.41x102(thyroid)
3.02x102(lungs)
1.98x108
137Cs
49.8(wholebody)
31.7(wholebody)
1.91x105
226Ra
831(bonesurface)
8020(lungs,bonesurface)
5.50x103
232Th
1370(bonesurface,redmarrow) 7.83x105(lungs,redmarrow) 6.32x104
235U
5.43x105
101(bonesurface,kidneys)
1.23x105(lungs)
238U
95.5(bonesurface,kidneys)
1.18x105(lungs)
5.07x105
238Pu
1890(liver,bonesurface)
2.28x105(lungs,bone,liver)
8.02x104
239Pu
2080(bonesurface,liver)
8.85x104
241Am
2.62x105(liver,bone,gonads) 9.12x104
*Thisassumesmaximumtransferfractionfromgastrointestinaltracttoblood
+Thisassumeslungresidencetimeofyears(mostconservativeestimate)
**Theorgan(s)namedarethecriticalorgans(theorgansreceivingthehighestdose)
Thedoseconversionfactorgivenisthedosetothewholebodyfromnuclideuptake
16

Radiationunitsandconversionfactors
Anumberofunitsareusedintheradiationprofessions.Theseareusedtomeasure
ratesofradioactivedecay,theamountofradiationabsorbedbyanobject,andthe
biologicaldamagecausedbyexposuretoradiation.SincetheUSisnotyetonthe
metric(SI)system,thereareatleasttwosetsofvaluesforeachunit,andthereare
severalobsoleteunitsthat,officially,arenotusedbutthatstillappear.Thissheetwill
giveabriefdescriptionoftheseunits,exactconversionfactorsfromonetotheother,
androughconversionfactors(forinitialestimates).
Prefixes:BothUSandSIunitsusemultipliersinfrontofunits.Forexample,kmstands
forkilometer,wherethekilo(ork)means1000.Akgis1000grams,acmis0.01
meters,andsoforth.Theseprefixesandtheamountofmultiplicationordivisionthey
representis:
T
Tera
multiplyby1trillion(athousandbillion)
G
Giga
multiplyby1billion
M
Mega
multiplyby1million
k
kilo
multiplyby1000
c
centi
divideby100
m
milli
divideby1000
micro
divideby1million
n
nano
divideby1billion
p
pico
divideby1trillion(athousandbillion)
Radioactivity
Radioactivityisameasureoftherateatwhichatomsdecaybyemittingradiation.Itis
NOTameasureofweightormassthreetonsofdepleteduraniumhasthesamedecay
rate(thesamelevelofradioactivity)asonegramofradium226.Radioactivityis
measuredintermsofdisintegrationsperminute.
Note:ifyouareusingaradiationmeter,youwillalmostalwaysmeasurefewercounts
perminutethantherearedisintegrationsperminute.Thisisbecausevirtuallyall
detectorsmisssomeoftheradiationgivenoff,sothecountrate(whattheinstrument
sees)islessthanwhatthematerialemits.Forexample,ifyouaresprayingsomebody
withahose,onlyapartofthewatercomingoutofthehosenozzlewillhitthatperson).
17
SI:
US:
1Becquerel(Bq)givesadisintegrationrateof1disintegrationpersecond(dps)
1Curie(Ci)givesadisintegrationrateof37billiondps.So1Ci=37billionBq
(37GBq).
Roughlyspeaking, 1Bq
30pCi
30Ci
1MBq
1GBq
30mCi
Radiationdose(anddoserate)
Radiationdosemeasurestheamountofenergydepositedinanobjectbyionizing
radiation.ThisisimportantbecausethisenergydepositioniswhatcancauseDNA
damagethatmaybeharmful.Wespeakofradiationdoseinair,water,humantissue,
andmanyotherobjectsaslongasanobjectisabsorbingenergy,itisreceiving
radiationdose.
OneofthefirstunitsofradiationexposureistheRoentgen(R),whichmeasureshow
muchelectricchargeisgeneratedinairbyionizingradiation.TheRoentgenisnow
consideredanobsoleteunitandisntusedmuchanymore,althoughyoucanstillfind
referencestoit.
1R=exposuretothatamountofradiationindryairatstandardtemperatureand
pressurethatgeneratesanelectricalchargeof2.58*104Coulomb/kg
SI:
1Gray(Gy)=depositionof1Jouleofenergyperkilogramofabsorber
US: 1rad(r)=depositionof100ergsofenergypergramofabsorber
Conversions:
1Gy=100rad
1mGy=0.1rad
1rad=0.01Gy
1mr=10Gy
1R=0.87rad(inwaterortissue)
Doseequivalent:
Somekindsofradiationareinherentlymoredamagingthanothersbecauseofthe
physicalpropertiesoftheradiation.Forexample,alphaparticlesareheavyandhavea
relativelyhighelectricalchargeandcausemoreextensivedamagetoDNAthanbeta
particlesdo,evenwiththesameamountofenergydeposition.Sodepositing100ergs
18
pergramofenergyfromalphaparticlesismoredamagingthandepositing100ergsper
gramofenergyfrombetaparticles.Becauseofthis,eachtypeofradiationhaswhatis
calledaqualityfactor(alsocalledrelativebiologicaleffectiveness)thatrangesfrom1
to20ormore.Multiplyingtheabsorbeddose(seeabove)bythequalityfactorfora
givenradiationwillgivetheequivalentdoseinunitsofremorSieverts(Sv).Or,
mathematically,Sv=GyxQF.
Radiationtype
RBE(orQF)
Gamma
1
xray
1
beta
1
alpha
20
neutrons
520
Conversions:
1Sv=100rem
1rem=0.01Sv
1Sv=0.1mrem
Doserate
Radiationdoserateisameasureofhowquicklyradiationisdepositingradiationinair,
water,ourbodies,oranyotherabsorber.Doseratecanbemeasuredintermsof
absorbeddoseordoseequivalentandinwhateverunitsoftimearemostconvenient.
So,forexample,somemeasuredoserateinmremperhourandothersintermsofmGy
peryear.SincetheunitsoftimearethesameinSIandUSunits,itsonlynecessaryto
converttheunitsofdosementionedabove.
Aradiationdoserateof1mremperhour(1mrem/hr)willgiveapersonaradiation
doseof1mreminanhour.Sincethereareatotalof2000hoursinaworkingyear(50
workingweeksof40hoursperweek),workingeverydayinaradiationfieldof1
mrem/hrwillgiveanannualdoseof2000mrem(or2rem/yror20mSv/yr).Thereare
alsoabout8766hoursinacalendaryear,solivinginabackgroundradiationfieldof
about15rem/hrwillgiveyouadoseof131mrem/yrfrombackgroundradiation.
Conversionfactors:
1mSv/hr=100mrem/hr=0.1rem/hr
1nSv/hr=8.8Sv/yr=0.88mrem/yr
(roughlyspeaking,1nSv/hr1mrem/yr)
1rem/hr=10mSv/hr
19
Doseconversionfactorsandriskfactorsforselectedradionuclides
Nuclide IngestionDoseConversion
InhalationDoseConversion
*
Factor (mrem/Ci)
Factor+(mrem/Ci)
3H
0.064(wholebody**)
0.064(wholebody)
14C
2.09(wholebody)
2.09(wholebody)
60Co
26.2(lowerlargeintestinalwall)
208(lung)
131I
88.5(thyroid)
54.5(thyroid)
40K
18.6(stomachwall)
12.3(lungs)
90Sr
115(bonesurface)
1300(lungs)
99mTc
7.41x102(thyroid)
3.02x102(lungs)
137Cs
49.8(wholebody)
31.7(wholebody)
226Ra
831(bonesurface)
8020(lungs,bonesurface)
232Th
1370(bonesurface,redmarrow)
7.83x105(lungs,redmarrow)
235U
101(bonesurface,kidneys)
1.23x105(lungs)
238U
95.5(bonesurface,kidneys)
1.18x105(lungs)
238Pu
239Pu
2080(bonesurface,liver)
241Am
2.62x105(liver,bone,gonads)
*Thisassumesmaximumtransferfractionfromgastrointestinaltracttoblood
+Thisassumeslungresidencetimeofyears(mostconservativeestimate)
**Theorgan(s)namedarethecriticalorgans(theorgansreceivingthehighestdose)
Thedoseconversionfactorgivenisthedosetothewholebodyfromnuclideuptake
20
NATURALLYOCCURRINGRADIATION
Weareallexposedtoradiationfromnaturalsourcesonacontinuingbasis.Thisnatural
radiationcomesfromfourprimarysources:
1. Radiationfrombiologicallyincorporatedradionuclides
2. Radioactivematerialsingeologicmaterials
3. Cosmicradiationandcosmogenicradionuclides
4. Radonemanatingfromtheground
Onaverage,weareexposedtonearly300mrem/yrfromnaturalsourcesofradiation,
althoughthesevaluescanchangegreatlyfromplacetoplaceintheUSandaroundthe
world.
Naturalradionuclides
Naturallyoccurringradionuclidesfallintothreemajorcategories,thosethatare
primordial,progenyofUandTh,andthosethatareformedbynuclearreactionsin
nature.Primordialradionuclidesincludeisotopesofuranium,thorium,andpotassium.
Uraniumandthorium,inturn,giverisetodecayseriesthatconsistofseveralshorter
livedprogenyradionuclides.Radionuclidesthatareformedcontinuallythrough
naturalprocessesinclude,butarenotlimitedto,3H,10Be,26Al,14C,andotherscalled
cosmogenicradionuclides.Cosmogenicradionuclidesformwhenahighenergycosmic
rayparticlesuchasaprotonorneutronstrikesthenucleusofastableatomandis
capturedorcausestheejectionofneutron(s)and/orproton(s)fromthetargetnuclide.
Oneexampleofthisisthereaction:
14
N + n 14 C + p
14
where Nisthetargetnuclide,nrepresentsaneutron,14Cisthecosmogenicnucleus,
andprepresentsanejectedproton.Thisisknownasannpreactionandis
abbreviated:
14
N ( n, p) 14 C
Othertypesofnuclearreactionsinclude(p,n),(n,),and(n,)reactions.Spallation
reactionsaretheprimaryformationmechanismof3H,arelativelyshortlived
cosmogenicradionuclide(onageologictimescale).Tritiumisformedbythereaction:
21

14
N + n 3 H + 12 C
Othercosmogenicnuclidessuchas10Be,26Al,and36Clalsoformviaspallationreactions.
Radiationfrombiochemistry
Naturalpotassiumcontainsasmallfraction(about0.01%)ofradioactiveK40,which
givesoffeitherahighenergybeta(1.33MeV,89%ofthetime)orahighenergygamma
(1.46MeV,11%ofthetime).Potassiumisalsoavitalnutrient,andourcellsmakeuseof
itforcellsignalingandmore.Thismeansthatwearecontinuallyexposedtoradiation
frominternalpotassium,whichcontributesabout35mrem/yrtoourbackground
radiationdose.RadiationdosefrominternalK40variesaccordingtoanorganisms
size(insmallerorganismssomeoftheradiationmayescape,causinglowerradiation
dose)andaccordingtopotassiumconcentrations.
Ourbiochemistryalsocontainshydrogenandcarbon.Afractionoftheseisotopesare
alsoradioactive,createdbycosmicrayinteractionsintheupperatmosphereas
describedabove.Wereceiveanotherfewmrem/yrfromcosmogenicradionuclides.
Thisformsthebasisofcarbon14dating;bymeasuringtheamountofC14inorganic
material,wecandeterminetheageofthematerialusingthelawofradioactivedecay;
providingweknowwhattheoriginalC14activitywas.Onaverage,humansreceive
about40mrem/yrfrombiologicallyincorporatedradionuclides,andthisvariesonly
slightlyfrompersontoperson.
Radiationfromgeologicmaterials
Potassiumisapartofmanyrocksandmineralsandispresentinvirtuallyallsoilsatup
toafewpercentbyweight.Uraniumandthoriumarealsopresentinmostrocksand
soils,althoughinlesserconcentrationsusuallyonlyafewpartspermillion.However,
UandTharechemicallysimilartocalciumandsimilarelements,sotheyarepresentin
tracequantitiesinvirtuallyallrocksintheworld.Asrocksweatherandage,they
becomesoil,sotheelementspresentinrockareusuallypresentinthesoilderivedfrom
thatrock.
AsUandThdecaytowardsstablePb206theydosoviaaseriesofradioactiveisotopes
suchasradium,radon,andbismuth(tonameafew).Thismeansthat,inmostcases,
rockscontaininguraniumwillalsocontainanumberofotherradioactiveelements,and
thesecanbedetectedinacarefulanalysis.
Geologicalandgeochemicalprocessescanleadtowidevariationsinlocal
concentrationsoftheseelements.Forexample,basalticrocksmaycontainonlyafew
22
tenthsofappmofuraniumwhileuraniumorecancontainnearlypureuranium.
Similarly,illiteclaymaycontain7%potassiumbyweight,whilethemineralsylvite
(KCl)isover50%potassium.Ingeneral,radioactiveelements(K,U,Th)arelargeions
and,assuch,theyareconcentratedinlightcoloredrockssuchasgranites.Owingto
uraniumsinsolubilityinanoxicconditions,Uisalsoconcentratedinrocksthatformed
intheabsenceofoxygen,suchascoalsanddarkshales.Thenetresultisthatradiation
dosefromgeologicmaterialscanvarywidelythroughouttheworld,fromabout10
mrem/yrinsomeareastoover20rem/yrinothers3.
Perhapsthemostextremeexampleofelevatednaturalradiationfromgeologic
materialswasfound2billionyearsagoinwhatisnowOklo,Gabon(inwesternAfrica).
Localgeochemistryledtoveryrichuraniummineralizationthat,intime,causedaself
sustainingnuclearchainreactionanaturalnuclearreactor.TheOkloreactoroperated
offandonforatleastamillionyearsbeforebeingexhausted,andradiationlevelsinthe
coreprobablyreachedtensorhundredsofremperhourwhenitwasinoperation.
AppendixCcontainsmoreinformationabouttheOkloreactoranditsoperating
characteristics.
Theselattercasesareextreme,however.Ingeneral,weareexposedtoanaveragedose
of28mrem/yrfromgeologicsouresintheUSandCanada.
Radon
OneofthedecayproductsofU238isradon222,aradioactivenoblegas.Radon
emanatesfromthegroundwhereitcanbebreathedin.Radonalsodecaystoalpha
emittingprogenynuclides,soinhalingasingleradonatomcanlead,ultimatelytoupto
4alphadecaysinthelungsbeforereachingstability.
Sinceradoncomesfromthedecayofgeologicuranium,radonconcentrationswillvary
accordingtolocalgeology.Ingeneral,radondosewillbehigherinareasthatare
underground,poorlyventilated,andinareaswithhighlevelsofuraniumintherocks.
Onaverage,wereceiveabout200mrem/yrfromradoninhalation.
Cosmicradiation
Thefourthsourceofnaturalradiationcomesfromouterspace;cosmicradiationfrom
thesunandthegalaxy.Thesunproducesenergybyfusinghydrogeninitscore.This
3
Ramsar Iran is the most extreme example of high radiation levels. In Ramsar, radium is brought to the surface
from subterranean igneous rocks and is concentrated into freshwater limestone, where it substitutes for calcium.
Homes are built from this rock, and some homes have radiation levels of up to 14 mrem/hr on contact with walls.
General area radiation levels in parts of Ramsar were measured by me to be over 2 mrem/hr both in homes and in
open areas outside.
23
reactionisveryclosetowhathappensinahydrogenbomb,butonahugelylargerscale.
Theamountofenergyproducedbyhydrogenfusioninthesunscoreheatsthesunand
drivessolaractivityasitmakesitswaytothesunssurfaceandintospace.
Thesurfaceofthesunismuchcoolerthanthecore,butitisstilltremendouslyhotby
ourstandardsabout6000degreescentigrade.Partlybecauseofthishightemperature,
gasfromthesuniscontinuallydrivenoffintospace;wecallthisthesolarwind.The
solarwindissimplyprotons(thenucleiofhydrogenatoms),neutrons,electrons,and
alphaparticles(thenucleiofheliumatoms)thesamematerialsthesunismadeof
thattravelthroughspaceatvelocitiesofhundredsofkilometerspersecond,andsome
ofthissolarwindreachestheEarthasonecomponentofcosmicradiation(therestof
cosmicradiationcomesfromoutsidethesolarsystemandiscalledgalacticcosmicrays,
orGCRs).TheEarthsmagneticfieldhelpstoshieldusfrommuchofthesuns
radiation,funnelingtheelectrons,protons,andalphaparticleintoradiationbeltsthat
surroundourplanetinsteadoflettingthemreachtheground.Ouratmospherealso
providesfairlysubstantialshielding,againstthecosmicraysthatpenetratethe
magneticfield.
Inadditiontohotgas,thesunssurfaceisalsopenetratedbymagneticfields,asisthe
Earthssurface(althoughtheEarthsmagneticfieldisnotnearlyasstrong).Inplaces,
thesolarmagneticfieldisstrongerthaninothers,andinsomeoftheseplaces,the
magneticfieldlinesofforcecanbecometwisted,whichisawayofstoringenergy.
Thinkofarubberbanddrivenairplane;wecanholdtheairplanesteadywhiletwisting
arubberbandaroundandaround.Aswetwisttherubberband,wearestoringenergy,
andwhenweletgoofthepropeller,thatstoredenergycausesthepropellertoturn
quicklyenoughtolettheplanetakeoff.Inananalogousmanner,thetwistedsolar
magneticfieldsstoreenergyand,whenthatenergyisreleased,itsprayshugeamounts
ofhotgasintospace.Thisisasolarflare.
Theparticlesemittedduringasolarflarearehighenergyhydrogenandheliumatoms
thathavehadalloftheirelectronsremoved.Butalpharadiationishighenergyhelium
nuclei,andhydrogennucleiaresimplyprotons.Bothoftheseareformsofradiation,as
aretheelectrons(betaradiation)andneutronsfoundwithinthegas.Inotherwords,a
solarflareisahugeemissionofradiationfromthesun,andifitsaimedattheEarth,we
willexperiencehigherlevelsofradiationbecauseofthis.
Notalloftheradiationemittedbyasolarflarewillreachtheearthsomewillbe
dissipatedbytheinterplanetarymagneticfield,somewillsimplymisstheEarth
entirely,somewillbedeflectedorcapturedbytheEarthsmagneticfield,andsomewill
beabsorbedbyouratmosphere.SolarflaresthatcanbemeasuredattheEarthssurface
24
areveryrare,butitismorecommontobeabletomeasuresolarflaresatthealtitudesat
whichcommercialaircraftfly.
Evengiventhat,theincreaseinradiationlevelstoaircraftcrewandpassengersisnot
verylarge.Forexample,duringnormalsolarweather,onecanexpecttoreceivea
radiationdoseofabout71microSieverts(about7.1mrem)flyingfromtheEasternUS
toAustraliaandabout85microSievertsflyingtoJapan(theJapaneseflightisfurther
north,wheretheEarthsmagneticfieldisweaker).Thislevelofradiationexposureis
aboutthesameasaweeksworthofnaturalbackgroundradiationanditjustisnt
enoughtocauseanyharmtopassengersorflightcrew.
AccordingtotheNationalOceanographicandAtmosphericAdministration,radiation
dosefromsolarflarescanreachashighas200microSievertsperhour(20mrem/hr)for
uptoafewhoursatcommercialaircraftaltitudes.Thiswouldgivearadiationdoseof
upto4060mrem(400600microSieverts)duringa23hoursolarflare.Althoughthis
isahigherradiationdosethanisnormallyexperienced,suchsolarflaresareexpectedto
occuronlyafewtimesduringthe11yearsolarcycleandthegreatmajorityof
passengerssimplywontbeintheairwhenoneoccurs.Evenforthosepassengerswho
areexposedtothislevelofradiation,however,theexpectedeffectsstillarenot
significantthislevelofradiationexposureissimilartoreceivinganxrayandisfar
lessthanwhatyougetinaCTscanorviafluoroscopy.
Onaverage,wereceiveabout27mrem/yrfromcosmicradiation.Thisincreasesslightly
towardsthemagneticpolesandwithincreasingaltitude.
25
THEBIOLOGICALEFFECTSOFIONIZING
RADIATION
Manyofusareconcernedabouttheeffectsofexposuretoionizingradiation.In
particular,weworryaboutdevelopingcanceroverthelongterm,oraboutradiation
burnsandradiationsicknessovertheshortterm.However,mostofusaresimplynot
awareoftheriskassociatedwithvariouslevelsofexposure.Thislackofinformation
cancauseundueworryinsomecases,orunduelackofconcerninothers.
Therearetwodistincttypesofradiationexposure,acuteandchronic,andtwoprimary
exposuremodes,radiationandradioactivecontamination.Eachexposuretypeand
modeisslightlydifferentandmustbetreateddifferently.
Introduction
Radiationisubiquitous;aninescapablepartoflifeonEarth.Backgroundradiation
reachesusfromouterspace,fromtherocksandsoilswewalkon,andfromnaturally
radioactivepotassiuminourownbodies.Throughitsentirehistory,organismson
Earthhavebeenbombardedbyradiation,andthiswillcontinueforaslongastheEarth
exists.Today,theaveragepersonintheUSisexposedtoabout360mremeachyear
frombackgroundradiationabout1mremadayandthislevelofradiationexposure
seemstohavenoilleffects.Oftheestimated600orsomutationsthatoccurineachof
ourcellseachyear(about900inthosecellsexposedtoUVradiation),onlyabout5are
duetotheeffectsofbackgroundradiation.Inshort,environmentalradiationisa
mutagen,butitisnotamajorsourceofDNAdamage.
Athigherlevels,however,radiationcancausedamage,andthatisthesubjectofthis
section.Continualexposuretolowlevelsofradiationmaycauseamutationthatcan
initiatecancer.Briefexposuretohighlevelsofradiationcancauseskinburns,radiation
sickness,oranumberofradiationinducedsyndromes.
RadiationDamagetoCells
RadiationcandamagecellsbydirectlystrikingtheDNAandcausingdamagesuchas
singleordoublestrandbreaksorpointmutations.Itsmorelikely,however,thatthe
radiationwillinteractwithmoleculesinthecytoplasm,splittingthemapartand
formingreactivemoleculescalledfreeradicals.Thesefreeradicals,then,goontocause
DNAdamage.Freeradicalsarecausedbymorethanjustradiationourmitochondria
26
leakfreeradicalsallthetime,metabolizingourfoodcancreatefreeradicals,andeven
dissolvedoxygeninourcellscancauseDNAdamage.Allofthisdamageis
indistinguishable,withtheexceptionofdoublestrandDNAbreakswecantlookat
apointmutationandtellifitwascausedbyradiationormitochondrialfreeradicals.
Whenradiationpassesthroughacelltheeffectscanrangefromnonexistentto
profound.Theresachance,forexample,thatagammaraywillpassrightthroughacell
withoutinteractingatallorthatthefreeradicalsproducedwillsimplyrecombineorbe
scavengedbeforetheycanreachtheDNA.Ifradiation(orthefreeradicalsitproduces)
dointeractwiththeDNA,thereareonlyafewpossibilitieseithertheDNAwillbe
damagedoritwont.IftheDNAisdamaged,wehaveafewfurtherpossibilitiesthe
damagemaybebeneficial,harmful,orneutral(neutraldamageisdamagethathasno
effectonthecellitmaybeinnoncodingpartoftheDNA,ortoagenethatsnot
expressedinthatparticularcell,forexample).Oftheharmfuldamage,itmaybeeither
lethaltothecellorsublethal.Atthispoint,theonlyDNAdamagethatconcernsusis
sublethaldamagetotheDNAinapartofthegenomethatmaybeharmful.Although
lethaldamageisbadforthecell,atleastthedamagedoesnotgetpassedontodaughter
cells,soalethallydamagedcallcannotgoontocausecancer.
However,thepossibilitiesdonotstophere,becauseourcellshaveDNAdamagerepair
mechanisms.Althoughthesemechanismsareveryeffective,theyarenotperfect.This
meansthatanybitofDNAdamagemayberepairedproperly,mayberepaired
improperly,ormightnotberepairedatall.ItisatthispointthatDNAdamagemay
becomeamutationamutationiswhathappenswhendamagetoourDNAbecomes
fixedandisabletobepassedontothenextgenerationofcells.AswithDNA
damage,mutationsmaybegood,bad,orindifferent(neutral),andthedetrimental
mutationsmaybelethalorsublethal.And,asbefore,itisonlythesublethaldamage
thatsofinteresttous,andthen,onlyifitcancausethecelltobecomecancerous.
Ithastakenthreeparagraphstodescribethedifferentpossibilitiesofradiation
interactinginacell.Partofthisisforthesakeofcompleteness,butitsalsotohelpdrive
homeanimportantpointradiationisaweakcarcinogen.Ifwesumupallthe
possibilitiesabove,thereareover20differentpossibilities.Ofthese,only1(sublethal
damagethatismisrepairedorunrepairedandcausesacelltobecomecarcinogenic)has
achanceofcausingcancer.Radiationisacarcinogen,butitsnotaverygoodonenot
comparedtomanyofthechemicalsweworkwith.
Inthenextfewsections,wewilllookalittlemoreabouttheeffectsofbothacuteand
chronicradiationexposureontheorganism,insteadoftheindividualcells.
27

Acuteexposure
Exposingthewholebodytoveryhighlevelsofradiationinashortperiodoftimecan
beharmfulorfatal.Exposingpartsofthewholebodytoveryhighradiationlevelscan
alsocauseharm,butisusuallynotlifethreatening.Acuteradiationinjuryhasbeen
notedinthesurvivorsoftheJapaneseatomicbombings,amongsurvivingChernobyl
workers,inthewakeofnuclearcriticalityaccidents,andamongpeoplewhohavefound
lostradioactivesourceswithhighlevelsofactivity.Acuteradiationinjurytolimited
partsofthebodyhasalsobeennoted,forexample,inpatientsreceivingexcessive
fluoroscopy,mineralogistsmisusingxraydiffractionequipment,industrialemployees
usinglinearaccelerators,andradiationoncologypatients.
Inanindustrialsetting,itismostlikelythatworkerswillreceiveradiationburnson
theirhandsfromhandlingradioactivesourcesorfromputtingtheirhandsintoa
radiationbeam.Manyindustriesuselinearaccelerators,andradiationlevelsinsidecan
beseveralmillionradsperhour.Xraydiffractiondevicescangivedoseratesof
thousandsortensofthousandsofradsperminute,andlargeradiationsources(say,for
radiographyorfood/mailirradiation)cangivedoseratesofthousandsofradsperhour
orhigher,dependingonmanyvariables.Inotherindustries,suchasthefood
irradiationindustry,workershaveignoredoroverriddensafetydevicesandreceived
harmfulorfatalwholebodyradiationdosesbyenteringirradiationchamberswitha
radiationsourceexposed.
Sunburnisamildformofacuteexposuretoradiation,butitservesasastartingpointto
acuteradiationinjury.Ataskindoseofafewhundredrem,thepatientwillexhibit
erythemaand,athigherdoses,blisteringandpeeling(dryandmoistdesquamation).
Dependingonthecharacteristicsoftheexposure,onesideofthebodymaybemore
affectedtypicallythesidefacingtheradiationsource.Veryhighradiationdosesto
partsofthebodywillproducethesesamesymptomstolimitedpartsofthebody.Some
victimsmayexhibitsymptomsofbothlimitedandwholebodyradiationexposure.
Thesearetypicallypeoplewhocomeacrossabandonedradioactivesourcesandcarry
themhome.Othereffectsofacutewholebodyradiationexposurecaninclude
depilation(hairloss),nausea,andavarietyofradiationsyndromes.
28
RadiationSyndromes
Prodromalsyndrome
Insomecases,radiationeffectsmayappearwithinafewhoursofradiationexposure
andwillpersistforuptoafewdays.Ingeneral,higherdosesresultinearlierandmore
severesymptoms.Atlowerlevelsofexposure,symptomsmayincludefatigue,nausea,
andvomiting.Athigher(andprobablylethal)exposurelevels,patientswillalso
experiencefever,diarrhea,andhypotension.Patientswithprodromalsyndromehave
likelybeenexposedtoatleast100rem,butsymptomswillappearatanyhigherlevelof
exposure.Patientsexhibitingsymptomswithin30minutesofexposurehavelikely
receivedalethaldoseofradiation,ashavepatientsexperiencingimmediatediarrhea.
Hematopoieticsyndrome
Thebloodformingorgansareamongthemostsensitivetotheeffectsofradiation,so
theseorgansareamongthefirsttoshowtheresultsofhighradiationexposure.
Hematopoieticsyndromebeginstoappearatdosesoffrom300to800rem,whenthe
precursorcellsaresterilizedorkilled.Thisleadstoareductioninbloodcellcountsas
oldercellsdieandarenotreplaced,anditleavesthepatientopentoinfectionandother
relatedproblems.Followingtheinitialprodromalsyndrome,apatientmayberelatively
freeofsymptomsforsometime,althoughagreatdealisoccurring.Patientswithlower
levelsofexposuremayrecoverfromtheirexposureifthebonemarrowcanregenerate
andifthepatientreceivesmedicalsupport(typicallyantibiotictreatment).Athigher
levelsofexposure,thepatientwillbegintoexhibitchills,fatigue,hairloss,petechia,
andulcerationofthemouthaswellasinfection,bleeding,immunesystemdepression,
andothersymptomsresultingfromthelossofbloodcells.Adoseofabout300to400
remislethalto50%oftheexposedpopulationwithoutmedicalsupport.Thisiscalled
theLD50dose.Withmedicalsupport,theLD50doseisabout700to800rem.
Treatmentforpatientssufferingfromhematopoieticsyndromesincludesreplacing
bloodcellsviatransfusion,isolationfromsourcesofinfection,andantibiotictreatment.
Gastrointestinalsyndrome
Patientsexposedto1000rem(10Gy)ormorewillexperiencegastrointestinalsyndrome
and,mostlikely,deathwithin310daysofexposure.Radiationexposuresinthisrange
sterilizesdividingcryptcells,leadingtolossofcellsfromthevilli.Withinafewdays,
thevillibecomealmosttotallyflatastheoutersurfacesloughsoffandisnotreplaced.
Inoneparticularcase(amanexposedtobetween1100and2000remin1946)thepatient
remainedinrelativelygoodconditionfornearlyaweek,atwhichtimehebegan
29
sufferingbloodydiarrhea,circulatorycollapse,andseveredamagetotheepithelial
surfacesthroughouttheintestinaltract.
Treatmentforpatientssufferingfromgastrointestinalsyndromeincludeantiemetics,
sedatives,ablanddiet,andfluidreplacement.Antibiotictreatmentandblood
transfusionsaresometimeshelpfulinkeepingpatientsalivethroughthefirstfewdays
orweeks.
Cerebrovascularsyndrome
Exposuretoexceptionallyhighdosesofradiation(inexcessof10,000remor100Gy)
willresultindamagetothecentralnervoussystem,normallyamongthemost
radiationresistantpartsofthebody.Cebrovascularsyndromeisaccompaniedby
symptomsofallotherradiationsyndromes,anditusuallyresultsindeathwithin
severalhourstoafewdaysofexposure.Patientsexposedtosuchhighlevelsof
radiationwillexperiencealmostimmediatenausea,vomiting,disorientation,seizures,
andothersymptomsofneurologicaldistress,followedbycomaanddeath.Although
theexactcauseofdeathisnotknown,itisthoughtthatpartofthecauseisthebuildup
ofcranialpressureduetoleakageoffluidfrombloodvessels.
Treatmentforcerbrovascularsyndromeislimitedtoprovidingpainreliefandsedatives
tocontrolconvulsionsandanxietybecausethesyndromeisinvariably.
30
Effectsofacuteradiationexposure
Dose
(REM)
~5
1525
100
300800
400
1000
10,000
Syndromeor
effect
Chromosome
changes
Bloodcell
changes
Radiation
sickness
Hematopoeitic
syndrome
Comments
Increaseindicentricchromosomesandchromosome
fragmentsnoted
Begintoseedepressioninnumbersofredandwhite
bloodcells
Mildatlowerdoses,severityandrapidityofonset
increasesrapidlywithincreasingdose
Changesinbloodcellcountduetodamagetocrypt
cells,severeradiationsickness,recoverypossiblewith
medicalsupport
Withmedicaltreatment,LD50isabout800rem
Relativelyrapidonsetforvomiting
LD50
GIsyndrome,
LD100
Cerebrovascular Rapidincapacitation,deathwithinafewdays
syndrome
Chronicexposure
Theprimaryconcernwithchronicexposuretorelativelylowlevelsofradiationisthat
wewilldevelopcancer.Therearetwoprimarycompetinghypothesesonthismatter,
andthematterisstillfarfrombeingsettled.
LNT
Thelinear,nothreshold(LNT)hypothesissuggeststhatallradiationexposureis
potentiallyharmful(thenothresholdpart),andthattheriskofgettingcancerfrom
radiationisdirectlyproportionaltothedosereceived(thelinearpart).LNTisthe
mostconservativeradiationdoseresponsemodelinthatitpredictsthehighestrisk
fromagivenamountofradiationexposure.ThisisoneofthereasonsthattheLNTis
thefoundationofradiationregulationsvirtuallyeverywhereintheworldsincewe
reallyarentsurehowwerespondtolowlevelsofradiationexposure,itmakessenseto
controldose(andrisk)accordingtothemostconservativemodel.
OneproblemwiththeLNTisthatitcanbeusedtopredictcancerrisksdownto
vanishinglysmalllevelsofexposure,andsoithasbeenusedtocalculateexpected
cancerratesfromexposuretoradon,dirtybombs,andmedicalxrays.Forexample,
saythattheriskofgettingcancerfromagivenradiationexposureis5additionalcancer
31
deathsforevery10,000personrem.Thatmeansthatexposing10,000peopleto1rem
eachshouldresultinanextra5cancerdeathsamongthosepeople.Or,exposing1
millionpeopleto10mremeachshouldalsoleadto5addedcancerdeaths.Itseasyto
seethatwecanusethismodeltopredictaddedcancerdeathsfromanylevelof
radiationexposure,nomatterhowtrivial,ifenoughpeopleareexposed.Byanalogy,
wecanalsosaythat,sincea1000kgrockwillcrushsomeone,throwingamillionone
gramrocksatamilliondifferentpeoplewillcrushsomeone.
Thisdoesntmakemuchsense,andboththeHealthPhysicsSocietyandthe
InternationalCommissionforRadiationProtectionhaveadvisedagainstthismisuseof
theLNTmodel.Infact,wejustdontknowwhathappensatsuchlowlevelsof
exposure,andwecantmakeanysuchpredictionsforverysmalllevelsofexposure.
AccordingtotheHealthPhysicsSociety,intwoseparatepositionpapers(whichcanbe
foundontheHPSwebpageatwww.hps.org),wesimplycantcalculateanumerical
riskestimatefromanyexposureoflessthan10rem,soeventhefirstcalculationruns
afoulofHPSrecommendations.Inasimilarvein,theICRPhassuggestedthat,when
lookingattheriskfromcollectivedose,ifthemosthighlyexposedindividualreceivesa
trivialdose,theneveryonesdoseshouldbetreatedastrivial.
InrecentyearstherehavebeentwowellpublicizedtransgressionsofHPSandICRP
recommendationsapaperaboutpediatricCTexposuresinthesummerof2001
suggestedariseinchildhoodcancersfromusingadultsettingsforchildren,andastudy
inearly2002ontheeffectsofadirtybombdetonationinManhattancamecomplete
withcoloredcontourlinesshowingthe1%and0.1%cancerdeathratesfromthe
radiationexposure.Unfortunately,bothofthesestudiesignoredtherecommendations
ofHPSandICRP,anditslikelythatbothstudiesgreatlyoverstatedtherisks.Infact,
aboutallwecansayisthattheseprojectionsarethehighestwearelikelytosee,butthat
theremayactuallybenoadditionalrisk.Adescriptionofalternate,andnoless
probable,doseresponsemodelsiscontainedinthefollowingsection.
Threshold/Hormesismodels
Virtuallyallharmfulsubstancesexhibitsomelevelbelowwhichtherearenoapparent
harmfuleffects.ThisispartoftheideabehindtheNoObservableAdverseEffectsLevel
(NOAEL)belowathresholddoseyousimplydontseeanyeffectsfromexposuretoa
substance.Therearethosewhofeelthatradiationprobablybehavessimilarlythat
thereisalevelofexposurebelowwhichthereareobservableeffectsfromradiation
exposure.Thresholdeffectsarefairlyeasytoimagine;examplesofhormesisinclude
selenium,aspirin,redwine,andmanyvitamins.
32
The number of participants required to show the effects of various radiation exposures.
Inthisfigure,theareabelowthediagonallineistheareainwhichcurrent
epidemiologicaltoolsareunabletodetecttheeffectsofradiationexposureduetothe
highbackgroundincidenceofcancer(Gonzalez,2004).
Therearealsothosewhothinkthatexposuretolowlevelsofradiationmaybe
beneficial.Thisiscalledhormesisand,althoughitsoundsimplausibleatfirstblush,
thereareplentyofexamplesofhormesisintheworld.TwoexamplesarevitaminDand
selenium.Bothofthesesubstancesarevitalnutrients,andbothareacutelytoxicin
sufficientlyhighdoses.Lowdosesofaspirincanhelptostaveoffheartdisease(notto
mentionthebeneficialeffectsonfever,pain,andinflammation),yethighdosesof
aspirincanbefatal,andpeoplecanalsodieofexcessivesaltintakeorevenwater
intoxication.Inshort,theideaofhormesisisnotoutlandish;onlytheapplicationof
hormesistoradiationexposureseemsunusualbecauseweareallsosteepedintheidea
thatradiationisuniformlybad.
33

Theideabehindassumingathresholdinourresponsetoradiationexposureisthat,
giventhevariationsinEarthsbackgroundradiationfield,itmakessensethatourcells
shouldbeabletoadequatelyrepairDNAdamagefromslightlyelevatedlevelsof
radiation.And,letsfaceit;radiationisnotoneofthemajorenvironmentalmutagens(it
accountsforabout1%5%ofbackgroundDNAdamage).Ourbiochemistrycontains
veryeffectivemechanismsforrepairingDNAdamage,anditisthoughtthatthese
mechanismsareabletoaccommodatesomelevelofaddeddamage,suchaswould
resultfromexposuretolowlevelsofradiation.
Thethinkingbehindpositinghormesiseffectsisthat,bypresentingacontinuing
challengetoourmutationrepairandtumorsuppressionmechanisms,theyarekeptat
peakoperatingefficiency.Theyarebetterabletocontendwiththeordinary,garden
varietydamagethatisalwayscroppingupinourgenomeand,assuch,ourDNAis
betterprotectedthanifthisradiationexposurewasremoved.
Thebestwaytotestthesehypotheses,ofcourse,istoperformepidemiologicalstudies
ofexposedpopulations,andmanysuchstudieshavebeenperformedwithequivocal
results.Researchershavelookedatradiationworkers,residentsofnaturalhigh
backgroundareas,radonconcentrationsversuslungcancerrates,radiologists,and
atomicbombsurvivors,amongothers.Somestudiesshowthatrisksareslightlyhigher,
someshownoeffectsatall,andsomeshowfewercancersthanexpectedinthestudy
populations.Partoftheproblemisthattheeffectsareoftensmallerthantheerrorbars,
andthismakesitverydifficulttopickoutwhatisactuallyhappening.Unfortunately,
thereisnotyetagoldplatedstudythateveryonecanpointtoandagreethatitwas
properlydone,controlledforallconfoundingfactors,andshowsasignificantresult.
Butthesearchcontinues!
Giventhisdegreeofuncertainty,manyhealthphysicistsandmostgovernmentsfeelit
isbesttocontrolradiationexposureundertherisksofthehighestriskmodel,LNT.The
thinkingisthat,ifwemaintainrisksatalowandacceptablelevelunderLNT,then
whichevermodeliscorrect,wewillbeatnomoreriskthanwehaveagreedwecan
accept.Theonlyproblemwiththismodelisthat,ifoneoftheothermodelsbetter
representsreality,wewillhavespentalotoftime,effort,andmoneycontrolling
illusoryrisks,andtheseresourceswillhavebeentakenawayfrommoreeffectiverisk
reductionmeasures.Sothisquestionneedstobeanswered,andwewillhopefullybe
abletodosobeforetoomuchlonger.
34
Fetalexposureandreproductiveeffectsofradiationexposure
Pregnantwomenaresometimesexposedtoradiationoccupationallyorthrough
medicalprocedures.Althoughevenreceivingasinglexraycancauseworryinan
expectantmother,theamountofradiationrequiredtocauseharmtoadevelopingfetus
isactuallyratherhigh.Infact,themedicaladviceistotakenoactionsforanyfetal
radiationdoseoflessthan5remand,insomecases,adoseofupto15remtothefetus
poseslittleriskofcausingbirthdefectsorotherproblems.Thisisnottosaythatfetal
radiationexposureuptothislevelisacceptable;justthattherisksfromtheradiation
exposurearelessthantheotherrisksthataccompanyanypregnancy.Ishouldalsonote
thatthereseemstobeathresholdforradiationinducedbirthdefectsatabout5rem
fetaldosethereisnoevidencethatfetalexposuresoflessthanthislevelcancause
birthdefects.
Ingeneral,therearethreedistinctphasesofradiationsensitivitythefetusgoesthrough.
Duringthefirsttwoweekspostconception,sometimescalledtheallornothing
phase,radiationexposurewilleitherresultinamiscarriageorthepregnancywillgo
forwardwithnoilleffectsatallfromexposuretoradiation.Fromthesecondtothe15th
week,theorgansandtissuesaredifferentiatingandgrowing,andthefetusismuch
moresensitivetoradiation.Duringthisperiod,ifotherriskfactorsarepresent,the
medicaladviceistoconsiderterminatingthepregnancyfordosesgreaterthan5rem.In
theabsenceofotherriskfactors,however,thismaynotbecalledfor.Thewomans
physicianwillhavetoweighalltheriskfactorspresentandrecommendacourseof
actiontothewoman.Duringthisstageofpregnancy,theprimaryeffectsofexcessive
radiationexposurearelowbirthrate,loworganweight,mentalretardation,or
microcephaly(smallheadsize).Alloftheseeffectscanbecausedbyotherteratogens.
Oncepastthe15thweek,thefetusismoreresistanttotheeffectsofradiation,although
damagecanstillbecausedbysufficientlyhighradiationdose.Thisknowledgeisthe
resultofstudyingpregnantwomenreceivingdiagnosticortherapeuticmedical
radiation,Japanesewomenwhowerepregnantatthetimeoftheatomicbombingsin
Japan,andpregnantradiationworkersovermorethanahalfcentury.
Itisalsoworthnotingthattherehavebeennodocumentedfetalhealtheffectsfrompre
conceptionradiationexposure.Exposuretohighlevelsofradiationmaycause
temporaryorpermanentsterility,butitdoesnotseemtocausebirthdefects.Embryos
thatformfromdamagedspermorovaseemtoeitherfailtoimplantormiscarry
quickly.
35
Pregnantworkerprograms
Inspiteoftheabove,itstillmakessensetocontrolfetalradiationexposuretominimize
theriskofinadvertentlycausingharm.Todothis,itisnecessarytohaveaformal
programinplaceinyourworkplaceifyouhaveradioactivesources.However,
participationinpregnantworkerprogramsmustbevoluntary,andawomancannotbe
forcedtoparticipateinsuchaprogram.
Toparticipateinapregnantworkerprogram,thewomanmustdeclareherpregnancy
inwritinginmostplacesthisisdonebycompletingandsigninganappropriateform
letter.Oncethisstepistaken,thewomanislimitedtoaradiationdoseof500mrem
duringtheentiredurationofpregnancy,andsheisnottoexceed50mreminanysingle
month.Inadditiontothelowerexposurelevels,theRSOshoulddiscussthe
administrativedetailsofthepregnantworkerprogramwiththeworker,andmayneed
toissueafetaldosimeter.Thisbadgeshouldbewornontheabdomenand,ifthe
womanwearsaleadapron,itshouldbewornbeneaththebadge.
Womenwhoonlyworkwithlowenergybetaemittingisotopesorwithalphaemitters
willprobablynotbeissuedabadgebecauseitisdifficultorimpossibletomonitorfor
themwithstandardradiationbadges.Ifitisthoughtthatthewomaningestedor
inhaledradioactivematerials,theRSOwillhavetoperformbioassaymeasurementsto
calculateinternalandfetaldose.
Becausewomendonotimmediatelyknowthattheyarepregnant,andmanydonot
immediatelydeclaretheirpregnancy,itispossiblethatthefetuswasexposedtosome
radiationbeforethemotherenteredthepregnantworkerprogram.Thiscanbedoneby
reviewingherdosimetryrecords,iftheyareavailable,orbycalculatingalikelydose
basedonherworkhistoryorbycomparisontootherworkersifshewasnotpreviously
badged.And,ofcourse,alldosimetryrecordsshouldbefiledandkeptfor30yearsafter
theworkerleavesthecompany.
Summary
Radiationcanbeharmful.Largedosesinashorttimeperiodcancauseskinburns,
radiationsickness,ordeath,andlargeradiationdosestothehandsorfeetcancause
complicationsthatwillresultinamputation.However,followingstandardradiation
safetyprecautionscanminimizethechancethatsuchaccidentswilloccur.Morelikely
isthatradiationworkerswillbeexposedtoslightlyelevatedradiationlevelsforlong
periodsoftimeand,insuchcases,thedataaremoreambiguous.
36
Underthemostconservative(i.e.highestcalculatedrisk)model,theLNThypothesis,
therisksofgettingcancerfromalifetimeofexposureto100mrem/yrareaboutthe
sameassuccumbingtoanyotheroccupationalillnessorinjury.However,underother
possiblescenarios,therisksmaybelower,andsomefeelthatexposuretolowlevelsof
radiationmaybesomewhatbeneficial.Untilmoredefinitivedataareavailable,itmakes
sensetoactasthoughanyradiationexposureispotentiallyharmful(eveniftheriskis
verylow)andtoactaccordingly.Thisdoesnotmeanavoidingallradiationexposure
itsimplymeansmanagingradiationexposurethesameaswemanageexposuretoall
otherharmfulagentsorsituations.
Finally,itispossibleforpregnantwomentocontinueworkingwithradiation,and
belowafetaldoseof5rem,thereseemstobenorisktothefetus.Organizations
workingwithradiationmusthavepregnantworkerpoliciesinplacethatinclude
voluntaryparticipation,morerestrictivedoselimits,andsomemethodofmonitoring
dose.Followingthesestepsshouldsufficetoprotectthewomanandherbabyfromthe
teratogeniceffectsofradiationalthough,ofcourse,itisalwayspossiblethatababywill
bebornwithbirthdefectsorthatapregnancywillendinmiscarriageforreasonsnot
duetoradiationexposure.
Formoreinformation:
Radiationworkersorradiationsafetyofficerswhohaveanyquestionsaboutthehealth
orreproductiveeffectsofradiationshouldcontactaqualifiedradiationprofessional.If
yourcompanyislargeenoughtowarrantafulltimeprofessionalhealthphysicist,this
isagoodplacetostart.Ifnot,theHealthPhysicsSocietywebpage(www.hps.org)hasa
wealthofinformation.Inaddition,andperhapsmoreimportantly,theHPSpagehasan
AsktheExpertfeature.Browsingthelistofansweredquestionsmayrevealthatan
answertoyourquestionalreadyexists;ifnot,anyonemaypostaquestiontothissite
andwillreceiveananswerwithinafewdays.
HazardsRelatedtoInhalationorIngestionofRadioactiveMaterials
Therearespecialhazardsassociatedwiththeinhalationoringestion(uptake)of
radioactivematerials.First,introducingradioactivematerialsintothebodyincreasesthe
radiationdoseinternalorganssuchasthestomach,lungs,orintestinesareexposedto.In
addition,onceinthebody,radioactivematerialsmayenterthebloodstreamandbetaken
tootherinternalorgans,concentratingthere.Forexample,ifradiumisingested,itwill
concentrateinthebones,exposingthebonesurfaceandmarrowtolongtermradiation
dose.Alpharadiationcannotnormallypenetratetheskintodeliverradiationdosebut,
37
oncetakeninternally,isextremelydamaging.Forthesereasonsitisimportanttominimize
theamountofradioactivematerialsingestedorinhaledtothemaximumamountpossible.
Someexamplesofcollectivedose
PERSONREM
SOURCE
PERYEAR
4000
Navalnuclearpower~200reactorsand10,000personnel
12,000
airtravel
100,000
Denverresidents(abovenaturalbackground)
650,000
cookingwithnaturalgasUSpopulation(radon)
17,000,000
medicalanddentalxraysUSpopulation
20,000,000
naturalbackgroundUSpopulation
38
Radiationdosesfromotheractivities
DOSE(mR/yr)
0.31
10
254000
70
100
100200
100200
150
170
20005000
SOURCE
watchingpicturetubetypeTVfor4hoursdailyat12feet
xrayemissionfromscreen
readingglossymagazinesfor1hr/day
uraniumandpotassiuminclaypapercoating
eating1bananaperday
potassium(K40)inbanana
carryingradiumdialpocketwatch12hrs/day
gammaemissionfromradiumpaint
livinginabrickhouseinsteadofawoodone
potassium,uraniumandthoriuminclayinthebricks
wearingenameledjewelry(with/withoutmetalbacking)10hrs/week
uraniumcompoundsinglazing
livinginDenverinsteadofatsealevel
increasedbackgroundradiationduetoelevationandigneousrocks
flying~5000milespermonth
reducedatmosphericradiationshielding
radongasinhalation(nationalaverage)
foodsandfertilizers
naturallyoccurringpotassium(K40)anduraniumin
superphosphatedfertilizers
medicaltechnicians(average)combinationxrayandnuclearmedicine
flightcrewsreducedatmosphericradiationshielding
dosetolungssmoking1packofcigarettes/daily
polonium(Po210)andlead(Pb210)fromUdecayseries
39

1. Radiation strikes cell
1.
No
2. Does radiation interact within cell?

Yes
No
3. Does radiation (or radiation

products) cause DNA damage?
Yes
Yes
4. Is the damage repaired

properly before the cell
divides again?
No
No
5. Is mis-repaired damage harmful?

Yes
Yes
6. Is damage lethal to cell?

No
No
7. Can damage cause cancer?

Yes
No
8. Will organism live long enough to

develop cancer (5 20 years postexposure)?
Yes
No effect on
organism
Cancer may develop
40
RadiationDetectorsandDosimeters
RadiationDetectionEquipment
Thereareanumberofmethodsofdetectingradiation,mostofwhichrelyonradiations
abilitytocreateionpairsinirradiatedmaterials.DevicessuchasGeigercountersandion
chambersdetecttheseionizationsdirectlyandmeasuretheelectriccurrentgeneratedby
radiationbombardment.Otherdevices,suchasscintillationcounters,detectphotonsthat
areemittedwhenasubstanceisirradiated,amplifyingthesephotonsinphotomultiplier
tubestocreateasignal.Themostcommonlyusedofthesedetectorsaredescribedinthe
followingsection.
GMTubes
GMtubesaresealed,gasfilledtubescontainingananodeandacathodewithalarge
voltageappliedacrossthem.Theinteractionofionizingradiationwiththisgascauses
secondaryionizationstooccur,creatingacurrentspikeasthepositiveionsareattractedto
theanodeandthenegativeionstothecathode.Thiscurrentisamplifiedandregistersasa
countonthemeter.Theionizedgaswillquicklyrecombine,allowingdetectionofthenext
ionizingevent.Thereisasmallamountofdeadtimewhilethisrecombinationistaking
place,usuallyintheneighborhoodof12sec,duringwhichnocountingcantakeplace.
Thisimposesanupperlimitonthecountrateforwhichtheinstrumentcantheoretically
beused.ThedisadvantageofaGMtubeisthatthereis,howeverbriefly,aperiodduring
whichnocountscanberegistered.Thisalsoallowsforthetubetobecomesaturatedand
notregisteraccuratelyifthecountrateistoogreat.ThechiefadvantagesoftheGMtube
areitsextremesimplicity,leadingtogreatreliability,anditshighsensitivity.
GeigerMullertubesareprimarilyusedforthedetectionofgammaandbetaradiationand
measureineithercountsperminute(forcontaminationdetectors)ormr/hr.Geiger
countersarenotnormallyusedformeasuringradiationdoserates,unlessthesurveyor
knowswhatisotopeispresent,becauseeachisotopeemitsadifferentenergyofgamma
radiationGeigercountersdetectonlycountsandnotenergydeposition,makingthem
overrespondtolowenergyradiation,andunderrespondtohighenergyradiation.
AirIonizationChambers
Inanairionizationchamber,theionpairscreatedinthedetectorarecollectedand
measuredbeforetheycanrecombine.Thisgivesanoutputcurrentthatisproportionalto
thestrengthoftheradiationfield.
41

Theadvantagesoftheairionizationchamberarethattheoutputcurrent(themeter
reading)islargelyindependentoftheoperatingvoltageandthattheyare,forthemost
part,easytouseandveryportable.
Thedisadvantagesofthisinstrumentarethatthegeneratedcurrentisverysmall,leading
toalowsensitivity,anditisverysensitivetochangesinhumidityandbarometric
pressure.Thismeansthat,ifanionchamberiscalibratedunderdifferentconditionsofair
pressure,temperature,orhumiditythantheconditionsunderwhichtheyareused,these
differencescancausetheinstrumenttoreaderroneously.
Ionchamberscanmeasurealpha,beta,orgammaradiationbutrequireaspecialwindow
inordertomeasurealpharadiationandmeasureinREMperhour.
ScintillationCounters
Anothercommonmeansofmeasuringradioactivityisthescintillationcounter.The
passageofabetaoralphaparticlethroughascintillatingmediumwillcausetheemission
ofphotonsfromthescintillant.Thesephotonsleavethescintillationmediumandinteract
withoneormorephotomultipliertubes(PMtubes)toregisterascounts.
Anadvantageofscintillationcountersistheirrelativelackofdeadtime(usuallyonthe
orderoftensofnanoseconds),makingtheirmajoroperationlimitthespeedatwhichthe
electroniccomponentscanoperate.
Adisadvantageisthatthescintillatingmediummustbekeptdarkatalltimes.Evenatiny
pinholecanadmitenoughlighttoproduceapparenthighreadings,whichcanbe
mistakenforcontaminationorelevatedradiationlevels.
Thescintillationcounterisprimarilyusedforthedetectionofparticlessuchasalphaand
betaradiation.
PersonalDosimetry
Thereareseveraltypesofpersonneldosimetry.Threemajortypes,theThermo
LuminescentDosimeter(TLD),theopticallystimulatedluminescent(OSL),andthefilm
badge,areusedforlegalrecordsofindividualexposure.Theothersareusedfor
42
informationalpurposesonly,toinformtheweareroftheapproximatedosethathasbeen
receivedorofthestrengthofthefieldthattheworkerisin.
TLDs
TLDsconsistofsmallcrystals,usuallycalciumfluoride,containingsmallamountsof
impurities.Incidentradiationexcitesatomsinthecrystalwhicharetrappedbythese
impurities.Uponheating(thermo),thetrappedexcitedelectronsfallbacktothe
groundstate,givingupaphoton(luminescent)intheprocess.Thenumberofphotons
releasedisproportionaltothetotalradiationdosereceived.Thisphotonsignalis
amplifiedbyaphotomultipliertubeandtheoutputsenttothedosimeterreaderto
registerthedose.
TLDshaveseveraladvantages.Theyareextremelyruggedandarenotadverselyaffected
byextremesintemperature.Theyareaccurateoveraverylargeexposurerangefrom
mRtothousandsofR.Theyarerelativelyquickandeasytoread,allowingforspeedy
monitoringinemergencysituations.Theycanbereusedmanytimeseach,savingthe
expenseofreplacingthemcontinually.And,finally,theyaresensitivetobeta,gamma,
andxrayradiation.
ThedisadvantagesofTLDsoverothermethodsofdosimetryaretheirhigherinitialcost
andthefactthat,onceheated,thedoseinformationiserased,unlikefilmbadges,which
canberereadifanyquestionsariseatalaterdate.
FilmBadges
Filmbadgesmakeuseofthefactthatradiation,likelight,willinteractwithsilverhalide
crystalsinfilmemulsion,causingthemtodarken.Alsolikelight,theamountofthe
darkeningisrelatedtothetotalexposure.Thefilmisplacedinaholderthatcanalso
containtwoorthreeshieldsofvaryingthicknesses,allowingmeasurementofskindoseas
wellaswholebody(deep)dose.Thefilm,oncedeveloped,isreadbyadensitometerto
determinetheoveralldosethatthewearerreceived.
Theadvantagesofthefilmbadgeareitspermanence,itscost,andtheabilitytoallow
simultaneousrecordingofexposuretodifferenttypesorenergiesofradiation.
Thedisadvantagesoffilmbadgesaretheamountoftimethatittakestodevelopand
processthefilm,thesensitivityofthefilmtoenvironmentalfactorssuchastemperature
43
andhumidity,andthefadingthatcanoccurifthefilmisnotreadpromptly.Filmbadges
canbeusedtomeasurebeta,gamma,andxraydose.
Opticallystimulatedluminescentdosimeters
OSLbadgesaresimilartoTLDsintheiroperatingprinciples,exceptthattheyarereadby
scanningwithalaserinsteadofbeingheated.Thelaseraddssufficientenergyforthe
electronstoescapefromtheirtrapsand,aswithTLDs,theyemitvisiblephotonswhen
theyreturntothegroundstate.
OSLbadgesareassensitiveasTLDsand,unlikeTLDs,theycanbereadoutmultipletimes
becausethelasercanbesettoscanonlyapartofthebadge.ThisgivesOSLbadgesthe
abilitytobearchived,aswithfilm,forrereadingatalatertime.Unlikefilm,OSLbadges
arenotsusceptibletoenvironmentalfactors(atleast,nottofactorsthatarenotfataltothe
wearer).Inmanyways,thesebadgescombinethebestfeaturesofbothfilmandTLDs
withtheexceptionofbeingmoreexpensivethanfilm.Atpresent,OSLbadgesareoffered
byonlyonecompany.
SelfReadingDosimeter
Theselfreadingdosimeterisbasicallyapocketionchamber.Itconsistsoftwoquartz
fibersthatcanhaveachargeappliedtothem,actingasanelectroscope.Theendofoneof
thefibersisleftfreeandisattachedtoasmallhairlineindicatorthat,asthedosimeter
chargesordischarges,ispulledacrosstheindicatingscreen.Asionizationsoccurwithin
thechamberthenetchargeonthefibersislowered,causingthemtodrawtogetherand
pullingthehairlineacrossthescaleonthescreen.
Themainadvantageofthesedosimetersisthattheyarerelativelydurable,providea
convenientwayforpersonneltomonitortheirdosewhileworking,andcanbeproduced
tocoveraverywideassortmentofranges.Theyarealso,forthemostpart,energy
independent,allowingthecountingofmostgammaandxrayradiationtowhichthe
wearerisexposed.
Theselfreadingdosimetershaveseveraldisadvantages,however.Theycanbeeasily
dischargedbydroppingthemorbangingintosomething,causingthemtogooffscale
highandgivingerroneousreadings.Theirorientationwhilereadingthemisalso
important;theymaygiveverydifferentreadingsdependingonwhethertheyareheld
rightsideuporupsidedownduetotheeffectsofgravityonwhatisprimarilya
mechanicalsystem.Theyarealsonotextremelyaccurate,theiraccuracydependingupon
44
thescalegradations,theinitialzeroingaccuracy,andthemechanicalandelectrical
propertiesofthequartzfibers.
Allinall,theselfreadingdosimetersarenotthebestwaytomeasurepersonaldosefora
legalrecord.However,theyarenotdesignedtobe.Theirpurposeistoprovidepersonnel
workinginaradiationareatheabilitytoroughlymonitortheirabsorbeddoseandthey
servethispurposeverywell.
AudibleDosimetry(RadTads,Chirpers)
ThesearesmallGMtubesthatgiveanaudiblechirpatintervalsthatreflectthestrength
oftheradiationfield.Thefastertheyarechirping,thestrongerthefieldis.Theygiveno
indicationoftotalabsorbeddoseandareonlyanindicationastotheradiationlevelsthat
theindividualisinatthepresenttime.
45
Respondingtoradiologicalaccidentsandemergencies
Introduction
Accidentshappen.Includingaccidentsinvolvingradiationorradioactivity.Inthe25+
yearsIvebeenworkingwithradiationandradioactivity,Ivelostcountofthenumber
ofspills,skincontamination,highradiationlevels,andotheraccidentsIvehadtodeal
withinsomecapacityorother.Andanyoneworkingwithradiationorradioactivity
will,atsomepoint,beinapositionofhavingtheirownradiologicalincidenttocontend
with.And,ofcourse,wenowalsohavetoconsiderthepossibilityofdeliberatemisuse
ofradioactivematerialsasapartofaterroristattack.Thisisagoodtimetodustoffthe
responseplanstoseeifwearereadytoproperlyaddressanyuntowardincidentsthat
mightoccur.
Inthisarticle,wewilladdresssomegeneralproceduresthatapplytomanyradiological
incidentsaswellassomegeneralstepstotakeinsomespecificcases.Theseare
guidelinesonlyeveryincidentisunique.Butsomegeneralguidelinestogeneric
situationscanbeappliedtothespecificsituationswithsuitablemodifications.So,in
thisarticle,Illdiscussradioactivespills,skincontamination,trafficaccidents,thelossof
radioactivematerials,andtheuseofradiologicaldispersaldevices(RDDs,alsocalled
dirtybombs).
Generalguidelines
Inmostcases,radiologicalincidentsarenotlifethreateningand,infact,poselittle
actualphysicalrisk.Theradioactivityisanuisance,aregulatoryproblem,anda
complicatingfactor,butitisrarelypotentiallyharmful.Sothefirstgeneralruleshould
beDontpanic.Taketheopportunitytothinkthroughyouractionsbeforespringing
intoactiontotrytosavetheday.Bysodoing,youarelesslikelytotakerashactions
thatcouldwellendupmakingthingsworseratherthanbetter.
Ingeneral,radiologicalhazardswillposelittlerisktopeopleinvolvedinaradiological
accident.Thismeansthatemergencyrespondersandmedicalpersonnelarevery
unlikelytobeatriskfromvictimsorpatients,nomatterhowheavilycontaminatedthey
are.Thismeansthatvictimsandpatientsshouldbecaredforasrapidlyasrequiredby
theirinjuriesthebadlyinjuredorcriticalshouldbecaredforimmediately,andlightly
injuredpatientsmaybesafelydecontaminatedorwrappedtocontainthe
contaminationsothattheydonotcontaminateanambulanceorhospitalemergency
room.
46

Actionsshouldbetakentotrytominimizeexposuretopeoplenearandrespondingto
theincident.Unlessactuallyinvolvedinincidentresponse,everyoneshouldstayatthe
greatestdistancepossible,theyshouldminimizetheamountoftimetheyreina
controlledarea,theyshouldtrytointerposeshieldingbetweenthemselvesandthe
sourcesofradiation,andtheyshouldtrytodonappropriatePPE(suchasshoecovers,
gloves,andcoverallswheninvolvedinaspill)ifpossible.
Specificincidents
Thereareover17,000radioactivematerialslicenseesintheUnitedStatesandthevast
majorityoftheselicenseesarerelativelysmallindustrialuserswhopossesseither
radioactivegauges,smallradioactivesources,orrelativelyminoramountsofunsealed
radioactivematerials.Therearealsoalargenumberofsmallmedicallicensees,
colleges,andradiopharmaceuticalvendors.Largeorganizations,suchasnuclearpower
plants,nuclearfuelcyclefacilities,ormajorresearchuniversitiesconstituteonlyatiny
fractionofalllicenseesandtheyarelikelytohavefulltimehealthphysicsstaffto
handleradiologicalproblems.Itistheformergroup,therelativelysmalllicensees,for
whomthisarticleiswrittenandtheyarelikelytoexperienceonlyarelativelysmall
varietyoftypesofincidentsthosenotedbelow.
Spillofradioactivematerial
Itseasytocauseaspillknockingoverasmallvialofradioactivematerialscancause
one,ascanaccidentallyejectingthecontentsofapipettorordroppingasampletubeor
evenjusthavingadropfallfromabeakerorbottle.Radioactivespillscause
contaminationintheareaofthespill,theycanleadtothecontaminationofpersonnel,
andtheycanresultinthespreadofcontaminationtoofficeareasorhomes.Minor
spillscanoftenbecleanedupfairlyeasily;majorspillscancauseproblems.
Therearesomeactionsthatcanbetakenimmediatelyintheeventofaspill.The
acronymweuseatourfacility(andwhatweweretaughtinthenuclearNavy)was
SWIMStopthespill,Warnothersofthespill,Isolatethearea,andMinimizeexposure
toradiation.Itisnotnecessarytofollowthesestepsinthisorder,butcompletingthese
actionswillhelptoreducetheimpactoftheevent.
Stoppingthespillisnotthesameascleaningitup;itistakingactionstokeepthespill
fromgettingworse.Ifacontainerfellover,rightit(wearingprotectivegloves,
hopefully!)caporcoverit,andplaceitinapailordeeptray.Next,trytoplace
absorbentmaterialsoverthespilledliquidor,ifitisapowder,coveritwithdampened
wipesorragstokeepitfromblowingaround.Youarenottryingtocleanupthespillat
thispoint,youaresimplytryingtolimittheamountofspilledmaterialanditsextent.
47

Warningothersmaybethefirstthingthathappensmostpeoplemakesomecomment
whentheycauseaspill.Youwillwanttowarnothersnottowalkintothespillarea,to
askforhelpwiththecleanup,andanyonenearbywhomighthavebeencontaminated
bythespillshouldstandfasttokeepthemfromspreadingcontamination.Thisshould
alsoincludecontactingtheradiationsafetyofficerandotherradiationsafetystaff,plus
anyoneelseonyourincidentcalluplist.WorkersshouldbeabletocontacttheRSOor
acompetentalternativeatanytimeintheeventofaradiologicalincident,sotheRSOs
pagerand/ortelephonenumber(s)shouldbemadeavailabletoradiationworkersorto
Securityofficersasappropriateintheeventofafterhoursspills.
Isolatetheareainvolvedinthespill.Thereareseveralreasonstodothis;youwantto
keeppeopleoutofthespillsotheydontgetcontaminated,youwillneedroomtowork
oncleaningupthespill,andanyonewithinthespillboundariesshouldbeconsidered
potentiallycontaminated.Youshoulduseropeortapeorsomeotherphysicalbarrier
wheneverpossible,evenifyouareisolatinganentireroom.Simplypostingadoorsign
maynotworkmanypeoplejustdontreaddoorsignsbuttheywillstopbefore
crossingaropeortapeboundary.Atmyfacility,nobodyispermittedtocrossaspill
boundarytoenteranareaunlesstheyarewearinggloves,shoecovers,andalabcoat;
andnobodyisallowedtoexitaspillareaunlesstheyaresurveyedoutoftheareaby
RadiationSafetystaff.Wehavehadincidentsinthepastinwhichjuniorstaffhavelet
themselvesbeintimidatedbyseniorstaff,lettingthementerorleavespillareasand
spreadingcontamination.Settingthispolicyandsupportingthosewhoenforceittakes
thejuniorstaffoffthehookandwehavehadnosuchproblemssinceits
implementation.Oncespillboundariesareestablished,theyshouldbeverifiedby
surveyingonthecleansidetoconfirmthatallofthecontaminationiscontained
withintheboundaries.
Minimizingexposureisasmuchaphilosophicalpointasaprocedure.Asnotedabove,
spillsarenotlifeendangering.Thereistimetoconsiderthebestwaytoaddressthe
problem.ThinkaboutthesituationyouarefacedwithdoyouhaveproperPPE,do
youhavethematerialsyouneedtosurveyanddecontaminatedefficiently,areyou
wearingrespiratoryprotection(ifthematerialsarevolatile),doyouhavedosimetry,do
youknowwherethehighestradiationareasare(andhowtoworkaroundthem),and
soforth.Bytakingamomenttoconsideryoursituationandplanningonhowtobest
addressit,youwillbehelpingtoreduceyourexposureandthatofothersinthearea.
Onceyouhavecompletedtheseimmediateactions,thespillshouldnotworsen,andit
ispossibletobeginsurveyandcleanup.Ingeneral,itisbettertoworkfromtheouter
spillareastowardsthecenterand,inthecaseofmultilevelspills(say,aspillonatable
48
thatdripstothefloor)toworkfromthetoptowardsthebottom.Inmostcases,spills
maybecleanedupwithstandardcommercialcleaners,althoughspillsinvolving
radioactivemetals(suchasCs137orCo60)maybenefitfromtheuseofspecialty
products.
Contaminationsurveysshouldbeperformedwithanappropriatedetectorforthetype
ofradiationemittedbytheisotopespilled.Thisinformationissummarizedinthe
accompanyingtable.Adirectfriskwillrevealthetotalamount(fixedplusremovable)
ofcontaminationpresentinanareawhileasmearwipewillonlyshowhowmuch
removablecontaminationisthere,sothereisavalueinperformingbothtypesof
surveys.However,someisotopes(H3,inparticular)areverydifficulttosurveyforby
directfriskanditspossiblethattheonlyreliableinformationaboutcontamination
levelswillbeobtainedviasmearwipesurveys.
Skincontamination
Aswithradioactivespills,skincontaminationisnotlifeendangeringalthough,inrare
cases,localizedskinburnscanresultfromhotparticles.Thismeansthatworkers
shouldntpanicoverskincontamination,butalsothattheyshouldworkquicklyto
removethecontaminants.Theimmediateactionsincaseofskincontaminationcanbe
rememberedasCCC:
ContacttheRSOtoinformhim/herabouttheskincontamination
Counttheamountofcontaminationontheskinwithanappropriatedetectorand
writethisnumberdown.Thiswilllaterbeusedtohelpcalculateskindoseand/or
possibleuptakefromthecontamination
Cleanthecontaminatedareabygoingtothenearestsinkandwashingwithmild
soapandcooltowarmwater.Whilecleaning,ageneralruleistonottakeany
actionsthatarepainfuloruncomfortableinmostcases,theskinactsasabarrierto
keepcontaminationontheoutsideofthebody,anditisimportanttonotbreachthis
barrier.
Whiledecontaminating,theworkershouldsurveyperiodically;ifthecountrate
continuestodecreasethenthedecontaminationishavinganeffectandshouldcontinue.
If,however,thecountratestabilizesoriftheskinstartstoreddenorbleed,
decontaminationshouldstopuntiltheRSOoranotherqualifiedpersonarrivesto
determinewhatshouldbedone.Insomecases,simplywrappingthecontaminated
areainplasticcanhelpthecontaminationissweatedoutbutthisisobviouslynot
agoodideaforfacialcontamination!Moredrasticdecontaminationmeasuresshould
ONLYbetakenifthereisaneed(becauseofveryhighcontaminationlevels)ANDif
advisedbyacompetentradiationsafetyprofessional.
49

Followingdecontaminationitmaybenecessarytocalculateradiationdosetotheskin
ortointernalorgans.Theseshouldbedonebyeitherastaffhealthphysicistorbya
consultantbecausethesecalculationscanbecomplexanditisnecessarytomakesure
theyaredonecorrectly.Therearesomesoftwareprogramsthatwillhelpwiththese
calculations,buttheygivethebestresultsinthehandsofaradiationsafety
professional.Intheeventapersoniscontaminatedbysomethingthatwillbeabsorbed
throughtheskin(e.g.tritiatedwaterormanyiodinecompounds)itmayalsobe
necessarytotakeurinesamplesortoperformthyroidcountstocheckforuptakeof
isotope.Thisdeterminationcanalsobemadebyahealthphysicist.
Trafficaccidentsinvolvingradioactivematerials
Everyday,radioactivematerialsaretransportedinthousandsofvehicles.These
includesoildensitygauges,radiopharmaceuticals,smallvialsofresearchisotopes,
radioactivewaste,nuclearreactorfuel,andmore.Althoughrare,thesevehiclesare
sometimesinvolvedinaccidentsthatmayormaynotreleaseradioactivematerials.Itis
imperativethatanyvehicularaccidentinvolvingradioactivitybereportedimmediately
tothecompany(ifappropriate)andtoemergencyresponsepersonnelsothatinjured
peoplecanbecaredforandsothattheradioactivematerialscanberecoveredand
contained.
Theprimaryconcernforanyvehicularaccidentisthehealthofthepeopleinvolvedin
theaccident.Injuredpersonnelmustbecaredforfirst,andstabilizedifnecessary.
Contaminated(orpotentiallycontaminated)peopleshouldbecaredforwithoutregard
totheircontaminationifnecessary.However,itmaybeprudenttoinformemergency
responseandmedicalpersonnelofthecontamination(andthatitposesnorisktothem)
sothatthevictimcanbewrappedordecontaminatedtominimizecontamination
spreadtotheambulanceormedicalfacility.Eventhisstepisnotanecessity,butitwill
helptoreducethechancethatavehicleormedicalroomwillrequiredecontamination
priortouseforotherpatients.
Afterinjuredpersonnelarecaredfor,theradioactivematerialsmustbeaccountedfor,
contained,andrecoveredasappropriate.Thephysicalformoftheradioactivematerials
(e.g.liquid,gas,solid),themannerinwhichtheyarecontained,andtheseverityofthe
accidentwilldeterminetheamountandspreadofcontamination.Forexample,asoil
densitygaugepackedinitscasewilllikelyescapeunscathedfromallbutthemost
severeaccidents,whileajugofradioactiveliquidmaycontaminatetheinsideofthe
vehicleandthegrounditdripsonto.Thisphaseoftheaccidentrecoveryshould
includedonningappropriateprotectiveequipment(say,gloves,protectivecoveralls,
andshoecovers),openingthestoragearea,andassessingthephysicalconditionofthe
50
radioactivematerialsstoragecontainer.Ifthereisobviousleakageintothevehicle
interiororontotheground,orifcontaminationsurveysshowmaterialswerereleased,
theymustbecontainedandcleanedupasnecessary.
Lossofradioactivematerials
2. Radioactivematerialsmustbeaccountedforatalltimes,andthelossof
radioactivematerialsmustbetakenseriously.Attheleast,thelossofradioactive
materialsraisestheconcernofaccidentalexposureofthepublicorreleasetothe
environment.Atworst,wemustalsoconsiderthepossibilityofdeliberate
misuse.Inthepast,suchmisuseincludedattemptedpoisoninganddeliberate
contamination.Today,totheseconcernswemustalsoconsiderthatmissing
radioactivematerialsmayalsobeusedinaterroristattack.Inanyevent,all
casesofmissingradioactivematerialsmustbeinvestigatedandexplained,and
everyeffortshouldbemadetolocateandrecoverthemissingmaterials.And,if
enoughmaterialislost,itmayneedtobereportedtoregulatoryauthorities,
dependingontheamountofradioactivitylostandthepotentialradiationdoseto
thepublic.
3. Accordingto10CFRSection20.2201(Reportsoftheftorlossoflicensed
material):
4. Eachlicenseeshallreportbytelephoneasfollows:
(i)Immediatelyafteritsoccurrencebecomesknowntothelicensee,anylost,
stolen,ormissinglicensedmaterialinanaggregatequantityequaltoorgreater
than1,000timesthequantityspecifiedinappendixCtopart20undersuch
circumstancesthatitappearstothelicenseethatanexposurecouldresultto
personsinunrestrictedareas;or
(ii)Within30daysaftertheoccurrenceofanylost,stolen,ormissinglicensed
materialbecomesknowntothelicensee,alllicensedmaterialinaquantity
greaterthan10timesthequantityspecifiedinappendixCtopart20thatisstill
missingatthistime.
Writtenreports.(1)Eachlicenseerequiredtomakeareportunderparagraph(a)
ofthissectionshall,within30daysaftermakingthetelephonereport,makea
writtenreportsettingforththefollowinginformation:
(i)Adescriptionofthelicensedmaterialinvolved,includingkind,quantity,and
chemicalandphysicalform;and
51
(ii)Adescriptionofthecircumstancesunderwhichthelossortheftoccurred;
and
(iii)Astatementofdisposition,orprobabledisposition,ofthelicensedmaterial
involved;and
(iv)Exposuresofindividualstoradiation,circumstancesunderwhichthe
exposuresoccurred,andthepossibletotaleffectivedoseequivalenttopersonsin
unrestrictedareas;and
(v)Actionsthathavebeentaken,orwillbetaken,torecoverthematerial;and
(vi)Proceduresormeasuresthathavebeen,orwillbe,adoptedtoensureagainst
arecurrenceofthelossortheftoflicensedmaterial.
Youshouldhavesomecriteriafordeterminingwhenradioactivematerialsare
consideredtobelostandapolicyorprocedurefortryingtolocateoraccountforthe
lostmaterials.Althoughitsoundssillytosayso,itsnotalwaysobviouswhen
radioactivematerialsareactuallylost.Forexample,thenecessaryfilesmaynotbe
accessibleandthepersonwithaccessmaybeonvacation,makingithardtolocatea
particularsource.Isthesourcelost?Notnecessarily,ifyoucanproveatsomepoint
thatitwasundercontrolatalltimesevenifittakesaweekorsoforthecustodianto
returnfromvacation.Ontheotherhand,youmaydecideasourceislostafteronlya
fewhoursifyouknowexactlywhereitssupposedtobeandfinditsnotthere.You
willneedtodecideforyourselfwhenradioactivematerialsareconsideredlost,andyou
shouldbeabletojustifyyourdecisiontoyourregulators.
Yourprocedureshouldalsoincludehowyouplantodeterminedosetothepublicifthe
materialscannotbelocatedorifitisdeterminedtheyweredischargedtothe
environmentby,say,incinerationordischargeintothesanitarysewersystem.Its
acceptabletohavethedosedeterminationperformedbyanoutsideconsultantifyour
organizationlacksafulltimehealthphysicisttoperformthesecalculations,andhiring
aconsultantisabetterideathanattemptingthemyourselfandmakingamistake.
Ifthemissingradioactiveareeventuallylocated,thisshouldbereportedtoyour
regulatorsimmediately.Regardlessoftheoutcomeofyourinvestigationsandattempts
tolocatethemissingmaterials,youwillalsoneedtodocumentallyouractionsandthe
resultsofyourinvestigation,andyoushouldkeepacopyofyourreportandall
supportingdocumentationinyourincidentfiles.
52

Radiologicalterrorism
Dealingwithradiologicalterrorismcouldbethesubjectofafullbookinandofitself,
anditissimplynotpossibletogointoexhaustivedetailinpartofasinglearticle.For
thisreason,onlybroadgeneralitieswillbegivenhere.
Intheeventofradiologicalterrorism,yourfacilitymaybedirectlyinvolvedinthe
attack,oryoumaybecalledupontoprovidesupporttotherecoveryefforts.Inthe
lattercase,yourdegreeofparticipationwilldependonyourcapabilitiesandwhatever
arrangementsyoumayhavemadewithemergencyresponsepersonnelpriortothe
attack.Intheabsenceofanypreexistingemergencyresponsearrangements,youmay
notbepermittedtoparticipatedirectlyintheemergencyphaseoftheattackbecausethe
IncidentCommandermaysimplynotknowwhatyouandyourstaffcando.This
meansthat,ifyouwanttoassist,youshouldworkwithlocalemergencyrespondersin
advancetodetermineyourrole,ratherthansimplyappearingatthescene,metersin
hand,wantingtohelp.
Ifanattacktakesplaceonornearyourfacility,youmaybedirectlyinvolved.Inthis
case,yourhighestprioritywillprobablybeprotectingyourpersonnel,recoveringfrom
anyphysicaldamage(fires,blast,etc.),andminimizingthespreadofcontaminationto
yourfacility.Ingeneral,adirtybombmaycauseextensivepropertydamage,but
theremaybefew,ifanyhealtheffectsfromtheradiologicalportionoftheattack,
althoughtheradioactivitywillcomplicateresponseefforts.
Thesceneofaradiologicalattackwillhaveelevatedlevelsofcontaminationand
possiblyradiation.Itwillalsobeacrimescene,itmayposeseriousnonradiological
healthrisks,andemergencyresponseefforts(puttingoutfires,stabilizingdamaged
buildings,isolatingdamagedutilitylines,rescuinginjuredpeople,etc.)maybetaking
place.Obviously,rescuingpeopleisthehighestpriority,alongwithaddressing
physicalriskssuchasfires.Butyoumustalsorememberthatradiologicalconcernsare
alsopresent,requiringsettingupandenforcingradiologicalboundaries,surveying
personnelleavingcontaminationareas,andperformingradiationsurveysasnecessary
tomakesurethatrescuersarenotplacingthemselvesatrisk.
Theseguidelinesaredeliberatelygeneralbecauseanyterroristattackorotherincident
willbeunique.Thebestwecandoistotrytokeepthesegeneralguidelinesinmindas
weworkwithourregulators,emergencyresponsepersonnel,andothersinvolvedin
theincidenttodealwiththesituationasitunfoldsandpresentsitself.
53
Closingthoughts
Mostradiologicalincidentsarenotlifeendangering.Eventerroristattacksarelikelyto
eitherinconveniencealotofpeopleortoendangerafewpeopleduetoradiation
(althoughanexplosionmay,indeed,bedeadly).Inmostcases,youwillhavethe
luxuryoftakingaminutetoconsideryouractionsandtothinkthroughyourresponse
sothatyouhandletheincidentappropriately.Andremember,peoplemusttakethe
highestpriorityyoucanalwaysdecontaminateanarea,butwecantrestorelost
healthorlives.
Formoreinformation:
CRCHandbookofManagementofRadiationProtectionPrograms,SecondEdition,KennethL.
Miller(Editor),CRCPress,BocaRatonFL,1992
OperationalRadiationSafetyProgram,NationalCouncilonRadiationProtectionand
MeasurementsReport#127,1998
ManagementofTerroristEventsInvolvingRadioactiveMaterial,NationalCouncilon
RadiationProtectionandMeasurementsReport#138,2001
RadiationProtection:AGuideforScientists,Regulators,andPhysicians,FourthEdition,Jacob
Shapiro,HarvardUniversityPress,2002
DisasterPreparednessforRadiologyProfessionals,AmericanCollegeofRadiology,2003
(availableonlineatwww.acr.orgunderDisasterPlanningInformationlink)
Conductingacontaminationsurvey(toaccompanythespillprocedure)
Performingradiationsurveyscantakealotoftime,butitistimewellspentbecausea
hastysurveycanleadtospreadingcontaminationaroundyourfacilityandoffsite.
Holdingthedetectortoofarawayfromthesurfaceyouresurveyingcangive
erroneouslylowreadings,ascanmovingthedetectortooquickly.Thephraseweuseat
theUniversityofRochesterislowandslowthedetectorshouldbehelpnomore
thanaboutahalfinch(1cm)fromthesurfacebeingsurveyedandmovednomore
quicklythan12inchespersecond(or35cmpersecond).Whilesurveying,youshould
keeptheaudibleresponseturnedonbecauseyouwillwanttowatchtheprobeitself
youdontwanttomissaspot,toholdthedetectortoofarfromthesurface,orto
contaminatethedetectorbybumpingitintoacontaminatedsurface.Listentothecount
54
rateand,ifyouhearanincrease,pauseforamomenttoseeiftheincreaseissustained.
Ifso,lookatthemeterfacetoseewhatthecountrateisatthatlocation.
Whenloggingresults,andindecontamination,youmustconvertfromcountsper
minute(whatthemeterreadsoutin)todisintegrationperminute(theamountof
contaminationpresent).Thisisdonebydividingthecountratebythemeterefficiency
(whichshouldbedeterminedwhenthemeteriscalibrated).Forexample,ifageiger
counterhas40%detectionefficiencyforP32,acountrateof80cpmabovebackground
levelscorrespondstoadisintegrationrateof200dpm(800.4=200).
Radiologicalterrorism;generalguidelines
Wehaveestablishedsomegeneralguidelinesforrespondingtoonsiteradiological
attackinauniversityorhospitalsetting.Someorallmaybeapplicabletoyourfacility.
1. Personnelwhocanneitherhearnorseeanexplosionareprobablynotatrisk.
Theyshouldstayputifindoorsor,ifoutdoors,goinsidetoawaitfurther
informationandinstructions.PeopleshouldNOTtrytodriveawaybecause
drivingislikelytobemoredangerousthanstayingput.
2. Aftergoingindoors,personnelshouldcloseopendoorsandwindows,wash
handsandface(takeashowerifpossible),andchangeyourouterclothesifyou
can.
3. Contaminatedinjuredpeopleshouldhaveseriousinjuriestreatedwithoutregard
tocontaminationlevelscontaminatedpersonsdonotendangeremergency
responseormedicalpersonnel.Ifinjuriesarenotserious,itmaybepossibleto
decontaminatethevictimsbeforetransportingthem,oratleasttowrapthemina
sheetorblankettominimizethespreadofcontaminationtovehiclesand
hospitals.Thisjudgmentcallmustbemadeonacasebycasebasis,depending
ontheextentofinjuriesandcontamination.
4. Youmayneedtoperformsurveystoestablishradiologicalboundaries.These
boundariesmaybeforhighradiationorhighcontaminationlevels.Accordingto
regulations,thelimitforremovablecontaminationinanunrestrictedareais1000
dpm/100cm2andradiationlevelsinuncontrolledareascannotexceed2mremin
onehour.Radiationsurveysarerelativelyeasytoperform,andradiation
boundariescanoftenbeestablishedfairlyeasily.However,contamination
boundariesaremoredifficulttoestablishbecausecontaminationsurveyscanbe
difficultandtimeconsumingtoperform.Insomecases,itmaybebesttosimply
setcontaminationcontrolboundariesafewhundredmetersdownwindandthen
expandorcollapsethemasyousurveytoconfirmthem.Note:Untilyouhavea
55
goodideaofcontaminationlevels,youshoulddressincontaminationcontrol
gear(shoecovers,gloves,coveralls,forexample)toreducetheriskofpersonnel
contamination.
5. Potentiallycontaminatedpeopleshouldstayinthecontrolledareauntiltheycan
besurveyedandreleased.Ifthereareonlyafewpeople,itmaybepossibleto
surveyeveryonedirectlyanddecontaminatethemasnecessary.However,even
afewtensofpeoplewhoarecontaminatedcantakeagreatdealoftimeto
surveythoroughlyanddecontaminate.Dependingonyourcapabilitiesand
thoseoftheemergencyresponders,youmayhavelittleoptionotherthan
releasingmoderatelycontaminatedpeoplewithinstructionsonhowto
decontaminatethemselvesandtheirclothing.However,releasingsuchpeople
shouldbealastresort,tobetakenonlywhenitisobviousthatnoother
reasonableoptionsexistandwiththeconcurrenceofregulatoryandemergency
responsepersonnel.
6. Eating,drinking,smoking,chewingtobacco,applyingcosmetics,andother
possibleavenuesofaccidentalingestionorinhalationshouldbeprohibitedin
anyradiologicallycontrolledarea,orbyanypotentiallycontaminatedperson.
Howtochooseasurveymeter
Typeof
Exampleisotopes
radiation
emitted
Alpha
U238,Pu238,Pu239,
Ra226,Po210,Am241
Lowenergybeta H3,C14,S35,Pu241
Typeof
survey
Typeofdetectortouse
Directfrisk,
smearwipe
Smearwipe
Zincsulfide(ZnS)or
proportionalcounter
Liquidscintillationcounter,
proportionalcounter
Geigercounter,liquid
scintillationcounter,
proportionalcounter
Thincrystal(1x1mm)
sodiumiodide
Mediumto
P32,Sr90,I131
highenergybeta
Directfrisk,
smearwipe
Lowenergy
gamma
I125,I129,Am241
Mediumto
highenergy
gamma
I131,Cs137,Co60,Ir
192
Directfrisk
orsmear
wipe
Directfrisk
orsmear
wipe
56
Thickcrystal(1x1or
larger)sodiumiodide,
Geigercounter
10 CFRPART19NOTICES,INSTRUCTIONSANDREPORTSTOWORKERS:
INSPECTIONANDINVESTIGATIONS
PartIndex
Sec.
19.1Purpose.
19.2Scope.
19.3Definitions.
19.4Interpretations.
19.5Communications.
19.8Informationcollectionrequirements:OMBapproval.
19.11Postingofnoticestoworkers.
19.12Instructiontoworkers.
19.13Notificationsandreportstoindividuals.
19.14Presenceofrepresentativesoflicenseesandworkersduringinspections.
19.15Consultationwithworkersduringinspections.
19.16Requestsbyworkersforinspections.
19.17Inspectionsnotwarranted;informalreview.
19.18Sequestrationofwitnessesandexclusionofcounselininterviewsconductedundersubpoena.
19.20Employeeprotection.
19.30Violations.
19.31Applicationforexemptions.
19.32Discriminationprohibited.
19.40Criminalpenalties.
Authority:Secs.53,63,81,103,104,161,186,68Stat.930,933,935,936,937,948,955,asamended,sec.234,83Stat.
444,asamended,sec.1701,106Stat.2951,2952,2953(42U.S.C.2073,2093,2111,2133,2134,2201,2236,2282,2297f);
sec.201,88Stat.1242,asamended(42U.S.C.5841);Pub.L.95601,sec.10,92Stat.2951(42U.S.C.5851);sec.1704,112
Stat.2750(44U.S.C.3504note).
57
Source:38FR22217,Aug.17,1973,unlessotherwisenoted.
a) 19.1Purpose.
Theregulationsinthispartestablishrequirementsfornotices,instructions,andreportsbylicenseestoindividuals
participatinginlicensedactivitiesandoptionsavailabletotheseindividualsinconnectionwithCommission
inspectionsoflicenseestoascertaincompliancewiththeprovisionsoftheAtomicEnergyActof1954,asamended,
titleIIoftheEnergyReorganizationActof1974,andregulations,orders,andlicensesthereunderregarding
radiologicalworkingconditions.Theregulationsinthispartalsoestablishtherightsandresponsibilitiesofthe
Commissionandindividualsduringinterviewscompelledbysubpoenaaspartofagencyinspectionsor
investigationspursuanttosection161coftheAtomicEnergyActof1954,asamended,onanymatterwithinthe
Commissionsjurisdiction.
[55FR247,Jan.4,1990]
b) 19.2Scope.
Theregulationsinthispartapplytoallpersonswhoreceive,possess,use,ortransfermateriallicensedbythe
NuclearRegulatoryCommissionpursuanttotheregulationsinparts30through36,39,40,60,61,63,70,orpart72of
thischapter,includingpersonslicensedtooperateaproductionorutilizationfacilityunderpart50ofthischapter,
personslicensedtopossesspowerreactorspentfuelinanindependentspentfuelstorageinstallation(ISFSI)
pursuanttopart72ofthischapter,andinaccordancewith10CFR76.60topersonsrequiredtoobtainacertificateof
complianceoranapprovedcomplianceplanunderpart76ofthischapter.Theregulationsregardinginterviewsof
individualsundersubpoenaapplytoallinvestigationsandinspectionswithinthejurisdictionoftheNuclear
RegulatoryCommissionotherthanthoseinvolvingNRCemployeesorNRCcontractors.Theregulationsinthispart
donotapplytosubpoenasissuedpursuantto10CFR2.720.
[66FR55789,Nov.2,2001]
c) 19.3Definitions.
Asusedinthispart:
ActmeanstheAtomicEnergyActof1954,(68Stat.919)includinganyamendmentsthereto.
CommissionmeanstheUnitedStatesNuclearRegulatoryCommission.
ExclusionmeanstheremovalofcounselrepresentingmultipleinterestsfromaninterviewwhenevertheNRCofficial
conductingtheinterviewhasconcreteevidencethatthepresenceofthecounselwouldobstructandimpedethe
particularinvestigationorinspection.
Licensemeansalicenseissuedundertheregulationsinparts30through36,39,40,60,61,63,70,or72ofthischapter,
includinglicensestooperateaproductionorutilizationfacilitypursuanttopart50ofthischapter.
Licenseemeanstheholderofsuchalicense.
Restrictedareameansanarea,accesstowhichislimitedbythelicenseeforthepurposeofprotectingindividuals
againstunduerisksfromexposuretoradiationandradioactivematerials.Restrictedareadoesnotincludeareasused
asresidentialquarters,butseparateroomsinaresidentialbuildingmaybesetapartasarestrictedarea.
58
Sequestrationmeanstheseparationorisolationofwitnessesandtheirattorneysfromotherwitnessesandtheir
attorneysduringaninterviewconductedaspartofaninvestigation,inspection,orotherinquiry.
WorkermeansanindividualengagedinactivitieslicensedbytheCommissionandcontrolledbyalicensee,butdoes
notincludethelicensee.
[38FR22217,Aug.17,1973,asamendedat40FR8783,Mar.3,1975;53FR31680,Aug.19,1988;55FR247,Jan.4,
1990;56FR23470,May21,1991;56FR65948,Dec.19,1991;57FR61785,Dec.29,1992;58FR7736,Feb.9,1993;66FR
55789,Nov.2,2001;69FR76600,Dec.22,2004]
d) 19.4Interpretations.
ExceptasspecificallyauthorizedbytheCommissioninwriting,nointerpretationofthemeaningoftheregulationsin
thispartbyanyofficeroremployeeoftheCommissionotherthanawritteninterpretationbytheGeneralCounsel
willberecognizedtobebindingupontheCommission.
e) 19.5Communications.
Exceptwhereotherwisespecifiedinthispart,allcommunicationsandreportsconcerningtheregulationsinthispart
shouldbeaddressedtotheRegionalAdministratoroftheappropriateU.S.NuclearRegulatoryCommissionRegional
OfficelistedinAppendixDofpart20ofthischapter.Communications,reports,andapplicationsmaybedeliveredin
personattheCommissionsofficesatOneWhiteFlintNorth,11555RockvillePike(firstfloor),Rockville,Maryland.
[67FR67098,Nov.4,2002]
f) 19.8Informationcollectionrequirements:OMBapproval.
(a)TheNuclearRegulatoryCommissionhassubmittedtheinformationcollectionrequirementscontainedinthispart
totheOfficeofManagementandBudget(OMB)forapprovalasrequiredbythePaperworkReductionAct(44U.S.C.
3501etseq.).TheNRCmaynotconductorsponsor,andapersonisnotrequiredtorespondto,acollectionof
informationunlessitdisplaysacurrentlyvalidOMBcontrolnumber.OMBhasapprovedtheinformationcollection
requirementscontainedinthepartundercontrolnumber31500044.
(b)Theapprovedinformationcollectionrequirementscontainedinthispartappearin19.13and19.16.
[62FR52185,Oct.6,1997]
g) 19.11Postingofnoticestoworkers.
(a)Eachlicenseeshallpostcurrentcopiesofthefollowingdocuments:
(1)Theregulationsinthispartandinpart20ofthischapter;
(2)Thelicense,licenseconditions,ordocumentsincorporatedintoalicensebyreference,andamendmentsthereto;
(3)Theoperatingproceduresapplicabletolicensedactivities;
(4)Anynoticeofviolationinvolvingradiologicalworkingconditions,proposedimpositionofcivilpenalty,ororder
issuedpursuanttosubpartBofpart2ofthischapter,andanyresponsefromthelicensee.
59
(b)Ifpostingofadocumentspecifiedinparagraph(a)(1),(2)or(3)ofthissectionisnotpracticable,thelicenseemay
postanoticewhichdescribesthedocumentandstateswhereitmaybeexamined.
(c)(1)EachlicenseeandeachapplicantforaspecificlicenseshallprominentlypostNRCForm3,Noticeto
Employees,datedAugust1997.LaterversionsofNRCForm3thatsupersedetheAugust1997versionshallreplace
thepreviouslypostedversionwithin30daysofreceivingtherevisedNRCForm3fromtheCommission.
(2)AdditionalcopiesofNRCForm3maybeobtainedbywritingtotheRegionalAdministratoroftheappropriate
U.S.NuclearRegulatoryCommissionRegionalOfficelistedinappendixDtopart20ofthischapter,bycalling(301)
4155877,viaemailtoforms@nrc.gov,orbyvisitingtheNRCsWebsiteathttp://www.nrc.govandselectingformsfrom
theindexfoundonthehomepage.
(d)Documents,notices,orformspostedpursuanttothissectionshallappearinasufficientnumberofplacesto
permitindividualsengagedinlicensedactivitiestoobservethemonthewaytoorfromanyparticularlicensed
activitylocationtowhichthedocumentapplies,shallbeconspicuous,andshallbereplacedifdefacedoraltered.
(e)Commissiondocumentspostedpursuanttoparagraph(a)(4)ofthissectionshallbepostedwithin2workingdays
afterreceiptofthedocumentsfromtheCommission;thelicenseesresponse,ifany,shallbepostedwithin2working
daysafterdispatchbythelicensee.Suchdocumentsshallremainpostedforaminimumof5workingdaysoruntil
actioncorrectingtheviolationhasbeencompleted,whicheverislater.
[38FR22217,Aug.17,1973,asamendedat40FR8783,Mar.3,1975;47FR30454,July14,1982;58FR52408,Oct.8,
1993;60FR24551,May9,1995;61FR6764,Feb.22,1996;62FR48166,Sept.15,1997;68FR58801,Oct.10,2003]
h) 19.12Instructiontoworkers.
(a)Allindividualswhointhecourseofemploymentarelikelytoreceiveinayearanoccupationaldoseinexcessof
100mrem(1mSv)shallbe
(1)Keptinformedofthestorage,transfer,oruseofradiationand/orradioactivematerial;
(2)Instructedinthehealthprotectionproblemsassociatedwithexposuretoradiationand/orradioactivematerial,in
precautionsorprocedurestominimizeexposure,andinthepurposesandfunctionsofprotectivedevicesemployed;
(3)Instructedin,andrequiredtoobserve,totheextentwithintheworkerscontrol,theapplicableprovisionsof
Commissionregulationsandlicensesfortheprotectionofpersonnelfromexposuretoradiationand/orradioactive
material;
(4)Instructedoftheirresponsibilitytoreportpromptlytothelicenseeanyconditionwhichmayleadtoorcausea
violationofCommissionregulationsandlicensesorunnecessaryexposuretoradiationand/orradioactivematerial;
(5)Instructedintheappropriateresponsetowarningsmadeintheeventofanyunusualoccurrenceormalfunction
thatmayinvolveexposuretoradiationand/orradioactivematerial;and
(6)Advisedastotheradiationexposurereportswhichworkersmayrequestpursuantto19.13.
(b)Indeterminingthoseindividualssubjecttotherequirementsofparagraph(a)ofthissection,licenseesmusttake
intoconsiderationassignedactivitiesduringnormalandabnormalsituationsinvolvingexposuretoradiationand/or
radioactivematerialwhichcanreasonablybeexpectedtooccurduringthelifeofalicensedfacility.Theextentof
60
theseinstructionsmustbecommensuratewithpotentialradiologicalhealthprotectionproblemspresentinthework
place.
[60FR36043,July13,1995]
i) 19.13Notificationsandreportstoindividuals.
(a)Radiationexposuredataforanindividual,andtheresultsofanymeasurements,analyses,andcalculationsof
radioactivematerialdepositedorretainedinthebodyofanindividual,shallbereportedtotheindividualas
specifiedinthissection.TheinformationreportedshallincludedataandresultsobtainedpursuanttoCommission
regulations,ordersorlicenseconditions,asshowninrecordsmaintainedbythelicenseepursuanttoCommission
regulations.Eachnotificationandreportshall:beinwriting;includeappropriateidentifyingdatasuchasthenameof
thelicensee,thenameoftheindividual,theindividualssocialsecuritynumber;includetheindividualsexposure
information;andcontainthefollowingstatement:
ThisreportisfurnishedtoyouundertheprovisionsoftheNuclearRegulatoryCommissionregulation10CFRpart
19.Youshouldpreservethisreportforfurtherreference.
(b)Eachlicenseeshalladviseeachworkerannuallyoftheworkersdoseasshowninrecordsmaintainedbythe
licenseepursuanttotheprovisionsof20.2106of10CFRpart20.
(c)(1)Attherequestofaworkerformerlyengagedinlicensedactivitiescontrolledbythelicensee,eachlicenseeshall
furnishtotheworkerareportoftheworkersexposuretoradiationand/ortoradioactivematerial:
(i)Asshowninrecordsmaintainedbythelicenseepursuantto20.2106foreachyeartheworkerwasrequiredtobe
monitoredundertheprovisionsof20.1502;and
(ii)Foreachyeartheworkerwasrequiredtobemonitoredunderthemonitoringrequirementsineffectpriorto
January1,1994.
(2)Thisreportmustbefurnishedwithin30daysfromthetimetherequestismadeorwithin30daysafterthe
exposureoftheindividualhasbeendeterminedbythelicensee,whicheverislater.Thisreportmustcovertheperiod
oftimethattheworkersactivitiesinvolvedexposuretoradiationfromradioactivemateriallicensedbythe
Commissionandmustincludethedatesandlocationsoflicensedactivitiesinwhichtheworkerparticipatedduring
thisperiod.
(d)Whenalicenseeisrequiredpursuantto20.2202,20.2203,20.2204,or20.2206ofthischaptertoreporttothe
Commissionanyexposureofanindividualtoradiationorradioactivematerialthelicenseeshallalsoprovidethe
individualareportonhisorherexposuredataincludedtherein.Thisreportmustbetransmittedatatimenotlater
thanthetransmittaltotheCommission.
(e)Attherequestofaworkerwhoisterminatingemploymentwiththelicenseethatinvolvedexposuretoradiation
orradioactivematerials,duringthecurrentcalendarquarterorthecurrentyear,eachlicenseeshallprovideat
terminationtoeachworker,ortotheworkersdesignee,awrittenreportregardingtheradiationdosereceivedby
thatworkerfromoperationsofthelicenseeduringthecurrentyearorfractionthereof.Ifthemostrecentindividual
monitoringresultsarenotavailableatthattime,awrittenestimateofthedosemustbeprovidedtogetherwithaclear
indicationthatthisisanestimate.
[38FR22217,Aug.17,1973,asamendedat40FR8783,Mar.3,1975;44FR32352,June6,1979;58FR67658,Dec.22,
1993;59FR41642,Aug.15,1994]
61
j) 19.14Presenceofrepresentativesoflicenseesandworkersduringinspections.
(a)EachlicenseeshallaffordtotheCommissionatallreasonabletimesopportunitytoinspectmaterials,activities,
facilities,premises,andrecordspursuanttotheregulationsinthischapter.
(b)Duringaninspection,Commissioninspectorsmayconsultprivatelywithworkersasspecifiedin19.15.The
licenseeorlicenseesrepresentativemayaccompanyCommissioninspectorsduringotherphrasesofaninspection.
(c)If,atthetimeofinspection,anindividualhasbeenauthorizedbytheworkerstorepresentthemduring
Commissioninspections,thelicenseeshallnotifytheinspectorsofsuchauthorizationandshallgivetheworkers
representativeanopportunitytoaccompanytheinspectorsduringtheinspectionofphysicalworkingconditions.
(d)Eachworkersrepresentativeshallberoutinelyengagedinlicensedactivitiesundercontrolofthelicenseeand
shallhavereceivedinstructionsasspecifiedin19.12.
(e)Differentrepresentativesoflicenseesandworkersmayaccompanytheinspectorsduringdifferentphasesofan
inspectionifthereisnoresultinginterferencewiththeconductoftheinspection.However,onlyoneworkers
representativeatatimemayaccompanytheinspectors.
(f)Withtheapprovalofthelicenseeandtheworkersrepresentativeanindividualwhoisnotroutinelyengagedin
licensedactivitiesundercontrolofthelicense,forexample,aconsultanttothelicenseeortotheworkers
representative,shallbeaffordedtheopportunitytoaccompanyCommissioninspectorsduringtheinspectionof
physicalworkingconditions.
(g)Notwithstandingtheotherprovisionsofthissection,Commissioninspectorsareauthorizedtorefusetopermit
accompanimentbyanyindividualwhodeliberatelyinterfereswithafairandorderlyinspection.Withregardtoareas
containinginformationclassifiedbyanagencyoftheU.S.Governmentintheinterestofnationalsecurity,an
individualwhoaccompaniesaninspectormayhaveaccesstosuchinformationonlyifauthorizedtodoso.With
regardtoanyareacontainingproprietaryinformation,theworkersrepresentativeforthatareashallbeanindividual
previouslyauthorizedbythelicenseetoenterthatarea.
k) 19.15Consultationwithworkersduringinspections.
(a)Commissioninspectorsmayconsultprivatelywithworkersconcerningmattersofoccupationalradiation
protectionandothermattersrelatedtoapplicableprovisionsofCommissionregulationsandlicensestotheextentthe
inspectorsdeemnecessaryfortheconductofaneffectiveandthoroughinspection.
(b)Duringthecourseofaninspectionanyworkermaybringprivatelytotheattentionoftheinspectors,eitherorally
orinwriting,anypastorpresentconditionwhichhehasreasontobelievemayhavecontributedtoorcausedany
violationoftheact,theregulationsinthischapter,orlicensecondition,oranyunnecessaryexposureofanindividual
toradiationfromlicensedradioactivematerialunderthelicenseescontrol.Anysuchnoticeinwritingshallcomply
withtherequirementsof19.16(a).
(c)Theprovisionsofparagraph(b)ofthissectionshallnotbeinterpretedasauthorizationtodisregardinstructions
pursuantto19.12.
l) 19.16Requestsbyworkersforinspections.
(a)AnyworkerorrepresentativeofworkerswhobelievesthataviolationoftheAct,theregulationsinthischapter,
orlicenseconditionsexistsorhasoccurredinlicenseactivitieswithregardtoradiologicalworkingconditionsin
62
whichtheworkerisengaged,mayrequestaninspectionbygivingnoticeoftheallegedviolationtothe
AdministratoroftheappropriateCommissionRegionalOffice,ortoCommissioninspectors.Anysuchnoticeshallbe
inwriting,shallsetforththespecificgroundsforthenotice,andshallbesignedbytheworkerorrepresentativeof
workers.AcopyshallbeprovidedthelicenseebytheRegionalOfficeAdministrator,ortheinspectornolaterthanat
thetimeofinspectionexceptthat,upontherequestoftheworkergivingsuchnotice,hisnameandthenameof
individualsreferredtothereinshallnotappearinsuchcopyoronanyrecordpublished,releasedormadeavailable
bytheCommission,exceptforgoodcauseshown.
(b)If,uponreceiptofsuchnotice,theRegionalOfficeAdministratordeterminesthatthecomplaintmeetsthe
requirementssetforthinparagraph(a)ofthissection,andthattherearereasonablegroundstobelievethatthe
allegedviolationexistsorhasoccurred,heshallcauseaninspectiontobemadeassoonaspracticable,todetermineif
suchallegedviolationexistsorhasoccurred.Inspectionspursuanttothissectionneednotbelimitedtomatters
referredtointhecomplaint.
[38FR22217,Aug.17,1973,asamendedat40FR8783,Mar.3,1975;47FR30454,July14,1982;52FR31610,Aug.21,
1987]
m) 19.17Inspectionsnotwarranted;informalreview.
(a)IftheAdministratoroftheappropriateRegionalOfficedetermines,withrespecttoacomplaintunder19.16,that
aninspectionisnotwarrantedbecausetherearenoreasonablegroundstobelievethataviolationexistsorhas
occurred,heshallnotifythecomplainantinwritingofsuchdetermination.Thecomplainantmayobtainreviewof
thisdeterminationbysubmittingawrittenstatementofpositiontotheExecutiveDirectorforOperations,eitherby
mailtotheU.S.NuclearRegulatoryCommission,Washington,DC205550001;byhanddeliverytotheNRCsoffices
at11555RockvillePike,Rockville,Maryland;or,wherepracticable,byelectronicsubmission,forexample,via
ElectronicInformationExchange,orCDROM.Electronicsubmissionsmustbemadeinamannerthatenablesthe
NRCtoreceive,read,authenticate,distribute,andarchivethesubmission,andprocessandretrieveitasinglepageat
atime.DetailedguidanceonmakingelectronicsubmissionscanbeobtainedbyvisitingtheNRCsWebsiteat
http://www.nrc.gov/sitehelp/eie.html,bycalling(301)4156030,byemailtoEIE@nrc.gov,orbywritingtheOfficeof
InformationServices,U.S.NuclearRegulatoryCommission,Washington,DC205550001.Theguidancediscusses,
amongothertopics,theformatstheNRCcanaccept,theuseofelectronicsignatures,andthetreatmentofnonpublic
information.TheExecutiveDirectorforOperationswillprovidethelicenseewithacopyofsuchstatementby
certifiedmail,excluding,attherequestofthecomplainant,thenameofthecomplainant.Thelicenseemaysubmitan
opposingwrittenstatementofpositionwiththeExecutiveDirectorforOperationswhowillprovidethecomplainant
withacopyofsuchstatementbycertifiedmail.Upontherequestofthecomplainant,theExecutiveDirectorfor
Operationsorhisdesigneemayholdaninformalconferenceinwhichthecomplainantandthelicenseemayorally
presenttheirviews.Aninformalconferencemayalsobeheldattherequestofthelicensee,butdisclosureofthe
identityofthecomplainantwillbemadeonlyfollowingreceiptofwrittenauthorizationfromthecomplainant.After
consideringallwrittenandoralviewspresented,theExecutiveDirectorforOperationsshallaffirm,modify,or
reversethedeterminationoftheAdministratoroftheappropriateRegionalOfficeandfurnishthecomplainantand
thelicenseeawrittennotificationofhisdecisionandthereasontherefor.
(b)IftheAdministratoroftheappropriateRegionalOfficedeterminesthataninspectionisnotwarrantedbecausethe
requirementsof19.16(a)havenotbeenmet,heshallnotifythecomplainantinwritingofsuchdetermination.Such
determinationshallbewithoutprejudicetothefilingofanewcomplaintmeetingtherequirementsof19.16(a).
[38FR22217,Aug.17,1973,asamendedat40FR8783,Mar.3,1975;52FR31610,Aug.21,1987;67FR77652,Dec.19,
2002;68FR58801,Oct.10,2003;70FR69421,Nov.16,2005]
63
n) 19.18Sequestrationofwitnessesandexclusionofcounselininterviewsconducted
undersubpoena.
(a)Allwitnessescompelledbysubpoenatosubmittoagencyinterviewsshallbesequesteredunlesstheofficial
conductingtheinterviewspermitsotherwise.
(b)Anywitnesscompelledbysubpoenatoappearataninterviewduringanagencyinquirymaybeaccompanied,
represented,andadvisedbycounselofhisorherchoice.However,whentheagencyofficialconductingtheinquiry
determines,afterconsultationwiththeOfficeoftheGeneralCounsel,thattheagencyhasconcreteevidencethatthe
presenceofanattorneyrepresentingmultipleinterestswouldobstructandimpedetheinvestigationorinspection,
theagencyofficialmayprohibitthatcounselfrombeingpresentduringtheinterview.
(c)Theinterviewingofficialistoprovideawitnesswhosecounselhasbeenexcludedunderparagraph(b)ofthis
sectionandthewitnessscounselawrittenstatementofthereasonssupportingthedecisiontoexclude.This
statement,whichmustbeprovidednolaterthanfiveworkingdaysafterexclusion,mustexplainthebasisforthe
counselsexclusion.Thisstatementmustalsoadvisethewitnessofthewitnessrighttoappealtheexclusiondecision
andobtainanautomaticstayoftheeffectivenessofthesubpoenabyfilingamotiontoquashthesubpoenawiththe
Commissionwithinfivedaysofreceiptofthiswrittenstatement.
(d)Withinfivedaysafterreceiptofthewrittennotificationrequiredinparagraph(c)ofthissection,awitnesswhose
counselhasbeenexcludedmayappealtheexclusiondecisionbyfilingamotiontoquashthesubpoenawiththe
Commission.ThefilingofthemotiontoquashwillstaytheeffectivenessofthesubpoenapendingtheCommissions
decisiononthemotion.
(e)Ifawitnesscounselisexcludedunderparagraph(b)ofthissection,theinterviewmay,atthewitnessrequest,
eitherproceedwithoutcounselorbedelayedforareasonableperiodoftimetopermittheretentionofnewcounsel.
TheinterviewmayalsoberescheduledtoasubsequentdateestablishedbytheNRC,althoughtheinterviewshallnot
berescheduledbytheNRCtoadatethatprecedestheexpirationofthetimeprovidedunder19.18(d)forappealof
theexclusionofcounsel,unlessthewitnessconsentstoanearlierdate.
[55FR247,Jan.4,1990,asamendedat56FR65948,Dec.19,1991;57FR61785,Dec.29,1992]
o) 19.20Employeeprotection.
Employmentdiscriminationbyalicensee(oraholderofacertificateofcomplianceissuedpursuanttopart76)ora
contractororsubcontractorofalicensee(oraholderofacertificateofcomplianceissuedpursuanttopart76)against
anemployeeforengaginginprotectedactivitiesunderthispartorparts30,40,50,60,61,63,70,72,76,or150ofthis
chapterisprohibited.
[66FR55789,Nov.2,2001]
p) 19.30Violations.
(a)TheCommissionmayobtainaninjunctionorothercourtordertopreventaviolationoftheprovisionsof
(1)TheAtomicEnergyActof1954,asamended;
(2)TitleIIoftheEnergyReorganizationActof1974,asamended;or
64
(3)AregulationororderissuedpursuanttothoseActs.
(b)TheCommissionmayobtainacourtorderforthepaymentofacivilpenaltyimposedundersection234ofthe
AtomicEnergyAct:
(1)Forviolationsof
(i)Sections53,57,62,63,81,82,101,103,104,107,or109oftheAtomicEnergyActof1954,asamended;
(ii)Section206oftheEnergyReorganizationAct;
(iii)Anyrule,regulation,ororderissuedpursuanttothesectionsspecifiedinparagraph(b)(1)(i)ofthissection;
(iv)Anyterm,condition,orlimitationofanylicenseissuedunderthesectionsspecifiedinparagraph(b)(1)(i)ofthis
section.
(2)Foranyviolationforwhichalicensemayberevokedundersection186oftheAtomicEnergyActof1954,as
amended.
[57FR55071,Nov.24,1992]
q) 19.31Applicationforexemptions.
TheCommissionmayuponapplicationbyanylicenseeoruponitsowninitiative,grantsuchexemptionsfromthe
requirementsoftheregulationsinthispartasitdeterminesareauthorizedbylawandwillnotresultinundue
hazardtolifeorproperty.
r) 19.32Discriminationprohibited.
Nopersonshallonthegroundofsexbeexcludedfromparticipationin,bedeniedthebenefitof,orbesubjectedto
discriminationunderanyprogramoractivitylicensedbytheNuclearRegulatoryCommission.Thisprovisionwillbe
enforcedthroughagencyprovisionsandrulessimilartothosealreadyestablished,withrespecttoracialandother
discrimination,underTitleVIoftheCivilRightsActof1964.Thisremedyisnotexclusive,however,andwillnot
prejudiceorcutoffanyotherlegalremediesavailabletoadiscriminatee.
[65FR54949,Sept.12,2000;68FR75389,Dec.31,2003]
s) 19.40Criminalpenalties.
(a)Section223oftheAtomicEnergyActof1954,asamended,providesforcriminalsanctionsforwillfulviolationof,
attemptedviolationof,orconspiracytoviolate,anyregulationissuedundersections161b,161i,or161ooftheAct.
Forpurposesofsection223,alltheregulationsinpart19areissuedunderoneormoreofsections161b,161i,or161o,
exceptforthesectionslistedinparagraph(b)ofthissection.
(b)Theregulationsinpart19thatarenotissuedundersections161b,161i,or161oforthepurposesofsection223are
asfollows:19.1,19.2,19.3,19.4,19.5,19.8,19.16,19.17,19.18,19.30,19.31,and19.40.
65
10CFRPART20STANDARDSFORPROTECTIONAGAINSTRADIATION
PartIndex
i) SubpartAGeneralProvisions
20.1001Purpose.
20.1002Scope.
20.1003Definitions.
20.1004Unitsofradiationdose.
20.1005Unitsofradioactivity.
20.1007Communications.
20.1008Implementation.
ii) SubpartBRadiationProtectionPrograms
20.1101Radiationprotectionprograms.
iii) SubpartCOccupationalDoseLimits
20.1201Occupationaldoselimitsforadults.
20.1202Compliancewithrequirementsforsummationofexternalandinternaldoses.
20.1203Determinationofexternaldosefromairborneradioactivematerial.
20.1204Determinationofinternalexposure.
20.1205[Reserved]
20.1206Plannedspecialexposures.
20.1207Occupationaldoselimitsforminors.
20.1208Doseequivalenttoanembryo/fetus.
iv) SubpartDRadiationDoseLimitsforIndividualMembersofthePublic
66
20.1301Doselimitsforindividualmembersofthepublic.
20.1302Compliancewithdoselimitsforindividualmembersofthepublic.
v) SubpartERadiologicalCriteriaforLicenseTermination
20.1401Generalprovisionsandscope.
20.1402Radiologicalcriteriaforunrestricteduse.
20.1403Criteriaforlicenseterminationunderrestrictedconditions.
20.1404Alternatecriteriaforlicensetermination.
20.1405Publicnotificationandpublicparticipation.
20.1406Minimizationofcontamination.
vi) SubpartFSurveysandMonitoring
20.1501General.
20.1502Conditionsrequiringindividualmonitoringofexternalandinternaloccupationaldose.
vii)SubpartGControlofExposureFromExternalSourcesinRestrictedAreas
20.1601Controlofaccesstohighradiationareas.
20.1602Controlofaccesstoveryhighradiationareas.
viii) SubpartHRespiratoryProtectionandControlstoRestrictInternal
ExposureinRestrictedAreas
20.1701Useofprocessorotherengineeringcontrols.
20.1702Useofothercontrols.
20.1703Useofindividualrespiratoryprotectionequipment.
20.1704Furtherrestrictionsontheuseofrespiratoryprotectionequipment.
20.1705Applicationforuseofhigherassignedprotectionfactors.
ix) SubpartIStorageandControlofLicensedMaterial
20.1801Securityofstoredmaterial.
67
20.1802Controlofmaterialnotinstorage.
x) SubpartJPrecautionaryProcedures
20.1901Cautionsigns.
20.1902Postingrequirements.
20.1903Exceptionstopostingrequirements.
20.1904Labelingcontainers.
20.1905Exemptionstolabelingrequirements.
20.1906Proceduresforreceivingandopeningpackages.
xi) SubpartKWasteDisposal
20.2001Generalrequirements.
20.2002Methodforobtainingapprovalofproposeddisposalprocedures.
20.2003Disposalbyreleaseintosanitarysewerage.
20.2004Treatmentordisposalbyincineration.
20.2005Disposalofspecificwastes.
20.2006Transferfordisposalandmanifests.
20.2007Compliancewithenvironmentalandhealthprotectionregulations.
xii) SubpartLRecords
20.2101Generalprovisions.
20.2102Recordsofradiationprotectionprograms.
20.2103Recordsofsurveys.
20.2104Determinationofprioroccupationaldose.
20.2105Recordsofplannedspecialexposures.
20.2106Recordsofindividualmonitoringresults.
20.2107Recordsofdosetoindividualmembersofthepublic.
68
20.2108Recordsofwastedisposal.
20.2109[Reserved]
20.2110Formofrecords.
xiii)
SubpartMReports
20.2201Reportsoftheftorlossoflicensedmaterial.
20.2202Notificationofincidents.
20.2203Reportsofexposures,radiationlevels,andconcentrationsofradioactivematerialexceedingtheconstraintsor
limits.
20.2204Reportsofplannedspecialexposures.
20.2205Reportstoindividualsofexceedingdoselimits.
20.2206Reportsofindividualmonitoring.
xiv)
SubpartNExemptionsandAdditionalRequirements
20.2301Applicationsforexemptions.
20.2302Additionalrequirements.
xv) SubpartOEnforcement
20.2401Violations.
AppendixAtoPart20AssignedProtectionFactorsforRespirators
AppendixBtoPart20AnnualLimitsonIntake(ALIs)andDerivedAirConcentrations(DACs)ofRadionuclidesfor
OccupationalExposure;EffluentConcentrations;ConcentrationsforReleasetoSewerage
AppendixCtoPart20QuantitiesofLicensedMaterialRequiringLabeling
AppendixDtoPart20UnitedStatesNuclearRegulatoryCommissionRegionalOffices
AppendixEtoPart20[Reserved]
AppendixFtoPart20[Reserved]
AppendixGtoPart20RequirementsforTransfersofLowLevelRadioactiveWasteIntendedforDisposalat
LicensedLandDisposalFacilitiesandManifests
69
Authority:Secs.53,63,65,81,103,104,161,182,186,68Stat.930,933,935,936,937,948,953,955,asamended,sec.
1701,106Stat.2951,2952,2953(42U.S.C.2073,2093,2095,2111,2133,2134,2201,2232,2236,2297f),secs.201,as
amended,202,206,88Stat.1242,asamended,1244,1246(42U.S.C.5841,5842,5846);sec.1704,112Stat.2750(44
U.S.C.3504note).
t) SubpartAGeneralProvisions
Source:56FR23391,May21,1991,unlessotherwisenoted.
u) 20.1001Purpose.
(a)Theregulationsinthispartestablishstandardsforprotectionagainstionizingradiationresultingfromactivities
conductedunderlicensesissuedbytheNuclearRegulatoryCommission.Theseregulationsareissuedunderthe
AtomicEnergyActof1954,asamended,andtheEnergyReorganizationActof1974,asamended.
(b)Itisthepurposeoftheregulationsinthisparttocontrolthereceipt,possession,use,transfer,anddisposalof
licensedmaterialbyanylicenseeinsuchamannerthatthetotaldosetoanindividual(includingdosesresulting
fromlicensedandunlicensedradioactivematerialandfromradiationsourcesotherthanbackgroundradiation)does
notexceedthestandardsforprotectionagainstradiationprescribedintheregulationsinthispart.However,nothing
inthispartshallbeconstruedaslimitingactionsthatmaybenecessarytoprotecthealthandsafety.
v) 20.1002Scope.
TheregulationsinthispartapplytopersonslicensedbytheCommissiontoreceive,possess,use,transfer,ordispose
ofbyproduct,source,orspecialnuclearmaterialortooperateaproductionorutilizationfacilityunderParts30
through36,39,40,50,60,61,63,70,or72ofthischapter,andinaccordancewith10CFR76.60topersonsrequiredto
obtainacertificateofcomplianceoranapprovedcomplianceplanunderpart76ofthischapter.Thelimitsinthispart
donotapplytodosesduetobackgroundradiation,toexposureofpatientstoradiationforthepurposeofmedical
diagnosisortherapy,toexposurefromindividualsadministeredradioactivematerialandreleasedunder35.75,or
toexposurefromvoluntaryparticipationinmedicalresearchprograms.
[67FR20370,Apr.24,2002;67FR62872,Oct.9,2002,asamendedat67FR77652,Dec.19,2002]
w) 20.1003Definitions.
Asusedinthispart:
Absorbeddosemeanstheenergyimpartedbyionizingradiationperunitmassofirradiatedmaterial.Theunitsof
absorbeddosearetheradandthegray(Gy).
ActmeanstheAtomicEnergyActof1954(42U.S.C.2011etseq.),asamended.
Activityistherateofdisintegration(transformation)ordecayofradioactivematerial.Theunitsofactivityarethe
curie(Ci)andthebecquerel(Bq).
Adultmeansanindividual18ormoreyearsofage.
Airborneradioactivematerialmeansradioactivematerialdispersedintheairintheformofdusts,fumes,particulates,
mists,vapors,orgases.
70
Airborneradioactivityareameansaroom,enclosure,orareainwhichairborneradioactivematerials,composedwholly
orpartlyoflicensedmaterial,existinconcentrations
(1)Inexcessofthederivedairconcentrations(DACs)specifiedinappendixB,to20.100120.2401,or
(2)Tosuchadegreethatanindividualpresentintheareawithoutrespiratoryprotectiveequipmentcouldexceed,
duringthehoursanindividualispresentinaweek,anintakeof0.6percentoftheannuallimitonintake(ALI)or12
DAChours.
Airpurifyingrespiratormeansarespiratorwithanairpurifyingfilter,cartridge,orcanisterthatremovesspecificair
contaminantsbypassingambientairthroughtheairpurifyingelement.
ALARA(acronymforaslowasisreasonablyachievable)meansmakingeveryreasonableefforttomaintain
exposurestoradiationasfarbelowthedoselimitsinthispartasispracticalconsistentwiththepurposeforwhich
thelicensedactivityisundertaken,takingintoaccountthestateoftechnology,theeconomicsofimprovementsin
relationtostateoftechnology,theeconomicsofimprovementsinrelationtobenefitstothepublichealthandsafety,
andothersocietalandsocioeconomicconsiderations,andinrelationtoutilizationofnuclearenergyandlicensed
materialsinthepublicinterest.
Annuallimitonintake(ALI)meansthederivedlimitfortheamountofradioactivematerialtakenintothebodyofan
adultworkerbyinhalationoringestioninayear.ALIisthesmallervalueofintakeofagivenradionuclideinayear
bythereferencemanthatwouldresultinacommittedeffectivedoseequivalentof5rems(0.05Sv)oracommitted
doseequivalentof50rems(0.5Sv)toanyindividualorganortissue.(ALIvaluesforintakebyingestionandby
inhalationofselectedradionuclidesaregiveninTable1,Columns1and2,ofappendixBto20.100120.2401).
Assignedprotectionfactor(APF)meanstheexpectedworkplacelevelofrespiratoryprotectionthatwouldbeprovided
byaproperlyfunctioningrespiratororaclassofrespiratorstoproperlyfittedandtrainedusers.Operationally,the
inhaledconcentrationcanbeestimatedbydividingtheambientairborneconcentrationbytheAPF.
Atmospheresupplyingrespiratormeansarespiratorthatsuppliestherespiratoruserwithbreathingairfromasource
independentoftheambientatmosphere,andincludessuppliedairrespirators(SARs)andselfcontainedbreathing
apparatus(SCBA)units.
Backgroundradiationmeansradiationfromcosmicsources;naturallyoccurringradioactivematerial,includingradon
(exceptasadecayproductofsourceorspecialnuclearmaterial);andglobalfalloutasitexistsintheenvironment
fromthetestingofnuclearexplosivedevicesorfrompastnuclearaccidentssuchasChernobylthatcontributeto
backgroundradiationandarenotunderthecontrolofthelicensee.``Backgroundradiationdoesnotincluderadiation
fromsource,byproduct,orspecialnuclearmaterialsregulatedbytheCommission.
Bioassay(radiobioassay)meansthedeterminationofkinds,quantitiesorconcentrations,and,insomecases,the
locationsofradioactivematerialinthehumanbody,whetherbydirectmeasurement(invivocounting)orby
analysisandevaluationofmaterialsexcretedorremovedfromthehumanbody.
Byproductmaterialmeans
(1)Anyradioactivematerial(exceptspecialnuclearmaterial)yieldedin,ormaderadioactiveby,exposuretothe
radiationincidenttotheprocessofproducingorutilizingspecialnuclearmaterial;and
(2)Thetailingsorwastesproducedbytheextractionorconcentrationofuraniumorthoriumfromoreprocessed
primarilyforitssourcematerialcontent,includingdiscretesurfacewastesresultingfromuraniumsolutionextraction
processes.Undergroundorebodiesdepletedbythesesolutionextractionoperationsdonotconstitutebyproduct
71
materialwithinthisdefinition.
Class(orlungclassorinhalationclass)meansaclassificationschemeforinhaledmaterialaccordingtoitsrateof
clearancefromthepulmonaryregionofthelung.MaterialsareclassifiedasD,W,orY,whichappliestoarangeof
clearancehalftimes:forClassD(Days)oflessthan10days,forClassW(Weeks)from10to100days,andforClassY
(Years)ofgreaterthan100days.
Collectivedoseisthesumoftheindividualdosesreceivedinagivenperiodoftimebyaspecifiedpopulationfrom
exposuretoaspecifiedsourceofradiation.
CommissionmeanstheNuclearRegulatoryCommissionoritsdulyauthorizedrepresentatives.
Committeddoseequivalent(HT,50)meansthedoseequivalenttoorgansortissuesofreference(T)thatwillbereceived
fromanintakeofradioactivematerialbyanindividualduringthe50yearperiodfollowingtheintake.
Committedeffectivedoseequivalent(HE,50)isthesumoftheproductsoftheweightingfactorsapplicabletoeachofthe
bodyorgansortissuesthatareirradiatedandthecommitteddoseequivalenttotheseorgansortissues(HE,50=
WTHT.50).
Constraint(doseconstraint)meansavalueabovewhichspecifiedlicenseeactionsarerequired.
Controlledareameansanarea,outsideofarestrictedareabutinsidethesiteboundary,accesstowhichcanbelimited
bythelicenseeforanyreason.
CriticalGroupmeansthegroupofindividualsreasonablyexpectedtoreceivethegreatestexposuretoresidual
radioactivityforanyapplicablesetofcircumstances.
Declaredpregnantwomanmeansawomanwhohasvoluntarilyinformedthelicensee,inwriting,ofherpregnancyand
theestimateddateofconception.Thedeclarationremainsineffectuntilthedeclaredpregnantwomanwithdrawsthe
declarationinwritingorisnolongerpregnant.
Decommissionmeanstoremoveafacilityorsitesafelyfromserviceandreduceresidualradioactivitytoalevelthat
permits
(1)Releaseofthepropertyforunrestricteduseandterminationofthelicense;or
(2)Releaseofthepropertyunderrestrictedconditionsandterminationofthelicense.
Deepdoseequivalent(Hd),whichappliestoexternalwholebodyexposure,isthedoseequivalentatatissuedepthof1
cm(1000mg/cm2).
Demandrespiratormeansanatmospheresupplyingrespiratorthatadmitsbreathingairtothefacepieceonlywhena
negativepressureiscreatedinsidethefacepiecebyinhalation.
DepartmentmeanstheDepartmentofEnergyestablishedbytheDepartmentofEnergyOrganizationAct(Pub.L.95
91,91Stat.565,42U.S.C.7101etseq.)totheextentthattheDepartment,oritsdulyauthorizedrepresentatives,
exercisesfunctionsformerlyvestedintheU.S.AtomicEnergyCommission,itsChairman,members,officers,and
componentsandtransferredtotheU.S.EnergyResearchandDevelopmentAdministrationandtotheAdministrator
thereofpursuanttosections104(b),(c),and(d)oftheEnergyReorganizationActof1974(Pub.L.93438,88Stat.1233
at1237,42U.S.C.5814)andretransferredtotheSecretaryofEnergypursuanttosection301(a)oftheDepartmentof
72
EnergyOrganizationAct(Pub.L.9591,91Stat565at577578,42U.S.C.7151).
Derivedairconcentration(DAC)meanstheconcentrationofagivenradionuclideinairwhich,ifbreathedbythe
referencemanforaworkingyearof2,000hoursunderconditionsoflightwork(inhalationrate1.2cubicmetersofair
perhour),resultsinanintakeofoneALI.DACvaluesaregiveninTable1,Column3,ofappendixBto20.1001
20.2401.
Derivedairconcentrationhour(DAChour)istheproductoftheconcentrationofradioactivematerialinair(expressed
asafractionormultipleofthederivedairconcentrationforeachradionuclide)andthetimeofexposuretothat
radionuclide,inhours.Alicenseemaytake2,000DAChourstorepresentoneALI,equivalenttoacommitted
effectivedoseequivalentof5rems(0.05Sv).
Disposablerespiratormeansarespiratorforwhichmaintenanceisnotintendedandthatisdesignedtobediscarded
afterexcessivebreathingresistance,sorbentexhaustion,physicaldamage,orendofserviceliferendersitunsuitable
foruse.Examplesofthistypeofrespiratorareadisposablehalfmaskrespiratororadisposableescapeonlyself
containedbreathingapparatus(SCBA).
Distinguishablefrombackgroundmeansthatthedetectableconcentrationofaradionuclideisstatisticallydifferentfrom
thebackgroundconcentrationofthatradionuclideinthevicinityofthesiteor,inthecaseofstructures,insimilar
materialsusingadequatemeasurementtechnology,survey,andstatisticaltechniques.
Doseorradiationdoseisagenerictermthatmeansabsorbeddose,doseequivalent,effectivedoseequivalent,
committeddoseequivalent,committedeffectivedoseequivalent,ortotaleffectivedoseequivalent,asdefinedin
otherparagraphsofthissection.
Doseequivalent(HT)meanstheproductoftheabsorbeddoseintissue,qualityfactor,andallothernecessary
modifyingfactorsatthelocationofinterest.Theunitsofdoseequivalentaretheremandsievert(Sv).
Dosimetryprocessormeansanindividualororganizationthatprocessesandevaluatesindividualmonitoring
equipmentinordertodeterminetheradiationdosedeliveredtotheequipment.
Effectivedoseequivalent(HE)isthesumoftheproductsofthedoseequivalenttotheorganortissue(HT)andthe
weightingfactors(WT)applicabletoeachofthebodyorgansortissuesthatareirradiated(HE=WTHT).
Embryo/fetusmeansthedevelopinghumanorganismfromconceptionuntilthetimeofbirth.
Entranceoraccesspointmeansanylocationthroughwhichanindividualcouldgainaccesstoradiationareasorto
radioactivematerials.Thisincludesentryorexitportalsofsufficientsizetopermithumanentry,irrespectiveoftheir
intendeduse.
Exposuremeansbeingexposedtoionizingradiationortoradioactivematerial.
Externaldosemeansthatportionofthedoseequivalentreceivedfromradiationsourcesoutsidethebody.
Extremitymeanshand,elbow,armbelowtheelbow,foot,knee,orlegbelowtheknee.
Filteringfacepiece(dustmask)meansanegativepressureparticulaterespiratorwithafilterasanintegralpartofthe
facepieceorwiththeentirefacepiececomposedofthefilteringmedium,notequippedwithelastomericsealing
surfacesandadjustablestraps.
73
Fitfactormeansaquantitativeestimateofthefitofaparticularrespiratortoaspecificindividual,andtypically
estimatestheratiooftheconcentrationofasubstanceinambientairtoitsconcentrationinsidetherespiratorwhen
worn.
Fittestmeanstheuseofaprotocoltoqualitativelyorquantitativelyevaluatethefitofarespiratoronanindividual.
GenerallyapplicableenvironmentalradiationstandardsmeansstandardsissuedbytheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency
(EPA)undertheauthorityoftheAtomicEnergyActof1954,asamended,thatimposelimitsonradiationexposures
orlevels,orconcentrationsorquantitiesofradioactivematerial,inthegeneralenvironmentoutsidetheboundariesof
locationsunderthecontrolofpersonspossessingorusingradioactivematerial.
Governmentagencymeansanyexecutivedepartment,commission,independentestablishment,corporationwhollyor
partlyownedbytheUnitedStatesofAmerica,whichisaninstrumentalityoftheUnitedStates,oranyboard,bureau,
division,service,office,officer,authority,administration,orotherestablishmentintheexecutivebranchofthe
Government.
Gray[See20.1004].
Helmetmeansarigidrespiratoryinletcoveringthatalsoprovidesheadprotectionagainstimpactandpenetration.
Highradiationareameansanarea,accessibletoindividuals,inwhichradiationlevelsfromradiationsourcesexternal
tothebodycouldresultinanindividualreceivingadoseequivalentinexcessof0.1rem(1mSv)in1hourat30
centimetersfromtheradiationsourceor30centimetersfromanysurfacethattheradiationpenetrates.
Hoodmeansarespiratoryinletcoveringthatcompletelycoverstheheadandneckandmayalsocoverportionsofthe
shouldersandtorso.
Individualmeansanyhumanbeing.
Individualmonitoringmeans
(1)Theassessmentofdoseequivalentbytheuseofdevicesdesignedtobewornbyanindividual;
(2)Theassessmentofcommittedeffectivedoseequivalentbybioassay(seeBioassay)orbydeterminationofthetime
weightedairconcentrationstowhichanindividualhasbeenexposed,i.e.,DAChours;or
(3)Theassessmentofdoseequivalentbytheuseofsurveydata.
Individualmonitoringdevices(individualmonitoringequipment)meansdevicesdesignedtobewornbyasingle
individualfortheassessmentofdoseequivalentsuchasfilmbadges,thermoluminescencedosimeters(TLDs),pocket
ionizationchambers,andpersonal(lapel)airsamplingdevices.
Internaldosemeansthatportionofthedoseequivalentreceivedfromradioactivematerialtakenintothebody.
Lensdoseequivalent(LDE)appliestotheexternalexposureofthelensoftheeyeandistakenasthedoseequivalentat
atissuedepthof0.3centimeter(300mg/cm2).
Licensemeansalicenseissuedundertheregulationsinparts30through36,39,40,50,60,61,63,70,or72ofthis
chapter.
74
Licensedmaterialmeanssourcematerial,specialnuclearmaterial,orbyproductmaterialreceived,possessed,used,
transferredordisposedofunderageneralorspecificlicenseissuedbytheCommission.
Licenseemeansalicenseissuedundertheregulationsinparts30through36,39,40,50,60,61,63,70,or72ofthis
chapter.
Limits(doselimits)meansthepermissibleupperboundsofradiationdoses.
Loosefittingfacepiecemeansarespiratoryinletcoveringthatisdesignedtoformapartialsealwiththeface.
Lostormissinglicensedmaterialmeanslicensedmaterialwhoselocationisunknown.Itincludesmaterialthathasbeen
shippedbuthasnotreacheditsdestinationandwhoselocationcannotbereadilytracedinthetransportationsystem.
Memberofthepublicmeansanyindividualexceptwhenthatindividualisreceivinganoccupationaldose.
Minormeansanindividuallessthan18yearsofage.
Monitoring(radiationmonitoring,radiationprotectionmonitoring)meansthemeasurementofradiationlevels,
concentrations,surfaceareaconcentrationsorquantitiesofradioactivematerialandtheuseoftheresultsofthese
measurementstoevaluatepotentialexposuresanddoses.
Negativepressurerespirator(tightfitting)meansarespiratorinwhichtheairpressureinsidethefacepieceisnegative
duringinhalationwithrespecttotheambientairpressureoutsidetherespirator.
Nonstochasticeffectmeanshealtheffects,theseverityofwhichvarieswiththedoseandforwhichathresholdis
believedtoexist.Radiationinducedcataractformationisanexampleofanonstochasticeffect(alsocalleda
deterministiceffect).
NRCmeanstheNuclearRegulatoryCommissionoritsdulyauthorizedrepresentatives.
Occupationaldosemeansthedosereceivedbyanindividualinthecourseofemploymentinwhichtheindividuals
assigneddutiesinvolveexposuretoradiationortoradioactivematerialfromlicensedandunlicensedsourcesof
radiation,whetherinthepossessionofthelicenseeorotherperson.Occupationaldosedoesnotincludedoses
receivedfrombackgroundradiation,fromanymedicaladministrationtheindividualhasreceived,fromexposureto
individualsadministeredradioactivematerialandreleasedunder35.75,fromvoluntaryparticipationinmedical
researchprograms,orasamemberofthepublic.
Personmeans
(1)Anyindividual,corporation,partnership,firm,association,trust,estate,publicorprivateinstitution,group,
GovernmentagencyotherthantheCommissionortheDepartmentofEnergy(exceptthattheDepartmentshallbe
consideredapersonwithinthemeaningoftheregulationsin10CFRchapterItotheextentthatitsfacilitiesand
activitiesaresubjecttothelicensingandrelatedregulatoryauthorityoftheCommissionundersection202ofthe
EnergyReorganizationActof1974(88Stat.1244),theUraniumMillTailingsRadiationControlActof1978(92Stat.
3021),theNuclearWastePolicyActof1982(96Stat.2201),andsection3(b)(2)oftheLowLevelRadioactiveWaste
PolicyAmendmentsActof1985(99Stat.1842)),anyStateoranypoliticalsubdivisionoforanypoliticalentitywithin
aState,anyforeigngovernmentornationoranypoliticalsubdivisionofanysuchgovernmentornation,orother
entity;and
(2)Anylegalsuccessor,representative,agent,oragencyoftheforegoing.
75
Plannedspecialexposuremeansaninfrequentexposuretoradiation,separatefromandinadditiontotheannualdose
limits.
Positivepressurerespiratormeansarespiratorinwhichthepressureinsidetherespiratoryinletcoveringexceedsthe
ambientairpressureoutsidetherespirator.
Poweredairpurifyingrespirator(PAPR)meansanairpurifyingrespiratorthatusesablowertoforcetheambientair
throughairpurifyingelementstotheinletcovering.
Pressuredemandrespiratormeansapositivepressureatmospheresupplyingrespiratorthatadmitsbreathingairtothe
facepiecewhenthepositivepressureisreducedinsidethefacepiecebyinhalation.
Publicdosemeansthedosereceivedbyamemberofthepublicfromexposuretoradiationortoradioactivematerial
releasedbyalicensee,ortoanyothersourceofradiationunderthecontrolofalicensee.Publicdosedoesnotinclude
occupationaldoseordosesreceivedfrombackgroundradiation,fromanymedicaladministrationtheindividualhas
received,fromexposuretoindividualsadministeredradioactivematerialandreleasedunder35.75,orfrom
voluntaryparticipationinmedicalresearchprograms.
Qualitativefittest(QLFT)meansapass/failfittesttoassesstheadequacyofrespiratorfitthatreliesontheindividuals
responsetothetestagent.
QualityFactor(Q)meansthemodifyingfactor(listedintables1004(b).1and1004(b).2of20.1004)thatisusedto
derivedoseequivalentfromabsorbeddose.
Quantitativefittest(QNFT)meansanassessmentoftheadequacyofrespiratorfitbynumericallymeasuringthe
amountofleakageintotherespirator.
Quartermeansaperiodoftimeequaltoonefourthoftheyearobservedbythelicensee(approximately13
consecutiveweeks),providingthatthebeginningofthefirstquarterinayearcoincideswiththestartingdateofthe
yearandthatnodayisomittedorduplicatedinconsecutivequarters.
Rad(See20.1004).
Radiation(ionizingradiation)meansalphaparticles,betaparticles,gammarays,xrays,neutrons,highspeed
electrons,highspeedprotons,andotherparticlescapableofproducingions.Radiation,asusedinthispart,doesnot
includenonionizingradiation,suchasradioormicrowaves,orvisible,infrared,orultravioletlight.
Radiationareameansanarea,accessibletoindividuals,inwhichradiationlevelscouldresultinanindividual
receivingadoseequivalentinexcessof0.005rem(0.05mSv)in1hourat30centimetersfromtheradiationsourceor
fromanysurfacethattheradiationpenetrates.
Referencemanmeansahypotheticalaggregationofhumanphysicalandphysiologicalcharacteristicsarrivedatby
internationalconsensus.Thesecharacteristicsmaybeusedbyresearchersandpublichealthworkerstostandardize
resultsofexperimentsandtorelatebiologicalinsulttoacommonbase.
Rem(See20.1004).
Residualradioactivitymeansradioactivityinstructures,materials,soils,groundwater,andothermediaatasite
resultingfromactivitiesunderthelicenseescontrol.Thisincludesradioactivityfromalllicensedandunlicensed
sourcesusedbythelicensee,butexcludesbackgroundradiation.Italsoincludesradioactivematerialsremainingat
76
thesiteasaresultofroutineoraccidentalreleasesofradioactivematerialatthesiteandpreviousburialsatthesite,
evenifthoseburialsweremadeinaccordancewiththeprovisionsof10CFRpart20.
Respiratoryprotectivedevicemeansanapparatus,suchasarespirator,usedtoreducetheindividualsintakeof
airborneradioactivematerials.
Restrictedareameansanarea,accesstowhichislimitedbythelicenseeforthepurposeofprotectingindividuals
againstunduerisksfromexposuretoradiationandradioactivematerials.Restrictedareadoesnotincludeareasused
asresidentialquarters,butseparateroomsinaresidentialbuildingmaybesetapartasarestrictedarea.
Sanitaryseweragemeansasystemofpublicsewersforcarryingoffwastewaterandrefuse,butexcludingsewage
treatmentfacilities,septictanks,andleachfieldsownedoroperatedbythelicensee.
Selfcontainedbreathingapparatus(SCBA)meansanatmospheresupplyingrespiratorforwhichthebreathingair
sourceisdesignedtobecarriedbytheuser.
Shallowdoseequivalent(Hs),whichappliestotheexternalexposureoftheskinofthewholebodyortheskinofan
extremity,istakenasthedoseequivalentatatissuedepthof0.007centimeter(7mg/cm2).
Sievert(See20.1004).
Siteboundarymeansthatlinebeyondwhichthelandorpropertyisnotowned,leased,orotherwisecontrolledbythe
licensee.
Sourcematerialmeans
(1)Uraniumorthoriumoranycombinationofuraniumandthoriuminanyphysicalorchemicalform;or
(2)Oresthatcontain,byweight,onetwentiethof1percent(0.05percent),ormore,ofuranium,thorium,orany
combinationofuraniumandthorium.Sourcematerialdoesnotincludespecialnuclearmaterial.
Specialnuclearmaterialmeans
(1)Plutonium,uranium233,uraniumenrichedintheisotope233orintheisotope235,andanyothermaterialthat
theCommission,pursuanttotheprovisionsofsection51oftheAct,determinestobespecialnuclearmaterial,but
doesnotincludesourcematerial;or
(2)Anymaterialartificiallyenrichedbyanyoftheforegoingbutdoesnotincludesourcematerial.
Stochasticeffectsmeanshealtheffectsthatoccurrandomlyandforwhichtheprobabilityoftheeffectoccurring,rather
thanitsseverity,isassumedtobealinearfunctionofdosewithoutthreshold.Hereditaryeffectsandcancerincidence
areexamplesofstochasticeffects.
Suppliedairrespirator(SAR)orairlinerespiratormeansanatmospheresupplyingrespiratorforwhichthesourceof
breathingairisnotdesignedtobecarriedbytheuser.
Surveymeansanevalulationoftheradiologicalconditionsandpotentialhazardsincidenttotheproduction,use,
transfer,release,disposal,orpresenceofradioactivematerialorothersourcesofradiation.Whenappropriate,such
anevaluationincludesaphysicalsurveyofthelocationofradioactivematerialandmeasurementsorcalculationsof
levelsofradiation,orconcentrationsorquantitiesofradioactivematerialpresent.
77
Tightfittingfacepiecemeansarespiratoryinletcoveringthatformsacompletesealwiththeface.
TotalEffectiveDoseEquivalent(TEDE)meansthesumofthedeepdoseequivalent(forexternalexposures)andthe
committedeffectivedoseequivalent(forinternalexposures).
Unrestrictedareameansanarea,accesstowhichisneitherlimitednorcontrolledbythelicensee.
Uraniumfuelcyclemeanstheoperationsofmillingofuraniumore,chemicalconversionofuranium,isotopic
enrichmentofuranium,fabricationofuraniumfuel,generationofelectricitybyalightwatercoolednuclearpower
plantusinguraniumfuel,andreprocessingofspenturaniumfueltotheextentthattheseactivitiesdirectlysupport
theproductionofelectricalpowerforpublicuse.Uraniumfuelcycledoesnotincludeminingoperations,operations
atwastedisposalsites,transportationofradioactivematerialinsupportoftheseoperations,andthereuseof
recoverednonuraniumspecialnuclearandbyproductmaterialsfromthecycle.
Usersealcheck(fitcheck)meansanactionconductedbytherespiratorusertodetermineiftherespiratorisproperly
seatedtotheface.Examplesincludenegativepressurecheck,positivepressurecheck,irritantsmokecheck,or
isoamylacetatecheck.
Veryhighradiationareameansanarea,accessibletoindividuals,inwhichradiationlevelsfromradiationsources
externaltothebodycouldresultinanindividualreceivinganabsorbeddoseinexcessof500rads(5grays)in1hour
at1meterfromaradiationsourceor1meterfromanysurfacethattheradiationpenetrates.
(Note:Atveryhighdosesreceivedathighdoserates,unitsofabsorbeddose(e.g.,radsandgrays)areappropriate,
ratherthanunitsofdoseequivalent(e.g.,remsandsieverts)).
Weekmeans7consecutivedaysstartingonSunday.
WeightingfactorWT,foranorganortissue(T)istheproportionoftheriskofstochasticeffectsresultingfrom
irradiationofthatorganortissuetothetotalriskofstochasticeffectswhenthewholebodyisirradiateduniformly.
Forcalculatingtheeffectivedoseequivalent,thevaluesofWTare:
OrganDoseWeightingFactors
WT
OrganorTissue
Gonads
0.25
Breast
0.15
Redbonemarrow
0.12
Lung
0.12
Thyroid
0.03
Bonesurfaces
0.03
Remainder
10.30
WholeBody
21.00
10.30resultsfrom0.06foreachof5remainderorgans(excludingtheskinandthelensoftheeye)thatreceivethe
highestdoses.
2Forthepurposeofweightingtheexternalwholebodydose(foraddingittotheinternaldose),asingleweighting
factor,wT=1.0,hasbeenspecified.Theuseofotherweightingfactorsforexternalexposurewillbeapprovedona
78
casebycasebasisuntilsuchtimeasspecificguidanceisissued.
Wholebodymeans,forpurposesofexternalexposure,head,trunk(includingmalegonads),armsabovetheelbow,or
legsabovetheknee.
Workinglevel(WL)isanycombinationofshortlivedradondaughters(forradon222:polonium218,lead214,
bismuth214,andpolonium214;andforradon220:polonium216,lead212,bismuth212,andpolonium212)in1
literofairthatwillresultintheultimateemissionof1.3x105MeVofpotentialalphaparticleenergy.
Workinglevelmonth(WLM)meansanexposureto1workinglevelfor170hours(2,000workinghoursperyear/12
monthsperyear=approximately170hourspermonth).
YearmeanstheperiodoftimebeginninginJanuaryusedtodeterminecompliancewiththeprovisionsofthispart.
Thelicenseemaychangethestartingdateoftheyearusedtodeterminecompliancebythelicenseeprovidedthatthe
changeismadeatthebeginningoftheyearandthatnodayisomittedorduplicatedinconsecutiveyears.
[56FR23391,May21,1991,asamendedat57FR57878,Dec.8,1992;58FR7736,Feb.9,1993;60FR36043,July13,
1995;60FR48625,Sept.20,1995;61FR65127,Dec.10,1996;62FR4133,Jan.29,1997;62FR39087,July21,1997;63FR
39481,July23,1998;64FR54556,Oct.7,1999;66FR55789,Nov.2,2001;67FR16304,Apr.5,2002;67FR20370,Apr.
24,2002;67FR62872,Oct.9,2002]
x) 20.1004Unitsofradiationdose.
(a)Definitions.Asusedinthispart,theunitsofradiationdoseare:
Gray(Gy)istheSIunitofabsorbeddose.Onegrayisequaltoanabsorbeddoseof1Joule/kilogram(100rads).
Radisthespecialunitofabsorbeddose.Oneradisequaltoanabsorbeddoseof100ergs/gramor0.01joule/kilogram
(0.01gray).
Remisthespecialunitofanyofthequantitiesexpressedasdoseequivalent.Thedoseequivalentinremsisequalto
theabsorbeddoseinradsmultipliedbythequalityfactor(1rem=0.01sievert).
SievertistheSIunitofanyofthequantitiesexpressedasdoseequivalent.Thedoseequivalentinsievertsisequalto
theabsorbeddoseingraysmultipliedbythequalityfactor(1Sv=100rems).
(b)Asusedinthispart,thequalityfactorsforconvertingabsorbeddosetodoseequivalentareshownintable
1004(b).1.
Table1004(b).1QualityFactorsandAbsorbedDoseEquivalencies
Qualityfactor
Typeofradiation
(Q)
X,gamma,orbetaradiation
Absorbeddoseequaltoaunit
doseequivalenta
Alphaparticles,multiplechargedparticles,fissionfragments
andheavyparticlesofunknowncharge
20
0.05
Neutronsofunknownenergy
10
0.1
79
Highenergyprotons
10
0.1
aAbsorbeddoseinradequalto1remortheabsorbeddoseingrayequalto1sievert.
(c)Ifitismoreconvenienttomeasuretheneutronfluenceratethantodeterminetheneutrondoseequivalentratein
remsperhourorsievertsperhour,asprovidedinparagraph(b)ofthissection,1rem(0.01Sv)ofneutronradiation
ofunknownenergiesmay,forpurposesoftheregulationsinthispart,beassumedtoresultfromatotalfluenceof25
millionneutronspersquarecentimeterincidentuponthebody.Ifsufficientinformationexiststoestimatethe
approximateenergydistributionoftheneutrons,thelicenseemayusethefluencerateperunitdoseequivalentorthe
appropriateQvaluefromtable1004(b).2toconvertameasuredtissuedoseinradstodoseequivalentinrems.
Table1004(b).2.MeanQualityFactors,Q,andFluencePerUnitDoseEquivalentforMonoenergeticNeutrons
(thermal).....
Neutronenergy(MeV)
Qualityfactora(Q)
Fluenceperunitdoseequivalentb
(neutronscm2rem1)
2.5x108
980x106
1x107
980x106
1x106
810x106
1x105
810x106
1x104
840x106
1x103
980x106
1x102
2.5
1010x106
1x101
7.5
170x106
5x101
11
39x106
11
27x106
2.5
29x106
23x106
24x106
10
6.5
24x106
14
7.5
17x106
20
16x106
40
14x106
60
5.5
16x106
1x102
20x106
2x102
3.5
19x106
3x102
3.5
16x106
4x102
3.5
14x106
aValueofqualityfactor(Q)atthepointwherethedoseequivalentismaximumina30cmdiametercylindertissue
80
equivalentphantom.
bMonoenergeticneutronsincidentnormallyona30cmdiametercylindertissueequivalentphantom.
y) 20.1005Unitsofradioactivity.
Forthepurposesofthispart,activityisexpressedinthespecialunitofcuries(Ci)orintheSIunitofbecquerels(Bq),
ortheirmultiples,ordisintegrations(transformations)perunitoftime.
(a)Onebecquerel=1disintegrationpersecond(s1).
(b)Onecurie=3.7x1010disintegrationspersecond=3.7x1010becquerels=2.22x1012disintegrationsperminute.
[56FR23391,May21,1991;56FR61352,Dec.3,1991]
z) 20.1006Interpretations.
thispartbyanofficeroremployeeoftheCommissionotherthanawritteninterpretationbytheGeneralCounselwill
berecognizedtobebindingupontheCommission.
aa) 20.1007Communications.
Unlessotherwisespecified,communicationsorreportsconcerningtheregulationsinthispartshouldbeaddressedto
theExecutiveDirectorforOperations(EDO),andsenteitherbymailtotheU.S.NuclearRegulatoryCommission,
Washington,DC205550001;byhanddeliverytotheNRCsofficesat11555RockvillePike,Rockville,Maryland;or,
wherepracticable,byelectronicsubmission,forexample,viaElectronicInformationExchange,orCDROM.
ElectronicsubmissionsmustbemadeinamannerthatenablestheNRCtoreceive,read,authenticate,distribute,and
archivethesubmission,andprocessandretrieveitasinglepageatatime.Detailedguidanceonmakingelectronic
submissionscanbeobtainedbyvisitingtheNRCsWebsiteathttp://www.nrc.gov/sitehelp/eie.html,bycalling(301)
4156030,byemailtoEIE@nrc.gov,orbywritingtheOfficeoftheChiefInformationOfficer,U.S.NuclearRegulatory
Commission,Washington,DC205550001.Theguidancediscusses,amongothertopics,theformatstheNRCcan
accept,theuseofelectronicsignatures,andthetreatmentofnonpublicinformation.
[68FR58801,Oct.10,2003]
bb) 20.1008Implementation.
(a)[Reserved]
(b)Theapplicablesectionof20.100120.2402mustbeusedinlieuofrequirementsinthestandardsforprotection
againstradiationineffectpriortoJanuary1,19941thatarecitedinlicenseconditionsortechnicalspecifications,
exceptasspecifiedinparagraphs(c),(d),and(e)ofthissection.Iftherequirementsofthispartaremorerestrictive
thantheexistinglicensecondition,thenthelicenseeshallcomplywiththispartunlessexemptedbyparagraph(d)of
thissection.
(c)Anyexistinglicenseconditionortechnicalspecificationthatismorerestrictivethanarequirementin20.1001
20.2402remainsinforceuntilthereisatechnicalspecificationchange,licenseamendment,orlicenserenewal.
(d)Ifalicenseconditionortechnicalspecificationexemptedalicenseefromarequirementinthestandardsfor
81
protectionagainstradiationineffectpriortoJanuary1,1994,1itcontinuestoexemptalicenseefromthe
correspondingprovisionof20.100120.2402.
(e)Ifalicenseconditioncitesprovisionsinrequirementsinthestandardsforprotectionagainstradiationineffect
priortoJanuary1,19941andtherearenocorrespondingprovisionsin20.100120.2402,thenthelicensecondition
remainsinforceuntilthereisatechnicalspecificationchange,licenseamendment,orlicenserenewalthatmodifiesor
removesthiscondition.
[59FR41643,Aug.15,1994]
1See20.120.602codifiedasofJanuary1,1993.
cc) 20.1009Informationcollectionrequirements:OMBapproval.
requirementscontainedinthispartundercontrolnumber31500014.
(b)Theapprovedinformationcollectionrequirementscontainedinthispartappearin20.1003,20.1101,20.1202,
20.1203,20.1204,20.1206,20.1208,20.1301,20.1302,20.1403,20.1404,20.1406,20.1501,20.1601,20.1703,20.1901,
20.1904,20.1905,20.1906,20.2002,20.2004,20.2005,20.2006,20.2102,20.2103,20.2104,20.2105,20.2106,20.2107,
20.2108,20.2110,20.2201,20.2202,20.2203,20.2204,20.2205,20.2206,20.2301,andappendixGtothispart.
(c)Thispartcontainsinformationcollectionrequirementsinadditiontothoseapprovedunderthecontrolnumber
specifiedinparagraph(a)ofthissection.Theseinformationcollectionrequirementsandthecontrolnumbersunder
whichtheyareapprovedareasfollows:
(1)In20.2104,NRCForm4isapprovedundercontrolnumber31500005.
(2)In20.2106and20.2206,NRCForm5isapprovedundercontrolnumber31500006.
(3)In20.2006andappendixGto10CFRPart20,NRCForm540and540Aisapprovedundercontrolnumber3150
0164.
0166.
0165.
[63FR50128,Sept.21,1998,asamendedat67FR67099,Nov.4,2002]
dd) SubpartBRadiationProtectionPrograms
ee) 20.1101Radiationprotectionprograms.
82
(a)Eachlicenseeshalldevelop,document,andimplementaradiationprotectionprogramcommensuratewiththe
scopeandextentoflicensedactivitiesandsufficienttoensurecompliancewiththeprovisionsofthispart.(See
20.2102forrecordkeepingrequirementsrelatingtotheseprograms.)
(b)Thelicenseeshalluse,totheextentpractical,proceduresandengineeringcontrolsbaseduponsoundradiation
protectionprinciplestoachieveoccupationaldosesanddosestomembersofthepublicthatareaslowasis
reasonablyachievable(ALARA).
(c)Thelicenseeshallperiodically(atleastannually)reviewtheradiationprotectionprogramcontentand
implementation.
(d)ToimplementtheALARArequirementsof20.1101(b),andnotwithstandingtherequirementsin20.1301of
thispart,aconstraintonairemissionsofradioactivematerialtotheenvironment,excludingRadon222andits
daughters,shallbeestablishedbylicenseesotherthanthosesubjectto50.34a,suchthattheindividualmemberof
thepubliclikelytoreceivethehighestdosewillnotbeexpectedtoreceiveatotaleffectivedoseequivalentinexcess
of10mrem(0.1mSv)peryearfromtheseemissions.Ifalicenseesubjecttothisrequirementexceedsthisdose
constraint,thelicenseeshallreporttheexceedanceasprovidedin20.2203andpromptlytakeappropriatecorrective
actiontoensureagainstrecurrence.
[56FR23396,May21,1991,asamendedat61FR65127,Dec.10,1996;63FR39482,July23,1998]
ff) SubpartCOccupationalDoseLimits
gg) 20.1201Occupationaldoselimitsforadults.
(a)Thelicenseeshallcontroltheoccupationaldosetoindividualadults,exceptforplannedspecialexposuresunder
20.1206,tothefollowingdoselimits.
(1)Anannuallimit,whichisthemorelimitingof
(i)Thetotaleffectivedoseequivalentbeingequalto5rems(0.05Sv);or
(ii)Thesumofthedeepdoseequivalentandthecommitteddoseequivalenttoanyindividualorganortissueother
thanthelensoftheeyebeingequalto50rems(0.5Sv).
(2)Theannuallimitstothelensoftheeye,totheskinofthewholebody,andtotheskinoftheextremities,whichare:
(i)Alensdoseequivalentof15rems(0.15Sv),and
(ii)Ashallowdoseequivalentof50rem(0.5Sv)totheskinofthewholebodyortotheskinofanyextremity.
(b)Dosesreceivedinexcessoftheannuallimits,includingdosesreceivedduringaccidents,emergencies,and
plannedspecialexposures,mustbesubtractedfromthelimitsforplannedspecialexposuresthattheindividualmay
receiveduringthecurrentyear(see20.1206(e)(1))andduringtheindividualslifetime(see20.1206(e)(2)).
(c)Theassigneddeepdoseequivalentmustbeforthepartofthebodyreceivingthehighestexposure.Theassigned
83
shallowdoseequivalentmustbethedoseaveragedoverthecontiguous10squarecentimetersofskinreceivingthe
highestexposure.Thedeepdoseequivalent,lensdoseequivalent,andshallowdoseequivalentmaybeassessed
fromsurveysorotherradiationmeasurementsforthepurposeofdemonstratingcompliancewiththeoccupational
doselimits,iftheindividualmonitoringdevicewasnotintheregionofhighestpotentialexposure,ortheresultsof
individualmonitoringareunavailable.
(d)Derivedairconcentration(DAC)andannuallimitonintake(ALI)valuesarepresentedintable1ofappendixBto
part20andmaybeusedtodeterminetheindividualsdose(see20.2106)andtodemonstratecompliancewiththe
occupationaldoselimits.
(e)Inadditiontotheannualdoselimits,thelicenseeshalllimitthesolubleuraniumintakebyanindividualto10
milligramsinaweekinconsiderationofchemicaltoxicity(seefootnote3ofappendixBtopart20).
(f)Thelicenseeshallreducethedosethatanindividualmaybeallowedtoreceiveinthecurrentyearbytheamount
ofoccupationaldosereceivedwhileemployedbyanyotherperson(see20.2104(e)).
[56FR23396,May21,1991,asamendedat60FR20185,Apr.25,1995;63FR39482,July23,1998;67FR16304,Apr.5,
2002]
hh) 20.1202Compliancewithrequirementsforsummationofexternalandinternaldoses.
(a)Ifthelicenseeisrequiredtomonitorunderboth20.1502(a)and(b),thelicenseeshalldemonstratecompliance
withthedoselimitsbysummingexternalandinternaldoses.Ifthelicenseeisrequiredtomonitoronlyunder
20.1502(a)oronlyunder20.1502(b),thensummationisnotrequiredtodemonstratecompliancewiththedose
limits.Thelicenseemaydemonstratecompliancewiththerequirementsforsummationofexternalandinternaldoses
bymeetingoneoftheconditionsspecifiedinparagraph(b)ofthissectionandtheconditionsinparagraphs(c)and
(d)ofthissection.
(Note:Thedoseequivalentsforthelensoftheeye,theskin,andtheextremitiesarenotincludedinthesummation,
butaresubjecttoseparatelimits.)
(b)Intakebyinhalation.Iftheonlyintakeofradionuclidesisbyinhalation,thetotaleffectivedoseequivalentlimitis
notexceededifthesumofthedeepdoseequivalentdividedbythetotaleffectivedoseequivalentlimit,andoneof
thefollowing,doesnotexceedunity:
(1)ThesumofthefractionsoftheinhalationALIforeachradionuclide,or
(2)Thetotalnumberofderivedairconcentrationhours(DAChours)forallradionuclidesdividedby2,000,or
(3)Thesumofthecalculatedcommittedeffectivedoseequivalentstoallsignificantlyirradiated1organsortissues(T)
calculatedfrombioassaydatausingappropriatebiologicalmodelsandexpressedasafractionoftheannuallimit.
(c)Intakebyoralingestion.Iftheoccupationallyexposedindividualalsoreceivesanintakeofradionuclidesbyoral
ingestiongreaterthan10percentoftheapplicableoralALI,thelicenseeshallaccountforthisintakeandincludeitin
demonstratingcompliancewiththelimits.
(d)Intakethroughwoundsorabsorptionthroughskin.Thelicenseeshallevaluateand,totheextentpractical,accountfor
intakesthroughwoundsorskinabsorption.
Note:TheintakethroughintactskinhasbeenincludedinthecalculationofDACforhydrogen3anddoesnotneed
84
tobefurtherevaluated.
[56FR23396,May21,1991,asamendedat57FR57878,Dec.8,1992]
1Anorganortissueisdeemedtobesignificantlyirradiatedif,forthatorganortissue,theproductoftheweighting
factor,wT,andthecommitteddoseequivalent,HT,50,perunitintakeisgreaterthan10percentofthemaximum
weightedvalueofHT,50,(i.e.,wTHT,50)perunitintakeforanyorganortissue.
ii) 20.1203Determinationofexternaldosefromairborneradioactivematerial.
Licenseesshall,whendeterminingthedosefromairborneradioactivematerial,includethecontributiontothedeep
doseequivalent,lensdoseequivalent,andshallowdoseequivalentfromexternalexposuretotheradioactivecloud
(seeappendixBtopart20,footnotes1and2).
Note:AirborneradioactivitymeasurementsandDACvaluesshouldnotbeusedastheprimarymeanstoassessthe
deepdoseequivalentwhentheairborneradioactivematerialincludesradionuclidesotherthannoblegasesorifthe
cloudofairborneradioactivematerialisnotrelativelyuniform.Thedeterminationofthedeepdoseequivalenttoan
individualshouldbebaseduponmeasurementsusinginstrumentsorindividualmonitoringdevices.
[56FR23396,May21,1991,asamendedat60FR20185,Apr.25,1995;63FR39482,July23,1998]
jj) 20.1204Determinationofinternalexposure.
(a)Forpurposesofassessingdoseusedtodeterminecompliancewithoccupationaldoseequivalentlimits,the
licenseeshall,whenrequiredunder20.1502,takesuitableandtimelymeasurementsof
(1)Concentrationsofradioactivematerialsinairinworkareas;or
(2)Quantitiesofradionuclidesinthebody;or
(3)Quantitiesofradionuclidesexcretedfromthebody;or
(4)Combinationsofthesemeasurements.
(b)Unlessrespiratoryprotectiveequipmentisused,asprovidedin20.1703,ortheassessmentofintakeisbasedon
bioassays,thelicenseeshallassumethatanindividualinhalesradioactivematerialattheairborneconcentrationin
whichtheindividualispresent.
(c)Whenspecificinformationonthephysicalandbiochemicalpropertiesoftheradionuclidestakenintothebodyor
thebehaviororthematerialinanindividualisknown,thelicenseemay
(1)Usethatinformationtocalculatethecommittedeffectivedoseequivalent,and,ifused,thelicenseeshall
documentthatinformationintheindividualsrecord;and
(2)UponpriorapprovaloftheCommission,adjusttheDACorALIvaluestoreflecttheactualphysicalandchemical
characteristicsofairborneradioactivematerial(e.g.,aerosolsizedistributionordensity);and
(3)SeparatelyassessthecontributionoffractionalintakesofClassD,W,orYcompoundsofagivenradionuclide(see
appendixBtopart20)tothecommittedeffectivedoseequivalent.
85
(d)IfthelicenseechoosestoassessintakesofClassYmaterialusingthemeasurementsgivenin20.1204(a)(2)or(3),
thelicenseemaydelaytherecordingandreportingoftheassessmentsforperiodsupto7months,unlessotherwise
requiredby20.2202or20.2203,inordertopermitthelicenseetomakeadditionalmeasurementsbasictothe
assessments.
(e)Iftheidentityandconcentrationofeachradionuclideinamixtureareknown,thefractionoftheDACapplicable
tothemixtureforuseincalculatingDAChoursmustbeeither
(1)ThesumoftheratiosoftheconcentrationtotheappropriateDACvalue(e.g.,D,W,Y)fromappendixBtopart20
foreachradionuclideinthemixture;or
(2)TheratioofthetotalconcentrationforallradionuclidesinthemixturetothemostrestrictiveDACvalueforany
radionuclideinthemixture.
(f)Iftheidentityofeachradionuclideinamixtureisknown,buttheconcentrationofoneormoreofthe
radionuclidesinthemixtureisnotknown,theDACforthemixturemustbethemostrestrictiveDACofany
radionuclideinthemixture.
(g)Whenamixtureofradionuclidesinairexists,licenseesmaydisregardcertainradionuclidesinthemixtureif
(1)Thelicenseeusesthetotalactivityofthemixtureindemonstratingcompliancewiththedoselimitsin20.1201
andincomplyingwiththemonitoringrequirementsin20.1502(b),and
(2)Theconcentrationofanyradionuclidedisregardedislessthan10percentofitsDAC,and
(3)Thesumofthesepercentagesforalloftheradionuclidesdisregardedinthemixturedoesnotexceed30percent.
(h)(1)Inordertocalculatethecommittedeffectivedoseequivalent,thelicenseemayassumethattheinhalationof
oneALI,oranexposureof2,000DAChours,resultsinacommittedeffectivedoseequivalentof5rems(0.05Sv)for
radionuclidesthathavetheirALIsorDACsbasedonthecommittedeffectivedoseequivalent.
(2)WhentheALI(andtheassociatedDAC)isdeterminedbythenonstochasticorgandoselimitof50rems(0.5Sv),
theintakeofradionuclidesthatwouldresultinacommittedeffectivedoseequivalentof5rems(0.05Sv)(the
stochasticALI)islistedinparenthesesintable1ofappendixBtopart20.Inthiscase,thelicenseemay,asa
simplifyingassumption,usethestochasticALIstodeterminecommittedeffectivedoseequivalent.However,ifthe
licenseeusesthestochasticALIs,thelicenseemustalsodemonstratethatthelimitin20.1201(a)(1)(ii)ismet.
[56FR23396,May21,1991,asamendedat60FR20185,Apr.25,1995]
kk) 20.1205[Reserved]
ll) 20.1206Plannedspecialexposures.
Alicenseemayauthorizeanadultworkertoreceivedosesinadditiontoandaccountedforseparatelyfromthedoses
receivedunderthelimitsspecifiedin20.1201providedthateachofthefollowingconditionsissatisfied
(a)Thelicenseeauthorizesaplannedspecialexposureonlyinanexceptionalsituationwhenalternativesthatmight
avoidthedoseestimatedtoresultfromtheplannedspecialexposureareunavailableorimpractical.
(b)Thelicensee(andemployeriftheemployerisnotthelicensee)specificallyauthorizestheplannedspecial
exposure,inwriting,beforetheexposureoccurs.
86
(c)Beforeaplannedspecialexposure,thelicenseeensuresthattheindividualsinvolvedare
(1)Informedofthepurposeoftheplannedoperation;
(2)Informedoftheestimateddosesandassociatedpotentialrisksandspecificradiationlevelsorotherconditions
thatmightbeinvolvedinperformingthetask;and
(3)InstructedinthemeasurestobetakentokeepthedoseALARAconsideringotherrisksthatmaybepresent.
(d)Priortopermittinganindividualtoparticipateinaplannedspecialexposure,thelicenseeascertainspriordoses
asrequiredby20.2104(b)duringthelifetimeoftheindividualforeachindividualinvolved.
(e)Subjectto20.1201(b),thelicenseedoesnotauthorizeaplannedspecialexposurethatwouldcauseanindividual
toreceiveadosefromallplannedspecialexposuresandalldosesinexcessofthelimitstoexceed
(1)Thenumericalvaluesofanyofthedoselimitsin20.1201(a)inanyyear;and
(2)Fivetimestheannualdoselimitsin20.1201(a)duringtheindividualslifetime.
(f)Thelicenseemaintainsrecordsoftheconductofaplannedspecialexposureinaccordancewith20.2105and
submitsawrittenreportinaccordancewith20.2204.
(g)Thelicenseerecordsthebestestimateofthedoseresultingfromtheplannedspecialexposureintheindividuals
recordandinformstheindividual,inwriting,ofthedosewithin30daysfromthedateoftheplannedspecial
exposure.Thedosefromplannedspecialexposuresisnottobeconsideredincontrollingfutureoccupationaldoseof
theindividualunder20.1201(a)butistobeincludedinevaluationsrequiredby20.1206(d)and(e).
[56FR23396,May21,1991,asamendedat63FR39482,July23,1998]
mm)
20.1207Occupationaldoselimitsforminors.
Theannualoccupationaldoselimitsforminorsare10percentoftheannualdoselimitsspecifiedforadultworkersin
20.1201.
nn) 20.1208Doseequivalenttoanembryo/fetus.
(a)Thelicenseeshallensurethatthedoseequivalenttotheembryo/fetusduringtheentirepregnancy,duetothe
occupationalexposureofadeclaredpregnantwoman,doesnotexceed0.5rem(5mSv).(Forrecordkeeping
requirements,see20.2106.)
(b)Thelicenseeshallmakeeffortstoavoidsubstantialvariationaboveauniformmonthlyexposureratetoadeclared
pregnantwomansoastosatisfythelimitinparagraph(a)ofthissection.
(c)Thedoseequivalenttotheembryo/fetusisthesumof
(1)Thedeepdoseequivalenttothedeclaredpregnantwoman;and
(2)Thedoseequivalenttotheembryo/fetusresultingfromradionuclidesintheembryo/fetusandradionuclidesin
thedeclaredpregnantwoman.
87
(d)Ifthedoseequivalenttotheembryo/fetusisfoundtohaveexceeded0.5rem(5mSv),oriswithin0.05rem(0.5
mSv)ofthisdose,bythetimethewomandeclaresthepregnancytothelicensee,thelicenseeshallbedeemedtobein
compliancewithparagraph(a)ofthissectioniftheadditionaldoseequivalenttotheembryo/fetusdoesnotexceed
0.05rem(0.5mSv)duringtheremainderofthepregnancy.
oo) SubpartDRadiationDoseLimitsforIndividualMembersofthePublic
pp) 20.1301Doselimitsforindividualmembersofthepublic.
(a)Eachlicenseeshallconductoperationssothat
(1)Thetotaleffectivedoseequivalenttoindividualmembersofthepublicfromthelicensedoperationdoesnot
exceed0.1rem(1mSv)inayear,exclusiveofthedosecontributionsfrombackgroundradiation,fromany
administrationtheindividualhasreceived,fromexposuretoindividualsadministeredradioactivematerialand
releasedunder35.75,fromvoluntaryparticipationinmedicalresearchprograms,andfromthelicenseesdisposal
ofradioactivematerialintosanitarysewerageinaccordancewith20.2003,and
(2)Thedoseinanyunrestrictedareafromexternalsources,exclusiveofthedosecontributionsfrompatients
administeredradioactivematerialandreleasedinaccordancewith35.75,doesnotexceed0.002rem(0.02
millisievert)inanyonehour.
(b)Ifthelicenseepermitsmembersofthepublictohaveaccesstocontrolledareas,thelimitsformembersofthe
publiccontinuetoapplytothoseindividuals.
(c)Notwithstandingparagraph(a)(1)ofthissection,alicenseemaypermitvisitorstoanindividualwhocannotbe
released,under35.75,toreceivearadiationdosegreaterthan0.1rem(1mSv)if
(1)Theradiationdosereceiveddoesnotexceed0.5rem(5mSv);and
(2)Theauthorizeduser,asdefinedin10CFRPart35,hasdeterminedbeforethevisitthatitisappropriate.
(d)AlicenseeorlicenseapplicantmayapplyforpriorNRCauthorizationtooperateuptoanannualdoselimitforan
individualmemberofthepublicof0.5rem(5mSv).Thelicenseeorlicenseapplicantshallincludethefollowing
informationinthisapplication:
(1)Demonstrationoftheneedforandtheexpecteddurationofoperationsinexcessofthelimitinparagraph(a)of
thissection;
(2)Thelicenseesprogramtoassessandcontroldosewithinthe0.5rem(5mSv)annuallimit;and
(3)Theprocedurestobefollowedtomaintainthedoseaslowasisreasonablyachievable.
(e)Inadditiontotherequirementsofthispart,alicenseesubjecttotheprovisionsofEPAsgenerallyapplicable
environmentalradiationstandardsin40CFRpart190shallcomplywiththosestandards.
88
(f)TheCommissionmayimposeadditionalrestrictionsonradiationlevelsinunrestrictedareasandonthetotal
quantityofradionuclidesthatalicenseemayreleaseineffluentsinordertorestrictthecollectivedose.
[56FR23398,May21,1991,asamendedat60FR48625,Sept.20,1995;62FR4133,Jan.29,1997;67FR20370,Apr.24,
2002;67FR62872,Oct.9,2002]
qq) 20.1302Compliancewithdoselimitsforindividualmembersofthepublic.
(a)Thelicenseeshallmakeorcausetobemade,asappropriate,surveysofradiationlevelsinunrestrictedand
controlledareasandradioactivematerialsineffluentsreleasedtounrestrictedandcontrolledareastodemonstrate
compliancewiththedoselimitsforindividualmembersofthepublicin20.1301.
(b)Alicenseeshallshowcompliancewiththeannualdoselimitin20.1301by
(1)Demonstratingbymeasurementorcalculationthatthetotaleffectivedoseequivalenttotheindividuallikelyto
receivethehighestdosefromthelicensedoperationdoesnotexceedtheannualdoselimit;or
(2)Demonstratingthat
(i)Theannualaverageconcentrationsofradioactivematerialreleasedingaseousandliquideffluentsattheboundary
oftheunrestrictedareadonotexceedthevaluesspecifiedintable2ofappendixBtopart20;and
(ii)Ifanindividualwerecontinuouslypresentinanunrestrictedarea,thedosefromexternalsourceswouldnot
exceed0.002rem(0.02mSv)inanhourand0.05rem(0.5mSv)inayear.
(c)UponapprovalfromtheCommission,thelicenseemayadjusttheeffluentconcentrationvaluesinappendixBto
part20,table2,formembersofthepublic,totakeintoaccounttheactualphysicalandchemicalcharacteristicsofthe
effluents(e.g.,aerosolsizedistribution,solubility,density,radioactivedecayequilibrium,chemicalform).
[56FR23398,May21,1991;56FR61352,Dec.3,1991,asamendedat57FR57878,Dec.8,1992;60FR20185,Apr.25,
1995]
rr) SubpartERadiologicalCriteriaforLicenseTermination
Source:62FR39088,July21,1987,unlessotherwisenoted.
ss) 20.1401Generalprovisionsandscope.
(a)ThecriteriainthissubpartapplytothedecommissioningoffacilitieslicensedunderParts30,40,50,60,61,63,70,
and72ofthischapter,andreleaseofpartofafacilityorsiteforunrestricteduseinaccordancewith50.83ofthis
chapter,aswellasotherfacilitiessubjecttotheCommissionsjurisdictionundertheAtomicEnergyActof1954,as
amended,andtheEnergyReorganizationActof1974,asamended.Forhighlevelandlowlevelwastedisposal
facilities(10CFRParts60,61,63),thecriteriaapplyonlytoancillarysurfacefacilitiesthatsupportradioactivewaste
disposalactivities.ThecriteriadonotapplytouraniumandthoriumrecoveryfacilitiesalreadysubjecttoAppendix
Ato10CFRPart40ortouraniumsolutionextractionfacilities.
(b)Thecriteriainthissubpartdonotapplytositeswhich:
(1)HavebeendecommissionedpriortotheeffectivedateoftheruleinaccordancewithcriteriaidentifiedintheSite
89
DecommissioningManagementPlan(SDMP)ActionPlanofApril16,1992(57FR13389);
(2)HavepreviouslysubmittedandreceivedCommissionapprovalonalicenseterminationplan(LTP)or
decommissioningplanthatiscompatiblewiththeSDMPActionPlancriteria;or
(3)SubmitasufficientLTPordecommissioningplanbeforeAugust20,1998andsuchLTPordecommissioningplan
isapprovedbytheCommissionbeforeAugust20,1999andinaccordancewiththecriteriaidentifiedintheSDMP
ActionPlan,exceptthatifanEISisrequiredinthesubmittal,therewillbeaprovisionfordayfordayextension.
(c)Afterasitehasbeendecommissionedandthelicenseterminatedinaccordancewiththecriteriainthissubpart,or
afterpartofafacilityorsitehasbeenreleasedforunrestricteduseinaccordancewith50.83ofthischapterandin
accordancewiththecriteriainthissubpart,theCommissionwillrequireadditionalcleanuponly,ifbasedonnew
information,itdeterminesthatthecriteriaofthissubpartwerenotmetandresidualradioactivityremainingatthe
sitecouldresultinsignificantthreattopublichealthandsafety.
(d)WhencalculatingTEDEtotheaveragememberofthecriticalgroupthelicenseeshalldeterminethepeakannual
TEDEdoseexpectedwithinthefirst1000yearsafterdecommissioning.
[62FR39088,July21,1997,asamendedat66FR55789,Nov.2,2001]
tt) 20.1402Radiologicalcriteriaforunrestricteduse.
Asitewillbeconsideredacceptableforunrestricteduseiftheresidualradioactivitythatisdistinguishablefrom
backgroundradiationresultsinaTEDEtoanaveragememberofthecriticalgroupthatdoesnotexceed25mrem
(0.25mSv)peryear,includingthatfromgroundwatersourcesofdrinkingwater,andtheresidualradioactivityhas
beenreducedtolevelsthatareaslowasreasonablyachievable(ALARA).Determinationofthelevelswhichare
ALARAmusttakeintoaccountconsiderationofanydetriments,suchasdeathsfromtransportationaccidents,
expectedtopotentiallyresultfromdecontaminationandwastedisposal.
uu) 20.1403Criteriaforlicenseterminationunderrestrictedconditions.
Asitewillbeconsideredacceptableforlicenseterminationunderrestrictedconditionsif:
(a)Thelicenseecandemonstratethatfurtherreductionsinresidualradioactivitynecessarytocomplywiththe
provisionsof20.1402wouldresultinnetpublicorenvironmentalharmorwerenotbeingmadebecausethe
residuallevelsassociatedwithrestrictedconditionsareALARA.DeterminationofthelevelswhichareALARAmust
takeintoaccountconsiderationofanydetriments,suchastrafficaccidents,expectedtopotentiallyresultfrom
decontaminationandwastedisposal;
(b)Thelicenseehasmadeprovisionsforlegallyenforceableinstitutionalcontrolsthatprovidereasonableassurance
thattheTEDEfromresidualradioactivitydistinguishablefrombackgroundtotheaveragememberofthecritical
groupwillnotexceed25mrem(0.25mSv)peryear;
(c)Thelicenseehasprovidedsufficientfinancialassurancetoenableanindependentthirdparty,includinga
governmentalcustodianofasite,toassumeandcarryoutresponsibilitiesforanynecessarycontrolandmaintenance
ofthesite.Acceptablefinancialassurancemechanismsare
(1)Fundsplacedintoanaccountsegregatedfromthelicenseesassetsandoutsidethelicenseesadministrative
controlasdescribedin30.35(f)(1)ofthischapter;
90
(2)Suretymethod,insurance,orotherguaranteemethodasdescribedin30.35(f)(2)ofthischapter;
(3)AstatementofintentinthecaseofFederal,State,orlocalGovernmentlicensees,asdescribedin30.35(f)(4)of
thischapter;or
(4)Whenagovernmentalentityisassumingcustodyandownershipofasite,anarrangementthatisdeemed
acceptablebysuchgovernmentalentity.
(d)ThelicenseehassubmittedadecommissioningplanorLicenseTerminationPlan(LTP)totheCommission
indicatingthelicenseesintenttodecommissioninaccordancewith30.36(d),40.42(d),50.82(a)and(b),70.38(d),or
72.54ofthischapter,andspecifyingthatthelicenseeintendstodecommissionbyrestrictinguseofthesite.The
licenseeshalldocumentintheLTPordecommissioningplanhowtheadviceofindividualsandinstitutionsinthe
communitywhomaybeaffectedbythedecommissioninghasbeensoughtandincorporated,asappropriate,
followinganalysisofthatadvice.
(1)Licenseesproposingtodecommissionbyrestrictinguseofthesiteshallseekadvicefromsuchaffectedparties
regardingthefollowingmattersconcerningtheproposeddecommissioning
(i)Whetherprovisionsforinstitutionalcontrolsproposedbythelicensee;
(A)WillprovidereasonableassurancethattheTEDEfromresidualradioactivitydistinguishablefrombackgroundto
theaveragememberofthecriticalgroupwillnotexceed25mrem(0.25mSv)TEDEperyear;
(B)Willbeenforceable;and
(C)Willnotimposeundueburdensonthelocalcommunityorotheraffectedparties.
(ii)Whetherthelicenseehasprovidedsufficientfinancialassurancetoenableanindependentthirdparty,includinga
governmentalcustodianofasite,toassumeandcarryoutresponsibilitiesforanynecessarycontrolandmaintenance
ofthesite;
(2)Inseekingadviceontheissuesidentifiedin20.1403(d)(1),thelicenseeshallprovidefor:
(i)Participationbyrepresentativesofabroadcrosssectionofcommunityinterestswhomaybeaffectedbythe
decommissioning;
(ii)Anopportunityforacomprehensive,collectivediscussionontheissuesbytheparticipantsrepresented;and
(iii)Apubliclyavailablesummaryoftheresultsofallsuchdiscussions,includingadescriptionoftheindividual
viewpointsoftheparticipantsontheissuesandtheextentofagreementanddisagreementamongtheparticipantson
theissues;and
(e)Residualradioactivityatthesitehasbeenreducedsothatiftheinstitutionalcontrolswerenolongerineffect,
thereisreasonableassurancethattheTEDEfromresidualradioactivitydistinguishablefrombackgroundtothe
averagememberofthecriticalgroupisaslowasreasonablyachievableandwouldnotexceedeither
(1)100mrem(1mSv)peryear;or
(2)500mrem(5mSv)peryearprovidedthelicensee
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(i)Demonstratesthatfurtherreductionsinresidualradioactivitynecessarytocomplywiththe100mrem/y(1mSv/y)
valueofparagraph(e)(1)ofthissectionarenottechnicallyachievable,wouldbeprohibitivelyexpensive,orwould
resultinnetpublicorenvironmentalharm;
(ii)Makesprovisionsfordurableinstitutionalcontrols;
(iii)Providessufficientfinancialassurancetoenablearesponsiblegovernmententityorindependentthirdparty,
includingagovernmentalcustodianofasite,bothtocarryoutperiodicrechecksofthesitenolessfrequentlythan
every5yearstoassurethattheinstitutionalcontrolsremaininplaceasnecessarytomeetthecriteriaof20.1403(b)
andtoassumeandcarryoutresponsibilitiesforanynecessarycontrolandmaintenanceofthosecontrols.Acceptable
financialassurancemechanismsarethoseinparagraph(c)ofthissection.
vv) 20.1404Alternatecriteriaforlicensetermination.
(a)TheCommissionmayterminatealicenseusingalternatecriteriagreaterthanthedosecriterionof20.1402,
20.1403(b),and20.1403(d)(1)(i)(A),ifthelicensee
(1)Providesassurancethatpublichealthandsafetywouldcontinuetobeprotected,andthatitisunlikelythatthe
dosefromallmanmadesourcescombined,otherthanmedical,wouldbemorethanthe1mSv/y(100mrem/y)limit
ofsubpartD,bysubmittingananalysisofpossiblesourcesofexposure;
(2)Hasemployedtotheextentpracticalrestrictionsonsiteuseaccordingtotheprovisionsof20.1403inminimizing
exposuresatthesite;and
(3)ReducesdosestoALARAlevels,takingintoconsiderationanydetrimentssuchastrafficaccidentsexpectedto
potentiallyresultfromdecontaminationandwastedisposal.
(4)HassubmittedadecommissioningplanorLicenseTerminationPlan(LTP)totheCommissionindicatingthe
licenseesintenttodecommissioninaccordancewith30.36(d),40.42(d),50.82(a)and(b),70.38(d),or72.54ofthis
chapter,andspecifyingthatthelicenseeproposestodecommissionbyuseofalternatecriteria.Thelicenseeshall
documentinthedecommissioningplanorLTPhowtheadviceofindividualsandinstitutionsinthecommunitywho
maybeaffectedbythedecommissioninghasbeensoughtandaddressed,asappropriate,followinganalysisofthat
advice.Inseekingsuchadvice,thelicenseeshallprovidefor:
(i)Participationbyrepresentativesofabroadcrosssectionofcommunityinterestswhomaybeaffectedbythe
decommissioning;
(ii)Anopportunityforacomprehensive,collectivediscussionontheissuesbytheparticipantsrepresented;and
(iii)Apubliclyavailablesummaryoftheresultsofallsuchdiscussions,includingadescriptionoftheindividual
viewpointsoftheparticipantsontheissuesandtheextentofagreementanddisagreementamongtheparticipantson
theissues.
(b)TheuseofalternatecriteriatoterminatealicenserequirestheapprovaloftheCommissionafterconsiderationof
theNRCstaffsrecommendationsthatwilladdressanycommentsprovidedbytheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency
andanypubliccommentssubmittedpursuantto20.1405.
ww)
20.1405Publicnotificationandpublicparticipation.
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sitepursuantto20.1403or20.1404,orwhenevertheCommissiondeemssuchnoticetobeinthepublicinterest,the
Commissionshall:
(a)Notifyandsolicitcommentsfrom:
(1)localandStategovernmentsinthevicinityofthesiteandanyIndianNationorotherindigenouspeoplethathave
treatyorstatutoryrightsthatcouldbeaffectedbythedecommissioning;and
(2)theEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyforcaseswherethelicenseeproposestoreleaseasitepursuantto20.1404.
(b)PublishanoticeintheFederalRegisterandinaforum,suchaslocalnewspapers,letterstoStateorlocal
organizations,orotherappropriateforum,thatisreadilyaccessibletoindividualsinthevicinityofthesite,and
solicitcommentsfromaffectedparties.
xx) 20.1406Minimizationofcontamination.
Applicantsforlicenses,otherthanrenewals,afterAugust20,1997,shalldescribeintheapplicationhowfacility
designandproceduresforoperationwillminimize,totheextentpracticable,contaminationofthefacilityandthe
environment,facilitateeventualdecommissioning,andminimize,totheextentpracticable,thegenerationof
radioactivewaste.
yy) SubpartFSurveysandMonitoring
zz) 20.1501General.
(a)Eachlicenseeshallmakeorcausetobemade,surveysthat
(1)Maybenecessaryforthelicenseetocomplywiththeregulationsinthispart;and
(2)Arereasonableunderthecircumstancestoevaluate
(i)Themagnitudeandextentofradiationlevels;and
(ii)Concentrationsorquantitiesofradioactivematerial;and
(iii)Thepotentialradiologicalhazards.
(b)Thelicenseeshallensurethatinstrumentsandequipmentusedforquantitativeradiationmeasurements(e.g.,
doserateandeffluentmonitoring)arecalibratedperiodicallyfortheradiationmeasured.
(c)Allpersonneldosimeters(exceptfordirectandindirectreadingpocketionizationchambersandthosedosimeters
usedtomeasurethedosetotheextremities)thatrequireprocessingtodeterminetheradiationdoseandthatareused
bylicenseestocomplywith20.1201,withotherapplicableprovisionsofthischapter,orwithconditionsspecifiedin
alicensemustbeprocessedandevaluatedbyadosimetryprocessor
(1)HoldingcurrentpersonneldosimetryaccreditationfromtheNationalVoluntaryLaboratoryAccreditation
Program(NVLAP)oftheNationalInstituteofStandardsandTechnology;and
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(2)ApprovedinthisaccreditationprocessforthetypeofradiationorradiationsincludedintheNVLAPprogram
thatmostcloselyapproximatesthetypeofradiationorradiationsforwhichtheindividualwearingthedosimeteris
monitored.
aaa)
20.1502Conditionsrequiringindividualmonitoringofexternalandinternal
occupationaldose.
Eachlicenseeshallmonitorexposurestoradiationandradioactivematerialatlevelssufficienttodemonstrate
compliancewiththeoccupationaldoselimitsofthispart.Asaminimum
(a)Eachlicenseeshallmonitoroccupationalexposuretoradiationfromlicensedandunlicensedradiationsources
underthecontrolofthelicenseeandshallsupplyandrequiretheuseofindividualmonitoringdevicesby
(1)Adultslikelytoreceive,in1yearfromsourcesexternaltothebody,adoseinexcessof10percentofthelimitsin
20.1201(a),
(2)Minorslikelytoreceive,in1year,fromradiationsourcesexternaltothebody,adeepdoseequivalentinexcessof
0.1rem(1mSv),alensdoseequivalentinexcessof0.15rem(1.5mSv),orashallowdoseequivalenttotheskinorto
theextremitiesinexcessof0.5rem(5mSv);
(3)Declaredpregnantwomenlikelytoreceiveduringtheentirepregnancy,fromradiationsourcesexternaltothe
body,adeepdoseequivalentinexcessof0.1rem(1mSv);2and
(4)Individualsenteringahighorveryhighradiationarea.
(b)Eachlicenseeshallmonitor(see20.1204)theoccupationalintakeofradioactivematerialbyandassessthe
committedeffectivedoseequivalentto
(1)Adultslikelytoreceive,in1year,anintakeinexcessof10percentoftheapplicableALI(s)intable1,Columns1
and2,ofappendixBto20.100120.2402;
(2)Minorslikelytoreceive,in1year,acommittedeffectivedoseequivalentinexcessof0.1rem(1mSv);and
(3)Declaredpregnantwomenlikelytoreceive,duringtheentirepregnancy,acommittedeffectivedoseequivalentin
excessof0.1rem(1mSv).
2Alloftheoccupationaldosesin20.1201continuetobeapplicabletothedeclaredpregnantworkeraslongasthe
embryo/fetusdoselimitisnotexceeded.
bbb)
SubpartGControlofExposureFromExternalSourcesinRestrictedAreas
ccc)
20.1601Controlofaccesstohighradiationareas.
94
(a)Thelicenseeshallensurethateachentranceoraccesspointtoahighradiationareahasoneormoreofthe
followingfeatures
(1)Acontroldevicethat,uponentryintothearea,causesthelevelofradiationtobereducedbelowthatlevelat
whichanindividualmightreceiveadeepdoseequivalentof0.1rem(1mSv)in1hourat30centimetersfromthe
radiationsourceorfromanysurfacethattheradiationpenetrates;
(2)Acontroldevicethatenergizesaconspicuousvisibleoraudiblealarmsignalsothattheindividualenteringthe
highradiationareaandthesupervisoroftheactivityaremadeawareoftheentry;or
(3)Entrywaysthatarelocked,exceptduringperiodswhenaccesstotheareasisrequired,withpositivecontrolover
eachindividualentry.
(b)Inplaceofthecontrolsrequiredbyparagraph(a)ofthissectionforahighradiationarea,thelicenseemay
substitutecontinuousdirectorelectronicsurveillancethatiscapableofpreventingunauthorizedentry.
(c)AlicenseemayapplytotheCommissionforapprovalofalternativemethodsforcontrollingaccesstohigh
radiationareas.
(d)Thelicenseeshallestablishthecontrolsrequiredbyparagraphs(a)and(c)ofthissectioninawaythatdoesnot
preventindividualsfromleavingahighradiationarea.
(e)Controlisnotrequiredforeachentranceoraccesspointtoaroomorotherareathatisahighradiationareasolely
becauseofthepresenceofradioactivematerialspreparedfortransportandpackagedandlabeledinaccordancewith
theregulationsoftheDepartmentofTransportationprovidedthat
(1)Thepackagesdonotremaininthearealongerthan3days;and
(2)Thedoserateat1meterfromtheexternalsurfaceofanypackagedoesnotexceed0.01rem(0.1mSv)perhour.
(f)Controlofentranceoraccesstoroomsorotherareasinhospitalsisnotrequiredsolelybecauseofthepresenceof
patientscontainingradioactivematerial,providedthattherearepersonnelinattendancewhowilltakethenecessary
precautionstopreventtheexposureofindividualstoradiationorradioactivematerialinexcessofthelimits
establishedinthispartandtooperatewithintheALARAprovisionsofthelicenseesradiationprotectionprogram.
ddd)
20.1602Controlofaccesstoveryhighradiationareas.
Inadditiontotherequirementsin20.1601,thelicenseeshallinstituteadditionalmeasurestoensurethatan
individualisnotabletogainunauthorizedorinadvertentaccesstoareasinwhichradiationlevelscouldbe
encounteredat500rads(5grays)ormorein1hourat1meterfromaradiationsourceoranysurfacethroughwhich
theradiationpenetrates.
eee)
SubpartHRespiratoryProtectionandControlstoRestrictInternalExposurein
RestrictedAreas
fff) 20.1701Useofprocessorotherengineeringcontrols.
95
Thelicenseeshalluse,totheextentpractical,processorotherengineeringcontrols(e.g.,containment,
decontamination,orventilation)tocontroltheconcentrationofradioactivematerialinair.
[64FR54556,Oct.7,1999]
ggg)
20.1702Useofothercontrols.
(a)Whenitisnotpracticaltoapplyprocessorotherengineeringcontrolstocontroltheconcentrationsofradioactive
materialintheairtovaluesbelowthosethatdefineanairborneradioactivityarea,thelicenseeshall,consistentwith
maintainingthetotaleffectivedoseequivalentALARA,increasemonitoringandlimitintakesbyoneormoreofthe
followingmeans
(1)Controlofaccess;
(2)Limitationofexposuretimes;
(3)Useofrespiratoryprotectionequipment;or
(4)Othercontrols.
(b)IfthelicenseeperformsanALARAanalysistodeterminewhetherornotrespiratorsshouldbeused,thelicensee
mayconsidersafetyfactorsotherthanradiologicalfactors.Thelicenseeshouldalsoconsidertheimpactofrespirator
useonworkersindustrialhealthandsafety.
[64FR54556,Oct.7,1999]
hhh)
20.1703Useofindividualrespiratoryprotectionequipment.
Ifthelicenseeassignsorpermitstheuseofrespiratoryprotectionequipmenttolimittheintakeofradioactive
material,
(a)ThelicenseeshalluseonlyrespiratoryprotectionequipmentthatistestedandcertifiedbytheNationalInstitute
forOccupationalSafetyandHealth(NIOSH)exceptasotherwisenotedinthispart.
(b)IfthelicenseewishestouseequipmentthathasnotbeentestedorcertifiedbyNIOSH,orforwhichthereisno
schedulefortestingorcertification,thelicenseeshallsubmitanapplicationtotheNRCforauthorizeduseofthis
equipmentexceptasprovidedinthispart.Theapplicationmustincludeevidencethatthematerialandperformance
characteristicsoftheequipmentarecapableofprovidingtheproposeddegreeofprotectionunderanticipated
conditionsofuse.Thismustbedemonstratedeitherbylicenseetestingoronthebasisofreliabletestinformation.
(c)Thelicenseeshallimplementandmaintainarespiratoryprotectionprogramthatincludes:
(1)Airsamplingsufficienttoidentifythepotentialhazard,permitproperequipmentselection,andestimatedoses;
(2)Surveysandbioassays,asnecessary,toevaluateactualintakes;
(3)Testingofrespiratorsforoperability(usersealcheckforfacesealingdevicesandfunctionalcheckforothers)
immediatelypriortoeachuse;
96
(4)Writtenproceduresregarding
(i)Monitoring,includingairsamplingandbioassays;
(ii)Supervisionandtrainingofrespiratorusers;
(iii)Fittesting;
(iv)Respiratorselection;
(v)Breathingairquality;
(vi)Inventoryandcontrol;
(vii)Storage,issuance,maintenance,repair,testing,andqualityassuranceofrespiratoryprotectionequipment;
(viii)Recordkeeping;and
(ix)Limitationsonperiodsofrespiratoruseandrelieffromrespiratoruse;
(5)Determinationbyaphysicianthattheindividualuserismedicallyfittouserespiratoryprotectionequipment:
(i)Beforetheinitialfittingofafacesealingrespirator;
(ii)Beforethefirstfielduseofnonfacesealingrespirators,and
(iii)Eitherevery12monthsthereafter,orperiodicallyatafrequencydeterminedbyaphysician.
(6)Fittesting,withfitfactor>10timestheAPFfornegativepressuredevices,andafitfactor>500foranypositive
pressure,continuousflow,andpressuredemanddevices,beforethefirstfielduseoftightfitting,facesealing
respiratorsandperiodicallythereafteratafrequencynottoexceed1year.Fittestingmustbeperformedwiththe
facepieceoperatinginthenegativepressuremode.
(d)Thelicenseeshalladviseeachrespiratoruserthattheusermayleavetheareaatanytimeforrelieffromrespirator
useintheeventofequipmentmalfunction,physicalorpsychologicaldistress,proceduralorcommunicationfailure,
significantdeteriorationofoperatingconditions,oranyotherconditionsthatmightrequiresuchrelief.
(e)Thelicenseeshallalsoconsiderlimitationsappropriatetothetypeandmodeofuse.Whenselectingrespiratory
devicesthelicenseeshallprovideforvisioncorrection,adequatecommunication,lowtemperaturework
environments,andtheconcurrentuseofothersafetyorradiologicalprotectionequipment.Thelicenseeshalluse
equipmentinsuchawayasnottointerferewiththeproperoperationoftherespirator.
(f)Standbyrescuepersonsarerequiredwheneveronepieceatmospheresupplyingsuits,oranycombinationof
suppliedairrespiratoryprotectiondeviceandpersonnelprotectiveequipmentareusedfromwhichanunaided
individualwouldhavedifficultyextricatinghimselforherself.Thestandbypersonsmustbeequippedwith
respiratoryprotectiondevicesorotherapparatusappropriateforthepotentialhazards.Thestandbyrescuepersons
shallobserveorotherwisemaintaincontinuouscommunicationwiththeworkers(visual,voice,signalline,
telephone,radio,orothersuitablemeans),andbeimmediatelyavailabletoassistthemincaseofafailureoftheair
supplyorforanyotherreasonthatrequiresrelieffromdistress.Asufficientnumberofstandbyrescuepersonsmust
beimmediatelyavailabletoassistallusersofthistypeofequipmentandtoprovideeffectiveemergencyrescueif
97
needed.
(g)AtmospheresupplyingrespiratorsmustbesuppliedwithrespirableairofgradeDqualityorbetterasdefinedby
theCompressedGasAssociationinpublicationG7.1,CommoditySpecificationforAir,1997andincludedinthe
regulationsoftheOccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministration(29CFR1910.134(i)(1)(ii)(A)through(E).GradeD
qualityaircriteriainclude
(1)Oxygencontent(v/v)of19.523.5%;
(2)Hydrocarbon(condensed)contentof5milligramspercubicmeterofairorless;
(3)Carbonmonoxide(CO)contentof10ppmorless;
(4)Carbondioxidecontentof1,000ppmorless;and
(5)Lackofnoticableodor.
(h)Thelicenseeshallensurethatnoobjects,materialsorsubstances,suchasfacialhair,oranyconditionsthat
interferewiththefacefacepiecesealorvalvefunction,andthatareunderthecontroloftherespiratorwearer,are
presentbetweentheskinofthewearersfaceandthesealingsurfaceofatightfittingrespiratorfacepiece.
(i)Inestimatingthedosetoindividualsfromintakeofairborneradioactivematerials,theconcentrationofradioactive
materialintheairthatisinhaledwhenrespiratorsarewornisinitiallyassumedtobetheambientconcentrationinair
withoutrespiratoryprotection,dividedbytheassignedprotectionfactor.Ifthedoseislaterfoundtobegreaterthan
theestimateddose,thecorrectedvaluemustbeused.Ifthedoseislaterfoundtobelessthantheestimateddose,the
correctedvaluemaybeused.
[64FR54557,Oct.7,1999,asamendedat67FR77652,Dec.19,2002]
iii) 20.1704Furtherrestrictionsontheuseofrespiratoryprotectionequipment.
TheCommissionmayimposerestrictionsinadditiontotheprovisionsof20.1702,20.1703,andAppendixAtoPart
20,inorderto:
(a)Ensurethattherespiratoryprotectionprogramofthelicenseeisadequatetolimitdosestoindividualsfrom
intakesofairborneradioactivematerialsconsistentwithmaintainingtotaleffectivedoseequivalentALARA;and
(b)Limittheextenttowhichalicenseemayuserespiratoryprotectionequipmentinsteadofprocessorother
engineeringcontrols.
[64FR54557,Oct.7,1999]
jjj) 20.1705Applicationforuseofhigherassignedprotectionfactors.
ThelicenseeshallobtainauthorizationfromtheCommissionbeforeusingassignedprotectionfactorsinexcessof
thosespecifiedinAppendixAtoPart20.TheCommissionmayauthorizealicenseetousehigherassignedprotection
factorsonreceiptofanapplicationthat
(a)Describesthesituationforwhichaneedexistsforhigherprotectionfactors;and
98
(b)Demonstratesthattherespiratoryprotectionequipmentprovidesthesehigherprotectionfactorsunderthe
proposedconditionsofuse.
[64FR54557,Oct.7,1999]
kkk)
SubpartIStorageandControlofLicensedMaterial
lll) 20.1801Securityofstoredmaterial.
Thelicenseeshallsecurefromunauthorizedremovaloraccesslicensedmaterialsthatarestoredincontrolledor
unrestrictedareas.
mmm)
20.1802Controlofmaterialnotinstorage.
Thelicenseeshallcontrolandmaintainconstantsurveillanceoflicensedmaterialthatisinacontrolledor
unrestrictedareaandthatisnotinstorage.
nnn)
SubpartJPrecautionaryProcedures
ooo)
20.1901Cautionsigns.
(a)Standardradiationsymbol.UnlessotherwiseauthorizedbytheCommission,thesymbolprescribedbythispart
shallusethecolorsmagenta,orpurple,orblackonyellowbackground.Thesymbolprescribedbythispartisthe
threebladeddesign:
99

(1)Crosshatchedareaistobemagenta,orpurple,orblack,and
(2)Thebackgroundistobeyellow.
(b)Exceptiontocolorrequirementsforstandardradiationsymbol.Notwithstandingtherequirementsofparagraph(a)of
thissection,licenseesareauthorizedtolabelsources,sourceholders,ordevicecomponentscontainingsourcesof
licensedmaterialsthataresubjectedtohightemperatures,withconspicuouslyetchedorstampedradiationcaution
symbolsandwithoutacolorrequirement.
(c)Additionalinformationonsignsandlabels.Inadditiontothecontentsofsignsandlabelsprescribedinthispart,the
licenseemayprovide,onorneartherequiredsignsandlabels,additionalinformation,asappropriate,tomake
individualsawareofpotentialradiationexposuresandtominimizetheexposures.
ppp)
20.1902Postingrequirements.
(a)Postingofradiationareas.Thelicenseeshallposteachradiationareawithaconspicuoussignorsignsbearingthe
radiationsymbolandthewordsCAUTION,RADIATIONAREA.
(b)Postingofhighradiationareas.Thelicenseeshallposteachhighradiationareawithaconspicuoussignorsigns
bearingtheradiationsymbolandthewordsCAUTION,HIGHRADIATIONAREAorDANGER,HIGH
RADIATIONAREA.
(c)Postingofveryhighradiationareas.Thelicenseeshallposteachveryhighradiationareawithaconspicuoussignor
signsbearingtheradiationsymbolandwordsGRAVEDANGER,VERYHIGHRADIATIONAREA.
(d)Postingofairborneradioactivityareas.Thelicenseeshallposteachairborneradioactivityareawithaconspicuous
signorsignsbearingtheradiationsymbolandthewordsCAUTION,AIRBORNERADIOACTIVITYAREAor
100
DANGER,AIRBORNERADIOACTIVITYAREA.
(e)Postingofareasorroomsinwhichlicensedmaterialisusedorstored.Thelicenseeshallposteachareaorroominwhich
thereisusedorstoredanamountoflicensedmaterialexceeding10timesthequantityofsuchmaterialspecifiedin
appendixCtopart20withaconspicuoussignorsignsbearingtheradiationsymbolandthewordsCAUTION,
RADIOACTIVEMATERIAL(S)orDANGER,RADIOACTIVEMATERIAL(S).
qqq)
20.1903Exceptionstopostingrequirements.
(a)Alicenseeisnotrequiredtopostcautionsignsinareasorroomscontainingradioactivematerialsforperiodsof
lessthan8hours,ifeachofthefollowingconditionsismet:
(1)Thematerialsareconstantlyattendedduringtheseperiodsbyanindividualwhotakestheprecautionsnecessary
topreventtheexposureofindividualstoradiationorradioactivematerialsinexcessofthelimitsestablishedinthis
part;and
(2)Theareaorroomissubjecttothelicenseescontrol.
(b)Roomsorotherareasinhospitalsthatareoccupiedbypatientsarenotrequiredtobepostedwithcautionsigns
pursuantto20.1902providedthatthepatientcouldbereleasedfromlicenseecontrolpursuantto35.75ofthis
chapter.
(c)Aroomorareaisnotrequiredtobepostedwithacautionsignbecauseofthepresenceofasealedsource
providedtheradiationlevelat30centimetersfromthesurfaceofthesourcecontainerorhousingdoesnotexceed
0.005rem(0.05mSv)perhour.
(d)Roomsinhospitalsorclinicsthatareusedforteletherapyareexemptfromtherequirementtopostcautionsigns
under20.1902if
(1)Accesstotheroomiscontrolledpursuantto10CFR35.615;and
(2)Personnelinattendancetakenecessaryprecautionstopreventtheinadvertentexposureofworkers,other
patients,andmembersofthepublictoradiationinexcessofthelimitsestablishedinthispart.
[56FR23401,May21,1991,asamendedat57FR39357,Aug.31,1992;62FR4133,Jan.29,1997;63FR39482,July23,
1998]
rrr)
20.1904Labelingcontainers.
(a)Thelicenseeshallensurethateachcontaineroflicensedmaterialbearsadurable,clearlyvisiblelabelbearingthe
radiationsymbolandthewordsCAUTION,RADIOACTIVEMATERIALorDANGER,RADIOACTIVE
MATERIAL.Thelabelmustalsoprovidesufficientinformation(suchastheradionuclide(s)present,anestimateof
thequantityofradioactivity,thedateforwhichtheactivityisestimated,radiationlevels,kindsofmaterials,and
massenrichment)topermitindividualshandlingorusingthecontainers,orworkinginthevicinityofthecontainers,
totakeprecautionstoavoidorminimizeexposures.
(b)Eachlicenseeshall,priortoremovalordisposalofemptyuncontaminatedcontainerstounrestrictedareas,
removeordefacetheradioactivemateriallabelorotherwiseclearlyindicatethatthecontainernolongercontains
101
radioactivematerials.
sss)
20.1905Exemptionstolabelingrequirements.
Alicenseeisnotrequiredtolabel
(a)ContainersholdinglicensedmaterialinquantitieslessthanthequantitieslistedinappendixCtopart20;or
(b)Containersholdinglicensedmaterialinconcentrationslessthanthosespecifiedintable3ofappendixBtopart20;
or
(c)Containersattendedbyanindividualwhotakestheprecautionsnecessarytopreventtheexposureofindividuals
inexcessofthelimitsestablishedbythispart;or
(d)Containerswhentheyareintransportandpackagedandlabeledinaccordancewiththeregulationsofthe
DepartmentofTransportation,3or
(e)Containersthatareaccessibleonlytoindividualsauthorizedtohandleorusethem,ortoworkinthevicinityof
thecontainers,ifthecontentsareidentifiedtotheseindividualsbyareadilyavailablewrittenrecord(examplesof
containersofthistypearecontainersinlocationssuchaswaterfilledcanals,storagevaults,orhotcells).Therecord
mustberetainedaslongasthecontainersareinuseforthepurposeindicatedontherecord;or
(f)Installedmanufacturingorprocessequipment,suchasreactorcomponents,piping,andtanks.
3LabelingofpackagescontainingradioactivematerialsisrequiredbytheDepartmentofTransportation(DOT)ifthe
amountandtypeofradioactivematerialexceedsthelimitsforanexceptedquantityorarticleasdefinedandlimited
byDOTregulations49CFR173.403(m)and(w)and173.421424.
ttt) 20.1906Proceduresforreceivingandopeningpackages.
(a)EachlicenseewhoexpectstoreceiveapackagecontainingquantitiesofradioactivematerialinexcessofaTypeA
quantity,asdefinedin71.4andappendixAtopart71ofthischapter,shallmakearrangementstoreceive
(1)Thepackagewhenthecarrieroffersitfordelivery;or
(2)Notificationofthearrivalofthepackageatthecarriersterminalandtotakepossessionofthepackage
expeditiously.
(b)Eachlicenseeshall
(1)Monitortheexternalsurfacesofalabeled3apackageforradioactivecontaminationunlessthepackagecontains
onlyradioactivematerialintheformofagasorinspecialformasdefinedin10CFR71.4;
(2)Monitortheexternalsurfacesofalabeled3apackageforradiationlevelsunlessthepackagecontainsquantitiesof
radioactivematerialthatarelessthanorequaltotheTypeAquantity,asdefinedin71.4andappendixAtopart71
ofthischapter;and
102
(3)Monitorallpackagesknowntocontainradioactivematerialforradioactivecontaminationandradiationlevelsif
thereisevidenceofdegradationofpackageintegrity,suchaspackagesthatarecrushed,wet,ordamaged.
(c)Thelicenseeshallperformthemonitoringrequiredbyparagraph(b)ofthissectionassoonaspracticalafter
receiptofthepackage,butnotlaterthan3hoursafterthepackageisreceivedatthelicenseesfacilityifitisreceived
duringthelicenseesnormalworkinghours,ornotlaterthan3hoursfromthebeginningofthenextworkingdayifit
isreceivedafterworkinghours.
(d)ThelicenseeshallimmediatelynotifythefinaldeliverycarrierandtheNRCOperationsCenter(3018165100),by
telephone,when
(1)Removableradioactivesurfacecontaminationexceedsthelimitsof71.87(i)ofthischapter;or
(2)Externalradiationlevelsexceedthelimitsof71.47ofthischapter.
(e)Eachlicenseeshall
(1)Establish,maintain,andretainwrittenproceduresforsafelyopeningpackagesinwhichradioactivematerialis
received;and
(2)Ensurethattheproceduresarefollowedandthatdueconsiderationisgiventospecialinstructionsforthetypeof
packagebeingopened.
(f)Licenseestransferringspecialformsourcesinlicenseeownedorlicenseeoperatedvehiclestoandfromawork
siteareexemptfromthecontaminationmonitoringrequirementsofparagraph(b)ofthissection,butarenotexempt
fromthesurveyrequirementinparagraph(b)ofthissectionformeasuringradiationlevelsthatisrequiredtoensure
thatthesourceisstillproperlylodgedinitsshield.
[56FR23401,May21,1991,asamendedat57FR39357,Aug.31,1992;60FR20185,Apr.25,1995;63FR39482,July
23,1998]
3aLabeledwithaRadioactiveWhiteI,YellowII,orYellowIIIlabelasspecifiedinU.S.DepartmentofTransportation
regulations,49CFR172.403and172.436440.
uuu)
SubpartKWasteDisposal
vvv)
20.2001Generalrequirements.
(a)Alicenseeshalldisposeoflicensedmaterialonly
(1)Bytransfertoanauthorizedrecipientasprovidedin20.2006orintheregulationsinparts30,40,60,61,63,70,
and72ofthischapter;
(2)Bydecayinstorage;or
(3)Byreleaseineffluentswithinthelimitsin20.1301;or
103
(4)Asauthorizedunder20.2002,20.2003,20.2004,or20.2005.
(b)Apersonmustbespecificallylicensedtoreceivewastecontaininglicensedmaterialfromotherpersonsfor:
(1)Treatmentpriortodisposal;or
(2)Treatmentordisposalbyincineration;or
(3)Decayinstorage;or
(4)Disposalatalanddisposalfacilitylicensedunderpart61ofthischapter;or
(5)Disposalatageologicrepositoryunderpart60orpart63ofthischapter.
[56FR23403,May21,1991,asamendedat66FR55789,Nov.2,2001]
www)
20.2002Methodforobtainingapprovalofproposeddisposalprocedures.
AlicenseeorapplicantforalicensemayapplytotheCommissionforapprovalofproposedprocedures,not
otherwiseauthorizedintheregulationsinthischapter,todisposeoflicensedmaterialgeneratedinthelicensees
activities.Eachapplicationshallinclude:
(a)Adescriptionofthewastecontaininglicensedmaterialtobedisposedof,includingthephysicalandchemical
propertiesimportanttoriskevaluation,andtheproposedmannerandconditionsofwastedisposal;and
(b)Ananalysisandevaluationofpertinentinformationonthenatureoftheenvironment;and
(c)Thenatureandlocationofotherpotentiallyaffectedlicensedandunlicensedfacilities;and
(d)AnalysesandprocedurestoensurethatdosesaremaintainedALARAandwithinthedoselimitsinthispart.
xxx)
20.2003Disposalbyreleaseintosanitarysewerage.
(a)Alicenseemaydischargelicensedmaterialintosanitarysewerageifeachofthefollowingconditionsissatisfied:
(1)Thematerialisreadilysoluble(orisreadilydispersiblebiologicalmaterial)inwater;and
(2)Thequantityoflicensedorotherradioactivematerialthatthelicenseereleasesintothesewerin1monthdivided
bytheaveragemonthlyvolumeofwaterreleasedintothesewerbythelicenseedoesnotexceedtheconcentration
listedintable3ofappendixBtopart20;and
(3)Ifmorethanoneradionuclideisreleased,thefollowingconditionsmustalsobesatisfied:
(i)Thelicenseeshalldeterminethefractionofthelimitintable3ofappendixBtopart20representedbydischarges
intosanitaryseweragebydividingtheactualmonthlyaverageconcentrationofeachradionuclidereleasedbythe
licenseeintothesewerbytheconcentrationofthatradionuclidelistedintable3ofappendixBtopart20;and
(ii)Thesumofthefractionsforeachradionucliderequiredbyparagraph(a)(3)(i)ofthissectiondoesnotexceed
unity;and
104
(4)Thetotalquantityoflicensedandotherradioactivematerialthatthelicenseereleasesintothesanitarysewerage
systeminayeardoesnotexceed5curies(185GBq)ofhydrogen3,1curie(37GBq)ofcarbon14,and1curie(37GBq)
ofallotherradioactivematerialscombined.
(b)Excretafromindividualsundergoingmedicaldiagnosisortherapywithradioactivematerialarenotsubjecttothe
limitationscontainedinparagraph(a)ofthissection.
yyy)
20.2004Treatmentordisposalbyincineration.
(a)Alicenseemaytreatordisposeoflicensedmaterialbyincinerationonly:
(1)Asauthorizedbyparagraph(b)ofthissection;or
(2)Ifthematerialisinaformandconcentrationspecifiedin20.2005;or
(3)AsspecificallyapprovedbytheCommissionpursuantto20.2002.
(b)(1)Wasteoils(petroleumderivedorsyntheticoilsusedprincipallyaslubricants,coolants,hydraulicorinsulating
fluids,ormetalworkingoils)thathavebeenradioactivelycontaminatedinthecourseoftheoperationormaintenance
ofanuclearpowerreactorlicensedunderpart50ofthischaptermaybeincineratedonthesitewheregenerated
providedthatthetotalradioactiveeffluentsfromthefacility,includingtheeffluentsfromsuchincineration,conform
totherequirementsofappendixItopart50ofthischapterandtheeffluentreleaselimitscontainedinapplicable
licenseconditionsotherthaneffluentlimitsspecificallyrelatedtoincinerationofwasteoil.Thelicenseeshallreport
anychangesoradditionstotheinformationsuppliedunder50.34and50.34aofthischapterassociatedwiththis
incinerationpursuantto50.71ofthischapter,asappropriate.Thelicenseeshallalsofollowtheproceduresof
50.59ofthischapterwithrespecttosuchchangestothefacilityorprocedures.
(2)Solidresiduesproducedintheprocessofincineratingwasteoilsmustbedisposedofasprovidedby20.2001.
(3)Theprovisionsofthissectionauthorizeonsitewasteoilincinerationunderthetermsofthissectionandsupersede
anyprovisioninanindividualplantlicenseortechnicalspecificationthatmaybeinconsistent.
[57FR57656,Dec.7,1992]
zzz)
20.2005Disposalofspecificwastes.
(a)Alicenseemaydisposeofthefollowinglicensedmaterialasifitwerenotradioactive:
(1)0.05microcurie(1.85kBq),orless,ofhydrogen3orcarbon14pergramofmediumusedforliquidscintillation
counting;and
(2)0.05microcurie(1.85kBq),orless,ofhydrogen3orcarbon14pergramofanimaltissue,averagedoverthe
weightoftheentireanimal.
(b)Alicenseemaynotdisposeoftissueunderparagraph(a)(2)ofthissectioninamannerthatwouldpermititsuse
eitherasfoodforhumansorasanimalfeed.
105
(c)Thelicenseeshallmaintainrecordsinaccordancewith20.2108.
aaaa)
20.2006Transferfordisposalandmanifests.
(a)TherequirementsofthissectionandappendixGto10CFRPart20aredesignedto
(1)Controltransfersoflowlevelradioactivewastebyanywastegenerator,wastecollector,orwasteprocessor
licensee,asdefinedinthispart,whoshipslowlevelwasteeitherdirectly,orindirectlythroughawastecollectoror
wasteprocessor,toalicensedlowlevelwastelanddisposalfacility(asdefinedinPart61ofthischapter);
(2)Establishamanifesttrackingsystem;and
(3)Supplementexistingrequirementsconcerningtransfersandrecordkeepingforthosewastes.
(b)Anylicenseeshippingradioactivewasteintendedforultimatedisposalatalicensedlanddisposalfacilitymust
documenttheinformationrequiredonNRCsUniformLowLevelRadioactiveWasteManifestandtransferthis
recordedmanifestinformationtotheintendedconsigneeinaccordancewithappendixGto10CFRPart20.
(c)EachshipmentmanifestmustincludeacertificationbythewastegeneratorasspecifiedinsectionIIofappendixG
to10CFRPart20.
(d)Eachpersoninvolvedinthetransferfordisposalanddisposalofwaste,includingthewastegenerator,waste
collector,wasteprocessor,anddisposalfacilityoperator,shallcomplywiththerequirementsspecifiedinsectionIII
ofappendixGto10CFRPart20.
[63FR50128,Sept.21,1998]
bbbb)
20.2007Compliancewithenvironmentalandhealthprotectionregulations.
NothinginthissubpartrelievesthelicenseefromcomplyingwithotherapplicableFederal,State,andlocal
regulationsgoverninganyothertoxicorhazardouspropertiesofmaterialsthatmaybedisposedofunderthis
subpart.
cccc)
SubpartLRecords
dddd)
20.2101Generalprovisions.
(a)Eachlicenseeshallusetheunits:curie,rad,rem,includingmultiplesandsubdivisions,andshallclearlyindicate
theunitsofallquantitiesonrecordsrequiredbythispart.
(b)Intherecordsrequiredbythispart,thelicenseemayrecordquantitiesinSIunitsinparenthesesfollowingeachof
theunitsspecifiedinparagraph(a)ofthissection.However,allquantitiesmustberecordedasstatedinparagraph
(a)ofthissection.
(c)Notwithstandingtherequirementsofparagraph(a)ofthissection,whenrecordinginformationonshipment
manifests,asrequiredin20.2006(b),informationmustberecordedintheInternationalSystemofUnits(SI)orinSI
andunitsasspecifiedinparagraph(a)ofthissection.
106
(d)Thelicenseeshallmakeacleardistinctionamongthequantitiesenteredontherecordsrequiredbythispart(e.g.,
totaleffectivedoseequivalent,shallowdoseequivalent,lensdoseequivalent,deepdoseequivalent,committed
effectivedoseequivalent).
[56FR23404,May21,1991,asamendedat60FR15663,Mar.27,1995;63FR39483,July23,1998]
eeee)
20.2102Recordsofradiationprotectionprograms.
(a)Eachlicenseeshallmaintainrecordsoftheradiationprotectionprogram,including:
(1)Theprovisionsoftheprogram;and
(2)Auditsandotherreviewsofprogramcontentandimplementation.
(b)Thelicenseeshallretaintherecordsrequiredbyparagraph(a)(1)ofthissectionuntiltheCommissionterminates
eachpertinentlicenserequiringtherecord.Thelicenseeshallretaintherecordsrequiredbyparagraph(a)(2)ofthis
sectionfor3yearsaftertherecordismade.
ffff) 20.2103Recordsofsurveys.
(a)Eachlicenseeshallmaintainrecordsshowingtheresultsofsurveysandcalibrationsrequiredby20.1501and
20.1906(b).Thelicenseeshallretaintheserecordsfor3yearsaftertherecordismade.
(b)ThelicenseeshallretaineachofthefollowingrecordsuntiltheCommissionterminateseachpertinentlicense
requiringtherecord:
(1)Recordsoftheresultsofsurveystodeterminethedosefromexternalsourcesandused,intheabsenceoforin
combinationwithindividualmonitoringdata,intheassessmentofindividualdoseequivalents.Thisincludesthose
recordsofresultsofsurveystodeterminethedosefromexternalsourcesandused,intheabsenceoforin
combinationwithindividualmonitoringdata,intheassessmentofindividualdoseequivalentsrequiredunderthe
standardsforprotectionagainstradiationineffectpriortoJanuary1,1994;and
(2)Recordsoftheresultsofmeasurementsandcalculationsusedtodetermineindividualintakesofradioactive
materialandusedintheassessmentofinternaldose.Thisincludesthoserecordsoftheresultsofmeasurementsand
calculationsusedtodetermineindividualintakesofradioactivematerialandusedintheassessmentofinternaldose
requiredunderthestandardsforprotectionagainstradiationineffectpriortoJanuary1,1994;and
(3)Recordsshowingtheresultsofairsampling,surveys,andbioassaysrequiredpursuantto20.1703(c)(1)and(2).
Thisincludesthoserecordsshowingtheresultsofairsampling,surveys,andbioassaysrequiredunderthestandards
forprotectionagainstradiationineffectpriortoJanuary1,1994;and
(4)Recordsoftheresultsofmeasurementsandcalculationsusedtoevaluatethereleaseofradioactiveeffluentstothe
environment.Thisincludesthoserecordsoftheresultsofmeasurementsandcalculationsusedtoevaluatetherelease
ofradioactiveeffluentstotheenvironmentrequiredunderthestandardsforprotectionagainstradiationineffect
priortoJanuary1,1994.
[56FR23404,May21,1991,asamendedat60FR20185,Apr.25,1995;66FR64737,Dec.14,2001]
gggg)
20.2104Determinationofprioroccupationaldose.
107
(a)Foreachindividualwhoislikelytoreceiveinayear,anoccupationaldoserequiringmonitoringpursuantto
20.1502thelicenseeshall
(1)Determinetheoccupationalradiationdosereceivedduringthecurrentyear;and
(2)Attempttoobtaintherecordsofcumulativeoccupationalradiationdose.
(b)Priortopermittinganindividualtoparticipateinaplannedspecialexposure,thelicenseeshalldetermine
(1)Theinternalandexternaldosesfromallpreviousplannedspecialexposures;and
(2)Alldosesinexcessofthelimits(includingdosesreceivedduringaccidentsandemergencies)receivedduringthe
lifetimeoftheindividual.
(c)Incomplyingwiththerequirementsofparagraph(a)ofthissection,alicenseemay
(1)Accept,asarecordoftheoccupationaldosethattheindividualreceivedduringthecurrentyear,awrittensigned
statementfromtheindividual,orfromtheindividualsmostrecentemployerforworkinvolvingradiationexposure,
thatdisclosesthenatureandtheamountofanyoccupationaldosethattheindividualmayhavereceivedduringthe
currentyear;
(2)Accept,astherecordofcumulativeradiationdose,anuptodateNRCForm4,orequivalent,signedbythe
individualandcountersignedbyanappropriateofficialofthemostrecentemployerforworkinvolvingradiation
exposure,ortheindividualscurrentemployer(iftheindividualisnotemployedbythelicensee);and
(3)Obtainreportsoftheindividualsdoseequivalent(s)fromthemostrecentemployerforworkinvolvingradiation
exposure,ortheindividualscurrentemployer(iftheindividualisnotemployedbythelicensee)bytelephone,
telegram,electronicmedia,orletter.Thelicenseeshallrequestawrittenverificationofthedosedataifthe
authenticityofthetransmittedreportcannotbeestablished.
(d)Thelicenseeshallrecordtheexposurehistoryofeachindividual,asrequiredbyparagraph(a)ofthissection,on
NRCForm4,orotherclearandlegiblerecord,includingalloftheinformationrequiredbyNRCForm44.Theformor
recordmustshoweachperiodinwhichtheindividualreceivedoccupationalexposuretoradiationorradioactive
materialandmustbesignedbytheindividualwhoreceivedtheexposure.Foreachperiodforwhichthelicensee
obtainsreports,thelicenseeshallusethedoseshowninthereportinpreparingtheNRCForm4.Foranyperiodin
whichthelicenseedoesnotobtainareport,thelicenseeshallplaceanotationontheNRCForm4indicatingthe
periodsoftimeforwhichdataarenotavailable.
(e)Ifthelicenseeisunabletoobtainacompleterecordofanindividualscurrentandpreviouslyaccumulated
occupationaldose,thelicenseeshallassume
(1)Inestablishingadministrativecontrolsunder20.1201(f)forthecurrentyear,thattheallowabledoselimitforthe
individualisreducedby1.25rems(12.5mSv)foreachquarterforwhichrecordswereunavailableandtheindividual
wasengagedinactivitiesthatcouldhaveresultedinoccupationalradiationexposure;and
(2)Thattheindividualisnotavailableforplannedspecialexposures.
(f)ThelicenseeshallretaintherecordsonNRCForm4orequivalentuntiltheCommissionterminateseachpertinent
licenserequiringthisrecord.ThelicenseeshallretainrecordsusedinpreparingNRCForm4for3yearsafterthe
108
recordismade.Thisincludesrecordsrequiredunderthestandardsforprotectionagainstradiationineffectpriorto
January1,1994.
[56FR23404,May21,1991,asamendedat57FR57878,Dec.8,1992;60FR20186,Apr.25,1995;60FR36043,July13,
1995]
4Licenseesarenotrequiredtopartitionhistoricaldosebetweenexternaldoseequivalent(s)andinternalcommitted
doseequivalent(s).Further,occupationalexposurehistoriesobtainedandrecordedonNRCForm4beforeJanuary1,
1994,mightnothaveincludedeffectivedoseequivalent,butmaybeusedintheabsenceofspecificinformationon
theintakeofradionuclidesbytheindividual.
hhhh)
20.2105Recordsofplannedspecialexposures.
(a)Foreachuseoftheprovisionsof20.1206forplannedspecialexposures,thelicenseeshallmaintainrecordsthat
describe
(1)Theexceptionalcircumstancesrequiringtheuseofaplannedspecialexposure;and
(2)Thenameofthemanagementofficialwhoauthorizedtheplannedspecialexposureandacopyofthesigned
authorization;and
(3)Whatactionswerenecessary;and
(4)Whytheactionswerenecessary;and
(5)HowdosesweremaintainedALARA;and
(6)Whatindividualandcollectivedoseswereexpectedtoresult,andthedosesactuallyreceivedintheplanned
specialexposure.
(b)ThelicenseeshallretaintherecordsuntiltheCommissionterminateseachpertinentlicenserequiringthese
records.
iiii) 20.2106Recordsofindividualmonitoringresults.
(a)Recordkeepingrequirement.Eachlicenseeshallmaintainrecordsofdosesreceivedbyallindividualsforwhom
monitoringwasrequiredpursuantto20.1502,andrecordsofdosesreceivedduringplannedspecialexposures,
accidents,andemergencyconditions.Theserecords5mustinclude,whenapplicable
(1)Thedeepdoseequivalenttothewholebody,lensdoseequivalent,shallowdoseequivalenttotheskin,and
shallowdoseequivalenttotheextremities;
(2)Theestimatedintakeofradionuclides(see20.1202);
(3)Thecommittedeffectivedoseequivalentassignedtotheintakeofradionuclides;
(4)Thespecificinformationusedtoassessthecommittedeffectivedoseequivalentpursuantto20.1204(a)and(c),
andwhenrequiredby20.1502;
109
(5)Thetotaleffectivedoseequivalentwhenrequiredby20.1202;and
(6)Thetotalofthedeepdoseequivalentandthecommitteddosetotheorganreceivingthehighesttotaldose.
(b)Recordkeepingfrequency.Thelicenseeshallmakeentriesoftherecordsspecifiedinparagraph(a)ofthissectionat
leastannually.
(c)Recordkeepingformat.Thelicenseeshallmaintaintherecordsspecifiedinparagraph(a)ofthissectiononNRC
Form5,inaccordancewiththeinstructionsforNRCForm5,orinclearandlegiblerecordscontainingallthe
informationrequiredbyNRCForm5.
(d)Privacyprotection.Therecordsrequiredunderthissectionshouldbeprotectedfrompublicdisclosurebecauseof
theirpersonalprivacynature.TheserecordsareprotectedbymostStateprivacylawsand,whentransferredtothe
NRC,areprotectedbythePrivacyActof1974,PublicLaw93579,5U.S.C.552a,andtheCommissionsregulationsin
10CFRpart9.
(e)Thelicenseeshallmaintaintherecordsofdosetoanembryo/fetuswiththerecordsofdosetothedeclared
pregnantwoman.Thedeclarationofpregnancyshallalsobekeptonfile,butmaybemaintainedseparatelyfromthe
doserecords.
(f)ThelicenseeshallretaintherequiredformorrecorduntiltheCommissionterminateseachpertinentlicense
requiringthisrecord.Thisincludesrecordsrequiredunderthestandardsforprotectionagainstradiationineffect
priortoJanuary1,1994.
5Assessmentsofdoseequivalentandrecordsmadeusingunitsineffectbeforethelicenseesadoptionofthispart
neednotbechanged.
jjjj) 20.2107Recordsofdosetoindividualmembersofthepublic.
(a)Eachlicenseeshallmaintainrecordssufficienttodemonstratecompliancewiththedoselimitforindividual
membersofthepublic(see20.1301).
(b)Thelicenseeshallretaintherecordsrequiredbyparagraph(a)ofthissectionuntiltheCommissionterminates
eachpertinentlicenserequiringtherecord.
kkkk)
20.2108Recordsofwastedisposal.
(a)Eachlicenseeshallmaintainrecordsofthedisposaloflicensedmaterialsmadeunder20.2002,20.2003,20.2004,
20.2005,10CFRpart61anddisposalbyburialinsoil,includingburialsauthorizedbeforeJanuary28,1981.6
(b)Thelicenseeshallretaintherecordsrequiredbyparagraph(a)ofthissectionuntiltheCommissionterminates
eachpertinentlicenserequiringtherecord.Requirementsfordispositionoftheserecords,priortolicense
termination,arelocatedin30.51,40.61,70.51,and72.80foractivitieslicensedundertheseparts.
[56FR23404,May21,1991,asamendedat60FR20186,Apr.25,1995;61FR24673,May16,1996]
6Aprevious20.304permittedburialofsmallquantitiesoflicensedmaterialsinsoilbeforeJanuary28,1981,without
110
specificCommissionauthorization.
llll) 20.2109[Reserved]
mmmm) 20.2110Formofrecords.
Eachrecordrequiredbythispartmustbelegiblethroughoutthespecifiedretentionperiod.Therecordmaybethe
originalorareproducedcopyoramicroformprovidedthatthecopyormicroformisauthenticatedbyauthorized
personnelandthatthemicroformiscapableofproducingaclearcopythroughouttherequiredretentionperiod.The
recordmayalsobestoredinelectronicmediawiththecapabilityforproducinglegible,accurate,andcomplete
recordsduringtherequiredretentionperiod.Records,suchasletters,drawings,andspecifications,mustincludeall
pertinentinformation,suchasstamps,initials,andsignatures.Thelicenseeshallmaintainadequatesafeguards
againsttamperingwithandlossofrecords.
nnnn)
SubpartMReports
oooo)
20.2201Reportsoftheftorlossoflicensedmaterial.
(a)Telephonereports.(1)Eachlicenseeshallreportbytelephoneasfollows:
(i)Immediatelyafteritsoccurrencebecomesknowntothelicensee,anylost,stolen,ormissinglicensedmaterialinan
aggregatequantityequaltoorgreaterthan1,000timesthequantityspecifiedinappendixCtopart20undersuch
circumstancesthatitappearstothelicenseethatanexposurecouldresulttopersonsinunrestrictedareas;or
(ii)Within30daysaftertheoccurrenceofanylost,stolen,ormissinglicensedmaterialbecomesknowntothe
licensee,alllicensedmaterialinaquantitygreaterthan10timesthequantityspecifiedinappendixCtopart20thatis
stillmissingatthistime.
(2)Reportsmustbemadeasfollows:
(i)LicenseeshavinganinstalledEmergencyNotificationSystemshallmakethereportstotheNRCOperations
Centerinaccordancewith50.72ofthischapter,and
(ii)AllotherlicenseesshallmakereportsbytelephonetotheNRCOperationsCenter(301)8165100.
(b)Writtenreports.(1)Eachlicenseerequiredtomakeareportunderparagraph(a)ofthissectionshall,within30
daysaftermakingthetelephonereport,makeawrittenreportsettingforththefollowinginformation:
(i)Adescriptionofthelicensedmaterialinvolved,includingkind,quantity,andchemicalandphysicalform;and
(ii)Adescriptionofthecircumstancesunderwhichthelossortheftoccurred;and
(iii)Astatementofdisposition,orprobabledisposition,ofthelicensedmaterialinvolved;and
(iv)Exposuresofindividualstoradiation,circumstancesunderwhichtheexposuresoccurred,andthepossibletotal
effectivedoseequivalenttopersonsinunrestrictedareas;and
(v)Actionsthathavebeentaken,orwillbetaken,torecoverthematerial;and
111
(vi)Proceduresormeasuresthathavebeen,orwillbe,adoptedtoensureagainstarecurrenceofthelossortheftof
licensedmaterial.
(2)Reportsmustbemadeasfollows:
(i)Forholdersofanoperatinglicenseforanuclearpowerplant,theeventsincludedinparagraph(b)ofthissection
mustbereportedinaccordancewiththeproceduresdescribedin50.73(b),(c),(d),(e),and(g)ofthischapterand
mustincludetheinformationrequiredinparagraph(b)(1)ofthissection,and
(ii)AllotherlicenseesshallmakereportstotheAdministratoroftheappropriateNRCRegionalOfficelistedin
appendixDtopart20.
(c)Aduplicatereportisnotrequiredunderparagraph(b)ofthissectionifthelicenseeisalsorequiredtosubmita
reportpursuantto30.55(c),40.64(c),50.72,50.73,70.52,73.27(b),73.67(e)(3)(vii),73.67(g)(3)(iii),73.71,or150.19(c)
ofthischapter.
(d)Subsequenttofilingthewrittenreport,thelicenseeshallalsoreportanyadditionalsubstantiveinformationonthe
lossortheftwithin30daysafterthelicenseelearnsofsuchinformation.
(e)ThelicenseeshallprepareanyreportfiledwiththeCommissionpursuanttothissectionsothatnamesof
individualswhomayhavereceivedexposuretoradiationarestatedinaseparateanddetachablepartofthereport.
[56FR23406,May21,1991,asamendedat58FR69220,Dec.30,1993;60FR20186,Apr.25,1995;66FR64738,Dec.
14,2001;67FR3585,Jan.25,2002]
pppp)
20.2202Notificationofincidents.
(a)Immediatenotification.Notwithstandinganyotherrequirementsfornotification,eachlicenseeshallimmediately
reportanyeventinvolvingbyproduct,source,orspecialnuclearmaterialpossessedbythelicenseethatmayhave
causedorthreatenstocauseanyofthefollowingconditions
(1)Anindividualtoreceive
(i)Atotaleffectivedoseequivalentof25rems(0.25Sv)ormore;or
(ii)Alensdoseequivalentof75rems(0.75Sv)ormore;or
(iii)Ashallowdoseequivalenttotheskinorextremitiesof250rads(2.5Gy)ormore;or
(2)Thereleaseofradioactivematerial,insideoroutsideofarestrictedarea,sothat,hadanindividualbeenpresent
for24hours,theindividualcouldhavereceivedanintakefivetimestheannuallimitonintake(theprovisionsofthis
paragraphdonotapplytolocationswherepersonnelarenotnormallystationedduringroutineoperations,suchas
hotcellsorprocessenclosures).
(b)Twentyfourhournotification.Eachlicenseeshall,within24hoursofdiscoveryoftheevent,reportanyevent
involvinglossofcontroloflicensedmaterialpossessedbythelicenseethatmayhavecaused,orthreatenstocause,
anyofthefollowingconditions:
(1)Anindividualtoreceive,inaperiodof24hours
112
(i)Atotaleffectivedoseequivalentexceeding5rems(0.05Sv);or
(ii)Alensdoseequivalentexceeding15rems(0.15Sv);or
(iii)Ashallowdoseequivalenttotheskinorextremitiesexceeding50rems(0.5Sv);or
(2)Thereleaseofradioactivematerial,insideoroutsideofarestrictedarea,sothat,hadanindividualbeenpresent
for24hours,theindividualcouldhavereceivedanintakeinexcessofoneoccupationalannuallimitonintake(the
provisionsofthisparagraphdonotapplytolocationswherepersonnelarenotnormallystationedduringroutine
operations,suchashotcellsorprocessenclosures).
(c)ThelicenseeshallprepareanyreportfiledwiththeCommissionpursuanttothissectionsothatnamesof
individualswhohavereceivedexposuretoradiationorradioactivematerialarestatedinaseparateanddetachable
partofthereport.
(d)Reportsmadebylicenseesinresponsetotherequirementsofthissectionmustbemadeasfollows:
(1)LicenseeshavinganinstalledEmergencyNotificationSystemshallmakethereportsrequiredbyparagraphs(a)
and(b)ofthissectiontotheNRCOperationsCenterinaccordancewith10CFR50.72;and
(2)Allotherlicenseesshallmakethereportsrequiredbyparagraphs(a)and(b)ofthissectionbytelephonetothe
NRCOperationsCenter(301)8165100.
(e)Theprovisionsofthissectiondonotincludedosesthatresultfromplannedspecialexposures,thatarewithinthe
limitsforplannedspecialexposures,andthatarereportedunder20.2204.
[56FR23406,May21,1991,asamendedat56FR40766,Aug.16,1991;57FR57879,Dec.8,1992;59FR14086,Mar.25,
1994;63FR39483,July23,1998]
qqqq)
20.2203Reportsofexposures,radiationlevels,andconcentrationsofradioactive
materialexceedingtheconstraintsorlimits.
(a)Reportableevents.Inadditiontothenotificationrequiredby20.2202,eachlicenseeshallsubmitawrittenreport
within30daysafterlearningofanyofthefollowingoccurrences:
(1)Anyincidentforwhichnotificationisrequiredby20.2202;or
(2)Dosesinexcessofanyofthefollowing:
(i)Theoccupationaldoselimitsforadultsin20.1201;or
(ii)Theoccupationaldoselimitsforaminorin20.1207;or
(iii)Thelimitsforanembryo/fetusofadeclaredpregnantwomanin20.1208;or
(iv)Thelimitsforanindividualmemberofthepublicin20.1301;or
(v)Anyapplicablelimitinthelicense;or
113
(vi)TheALARAconstraintsforairemissionsestablishedunder20.1101(d);or
(3)Levelsofradiationorconcentrationsofradioactivematerialin
(i)Arestrictedareainexcessofanyapplicablelimitinthelicense;or
(ii)Anunrestrictedareainexcessof10timesanyapplicablelimitsetforthinthispartorinthelicense(whetheror
notinvolvingexposureofanyindividualinexcessofthelimitsin20.1301);or
(4)ForlicenseessubjecttotheprovisionsofEPAsgenerallyapplicableenvironmentalradiationstandardsin40CFR
part190,levelsofradiationorreleasesofradioactivematerialinexcessofthosestandards,oroflicenseconditions
relatedtothosestandards.
(b)Contentsofreports.(1)Eachreportrequiredbyparagraph(a)ofthissectionmustdescribetheextentofexposureof
individualstoradiationandradioactivematerial,including,asappropriate:
(i)Estimatesofeachindividualsdose;and
(ii)Thelevelsofradiationandconcentrationsofradioactivematerialinvolved;and
(iii)Thecauseoftheelevatedexposures,doserates,orconcentrations;and
(iv)Correctivestepstakenorplannedtoensureagainstarecurrence,includingthescheduleforachieving
conformancewithapplicablelimits,ALARAconstraints,generallyapplicableenvironmentalstandards,and
associatedlicenseconditions.
(2)Eachreportfiledpursuanttoparagraph(a)ofthissectionmustincludeforeachoccupationallyoverexposed1
individual:thename,SocialSecurityaccountnumber,anddateofbirth.Thereportmustbepreparedsothatthis
informationisstatedinaseparateanddetachablepartofthereportandmustbeclearlylabeledPrivacyAct
Information:NotforPublicDisclosure.
(c)Forholdersofanoperatinglicenseforanuclearpowerplant,theoccurrencesincludedinparagraph(a)ofthis
sectionmustbereportedinaccordancewiththeproceduresdescribedin50.73(b),(c),(d),(e),and(g)ofthischapter
andmustalsoincludetheinformationrequiredbyparagraph(b)ofthissection.Occurrencesreportedinaccordance
with50.73ofthischapterneednotbereportedbyaduplicatereportunderparagraph(a)ofthissection.
(d)Alllicensees,otherthanthoseholdinganoperatinglicenseforanuclearpowerplant,whomakereportsunder
paragraph(a)ofthissectionshallsubmitthereportinwritingeitherbymailaddressedtotheU.S.Nuclear
RegulatoryCommission,ATTN:DocumentControlDesk,Washington,DC205550001;byhanddeliverytothe
NRCsofficesat11555RockvillePike,Rockville,Maryland;or,wherepracticable,byelectronicsubmission,for
example,ElectronicInformationExchange,orCDROM.Electronicsubmissionsmustbemadeinamannerthat
enablestheNRCtoreceive,read,authenticate,distribute,andarchivethesubmission,andprocessandretrieveita
singlepageatatime.DetailedguidanceonmakingelectronicsubmissionscanbeobtainedbyvisitingtheNRCsWeb
siteathttp://www.nrc.gov/sitehelp/eie.html,bycalling(301)4156030,byemailtoEIE@nrc.gov,orbywritingtheOffice
oftheChiefInformationOfficer,U.S.NuclearRegulatoryCommission,Washington,DC205550001.Acopyshould
besenttotheappropriateNRCRegionalOfficelistedinappendixDtothispart.
[56FR23406,May21,1991,asamendedat60FR20186,Apr.25,1995;61FR65127,Dec.10,1996;68FR14309,Mar.
25,2003;68FR58802,Oct.10,2003]
114
1Withrespecttothelimitfortheembryofetus(20.1208),theidentifiersshouldbethoseofthedeclaredpregnant
woman.
rrrr)
20.2204Reportsofplannedspecialexposures.
ThelicenseeshallsubmitawrittenreporttotheAdministratoroftheappropriateNRCRegionalOfficelistedin
appendixDtopart20within30daysfollowinganyplannedspecialexposureconductedinaccordancewith
20.1206,informingtheCommissionthataplannedspecialexposurewasconductedandindicatingthedatethe
plannedspecialexposureoccurredandtheinformationrequiredby20.2105.
ssss)
20.2205Reportstoindividualsofexceedingdoselimits.
Whenalicenseeisrequired,pursuanttotheprovisionsof20.2203,20.2204,or20.2206,toreporttotheCommission
anyexposureofanidentifiedoccupationallyexposedindividual,oranidentifiedmemberofthepublic,toradiation
orradioactivematerial,thelicenseeshallalsoprovideacopyofthereportsubmittedtotheCommissiontothe
individual.ThisreportmustbetransmittedatatimenolaterthanthetransmittaltotheCommission.
[60FR36043,July13,1995]
tttt)
20.2206Reportsofindividualmonitoring.
(a)ThissectionappliestoeachpersonlicensedbytheCommissionto
(1)Operateanuclearreactordesignedtoproduceelectricalorheatenergypursuantto50.21(b)or50.22ofthis
chapteroratestingfacilityasdefinedin50.2ofthischapter;or
(2)PossessorusebyproductmaterialforpurposesofradiographypursuanttoParts30and34ofthischapter;or
(3)Possessoruseatanyonetime,forpurposesoffuelprocessing,fabricating,orreprocessing,specialnuclear
materialinaquantityexceeding5,000gramsofcontaineduranium235,uranium233,orplutonium,orany
combinationthereofpursuanttopart70ofthischapter;or
(4)Possesshighlevelradioactivewasteatageologicrepositoryoperationsareapursuanttopart60or63ofthis
chapter;or
(5)Possessspentfuelinanindependentspentfuelstorageinstallation(ISFSI)pursuanttopart72ofthischapter;or
(6)Receiveradioactivewastefromotherpersonsfordisposalunderpart61ofthischapter;or
(7)Possessoruseatanytime,forprocessingormanufacturingfordistributionpursuanttoparts30,32,33or35of
thischapter,byproductmaterialinquantitiesexceedinganyoneofthefollowingquantities:
Radionuclide
Cesium137
Quantityof
radionuclide1in
curies
1
115
Cobalt60
Gold198
100
Iodine131
Iridium192
10
Krypton85
1,000
Promethium147
Techetium99m
10
1,000
1TheCommissionmayrequireasalicensecondition,orbyrule,regulation,ororderpursuantto20.2302,reports
fromlicenseeswhoarelicensedtouseradionuclidesnotonthislist,inquantitiessufficienttocausecomparable
radiationlevels.
(b)Eachlicenseeinacategorylistedinparagraph(a)ofthissectionshallsubmitanannualreportoftheresultsof
individualmonitoringcarriedoutbythelicenseeforeachindividualforwhommonitoringwasrequiredby20.1502
duringthatyear.Thelicenseemayincludeadditionaldataforindividualsforwhommonitoringwasprovidedbut
notrequired.ThelicenseeshalluseFormNRC5orelectronicmediacontainingalltheinformationrequiredbyForm
NRC5.
(c)Thelicenseeshallfilethereportrequiredby20.2206(b),coveringtheprecedingyear,onorbeforeApril30of
eachyear.ThelicenseeshallsubmitthereporttotheREIRSProjectManagerbyanappropriatemethodlistedin
20.1007orviatheREIRSWebsiteathttp://www.reirs.com.
[56FR23406,May21,1991,asamendedat56FR32072,July15,1991;66FR5578,Nov.2,2001;68FR58802,Oct.10,
2003]
uuuu)
SubpartNExemptionsandAdditionalRequirements
vvvv)
20.2301Applicationsforexemptions.
TheCommissionmay,uponapplicationbyalicenseeoruponitsowninitiative,grantanexemptionfromthe
requirementsoftheregulationsinthispartifitdeterminestheexemptionisauthorizedbylawandwouldnotresult
inunduehazardtolifeorproperty.
wwww)
20.2302Additionalrequirements.
TheCommissionmay,byrule,regulation,ororder,imposerequirementsonalicensee,inadditiontothose
establishedintheregulationsinthispart,asitdeemsappropriateornecessarytoprotecthealthortominimize
dangertolifeorproperty.
xxxx)
SubpartOEnforcement
5. 20.2401Violations.
116
AtomicEnergyAct:
(1)Forviolationsof
(i)Sections53,57,62,63,81,82,101,103,104,107or109oftheAtomicEnergyActof1954,asamended;
(iii)Anyrule,regulation,ororderissuedpursuanttothesectionsspecifiedinparagraph(b)(1)(i)ofthissection;and
section.
(2)ForanyviolationforwhichalicensemayberevokedunderSection186oftheAtomicEnergyActof1954,as
amended.
[56FR23408,May21,1991;56FR61352,Dec.3,1991,asamendedat57FR55071,Nov.24,1992]
yyyy)
Forpurposesofsection223,alltheregulationsin20.1001through20.2402areissuedunderoneormoreofsections
161b,161i,or161o,exceptforthesectionslistedinparagraph(b)thissection.
(b)Theregulationsin20.1001through20.2402thatarenotissuedunderSections161b,161i,or161oforthe
purposesofSection223areasfollows:20.1001,20.1002,20.1003,20.1004,20.1005,20.1006,20.1007,20.1008,20.1009,
20.1405,20.1704,20.1903,20.1905,20.2002,20.2007,20.2301,20.2302,20.2401,and20.2402.
[57FR55071,Nov.24,1992]
zzzz)
AppendixAtoPart20AssignedProtectionFactorsforRespiratorsa
Operatingmode
AssignedProtection
Factors
I.AirPurifyingRespirators[Particulatebonly]c:
Filteringfacepiecedisposabled
NegativePressure
(d)
Facepiece,halfe
NegativePressure
10
Facepiece,full
NegativePressure
100
Facepiece,half
Poweredairpurifying
50
117
respirators
Facepiece,full
Poweredairpurifying
respirators
1000
Helmet/hood
Poweredairpurifying
respirators
1000
Facepiece,loosefitting
Poweredairpurifying
respirators
25
II.Atmospheresupplyingrespirators[particulate,
gasesandvaporsf]:
1.Airlinerespirator:
Facepiece,half
Demand
10
Facepiece,half
ContinuousFlow
50
Facepiece,half
PressureDemand
50
Facepiece,full
Demand
100
Facepiece,full
ContinuousFlow
1000
Facepiece,full
PressureDemand
1000
Helmet/hood
ContinuousFlow
1000
Facepiece,loosefitting
ContinuousFlow
25
Suit
ContinuousFlow
(g)
2.SelfcontainedbreathingApparatus(SCBA):
Facepiece,full
Demand
h100
Facepiece,full
PressureDemand
i10,000
Facepiece,full
Demand,Recirculating
h100
Facepiece,full
PositivePressureRecirculating i10,000
III.CombinationRespirators:
Anycombinationofairpurifyingandatmosphere
supplyingrespirators
Assignedprotectionfactorfortypeandmodeofoperation
aslistedabove.
aTheseassignedprotectionfactorsapplyonlyinarespiratoryprotectionprogramthatmeetstherequirementsofthis
Part.Theyareapplicableonlytoairborneradiologicalhazardsandmaynotbeappropriatetocircumstanceswhen
chemicalorotherrespiratoryhazardsexistinsteadof,orinadditionto,radioactivehazards.Selectionanduseof
respiratorsforsuchcircumstancesmustalsocomplywithDepartmentofLaborregulations.
RadioactivecontaminantsforwhichtheconcentrationvaluesinTable1,Column3ofAppendixBtoPart20are
basedoninternaldoseduetoinhalationmay,inaddition,presentexternalexposurehazardsathigher
concentrations.Underthesecircumstances,limitationsonoccupancymayhavetobegovernedbyexternaldose
limits.
bAirpurifyingrespiratorswithAPF<100mustbeequippedwithparticulatefiltersthatareatleast95percent
efficient.AirpurifyingrespiratorswithAPF=100mustbeequippedwithparticulatefiltersthatareatleast99
118
percentefficient.AirpurifyingrespiratorswithAPFs>100mustbeequippedwithparticulatefiltersthatareatleast
99.97percentefficient.
cThelicenseemayapplytotheCommissionfortheuseofanAPFgreaterthan1forsorbentcartridgesasprotection
againstairborneradioactivegasesandvapors(e.g.,radioiodine).
dLicenseesmaypermitindividualstousethistypeofrespiratorwhohavenotbeenmedicallyscreenedorfittested
onthedeviceprovidedthatnocreditbetakenfortheiruseinestimatingintakeordose.Itisalsorecognizedthatitis
difficulttoperformaneffectivepositiveornegativepressurepreuseusersealcheckonthistypeofdevice.Allother
respiratoryprotectionprogramrequirementslistedin20.1703apply.Anassignedprotectionfactorhasnotbeen
assignedforthesedevices.However,anAPFequalto10maybeusedifthelicenseecandemonstrateafitfactorofat
least100byuseofavalidatedorevaluated,qualitativeorquantitativefittest.
eUnderchintypeonly.NodistinctionismadeinthisAppendixbetweenelastomerichalfmaskswithreplaceable
cartridgesandthosedesignedwiththefiltermediumasanintegralpartofthefacepiece(e.g.,disposableorreusable
disposable).Bothtypesareacceptablesolongasthesealareaofthelattercontainssomesubstantialtypeofseal
enhancingmaterialsuchasrubberorplastic,thetwoormoresuspensionstrapsareadjustable,thefiltermediumisat
least95percentefficientandallotherrequirementsofthisPartaremet.
fTheassignedprotectionfactorsforgasesandvaporsarenotapplicabletoradioactivecontaminantsthatpresentan
absorptionorsubmersionhazard.Fortritiumoxidevapor,approximatelyonethirdoftheintakeoccursby
absorptionthroughtheskinsothatanoverallprotectionfactorof3isappropriatewhenatmospheresupplying
respiratorsareusedtoprotectagainsttritiumoxide.Exposuretoradioactivenoblegasesisnotconsidereda
significantrespiratoryhazard,andprotectiveactionsforthesecontaminantsshouldbebasedonexternal
(submersion)doseconsiderations.
gNoNIOSHapprovalscheduleiscurrentlyavailableforatmospheresupplyingsuits.Thisequipmentmaybeusedin
anacceptablerespiratoryprotectionprogramaslongasalltheotherminimumprogramrequirements,withthe
exceptionoffittesting,aremet(i.e.,20.1703).
hThelicenseeshouldimplementinstitutionalcontrolstoassurethatthesedevicesarenotusedinareasimmediately
dangeroustolifeorhealth(IDLH).
iThistypeofrespiratormaybeusedasanemergencydeviceinunknownconcentrationsforprotectionagainst
inhalationhazards.Externalradiationhazardsandotherlimitationstopermittedexposuresuchasskinabsorption
shallbetakenintoaccountinthesecircumstances.Thisdevicemaynotbeusedbyanyindividualwhoexperiences
perceptibleoutwardleakageofbreathinggaswhilewearingthedevice.
[64FR54558,Oct.7,1999;64FR55524,Oct.13,1999]
aaaaa)
AppendixBtoPart20AnnualLimitsonIntake(ALIs)andDerivedAir
Concentrations(DACs)ofRadionuclidesforOccupationalExposure;Effluent
Concentrations;ConcentrationsforReleasetoSewerage
Introduction
ForeachradionuclideTable1indicatesthechemicalformwhichistobeusedforselectingtheappropriateALIor
DACvalue.TheALIsandDACsforinhalationaregivenforanaerosolwithanactivitymedianaerodynamic
diameter(AMAD)of1mandforthreeclasses(D,W,Y)ofradioactivematerial,whichrefertotheirretention
119
(approximatelydays,weeksoryears)inthepulmonaryregionofthelung.Thisclassificationappliestoarangeof
clearancehalftimesoflessthan10daysforD,forWfrom10to100days,andforYgreaterthan100days.Theclass
(D,W,orY)giveninthecolumnheadedClassappliesonlytotheinhalationALIsandDACsgiveninTable1,
columns2and3.Table2providesconcentrationlimitsforairborneandliquideffluentsreleasedtothegeneral
environment.Table3providesconcentrationlimitsfordischargestosanitarysewersystems.
Notation
ThevaluesinTables1,2,and3arepresentedinthecomputerEnotation.Inthisnotationavalueof6E02
representsavalueof6x102or0.06,6E+2represents6x102or600,and6E+0represents6x100or6.
Table1Occupational
NotethatthecolumnsinTable1,ofthisappendixcaptionedOralIngestionALI,InhalationALI,andDAC,are
applicabletooccupationalexposuretoradioactivematerial.
TheALIsinthisappendixaretheannualintakesofagivenradionuclidebyReferenceManwhichwouldresultin
either(1)acommittedeffectivedoseequivalentof5rems(stochasticALI)or(2)acommitteddoseequivalentof50
remstoanorganortissue(nonstochasticALI).ThestochasticALIswerederivedtoresultinarisk,duetoirradiation
oforgansandtissues,comparabletotheriskassociatedwithdeepdoseequivalenttothewholebodyof5rems.The
derivationincludesmultiplyingthecommitteddoseequivalenttoanorganortissuebyaweightingfactor,wT.This
weightingfactoristheproportionoftheriskofstochasticeffectsresultingfromirradiationoftheorganortissue,T,
tothetotalriskofstochasticeffectswhenthewholebodyisirradiateduniformly.ThevaluesofwTarelistedunder
thedefinitionofweightingfactorin20.1003.ThenonstochasticALIswerederivedtoavoidnonstochasticeffects,
suchaspromptdamagetotissueorreductioninorganfunction.
AvalueofwT=0.06isapplicabletoeachofthefiveorgansortissuesintheremaindercategoryreceivingthehighest
doseequivalents,andthedoseequivalentsofallotherremainingtissuesmaybedisregarded.Thefollowingpartsof
theGItractstomach,smallintestine,upperlargeintestine,andlowerlargeintestinearetobetreatedasfour
separateorgans.
Notethatthedoseequivalentsforextremities(handsandforearms,feetandlowerlegs),skin,andlensoftheeyeare
notconsideredincomputingthecommittedeffectivedoseequivalent,butaresubjecttolimitsthatmustbemet
separately.
WhenanALIisdefinedbythestochasticdoselimit,thisvaluealone,isgiven.WhenanALIisdeterminedbythe
nonstochasticdoselimittoanorgan,theorganortissuetowhichthelimitappliesisshown,andtheALIforthe
stochasticlimitisshowninparentheses.(Abbreviatedorganortissuedesignationsareused:LLIwall=lowerlarge
intestinewall;St.wall=stomachwall;Bladwall=bladderwall;andBonesurf=bonesurface.)
TheuseoftheALIslistedfirst,themorelimitingofthestochasticandnonstochasticALIs,willensurethatnon
stochasticeffectsareavoidedandthattheriskofstochasticeffectsislimitedtoanacceptablylowvalue.If,ina
particularsituationinvolvingaradionuclideforwhichthenonstochasticALIislimiting,useofthatnonstochastic
ALIisconsideredundulyconservative,thelicenseemayusethestochasticALItodeterminethecommittedeffective
doseequivalent.However,thelicenseeshallalsoensurethatthe50remdoseequivalentlimitforanyorganortissue
isnotexceededbythesumoftheexternaldeepdoseequivalentplustheinternalcommitteddosetothatorgan(not
theeffectivedose).Forthecasewherethereisnoexternaldosecontribution,thiswouldbedemonstratedifthesum
ofthefractionsofthenonstochasticALIs(ALIns)thatcontributetothecommitteddoseequivalenttotheorgan
receivingthehighestdosedoesnotexceedunity(i.e.,(intake(inCi)ofeachradionuclide/ALIns)<1.0).Ifthereisan
externaldeepdoseequivalentcontributionofHdthenthissummustbelessthan1(Hd/50)insteadofbeing<1.0.
120
Thederivedairconcentration(DAC)valuesarederivedlimitsintendedtocontrolchronicoccupationalexposures.
TherelationshipbetweentheDACandtheALIisgivenby:DAC=ALI(inCi)/(2000hoursperworkingyearx60
minutes/hourx2x104mlperminute)=[ALI/2.4x109]Ci/ml,where2x104mlisthevolumeofairbreathedperminute
atworkbyReferenceManunderworkingconditionsoflightwork.
TheDACvaluesrelatetooneoftwomodesofexposure:eitherexternalsubmersionortheinternalcommitteddose
equivalentsresultingfrominhalationofradioactivematerials.Derivedairconcentrationsbaseduponsubmersionare
forimmersioninasemiinfinitecloudofuniformconcentrationandapplytoeachradionuclideseparately.
TheALIandDACvaluesrelatetoexposuretothesingleradionuclidenamed,butalsoincludecontributionsfromthe
ingrowthofanydaughterradionuclideproducedinthebodybythedecayoftheparent.However,intakesthat
includeboththeparentanddaughterradionuclidesshouldbetreatedbythegeneralmethodappropriatefor
mixtures.
ThevalueofALIandDACdonotapplydirectlywhentheindividualbothingestsandinhalesaradionuclide,when
theindividualisexposedtoamixtureofradionuclidesbyeitherinhalationoringestionorboth,orwhenthe
individualisexposedtobothinternalandexternalradiation(see20.1202).Whenanindividualisexposedto
radioactivematerialswhichfallunderseveralofthetranslocationclassifications(i.e.,ClassD,ClassW,orClassY)of
thesameradionuclide,theexposuremaybeevaluatedasifitwereamixtureofdifferentradionuclides.
ItshouldbenotedthattheclassificationofacompoundasClassD,W,orYisbasedonthechemicalformofthe
compoundanddoesnottakeintoaccounttheradiologicalhalflifeofdifferentradioisotopes.Forthisreason,values
aregivenforClassD,W,andYcompounds,evenforveryshortlivedradionuclides.
Table2
ThecolumnsinTable2ofthisappendixcaptionedEffluents,Air,andWater,areapplicabletotheassessment
andcontrolofdosetothepublic,particularlyintheimplementationoftheprovisionsof20.1302.Theconcentration
valuesgiveninColumns1and2ofTable2areequivalenttotheradionuclideconcentrationswhich,ifinhaledor
ingestedcontinuouslyoverthecourseofayear,wouldproduceatotaleffectivedoseequivalentof0.05rem(50
milliremor0.5millisieverts).
Considerationofnonstochasticlimitshasnotbeenincludedinderivingtheairandwatereffluentconcentration
limitsbecausenonstochasticeffectsarepresumednottooccuratthedoselevelsestablishedforindividualmembers
ofthepublic.Forradionuclides,wherethenonstochasticlimitwasgoverninginderivingtheoccupationalDAC,the
stochasticALIwasusedinderivingthecorrespondingairborneeffluentlimitinTable2.Forthisreason,theDAC
andairborneeffluentlimitsarenotalwaysproportionalaswasthecaseinappendixBto20.120.601.
TheairconcentrationvalueslistedinTable2,Column1,werederivedbyoneoftwomethods.Forthose
radionuclidesforwhichthestochasticlimitisgoverning,theoccupationalstochasticinhalationALIwasdividedby
2.4x109ml,relatingtheinhalationALItotheDAC,asexplainedabove,andthendividedbyafactorof300.The
factorof300includesthefollowingcomponents:afactorof50torelatethe5remannualoccupationaldoselimitto
the0.1remlimitformembersofthepublic,afactorof3toadjustforthedifferenceinexposuretimeandthe
inhalationrateforaworkerandthatformembersofthepublic;andafactorof2toadjusttheoccupationalvalues
(derivedforadults)sothattheyareapplicabletootheragegroups.
Forthoseradionuclidesforwhichsubmersion(externaldose)islimiting,theoccupationalDACinTable1,Column3,
wasdividedby219.Thefactorof219iscomposedofafactorof50,asdescribedabove,andafactorof4.38relating
occupationalexposurefor2,000hoursperyeartofulltimeexposure(8,760hoursperyear).Notethatanadditional
factorof2forageconsiderationsisnotwarrantedinthesubmersioncase.
121
ThewaterconcentrationswerederivedbytakingthemostrestrictiveoccupationalstochasticoralingestionALIand
dividingby7.3x107.Thefactorof7.3x107(ml)includesthefollowingcomponents:thefactorsof50and2described
aboveandafactorof7.3x105(ml)whichistheannualwaterintakeofReferenceMan.
Note2ofthisappendixprovidesgroupingsofradionuclideswhichareapplicabletounknownmixturesof
radionuclides.Thesegroupings(includingoccupationalinhalationALIsandDACs,airandwatereffluent
concentrationsandsewerage)requiredemonstratingthatthemostlimitingradionuclidesinsuccessiveclassesare
absent.Thelimitfortheunknownmixtureisdefinedwhenthepresenceofoneofthelistedradionuclidescannotbe
definitelyexcludedeitherfromknowledgeoftheradionuclidecompositionofthesourceorfromactual
measurements.
Table3SewerDisposal
Themonthlyaverageconcentrationsforreleasetosanitarysewersareapplicabletotheprovisionsin20.2003.The
concentrationvalueswerederivedbytakingthemostrestrictiveoccupationalstochasticoralingestionALIand
dividingby7.3x106(ml).Thefactorof7.3x106(ml)iscomposedofafactorof7.3x105(ml),theannualwaterintake
byReferenceMan,andafactorof10,suchthattheconcentrations,ifthesewagereleasedbythelicenseewerethe
onlysourceofwateringestedbyareferencemanduringayear,wouldresultinacommittedeffectivedose
equivalentof0.5rem.
[56FR23409,May21,1991;56FR61352,Dec.3,1991,asamendedat57FR57879,Dec.8,1992.Redesignatedat58FR
67659,Dec.22,1993]
bbbbb)
AppendixCtoPart20Quantities1ofLicensedMaterialRequiringLabeling
Radionuclide
Abbreviation
Quantity(Ci)
Hydrogen3
H3
1,000
Beryllium7
Be7
1,000
Beryllium10
Be10
Carbon11
C11
1,000
Carbon14
C14
100
Fluorine18
F18
1,000
Sodium22
Na22
10
Sodium24
Na24
100
Magnesium28
Mg28
100
Aluminum26
Al26
10
Silicon31
Si31
1,000
Silicon32
Si32
Phosphorus32
P32
10
Phosphorus33
P33
100
Sulfur35
S35
100
Chlorine36
Cl36
10
Chlorine38
Cl38
1,000
122
Chlorine39
Cl39
1,000
Argon39
Ar39
1,000
Argon41
Ar41
1,000
Potassium40
K40
100
Potassium42
K42
1,000
Potassium43
K43
1,000
Potassium44
K44
1,000
Potassium45
K45
1,000
Calcium41
Ca41
100
Calcium45
Ca45
100
Calcium47
Ca47
100
Scandium43
Sc43
1,000
Scandium44m
Sc44m
100
Scandium44
Sc44
100
Scandium46
Sc46
10
Scandium47
Sc47
100
Scandium48
Sc48
100
Scandium49
Sc49
1,000
Titanium44
Ti44
Titanium45
Ti45
1,000
Vanadium47
V47
1,000
Vanadium48
V48
100
Vanadium49
V49
1,000
Chromium48
Cr48
1,000
Chromium49
Cr49
1,000
Chromium51
Cr51
1,000
Manganese51
Mn51
1,000
Manganese52m
Mn52m
1,000
Manganese52
Mn52
100
Manganese53
Mn53
1,000
Manganese54
Mn54
100
Manganese56
Mn56
1,000
Iron52
Fe52
100
Iron55
Fe55
100
Iron59
Fe59
10
123
Iron60
Fe60
Cobalt55
Co55
100
Cobalt56
Co56
10
Cobalt57
Co57
100
Cobalt58m
Co58m
Cobalt58
Co58
Cobalt60m
Co60m
Cobalt60
Co60
Cobalt61
Co61
1,000
Cobalt62m
Co62m
1,000
Nickel56
Ni56
100
Nickel57
Ni57
100
Nickel59
Ni59
100
Nickel63
Ni63
100
Nickel65
Ni65
1,000
Nickel66
Ni66
10
Copper60
Cu60
1,000
Copper61
Cu61
1,000
Copper64
Cu64
1,000
Copper67
Cu67
1,000
Zinc62
Zn62
100
Zinc63
Zn63
1,000
Zinc65
Zn65
10
Zinc69m
Zn69m
Zinc69
Zn69
1,000
Zinc71m
Zn71m
1,000
Zinc72
Zn72
100
Gallium65
Ga65
1,000
Gallium66
Ga66
100
Gallium67
Ga67
1,000
Gallium68
Ga68
1,000
Gallium70
Ga70
1,000
Gallium72
Ga72
100
Gallium73
Ga73
1,000
Germanium66
Ge66
1,000
124
1,000
100
1,000
100
Germanium67
Ge67
1,000
Germanium68
Ge68
10
Germanium69
Ge69
1,000
Germanium71
Ge71
1,000
Germanium75
Ge75
1,000
Germanium77
Ge77
1,000
Germanium78
Ge78
1,000
Arsenic69
As69
1,000
Arsenic70
As70
1,000
Arsenic71
As71
100
Arsenic72
As72
100
Arsenic73
As73
100
Arsenic74
As74
100
Arsenic76
As76
100
Arsenic77
As77
100
Arsenic78
As78
1,000
Selenium70
Se70
1,000
Selenium73m
Se73m
1,000
Selenium73
Se73
100
Selenium75
Se75
100
Selenium79
Se79
100
Selenium81m
Se81m
1,000
Selenium81
Se81
1,000
Selenium83
Se83
1,000
Bromine74m
Br74m
1,000
Bromine74
Br74
1,000
Bromine75
Br75
1,000
Bromine76
Br76
100
Bromine77
Br77
1,000
Bromine80m
Br80m
1,000
Bromine80
Br80
1,000
Bromine82
Br82
100
Bromine83
Br83
1,000
Bromine84
Br84
1,000
Krypton74
Kr74
1,000
125
Krypton76
Kr76
1,000
Krypton77
Kr77
1,000
Krypton79
Kr79
1,000
Krypton81
Kr81
1,000
Krypton83m
Kr83m
1,000
Krypton85m
Kr85m
1,000
Krypton85
Kr85
1,000
Krypton87
Kr87
1,000
Krypton88
Kr88
1,000
Rubidium79
Rb79
1,000
Rubidium81m
Rb81m
1,000
Rubidium81
Rb81
1,000
Rubidium82m
Rb82m
1,000
Rubidium83
Rb83
100
Rubidium84
Rb84
100
Rubidium86
Rb86
100
Rubidium87
Rb87
100
Rubidium88
Rb88
1,000
Rubidium89
Rb89
1,000
Strontium80
Sr80
100
Strontium81
Sr81
1,000
Strontium83
Sr83
100
Strontium85m
Sr85m
Strontium85
Sr85
Strontium87m
Sr87m
Strontium89
Sr89
10
Strontium90
Sr90
0.1
Strontium91
Sr91
100
Strontium92
Sr92
100
Yttrium86m
Y86m
Yttrium86
Y86
100
Yttrium87
Y87
100
Yttrium88
Y88
10
Yttrium90m
Y90m
Yttrium90
Y90
126
1,000
100
1,000
1,000
1,000
10
Yttrium91m
Y91m
Yttrium91
Y91
10
Yttrium92
Y92
100
Yttrium93
Y93
100
Yttrium94
Y94
1,000
Yttrium95
Y95
1,000
Zirconium86
Zr86
100
Zirconium88
Zr88
10
Zirconium89
Zr89
100
Zirconium93
Zr93
Zirconium95
Zr95
10
Zirconium97
Zr97
100
Niobium88
Nb88
1,000
Niobium89m(66min)
Nb89m
1,000
Niobium89(122min)
Nb89
1,000
Niobium89
Nb89
1,000
Niobium90
Nb90
100
Niobium93m
Nb93m
Niobium94
Nb94
Niobium95m
Nb95m
100
Niobium95
Nb95
100
Niobium96
Nb96
100
Niobium97
Nb97
1,000
Niobium98
Nb98
1,000
Molybdenum90
Mo90
100
Molybdenum93m
Mo93m
100
Molybdenum93
Mo93
10
Molybdenum99
Mo99
100
Molybdenum101
Mo101
1,000
Technetium93m
Tc93m
1,000
Technetium93
Tc93
1,000
Technetium94m
Tc94m
1,000
Technetium94
Tc94
1,000
Technetium96m
Tc96
1,000
Technetium96
Tc96
100
127
1,000
10
1
Technetium97m
Tc97m
Technetium97
Tc97
1,000
Technetium98
Tc98
10
Technetium99m
Tc99m
Technetium99
Tc99
Technetium101
Tc101
1,000
Technetium104
Tc104
1,000
Ruthenium94
Ru94
1,000
Ruthenium97
Ru97
1,000
Ruthenium103
Ru103
100
Ruthenium105
Ru105
1,000
Ruthenium106
Ru106
Rhodium99m
Rh99m
Rhodium99
Rh99
100
Rhodium100
Rh100
100
Rhodium101m
Rh101m
Rhodium101
Rh101
10
Rhodium102m
Rh102m
10
Rhodium102
Rh102
10
Rhodium103m
Rh103m
Rhodium105
Rh105
Rhodium106m
Rh106m
1,000
Rhodium107
Rh107
1,000
Palladium100
Pd100
100
Palladium101
Pd101
1,000
Palladium103
Pd103
100
Palladium107
Pd107
10
Palladium109
Pd109
100
Silver102
Ag102
1,000
Silver103
Ag103
1,000
Silver104m
Ag104m
1,000
Silver104
Ag104
1,000
Silver105
Ag105
100
Silver106m
Ag106m
100
Silver106
Ag106
128
100
1,000
100
1,000
1,000
1,000
100
1,000
Silver108m
Ag108m
Silver110m
Ag110m
10
Silver111
Ag111
100
Silver112
Ag112
100
Silver115
Ag115
1,000
Cadmium104
Cd104
1,000
Cadmium107
Cd107
1,000
Cadmium109
Cd109
Cadmium113m
Cd113m
0.1
Cadmium113
Cd113
100
Cadmium115m
Cd115m
Cadmium115
Cd115
Cadmium117m
Cd117m
1,000
Cadmium117
Cd117
1,000
Indium109
In109
1,000
Indium110(69.1min.)
In110
1,000
Indium110(4.9h)
In110
1,000
Indium111
In111
100
Indium112
In112
1,000
Indium113m
In113m
1,000
Indium114m
In114m
10
Indium115m
In115m
1,000
Indium115
In115
Indium116m
In116m
1,000
Indium117m
In117m
1,000
Indium117
In117
1,000
Indium119m
In119m
1,000
Tin110
Sn110
100
Tin111
Sn111
1,000
Tin113
Sn113
100
Tin117m
Sn117m
100
Tin119m
Sn119m
100
Tin121m
Sn121m
100
Tin121
Sn121
1,000
Tin123m
Sn123m
1,000
129
10
100
100
Tin123
Sn123
10
Tin125
Sn125
10
Tin126
Sn126
10
Tin127
Sn127
1,000
Tin128
Sn128
1,000
Antimony115
Sb115
1,000
Antimony116m
Sb116m
1,000
Antimony116
Sb116
1,000
Antimony117
Sb117
1,000
Antimony118m
Ab118m
1,000
Antimony119
Ab119
1,000
Antimony120(16min.)
Ab120
1,000
Antimony120(5.76d)
Ab120
100
Antimony122
Ab122
100
Antimony124m
Ab124m
Antimony124
Ab124
10
Antimony125
Ab125
100
Antimony126m
Ab126m
Antimony126
Ab126
100
Antimony127
Ab127
100
Antimony128(10.4min.)
Ab128
1,000
Antimony128(9.01h)
Ab128
100
Antimony129
Ab129
100
Antimony130
Ab130
1,000
Antimony131
Ab131
1,000
Tellurium116
Te116
1,000
Tellurium121m
Te121m
Tellurium121
Te121
Tellurium123m
Te123m
Tellurium123
Te123
Tellurium125m
Te125m
10
Tellurium127m
Te127m
10
Tellurium127
Te127
Tellurium129m
Te129m
Tellurium129
Te129
130
1,000
1,000
10
100
10
100
1,000
10
1,000
Tellurium131m
Te131m
Tellurium131
Te131
100
Tellurium132
Te132
10
Tellurium133m
Te133m
Tellurium133
Te133
1,000
Tellurium134
Te134
1,000
Iodine120m
I120m
1,000
Iodine120
I120
100
Iodine121
I121
1,000
Iodine123
I123
100
Iodine124
I124
10
Iodine125
I125
Iodine126
I126
Iodine128
I128
1,000
Iodine129
I129
Iodine130
I130
10
Iodine131
I131
Iodine132m
I132m
100
Iodine132
I132
100
Iodine133
I133
10
Iodine134
I134
1,000
Iodine135
I135
100
Xenon120
Xe120
1,000
Xenon121
Xe121
1,000
Xenon122
Xe122
1,000
Xenon123
Xe123
1,000
Xenon125
Xe125
1,000
Xenon127
Xe127
1,000
Xenon129m
Xe129m
1,000
Xenon131m
Xe131m
1,000
Xenon133m
Xe133m
1,000
Xenon133
Xe133
1,000
Xenon135m
Xe135m
1,000
Xenon135
Xe135
1,000
Xenon138
Xe138
1,000
131
10
100
Cesium125
Cs125
1,000
Cesium127
Cs127
1,000
Cesium129
Cs129
1,000
Cesium130
Cs130
1,000
Cesium131
Cs131
1,000
Cesium132
Cs132
100
Cesium134m
Cs134m
Cesium134
Cs134
Cesium135m
Cs135m
Cesium135
Cs135
100
Cesium136
Cs136
10
Cesium137
Cs137
10
Cesium138
Cs138
1,000
Barium126
Ba126
1,000
Barium128
B128
Barium131m
Ba131m
Barium131
Ba131
100
Barium133m
Ba133m
100
Barium133
Ba133
100
Barium135m
Ba135m
100
Barium139
Ba139
1,000
Barium140
Ba140
100
Barium141
Ba141
1,000
Barium142
Ba142
1,000
Lanthanum131
La131
1,000
Lanthanum132
La132
100
Lanthanum135
La135
1,000
Lanthanum137
La137
10
Lanthanum138
La138
100
Lanthanum140
La140
100
Lanthanum141
La141
100
Lanthanum142
La142
1,000
Lanthanum143
La143
1,000
Cerium134
Ce134
100
Cerium135
Ce135
100
132
1,000
10
1,000
100
1,000
Cerium137m
Ce137m
Cerium137
Ce137
1,000
Cerium139
Ce139
100
Cerium141
Ce141
100
Cerium143
Ce143
100
Cerium144
Ce144
Praseodymium136
Pr136
1,000
Praseodymium137
Pr137
1,000
Praseodymium138m
Pe138m
1,000
Praseodymium139
Pe139
1,000
Praseodymium142m
Pe142m
1,000
Praseodymium142
Pe142
100
Praseodymium143
Pe143
100
Praseodymium144
Pe144
1,000
Praseodymium145
Pe145
100
Praseodymium147
Pe147
1,000
Neodymium136
Nd136
1,000
Neodymium138
Nd138
100
Neodymium139m
Nd139m
1,000
Neodymium139
Nd139
1,000
Neodymium141
Nd141
1,000
Neodymium147
Nd147
100
Neodymium149
Nd149
1,000
Neodymium151
Nd151
1,000
Promethium141
Pm141
1,000
Promethium143
Pm143
100
Promethium144
Pm144
10
Promethium145
Pm145
10
Promethium146
Pm146
Promethium147
Pm147
10
Promethium148m
Pm148m
10
Promethium148
Pm148
10
Promethium149
Pm149
100
Promethium150
Pm150
1,000
Promethium151
Pm151
100
133
100
Samarium141m
Sm141m
1,000
Samarium141
Sm141
1,000
Samarium142
Sm142
1,000
Samarium145
Sm145
100
Samarium146
Sm146
Samarium147
Sm147
100
Samarium151
Sm151
10
Samarium153
Sm153
100
Samarium155
Sm155
1,000
Samarium156
Sm156
1,000
Europium145
Eu145
100
Europium146
Eu146
100
Europium147
Eu147
100
Europium148
Eu148
10
Europium149
Eu149
100
Europium150(12.62h)
Eu150
100
Europium150(34.2y)
Eu150
Europium152m
Eu152m
Europium152
Eu152
Europium154
Eu154
Europium155
Eu155
10
Europium156
Eu156
100
Europium157
Eu157
100
Europium158
Eu158
1,000
Gadolinium145
Gd145
1,000
Gadolinium146
Gd146
10
Gadolinium147
Gd147
100
Gadolinium148
Gd148
0.001
Gadolinium149
Gd149
100
Gadolinium151
Gd151
10
Gadolinium152
Gd152
100
Gadolinium153
Gd153
10
Gadolinium159
Gd159
100
Terbium147
Tb147
1,000
Terbium149
Tb149
100
134
100
Terbium150
Tb150
1,000
Terbium151
Tb151
100
Terbium153
Tb153
1,000
Terbium154
Tb154
100
Terbium155
Tb155
1,000
Terbium156m(5.0h)
Tb156m
1,000
Terbium156m(24.4h)
Tb156m
1,000
Terbium156
Tb156
100
Terbium157
Tb157
10
Terbium158
Tb158
Terbium160
Tb160
10
Terbium161
Tb161
100
Dysprosium155
Dy155
1,000
Dysprosium157
Dy157
1,000
Dysprosium159
Dy159
100
Dysprosium165
Dy165
1,000
Dysprosium166
Dy166
100
Holmium155
Ho155
1,000
Holmium157
Ho157
1,000
Holmium159
Ho159
1,000
Holmium161
Ho161
1,000
Holmium162m
Ho162m
1,000
Holmium162
Ho162
1,000
Holmium164m
Hp164m
1,000
Holmium164
Ho164
1,000
Holmium166m
Ho166m
Holmium166
Ho166
100
Holmium167
Ho167
1,000
Erbium161
Er161
1,000
Erbium165
Er165
1,000
Erbium169
Er169
100
Erbium171
Er171
100
Erbium172
Er172
100
Thulium162
Tm162
1,000
Thulium166
Tm166
100
135
Thulium167
Tm167
100
Thulium170
Tm170
10
Thulium171
Tm171
10
Thulium172
Tm172
100
Thulium173
Tm173
100
Thulium175
Tm175
1,000
Ytterbium162
Yb162
1,000
Ytterbium166
Yb166
100
Ytterbium167
Yb167
1,000
Ytterbium169
Yb169
100
Ytterbium175
Yb175
100
Ytterbium177
Yb177
1,000
Ytterbium178
Yb178
1,000
Lutetium169
Lu169
100
Lutetium170
Lu170
100
Lutetium171
Lu171
100
Lutetium172
Lu172
100
Lutetium173
Lu173
10
Lutetium174m
Lu174m
10
Lutetium174
Lu174
10
Lutetium176m
Lu176m
Lutetium176
Lu176
Lutetium177m
Lu177m
Lutetium177
Lu177
Lutetium178m
Lu178m
1,000
Lutetium178
Lu178
1,000
Lutetium179
Lu179
1,000
Hafnium170
Hf170
100
Hafnium172
Hf172
Hafnium173
Hf173
1,000
Hafnium175
Hf175
100
Hafnium177m
Hf177m
1,000
Hafnium178m
Hf178m
0.1
Hafnium179m
Hf179m
10
Hafnium180m
Hf180m
1,000
136
1,000
100
10
100
Hafnium181
Hf181
Hafnium182m
Hf182m
Hafnium182
Hf182
0.1
Hafnium183
Hf183
1,000
Hafnium184
Hf184
100
Tantalum172
Ta172
1,000
Tantalum173
Ta173
1,000
Tantalum174
Ta174
1,000
Tantalum175
Ta175
1,000
Tantalum176
Ta176
100
Tantalum177
Ta177
1,000
Tantalum178
Ta178
1,000
Tantalum179
Ta179
100
Tantalum180m
Ta180m
Tantalum180
Ta180
Tantalum182m
Ta182m
Tantalum182
Ta182
10
Tantalum183
Ta183
100
Tantalum184
Ta184
100
Tantalum185
Ta185
1,000
Tantalum186
Ta186
1,000
Tungsten176
W176
1,000
Tungsten177
W177
1,000
Tungsten178
W178
1,000
Tungsten179
W179
1,000
Tungsten181
W181
1,000
Tungsten185
W185
100
Tungsten187
W187
100
Tungsten188
W188
10
Rhenium177
Re177
1,000
Rhenium178
Re178
1,000
Rhenium181
Re181
1,000
Rhenium182(12.7h)
Re182
1,000
Rhenium182(64.0h)
Re182
100
Rhenium184m
Re184m
137
10
1,000
1,000
100
1,000
10
Rhenium184
Re184
Rhenium186m
Re186m
Rhenium186
Re186
100
Rhenium187
Re187
1,000
Rhenium188m
Re188m
1,000
Rhenium188
Re188
100
Rhenium189
Re189
100
Osmium180
Os180
1,000
Osmium181
Os181
1,000
Osmium182
Os182
100
Osmium185
Os185
100
Osmium189m
Os189m
1,000
Osmium191m
Os191m
1,000
Osmium191
Os191
100
Osmium193
Os193
100
Osmium194
Os194
Iridium182
Ir182
1,000
Iridium184
Ir184
1,000
Iridium185
Ir185
1,000
Iridium186
Ir186
100
Iridium187
Ir187
1,000
Iridium188
Ir188
100
Iridium189
Ir189
100
Iridium190m
Ir190m
Iridium190
Ir190
100
Iridium192(73.8d)
Ir192
Iridium192m(1.4min.)
Ir192m
10
Iridium194m
Ir194m
10
Iridium194
Ir194
Iridium195m
Ir195m
1,000
Iridium195
Ir95
1,000
Platinum186
Pt186
1,000
Platinum188
Pt188
100
Platinum189
Pt189
1,000
Platinum191
Pt191
100
138
100
10
1,000
100
Platinum193m
Pt193m
Platinum193
Pt193
Platinum195m
Pt195m
100
Platinum197m
Pt197m
1,000
Platinum197
Pt197
100
Platinum199
Pt199
1,000
Platinum200
Pt200
100
Gold193
Au193
1,000
Gold194
Au194
100
Gold195
Au195
10
Gold198m
Au198m
100
Gold198
Au198
100
Gold199
Au199
100
Gold200m
Au200m
100
Gold200
Au200
1,000
Gold201
Au201
1,000
Mercury193m
Hg193m
Mercury193
Hg193
1,000
Mercury194
Hg194
Mercury195m
Hg195m
Mercury195
Hg195
Mercury197m
Hg197m
Mercury197
Hg197
1,000
Mercury199m
Hg199m
1,000
Mercury203
Hg203
Thallium194m
Tl194m
1,000
Thallium194
Tl194
1,000
Thallium195
Tl195
1,000
Thallium197
Tl197
1,000
Thallium198m
Tl198m
1,000
Thallium198
Tl198
1,000
Thallium199
Tl199
1,000
Thallium200
Tl200
1,000
Thallium201
Tl201
1,000
Thallium202
Tl202
100
139
100
1,000
100
100
1,000
100
100
Thallium204
Tl204
Lead195m
Pb195m
1,000
Lead198
Pb198
1,000
Lead199
Pb199
1,000
Lead200
Pb200
100
Lead201
Pb201
1,000
Lead202m
Pb202m
1,000
Lead202
Pb202
Lead203
Pb2023
Lead205
Pb205
100
Lead209
Pb209
1,000
Lead210
Pb210
0.01
Lead211
Pb211
100
Lead212
Pb212
Lead214
Pb214
100
Bismuth200
Bi200
1,000
Bismuth201
Bi201
1,000
Bismuth202
Bi202
1,000
Bismuth203
Bi203
100
Bismuth205
Bi205
100
Bismuth206
Bi206
100
Bismuth207
Bi207
10
Bismuth210m
Bi210m
0.1
Bismuth210
Bi210
Bismuth212
Bi212
10
Bismuth213
Bi213
10
Bismuth214
Bi214
100
Polonium203
Po203
1,000
Polonium205
Po205
1,000
Polonium207
Po207
1,000
Polonium210
Po210
0.1
Astatine207
At207
100
Astatine211
At211
10
Radon220
Rn220
Radon222
Rn222
140
100
10
1,000
Francium222
Fr222
100
Francium223
Fr223
100
Radium223
Ra223
0.1
Radium224
Ra224
0.1
Radium225
Ra225
0.1
Radium226
Ra226
0.1
Radium227
Ra227
1,000
Radium228
Ra228
0.1
Actinium224
Ac224
Actinium225
Ac225
0.01
Actinium226
Ac226
0.1
Actinium227
Ac227
0.001
Actinium228
Ac228
Thorium226
Th226
10
Thorium227
Th227
0.01
Thorium228
Th228
0.001
Thorium229
Th229
0.001
Thorium230
Th230
0.001
Thorium231
Th231
100
Thorium232
Th232
100
Thorium234
Th234
10
Thoriumnatural
Protactinium227
Pa227
10
Protactinium228
Pa228
Protactinium230
Pa230
0.01
Protactinium231
Pa231
0.001
Protactinium232
Pa232
Protactinium233
Pa233
100
Protactinium234
Pa234
100
Uranium230
U230
0.01
Uranium231
U231
100
Uranium232
U232
0.001
Uranium233
U233
0.001
Uranium234
U234
0.001
Uranium235
U235
0.001
141
100
Uranium236
U236
0.001
Uranium237
U237
100
Uranium238
U238
100
Uranium239
U239
1,000
Uranium240
U240
100
Uraniumnatural
100
Neptunium232
Np232
100
Neptunium233
Np233
1,000
Neptunium234
Np234
100
Neptunium235
Np235
100
Neptunium236(1.15x105y)
Np236
0.001
Neptunium236(22.5h)
Np236
Neptunium237
Np237
0.001
Neptunium238
Np238
10
Neptunium239
Np239
100
Neptunium240
Np240
1,000
Plutonium234
Pu234
10
Plutonium235
Pu235
1,000
Plutonium236
Pu236
0.001
Plutonium237
Pu237
100
Plutonium238
Pu238
0.001
Plutonium239
Pu239
0.001
Plutonium240
Pu240
0.001
Plutonium241
Pu241
0.01
Plutonium242
Pu242
0.001
Plutonium243
Pu243
1,000
Plutonium244
Pu244
0.001
Plutonium245
Pu245
100
Americium237
Am237
1,000
Americium238
Am238
100
Americium239
Am239
1,000
Americium240
Am240
100
Americium241
Am241
0.001
Americium242m
Am242m
0.001
Americium242
Am242
142
10
Americium243
Am243
Americium244m
Am244m
Americium244
Am244
10
Americium245
Am245
1,000
Americium246m
Am246
1,000
Americium246
Am246
1,000
Curium238
Cm238
100
Curium240
Cm240
0.1
Curium241
Cm241
Curium242
Cm242
0.01
Curium243
Cm243
0.001
Curium244
Cm244
0.001
Curium245
Cm245
0.001
Curium246
Cm246
0.001
Curium247
Cm247
0.001
Curium248
Cm248
0.001
Curium249
Cm249
1,000
Berkelium245
Bk245
100
Berkelium246
Bk246
100
Berkelium247
Bk247
0.001
Berkelium249
Bk249
0.1
Berkelium250
Bk250
10
Californium244
Cf244
100
Californium246
Cf246
Californium248
Cf248
0.01
Californium249
Cf249
0.001
Californium250
Cf250
0.001
Californium251
Cf251
0.001
Californium252
Cf252
0.001
Californium253
Cf253
0.1
Californium254
Cf254
0.001
Anyalphaemittingradionuclidenotlistedaboveor
mixturesoralphaemittersofunknowncomposition
0.001
Einsteinium250
Es250
100
Einsteinium251
Es251
100
143
0.001
100
Einsteinium253
Es253
0.1
Einsteinium254m
Es254m
Einsteinium254
Es254
Fermium252
Fm252
Fermium253
Fm253
Fermium254
Fm254
10
Fermium255
Fm255
Fermium257
Fm257
0.01
Mendelevium257
Md257
10
Mendelevium258
Md258
0.01
Anyradionuclideotherthanalphaemitterradionuclides
notlistedabove,ormixturesofbetaemittersofunknown
composition
0.01
1
0.01
1Thequantitieslistedabovewerederivedbytaking1/10thofthemostrestrictiveALIlistedintable1,columns1and
2,ofappendixBto20.100120.2401ofthispart,roundingtothenearestfactorof10,andarbitrarilyconstraining
thevalueslistedbetween0.001and1,000Ci.Valuesof100Cihavebeenassignedforradionuclideshavinga
radioactivehalflifeinexcessof109years(exceptrhenium,1000Ci)totakeintoaccounttheirlowspecificactivity.
NOTE:Forpurposesof20.1902(e),20.1905(a),and20.2201(a)wherethereisinvolvedacombinationof
radionuclidesinknownamounts,thelimitforthecombinationshouldbederivedasfollows:determine,foreach
radionuclideinthecombination,theratiobetweenthequantitypresentinthecombinationandthelimitotherwise
establishedforthespecificradionuclidewhennotincombination.Thesumofsuchratiosforallradionuclidesinthe
combinationmaynotexceed1(i.e.,unity).
[56FR23465,May21,1991;56FR61352,Dec.3,1991.Redesignatedandamendedat58FR67659,Dec.22,1993;60FR
20186,Apr.25,1995]
ccccc)
APPENDIXDTOPART20UNITEDSTATESNUCLEARREGULATORY
COMMISSIONREGIONALOFFICES
Region
Address
Telephone(24hour)
EMail
NRCHeadquartersOperationsCenter
USNRC,Divisionof
IncidentReponse
Operations,
Washington,DC
205550001
RegionI:Connecticut,Delaware,
DistrictofColumbia,Maine,Maryland,
Massachusetts,NewHampshire,New
Jersey,NewYork,Pennsylvania,Rhode
Island,andVermont.
USNRC,RegionI,475 (610)3375000,
RidsRgn1MailCenter@nrc.gov
AllendaleRoad,King (800)4321156
ofPrussia,PA19406 TDD:(301)4155575
1415.
RegionII:Alabama,Florida,Georgia,
USNRC,RegionII,
Kentucky,Mississippi,NorthCarolina, SamNunnAtlanta
144
(301)8165100
(301)9510550
(301)8165151(fax)
(404)5624400,
(800)8778510
H001@nrc.gov
PuertoRico,SouthCarolina,Tennessee, FederalCenter,Suite
Virginia,VirginIslands,andWest
23T85,61Forsyth
Virginia.
Street,SW,Atlanta,
GA303038931.
TDD:(301)4155575
RegionIII:Illinois,Indiana,Iowa,
Michigan,Minnesota,Missouri,Ohio,
andWisconsin.
USNRC,RegionIII,
(630)8299500
801WarrenvilleRoad, (800)5223025
Lisle,IL605324351. TDD:(301)4155575
RegionIV:Alaska,Arizona,Arkansas,
California,Colorado,Hawaii,Idaho,
Kansas,Louisiana,Montana,Nebraska,
Nevada,NewMexico,NorthDakota,
Oklahoma,Oregon,SouthDakota,
Texas,Utah,Washington,Wyoming,
andtheU.S.territoriesandpossessions
inthePacific.
USNRC,RegionIV,
(817)8608100
611RyanPlazaDrive, (800)9529677
Suite400,Arlington, TDD:(301)4155575
TX760114005.
[56FR23468,May21,1991,asamendedat56FR41449,Aug.21,1991;58FR64111,Dec.6,1993;59FR17465,Apr.13,
1994;60FR24551,May9,1995;62FR22880,Apr.28,1997;67FR67099,Nov.4,2002;67FR77652,Dec.19,2002;68
FR58802,Oct.10,2003]
ddddd)
AppendixEtoPart20[Reserved]
eeeee)
AppendixFtoPart20[Reserved]
fffff)
AppendixGtoPart20RequirementsforTransfersofLowLevelRadioactive
WasteIntendedforDisposalatLicensedLandDisposalFacilitiesandManifests
I.Manifest
Awastegenerator,collector,orprocessorwhotransports,oroffersfortransportation,lowlevelradioactivewaste
intendedforultimatedisposalatalicensedlowlevelradioactivewastelanddisposalfacilitymustprepareaManifest
(OMBControlNumbers31500164,0165,and0166)reflectinginformationrequestedonapplicableNRCForms540
(UniformLowLevelRadioactiveWasteManifest(ShippingPaper))and541(UniformLowLevelRadioactiveWaste
Manifest(ContainerandWasteDescription))and,ifnecessary,onanapplicableNRCForm542(UniformLowLevel
RadioactiveWasteManifest(ManifestIndexandRegionalCompactTabulation)).NRCForms540and540Amustbe
completedandmustphysicallyaccompanythepertinentlowlevelwasteshipment.Uponagreementbetween
shipperandconsignee,NRCForms541and541Aand542and542Amaybecompleted,transmitted,andstoredin
electronicmediawiththecapabilityforproducinglegible,accurate,andcompleterecordsontherespectiveforms.
LicenseesarenotrequiredbyNRCtocomplywiththemanifestingrequirementsofthispartwhentheyship:
(a)LLWforprocessingandexpectitsreturn(i.e.,forstorageundertheirlicense)priortodisposalatalicensedland
disposalfacility;
(b)LLWthatisbeingreturnedtothelicenseewhoisthewastegeneratororgenerator,asdefinedinthispart;or
(c)Radioactivelycontaminatedmaterialtoawasteprocessorthatbecomestheprocessorsresidualwaste.
Forguidanceincompletingtheseforms,refertotheinstructionsthataccompanytheforms.Copiesofmanifests
requiredbythisappendixmaybelegiblecarboncopies,photocopies,orcomputerprintoutsthatreproducethedata
intheformatoftheuniformmanifest.
145
NRCForms540,540A,541,541A,542and542A,andtheaccompanyinginstructions,inhardcopy,maybeobtained
bywritingorcallingtheOfficeoftheChiefInformationOfficer,U.S.NuclearRegulatoryCommission,Washington,
DC205550001,telephone(301)4155877,orbyvisitingtheNRCsWebsiteathttp://www.nrc.govandselectingforms
fromtheindexfoundonthehomepage.
ThisappendixincludesinformationrequirementsoftheDepartmentofTransportation,ascodifiedin49CFRpart
172.Informationonhazardous,medical,orotherwaste,requiredtomeetEnvironmentalProtectionAgency
regulations,ascodifiedin40CFRparts259,261orelsewhere,isnotaddressedinthissection,andmustbeprovided
ontherequiredEPAforms.However,therequiredEPAformsmustaccompanytheUniformLowLevelRadioactive
WasteManifestrequiredbythischapter.
Asusedinthisappendix,thefollowingdefinitionsapply:
Chelatingagenthasthesamemeaningasthatgivenin61.2ofthischapter.
Chemicaldescriptionmeansadescriptionoftheprincipalchemicalcharacteristicsofalowlevelradioactivewaste.
Computerreadablemediummeansthattheregulatoryagencyscomputercantransfertheinformationfromthe
mediumintoitsmemory.
Consigneemeansthedesignatedreceiveroftheshipmentoflowlevelradioactivewaste.
DecontaminationfacilitymeansafacilityoperatingunderaCommissionorAgreementStatelicensewhoseprincipal
purposeisdecontaminationofequipmentormaterialstoaccomplishrecycle,reuse,orotherwastemanagement
objectives,and,forpurposesofthispart,isnotconsideredtobeaconsigneeforLLWshipments.
Disposalcontainermeansacontainerprincipallyusedtoconfinelowlevelradioactivewasteduringdisposal
operationsatalanddisposalfacility(alsoseehighintegritycontainer).Notethatforsomeshipments,thedisposal
containermaybethetransportpackage.
EPAidentificationnumbermeansthenumberreceivedbyatransporterfollowingapplicationtotheAdministratorof
EPAasrequiredby40CFRpart263.
GeneratormeansalicenseeoperatingunderaCommissionorAgreementStatelicensewho(1)isawastegeneratoras
definedinthispart,or(2)isthelicenseetowhomwastecanbeattributedwithinthecontextoftheLowLevel
RadioactiveWastePolicyAmendmentsActof1985(e.g.,wastegeneratedasaresultofdecontaminationorrecycle
activities).
Highintegritycontainer(HIC)meansacontainercommonlydesignedtomeetthestructuralstabilityrequirementsof
61.56ofthischapter,andtomeetDepartmentofTransportationrequirementsforaTypeApackage.
Landdisposalfacilityhasthesamemeaningasthatgivenin61.2ofthischapter.
NRCForms540,540A,541,541A,542,and542AareofficialNRCFormsreferencedinthisappendix.Licenseesneed
notuseoriginalsoftheseNRCFormsaslongasanysubstituteformsareequivalenttotheoriginaldocumentationin
respecttocontent,clarity,size,andlocationofinformation.Uponagreementbetweentheshipperandconsignee,
NRCForms541(and541A)andNRCForms542(and542A)maybecompleted,transmitted,andstoredinelectronic
media.Theelectronicmediamusthavethecapabilityforproducinglegible,accurate,andcompleterecordsinthe
formatoftheuniformmanifest.
146
PackagemeanstheassemblyofcomponentsnecessarytoensurecompliancewiththepackagingrequirementsofDOT
regulations,togetherwithitsradioactivecontents,aspresentedfortransport.
PhysicaldescriptionmeanstheitemscalledforonNRCForm541todescribealowlevelradioactivewaste.
Residualwastemeanslowlevelradioactivewasteresultingfromprocessingordecontaminationactivitiesthatcannot
beeasilyseparatedintodistinctbatchesattributabletospecificwastegenerators.Thiswasteisattributabletothe
processorordecontaminationfacility,asapplicable.
Shippermeansthelicensedentity(i.e.,thewastegenerator,wastecollector,orwasteprocessor)whoofferslowlevel
radioactivewastefortransportation,typicallyconsigningthistypeofwastetoalicensedwastecollector,waste
processor,orlanddisposalfacilityoperator.
ShippingpapermeansNRCForm540and,ifrequired,NRCForm540Awhichincludestheinformationrequiredby
DOTin49CFRpart172.
Sourcematerialhasthesamemeaningasthatgivenin40.4ofthischapter.
Specialnuclearmaterialhasthesamemeaningasthatgivenin70.4ofthischapter.
UniformLowLevelRadioactiveWasteManifestoruniformmanifestmeansthecombinationofNRCForms540,541,and,
ifnecessary,542,andtheirrespectivecontinuationsheetsasneeded,orequivalent.
Wastecollectormeansanentity,operatingunderaCommissionorAgreementStatelicense,whoseprincipalpurpose
istocollectandconsolidatewastegeneratedbyothers,andtotransferthiswaste,withoutprocessingorrepackaging
thecollectedwaste,toanotherlicensedwastecollector,licensedwasteprocessor,orlicensedlanddisposalfacility.
Wastedescriptionmeansthephysical,chemicalandradiologicaldescriptionofalowlevelradioactivewasteascalled
foronNRCForm541.
Wastegeneratormeansanentity,operatingunderaCommissionorAgreementStatelicense,who(1)possessesany
materialorcomponentthatcontainsradioactivityorisradioactivelycontaminatedforwhichthelicenseeforeseesno
furtheruse,and(2)transfersthismaterialorcomponenttoalicensedlanddisposalfacilityortoalicensedwaste
collectororprocessorforhandlingortreatmentpriortodisposal.Alicenseeperformingprocessingor
decontaminationservicesmaybeawastegeneratorifthetransferoflowlevelradioactivewastefromitsfacilityis
definedasresidualwaste.
Wasteprocessormeansanentity,operatingunderaCommissionorAgreementStatelicense,whoseprincipalpurpose
istoprocess,repackage,orotherwisetreatlowlevelradioactivematerialorwastegeneratedbyotherspriorto
eventualtransferofwastetoalicensedlowlevelradioactivewastelanddisposalfacility.
Wastetypemeansawastewithinadisposalcontainerhavingauniquephysicaldescription(i.e.,aspecificwaste
descriptorcodeordescription;orawastesorbedonorsolidifiedinaspecificallydefinedmedia).
InformationRequirements
A.GeneralInformation
Theshipperoftheradioactivewaste,shallprovidethefollowinginformationontheuniformmanifest:
147
1.Thename,facilityaddress,andtelephonenumberofthelicenseeshippingthewaste;
2.Anexplicitdeclarationindicatingwhethertheshipperisactingasawastegenerator,collector,processor,ora
combinationoftheseidentifiersforpurposesofthemanifestedshipment;and
3.Thename,address,andtelephonenumber,orthenameandEPAidentificationnumberforthecarriertransporting
thewaste.
B.ShipmentInformation
Theshipperoftheradioactivewasteshallprovidethefollowinginformationregardingthewasteshipmentonthe
uniformmanifest:
1.Thedateofthewasteshipment;
2.Thetotalnumberofpackages/disposalcontainers;
3.Thetotaldisposalvolumeanddisposalweightintheshipment;
4.Thetotalradionuclideactivityintheshipment;
5.TheactivityofeachoftheradionuclidesH3,C14,Tc99,andI129containedintheshipment;and
6.ThetotalmassesofU233,U235,andplutoniuminspecialnuclearmaterial,andthetotalmassofuraniumand
thoriuminsourcematerial.
C.DisposalContainerandWasteInformation
Theshipperoftheradioactivewasteshallprovidethefollowinginformationontheuniformmanifestregardingthe
wasteandeachdisposalcontainerofwasteintheshipment:
1.Analphabeticornumericidentificationthatuniquelyidentifieseachdisposalcontainerintheshipment;
2.Aphysicaldescriptionofthedisposalcontainer,includingthemanufacturerandmodelofanyhighintegrity
container;
3.Thevolumedisplacedbythedisposalcontainer;
4.Thegrossweightofthedisposalcontainer,includingthewaste;
5.Forwasteconsignedtoadisposalfacility,themaximumradiationlevelatthesurfaceofeachdisposalcontainer;
6.Aphysicalandchemicaldescriptionofthewaste;
7.Thetotalweightpercentageofchelatingagentforanywastecontainingmorethan0.1%chelatingagentbyweight,
plustheidentityoftheprincipalchelatingagent;
8.Theapproximatevolumeofwastewithinacontainer;
148
9.Thesorbingorsolidificationmedia,ifany,andtheidentityofthesolidificationmediavendorandbrandname;
10.Theidentitiesandactivitiesofindividualradionuclidescontainedineachcontainer,themassesofU233,U235,
andplutoniuminspecialnuclearmaterial,andthemassesofuraniumandthoriuminsourcematerial.Fordiscrete
wastetypes(i.e.,activatedmaterials,contaminatedequipment,mechanicalfilters,sealedsource/devices,andwastes
insolidification/stabilizationmedia),theidentitiesandactivitiesofindividualradionuclidesassociatedwithor
containedonthesewastetypeswithinadisposalcontainershallbereported;
11.Thetotalradioactivitywithineachcontainer;and
12.Forwastesconsignedtoadisposalfacility,theclassificationofthewastepursuantto61.55ofthischapter.Waste
notmeetingthestructuralstabilityrequirementsof61.56(b)ofthischaptermustbeidentified.
D.UncontainerizedWasteInformation
Theshipperoftheradioactivewasteshallprovidethefollowinginformationontheuniformmanifestregardinga
wasteshipmentdeliveredwithoutadisposalcontainer:
1.Theapproximatevolumeandweightofthewaste;
2.Aphysicalandchemicaldescriptionofthewaste;
3.Thetotalweightpercentageofchelatingagentifthechelatingagentexceeds0.1%byweight,plustheidentityof
theprincipalchelatingagent;
4.Forwasteconsignedtoadisposalfacility,theclassificationofthewastepursuantto61.55ofthischapter.Waste
notmeetingthestructuralstabilityrequirementsof61.56(b)ofthischaptermustbeidentified;
5.Theidentitiesandactivitiesofindividualradionuclidescontainedinthewaste,themassesofU233,U235,and
plutoniuminspecialnuclearmaterial,andthemassesofuraniumandthoriuminsourcematerial;and
6.Forwastesconsignedtoadisposalfacility,themaximumradiationlevelsatthesurfaceofthewaste.
E.MultiGeneratorDisposalContainerInformation
Thissectionappliestodisposalcontainersenclosingmixturesofwasteoriginatingfromdifferentgenerators.(Note:
TheoriginoftheLLWresultingfromaprocessorsactivitiesmaybeattributabletooneormoregenerators
(includingwastegenerators)asdefinedinthispart).Italsoappliestomixturesofwastesshippedinan
uncontainerizedform,forwhichportionsofthemixturewithintheshipmentoriginatefromdifferentgenerators.
1.Forhomogeneousmixturesofwaste,suchasincineratorash,providethewastedescriptionapplicabletothe
mixtureandthevolumeofthewasteattributedtoeachgenerator.
2.Forheterogeneousmixturesofwaste,suchasthecombinedproductsfromalargecompactor,identifyeach
generatorcontributingwastetothedisposalcontainer,and,fordiscretewastetypes(i.e.,activatedmaterials,
contaminatedequipment,mechanicalfilters,sealedsource/devices,andwastesinsolidification/stabilizationmedia),
theidentitiesandactivitiesofindividualradionuclidescontainedonthesewastetypeswithinthedisposalcontainer.
Foreachgenerator,providethefollowing:
(a)Thevolumeofwastewithinthedisposalcontainer;
149
(b)Aphysicalandchemicaldescriptionofthewaste,includingthesolidificationagent,ifany;
(c)Thetotalweightpercentageofchelatingagentsforanydisposalcontainercontainingmorethan0.1%chelating
agentbyweight,plustheidentityoftheprincipalchelatingagent;
(d)Thesorbingorsolidificationmedia,ifany,andtheidentityofthesolidificationmediavendorandbrandnameif
themediaisclaimedtomeetstabilityrequirementsin10CFR61.56(b);and
(e)Radionuclideidentitiesandactivitiescontainedinthewaste,themassesofU233,U235,andplutoniuminspecial
nuclearmaterial,andthemassesofuraniumandthoriuminsourcematerialifcontainedinthewaste.
II.Certification
Anauthorizedrepresentativeofthewastegenerator,processor,orcollectorshallcertifybysigninganddatingthe
shipmentmanifestthatthetransportedmaterialsareproperlyclassified,described,packaged,marked,andlabeled
andareinproperconditionfortransportationaccordingtotheapplicableregulationsoftheDepartmentof
TransportationandtheCommission.Acollectorinsigningthecertificationiscertifyingthatnothinghasbeendoneto
thecollectedwastewhichwouldinvalidatethewastegeneratorscertification.
III.ControlandTracking
A.Anylicenseewhotransfersradioactivewastetoalanddisposalfacilityoralicensedwastecollectorshallcomply
withtherequirementsinparagraphsA.1through9ofthissection.Anylicenseewhotransferswastetoalicensed
wasteprocessorforwastetreatmentorrepackagingshallcomplywiththerequirementsofparagraphsA.4through9
ofthissection.Alicenseeshall:
1.Prepareallwastessothatthewasteisclassifiedaccordingto61.55andmeetsthewastecharacteristics
requirementsin61.56ofthischapter;
2.Labeleachdisposalcontainer(ortransportpackageifpotentialradiationhazardsprecludelabelingofthe
individualdisposalcontainer)ofwastetoidentifywhetheritisClassAwaste,ClassBwaste,ClassCwaste,or
greaterthenClassCwaste,inaccordancewith61.55ofthischapter;
3.Conductaqualityassuranceprogramtoassurecompliancewith61.55and61.56ofthischapter(theprogram
mustincludemanagementevaluationofaudits);
4.PreparetheNRCUniformLowLevelRadioactiveWasteManifestasrequiredbythisappendix;
5.ForwardacopyorelectronicallytransfertheUniformLowLevelRadioactiveWasteManifesttotheintended
consigneesothateither(i)receiptofthemanifestprecedestheLLWshipmentor(ii)themanifestisdeliveredtothe
consigneewiththewasteatthetimethewasteistransferredtotheconsignee.Usingboth(i)and(ii)isalso
acceptable;
6.IncludeNRCForm540(andNRCForm540A,ifrequired)withtheshipmentregardlessoftheoptionchosenin
paragraphA.5ofthissection;
7.ReceiveacknowledgementofthereceiptoftheshipmentintheformofasignedcopyofNRCForm540;
8.RetainacopyoforelectronicallystoretheUniformLowLevelRadioactiveWasteManifestanddocumentationof
acknowledgementofreceiptastherecordoftransferoflicensedmaterialasrequiredby10CFRParts30,40,and70
150
ofthischapter;and
9.Foranyshipmentsoranypartofashipmentforwhichacknowledgementofreceipthasnotbeenreceivedwithin
thetimessetforthinthisappendix,conductaninvestigationinaccordancewithparagraphEofthisappendix.
B.Anywastecollectorlicenseewhohandlesonlyprepackagedwasteshall:
1.AcknowledgereceiptofthewastefromtheshipperwithinoneweekofreceiptbyreturningasignedcopyofNRC
Form540;
2.Prepareanewmanifesttoreflectconsolidatedshipmentsthatmeettherequirementsofthisappendix.Thewaste
collectorshallensurethat,foreachcontainerofwasteintheshipment,themanifestidentifiesthegeneratorofthat
containerofwaste;
consigneesothateither:(i)ReceiptofthemanifestprecedestheLLWshipmentor(ii)themanifestisdeliveredtothe
acceptable;
paragraphB.3ofthissection;
acknowledgementofreceiptastherecordoftransferoflicensedmaterialasrequiredby10CFRparts30,40,and70
ofthischapter;
7.Foranyshipmentsoranypartofashipmentforwhichacknowledgementofreceipthasnotbeenreceivedwithin
thetimessetforthinthisappendix,conductaninvestigationinaccordancewithparagraphEofthisappendix;and
8.NotifytheshipperandtheAdministratorofthenearestCommissionRegionalOfficelistedinappendixDofthis
partwhenanyshipment,orpartofashipment,hasnotarrivedwithin60daysafterreceiptofanadvancemanifest,
unlessnotifiedbytheshipperthattheshipmenthasbeencancelled.
C.Anylicensedwasteprocessorwhotreatsorrepackageswasteshall:
1.AcknowledgereceiptofthewastefromtheshipperwithinoneweekofreceiptbyreturningasignedcopyofNRC
Form540;
2.Prepareanewmanifestthatmeetstherequirementsofthisappendix.Preparationofthenewmanifestreflectsthat
theprocessorisresponsibleformeetingtheserequirements.Foreachcontainerofwasteintheshipment,themanifest
shallidentifythewastegenerators,thepreprocessedwastevolume,andtheotherinformationasrequiredin
paragraphI.E.ofthisappendix;
3.Prepareallwastessothatthewasteisclassifiedaccordingto61.55ofthischapterandmeetsthewaste
characteristicsrequirementsin61.56ofthischapter;
4.LabeleachpackageofwastetoidentifywhetheritisClassAwaste,ClassBwaste,orClassCwaste,inaccordance
with61.55and61.57ofthischapter;
151
5.Conductaqualityassuranceprogramtoassurecompliancewith61.55and61.56ofthischapter(theprogram
shallincludemanagementevaluationofaudits);
consigneesothateither:(i)ReceiptofthemanifestprecedestheLLWshipmentor(ii)themanifestisdeliveredtothe
acceptable;
paragraphC.6ofthissection;
acknowledgementofreceiptastherecordoftransferoflicensedmaterialasrequiredby10CFRparts30,40,and70
ofthischapter;
10.Foranyshipmentoranypartofashipmentforwhichacknowledgementofreceipthasnotbeenreceivedwithin
thetimessetforthinthisappendix,conductaninvestigationinaccordancewithparagraphEofthisappendix;and
D.Thelanddisposalfacilityoperatorshall:
1.Acknowledgereceiptofthewastewithinoneweekofreceiptbyreturning,asaminimum,asignedcopyofNRC
Form540totheshipper.Theshippertobenotifiedisthelicenseewholastpossessedthewasteandtransferredthe
wastetotheoperator.IfanydiscrepancyexistsbetweenmaterialslistedontheUniformLowLevelRadioactive
WasteManifestandmaterialsreceived,copiesorelectronictransferoftheaffectedformsmustbereturnedindicating
thediscrepancy;
2.Maintaincopiesofallcompletedmanifestsandelectronicallystoretheinformationrequiredby10CFR61.80(l)
untiltheCommissionterminatesthelicense;and
E.Anyshipmentorpartofashipmentforwhichacknowledgementisnotreceivedwithinthetimessetforthinthis
sectionmust:
1.Beinvestigatedbytheshipperiftheshipperhasnotreceivednotificationorreceiptwithin20daysaftertransfer;
and
2.Betracedandreported.Theinvestigationshallincludetracingtheshipmentandfilingareportwiththenearest
CommissionRegionalOfficelistedinAppendixDtothispart.Eachlicenseewhoconductsatraceinvestigationshall
fileawrittenreportwiththeappropriateNRCRegionalOfficewithin2weeksofcompletionoftheinvestigation.
[60FR15664,Mar.27,1995,asamendedat60FR25983,May16,1995;68FR58802,Oct.10,2003]
152
10 CFRPART40DOMESTICLICENSINGOFSOURCEMATERIAL
PartIndex
GeneralProvisions
Sec.
40.1Purpose.
40.2Scope.
40.2aCoverageofinactivetailingssites.
40.3Licenserequirements.
40.4Definitions.
40.5Communications.
40.9Completenessandaccuracyofinformation.
40.10Deliberatemisconduct.
Exemptions
40.11PersonsusingsourcematerialundercertainDepartmentofEnergyandNuclearRegulatoryCommission
contracts.
40.12Carriers.
40.13Unimportantquantitiesofsourcematerial.
40.14Specificexemptions.
GeneralLicenses
40.20Typesoflicenses.
40.21Generallicensetoreceivetitletosourceorbyproductmaterial.
40.22Smallquantitiesofsourcematerial.
153
40.23Generallicenseforcarriersoftransientshipmentsofnaturaluraniumotherthanintheformoforeorore
residue.
40.24[Reserved]
40.25Generallicenseforuseofcertainindustrialproductsordevices.
40.26Generallicenseforpossessionandstorageofbyproductmaterialasdefinedinthispart.
40.27Generallicenseforcustodyandlongtermcareofresidualradioactivematerialdisposalsites.
40.28Generallicenseforcustodyandlongtermcareofuraniumorthoriumbyproductmaterialsdisposalsites.
LicenseApplications
40.31Applicationforspecificlicenses.
40.32Generalrequirementsforissuanceofspecificlicenses.
40.33Issuanceofalicenseforauraniumenrichmentfacility.
40.34Specialrequirementsforissuanceofspecificlicenses.
40.35Conditionsofspecificlicensesissuedpursuantto40.34.
40.36Financialassuranceandrecordkeepingfordecommissioning.
40.38Ineligibilityofcertainapplicants.
Licenses
40.41Termsandconditionsoflicenses.
40.42Expirationandterminationoflicensesanddecommissioningofsitesandseparatebuildingsoroutdoorareas.
40.43Renewaloflicenses.
40.44Amendmentoflicensesatrequestoflicensee.
40.45Commissionactiononapplicationstoreneworamend.
40.46Inalienabilityoflicenses.
TransferofSourceMaterial
40.51Transferofsourceorbyproductmaterial.
Records,Reports,andInspections
154
40.60Reportingrequirements.
40.61Records.
40.62Inspections.
40.63Tests.
40.64Reports.
40.65Effluentmonitoringreportingrequirements.
40.66Requirementsforadvancenoticeofexportshipmentsofnaturaluranium.
40.67Requirementforadvancenoticeforimportationofnaturaluraniumfromcountriesthatarenotpartytothe
ConventiononthePhysicalProtectionofNuclearMaterial.
ModificationandRevocationofLicenses
40.71Modificationandrevocationoflicenses.
Enforcement
40.81Violations.
AppendixAtoPart40CriteriaRelatingtotheOperationofUraniumMillsandtheDispositionofTailingsorWastes
ProducedbytheExtractionorConcentrationofSourceMaterialFromOresProcessedPrimarilyforTheirSource
MaterialContent
Authority:Secs.62,63,64,65,81,161,182,183,186,68Stat.932,933,935,948,953,954,955,asamended,secs.11e(2),
83,84,Pub.L.95604,92Stat.3033,asamended,3039,sec.234,83Stat.444,asamended(42U.S.C.2014(e)(2),2092,
2093,2094,2095,2111,2113,2114,2201,2232,2233,2236,2282);sec.274,Pub.L.86373,73Stat.688(42U.S.C.2021);
secs.201,asamended,202,206,88Stat.1242,asamended,1244,1246(42U.S.C.5841,5842,5846);sec.275,92Stat.
3021,asamendedbyPub.L.97415,96Stat.2067(42U.S.C.2022);sec.193,104Stat.2835,asamendedbyPub.L.104
134,110Stat.1321,1321349(42U.S.C.2243);sec.1704,112Stat.2750(44U.S.C.3504note).
Section40.7alsoissuedunderPub.L.95601,sec.10,92Stat.2951(42U.S.C.5851).Section40.31(g)alsoissuedunder
sec.122,68Stat.939(42U.S.C.2152).Section40.46alsoissuedundersec.184,68Stat.954,asamended(42U.S.C.
2234).Section40.71alsoissuedundersec.187,68Stat.955(42U.S.C.2237).
Source:26FR284,Jan.14,1961,unlessotherwisenoted.
ggggg)
hhhhh)
GeneralProvisions
40.1Purpose.
(a)Theregulationsinthispartestablishproceduresandcriteriafortheissuanceoflicensestoreceivetitleto,receive,
possess,use,transfer,ordeliversourceandbyproductmaterials,asdefinedinthispart,andestablishandprovide
155
forthetermsandconditionsuponwhichtheCommissionwillissuesuchlicenses.(Additionalrequirements
applicabletonaturalanddepleteduraniumatenrichmentfacilitiesaresetforthin70.22ofthischapter.)These
regulationsalsoprovideforthedisposalofbyproductmaterialandforthelongtermcareandcustodyofbyproduct
materialandresidualradioactivematerial.Theregulationsinthispartalsoestablishcertainrequirementsforthe
physicalprotectionofimport,export,andtransientshipmentsofnaturaluranium.(Additionalrequirements
applicabletotheimportandexportofnaturaluraniumaresetforthinpart110ofthischapter.)
(b)TheregulationscontainedinthispartareissuedundertheAtomicEnergyActof1954,asamended(68Stat.919),
titleIIoftheEnergyReorganizationActof1974,asamended(88Stat.1242),andtitlesIandIIoftheUraniumMill
TailingsRadiationControlActof1978,asamended(42U.S.C.7901).
[55FR45597,Oct.30,1990,asamendedat56FR55997,Oct.31,1991]
iiiii)
40.2Scope.
Exceptasprovidedin40.11to40.14,inclusive,theregulationsinthispartapplytoallpersonsintheUnitedStates.
Thispartalsogivesnoticetoallpersonswhoknowinglyprovidetoanylicensee,applicant,contractor,or
subcontractor,components,equipment,materials,orothergoodsorservices,thatrelatetoalicenseesorapplicants
activitiessubjecttothispart,thattheymaybeindividuallysubjecttoNRCenforcementactionforviolationof40.10.
[56FR40689,Aug.15,1991]
jjjjj)
40.2aCoverageofinactivetailingssites.
(a)Priortothecompletionoftheremedialaction,theCommissionwillnotrequirealicensepursuantto10CFR
chapterIforpossessionofresidualradioactivematerialsasdefinedinthispartthatarelocatedatasitewheremilling
operationsarenolongeractive,ifthesiteiscoveredbytheremedialactionprogramoftitleIoftheUraniumMill
TailingsRadiationControlActof1978,asamended.TheCommissionwillexertitsregulatoryroleinremedialactions
primarilythroughconcurrenceandconsultationintheexecutionoftheremedialactionpursuanttotitleIofthe
UraniumMillTailingsRadiationControlActof1978,asamended.Afterremedialactionsarecompleted,the
Commissionwilllicensethelongtermcareofsites,whereresidualradioactivematerialsaredisposed,underthe
requirementssetoutin40.27.
(b)TheCommissionwillregulatebyproductmaterialasdefinedinthispartthatislocatedatasitewheremilling
operationsarenolongeractive,ifsuchsiteisnotcoveredbytheremedialactionprogramoftitleIoftheUranium
MillTailingsRadiationControlActof1978.ThecriteriainappendixAofthispartwillbeappliedtosuchsites.
[45FR65531,Oct.3,1980,asamendedat55FR45598,Oct.30,1990]
kkkkk)
40.3Licenserequirements.
Apersonsubjecttotheregulationsinthispartmaynotreceivetitleto,own,receive,possess,use,transfer,provide
forlongtermcare,deliverordisposeofbyproductmaterialorresidualradioactivematerialasdefinedinthispartor
anysourcematerialafterremovalfromitsplaceofdepositinnature,unlessauthorizedinaspecificorgenerallicense
issuedbytheCommissionundertheregulationsinthispart.
[55FR45598,Oct.30,1990]
156
lllll)
40.4Definitions.
ActmeanstheAtomicEnergyActof1954(68Stat.919),includinganyamendmentsthereto;
AgreementStatemeansanyStatewithwhichtheAtomicEnergyCommissionortheNuclearRegulatoryCommission
hasenteredintoaneffectiveagreementundersubsection274b.oftheAtomicEnergyActof1954,asamended.
Alertmeanseventsmayoccur,areinprogress,orhaveoccurredthatcouldleadtoareleaseofradioactivematerial
butthatthereleaseisnotexpectedtorequirearesponsebyoffsiteresponseorganizationstoprotectpersonsoffsite.
ByproductMaterialmeansthetailingsorwastesproducedbytheextractionorconcentrationofuraniumorthorium
fromanyoreprocessedprimarilyforitssourcematerialcontent,includingdiscretesurfacewastesresultingfrom
uraniumsolutionextractionprocesses.Undergroundorebodiesdepletedbysuchsolutionextractionoperationsdo
notconstitutebyproductmaterialwithinthisdefinition.
Withtheexceptionofbyproductmaterialasdefinedinsection11e.oftheAct,othertermsdefinedinsection11of
theActshallhavethesamemeaningwhenusedintheregulationsinthispart.
Commencementofconstructionmeansanyclearingofland,excavation,orothersubstantialactionthatwouldadversely
affectthenaturalenvironmentofasitebutdoesnotincludechangesdesirableforthetemporaryuseofthelandfor
publicrecreationaluses,necessaryboringstodeterminesitecharacteristicsorotherpreconstructionmonitoringto
establishbackgroundinformationrelatedtothesuitabilityofasiteortotheprotectionofenvironmentalvalues.
CommissionmeanstheNuclearRegulatoryCommissionoritsdulyauthorizedrepresentatives.
CorporationmeanstheUnitedStatesEnrichmentCorporation(USEC),oritssuccessor,aCorporationthatis
authorizedbystatutetoleasethegaseousdiffusionenrichmentplantsinPaducah,Kentucky,andPiketon,Ohio,
fromtheDepartmentofEnergy,oranypersonauthorizedtooperateoneorbothofthegaseousdiffusionplants,or
otherfacilities,pursuanttoaplanfortheprivatizationofUSECthatisapprovedbythePresident.
Decommissionmeanstoremoveafacilityorsitesafelyfromserviceandreduceresidualradioactivitytoalevelthat
permits
(1)Releaseofthepropertyforunrestricteduseandterminationofthelicense;or
(2)Releaseofthepropertyunderrestrictedconditionsandterminationofthelicense.
DepartmentandDepartmentofEnergymeanstheDepartmentofEnergyestablishedbytheDepartmentofEnergy
OrganizationAct(Pub.L.9591,91Stat.565,42U.S.C.7101etseq.)totheextentthattheDepartment,oritsduly
authorizedrepresentatives,exercisesfunctionsformerlyvestedintheU.S.AtomicEnergyCommission,itsChairman,
members,officersandcomponentsandtransferredtotheU.S.EnergyResearchandDevelopmentAdministration
andtotheAdministratorthereofpursuanttosections104(b),(c)and(d)oftheEnergyReorganizationActof1974
(Pub.L.93438,88Stat.1233at1237,42U.S.C.5814)andretransferredtotheSecretaryofEnergypursuanttosection
301(a)oftheDepartmentofEnergyOrganizationAct(Pub.L.9591,91Stat.565at577578,42U.S.C.7151).
Depleteduraniummeansthesourcematerialuraniuminwhichtheisotopeuranium235islessthan0.711weight
percentofthetotaluraniumpresent.Depleteduraniumdoesnotincludespecialnuclearmaterial.
157
Effectivekilogrammeans(1)forthesourcematerialuraniuminwhichtheuraniumisotopeuranium235isgreaterthan
0.005(0.5weightpercent)ofthetotaluraniumpresent:10,000kilograms,and(2)foranyothersourcematerial:20,000
kilograms.
ForeignobligationsmeansthecommitmentsenteredintobytheU.S.GovernmentunderAtomicEnergyAct(AEA)
section123agreementsforcooperationinthepeacefulusesofatomicenergy.Importsandexportsofmaterialor
equipmentpursuanttosuchagreementsaresubjecttothesecommitments,whichinsomecasesinvolveanexchange
ofinformationonimports,exports,retransferswithforeigngovernments,peacefulenduseassurances,andother
conditionsplacedonthetransferofthematerialorequipment.TheU.S.Governmentinformsthelicenseeof
obligationsattachedtomaterial.
Governmentagencymeansanyexecutivedepartment,commission,independentestablishment,corporation,whollyor
partlyownedbytheUnitedStatesofAmericawhichisaninstrumentalityoftheUnitedStates,oranyboard,bureau,
division,service,office,officer,authority,administration,orotherestablishmentintheexecutivebranchofthe
Government.
License,exceptwhereotherwisespecified,meansalicenseissuedpursuanttotheregulationsinthispart.
Personsmeans:(1)Anyindividual,corporation,partnership,firm,association,trust,estate,publicorprivate
institution,group,GovernmentagencyotherthantheCommissionortheDepartmentofEnergyexceptthatthe
DepartmentofEnergyshallbeconsideredapersonwithinthemeaningoftheregulationsinthisparttotheextent
thatitsfacilitiesandactivitiesaresubjecttothelicensingandrelatedregulatoryauthorityoftheCommission
pursuanttosection202oftheEnergyReorganizationActof1974(88Stat.1244)andtheUraniumMillTailings
RadiationControlActof1978(92Stat.3021),anyStateoranypoliticalsubdivisionof,oranypoliticalentitywithina
State,anyforeigngovernmentornationoranysubdivisionofanysuchgovernmentornation,orotherentity;and(2)
anylegalsuccessor,representative,agentoragencyoftheforegoing.
PharmacistmeansanindividualregisteredbyastateorterritoryoftheUnitedStates,theDistrictofColumbiaorthe
CommonwealthofPuertoRicotocompoundanddispensedrugs,prescriptionsandpoisons.
PhysicianmeansamedicaldoctorordoctorofosteopathylicensedbyaStateorTerritoryoftheUnitedStates,the
DistrictofColumbia,ortheCommonwealthofPuertoRicotoprescribedrugsinthepracticeofmedicine.
Principalactivities,asusedinthispart,meansactivitiesauthorizedbythelicensewhichareessentialtoachievingthe
purpose(s)forwhichthelicensewasissuedoramended.Storageduringwhichnolicensedmaterialisaccessedfor
useordisposalandactivitiesincidentaltodecontaminationordecommissioningarenotprincipalactivities.
Residualradioactivematerialmeans:(1)Waste(whichtheSecretaryofEnergydeterminestoberadioactive)intheform
oftailingsresultingfromtheprocessingoforesfortheextractionofuraniumandothervaluableconstituentsofthe
ores;and(2)otherwaste(whichtheSecretaryofEnergydeterminestoberadioactive)ataprocessingsitewhich
relatestosuchprocessing,includinganyresidualstockofunprocessedoresorlowgradematerials.Thistermisused
onlywithrespecttomaterialsatsitessubjecttoremediationundertitleIoftheUraniumMillTailingsRadiation
ControlActof1978,asamended.
Siteareaemergencymeanseventsmayoccur,areinprogress,orhaveoccurredthatcouldleadtoasignificantrelease
ofradioactivematerialandthatcouldrequirearesponsebyoffsiteresponseorganizationstoprotectpersonsoffsite.
SourceMaterialmeans:(1)Uraniumorthorium,oranycombinationthereof,inanyphysicalorchemicalformor(2)
oreswhichcontainbyweightonetwentiethofonepercent(0.05%)ormoreof:(i)Uranium,(ii)thoriumor(iii)any
combinationthereof.Sourcematerialdoesnotincludespecialnuclearmaterial.
158
Specialnuclearmaterialmeans:(1)Plutonium,uranium233,uraniumenrichedintheisotope233orintheisotope235,
andanyothermaterialwhichtheCommission,pursuanttotheprovisionsofsection51oftheAct,determinestobe
specialnuclearmaterial;or(2)anymaterialartificiallyenrichedbyanyoftheforegoing.
Transientshipmentmeansashipmentofnuclearmaterial,originatingandterminatinginforeigncountries,onavessel
oraircraftthatstopsataUnitedStatesport.
UnitedStates,whenusedinageographicalsense,includesPuertoRicoandallterritoriesandpossessionsofthe
UnitedStates.
Unrefinedandunprocessedoremeansoreinitsnaturalformpriortoanyprocessing,suchasgrinding,roastingor
beneficiating,orrefining.
Uraniumenrichmentfacilitymeans:
(1)Anyfacilityusedforseparatingtheisotopesofuraniumorenrichinguraniumintheisotope235,except
laboratoryscalefacilitiesdesignedorusedforexperimentaloranalyticalpurposesonly;or
(2)Anyequipmentordevice,orimportantcomponentpartespeciallydesignedforsuchequipmentordevice,
capableofseparatingtheisotopesofuraniumorenrichinguraniumintheisotope235.
UraniumMillingmeansanyactivitythatresultsintheproductionofbyproductmaterialasdefinedinthispart.
[26FR284,Jan.14,1961]
EditorialNote:ForFederalRegistercitationsaffecting40.4,seetheListofCFRSectionsAffectedintheFinding
Aidssection.
mmmmm) 40.5Communications.
(a)Unlessotherwisespecifiedorcoveredundertheregionallicensingprogramasprovidedinparagraph(b)ofthis
section,anycommunicationorreportconcerningtheregulationsinthispartandanyapplicationfiledunderthese
regulationsmaybesubmittedtotheCommissionasfollows:
(1)Bymailaddressed:ATTN:DocumentControlDesk,Director,OfficeofNuclearMaterialSafetyandSafeguards,or
DirectorofNuclearSecurity,OfficeofNuclearSecurityandIncidentResponse,U.S.NuclearRegulatory
Commission,Washington,DC205550001.
(2)ByhanddeliverytotheNRCsofficesat11555RockvillePike,Rockville,Maryland.
(3)Wherepracticable,byelectronicsubmission,forexample,viaElectronicInformationExchange,orCDROM.
ElectronicsubmissionsmustbemadeinamannerthatenablestheNRCtoreceive,read,authenticate,distribute,and
archivethesubmission,andprocessandretrieveitasinglepageatatime.Detailedguidanceonmakingelectronic
submissionscanbeobtainedbyvisitingtheNRCsWebsiteathttp://www.nrc.gov/sitehelp/eie.html,bycalling(301)
4156030,byemailtoEIE@nrc.gov,orbywritingtheOfficeoftheChiefInformationOfficer,U.S.NuclearRegulatory
Commission,Washington,DC205550001.Theguidancediscusses,amongothertopics,theformatstheNRCcan
accept,theuseofelectronicsignatures,andthetreatmentofnonpublicinformation.
(b)TheCommissionhasdelegatedtothefourRegionalAdministratorslicensingauthorityforselectedpartsofits
decentralizedlicensingprogramfornuclearmaterialsasdescribedinparagraph(b)(1)ofthissection.Any
159
communication,report,orapplicationcoveredunderthislicensingprogrammustbesubmittedtotheappropriate
RegionalAdministrator.Theadministratorsjurisdictionsandmailingaddressesarelistedinparagraph(b)(2)ofthis
section.
(1)Thedelegatedlicensingprogramincludesauthoritytoissue,renew,amend,cancel,modify,suspend,orrevoke
licensesfornuclearmaterialsissuedpursuantto10CFRparts30through36,39,40,and70toallpersonsfor
academic,medical,andindustrialuses,withthefollowingexceptions:
(i)Activitiesinthefuelcycleandspecialnuclearmaterialinquantitiessufficienttoconstituteacriticalmassinany
roomorarea.Thisexceptiondoesnotapplytolicensemodificationsrelatingtoterminationofspecialnuclear
materiallicensesthatauthorizepossessionoflargerquantitieswhenthecaseisreferredforactionfromNRCs
HeadquarterstotheRegionalAdministrators.
(ii)Healthandsafetydesignreviewofsealedsourcesanddevicesandapproval,forlicensingpurposes,ofsealed
sourcesanddevices.
(iii)Processingofsourcematerialforextractingofmetalliccompounds(includingZirconium,Hafnium,Tantalum,
Titanium,Niobium,etc.).
(iv)Distributionofproductscontainingradioactivematerialtopersonsexemptpursuantto10CFR32.11through
32.26.
(v)Newusesortechniquesforuseofbyproduct,source,orspecialnuclearmaterial.
(vi)Uraniumenrichmentfacilities.
(2)Submission(i)RegionI.TheregionallicensingprograminvolvesallFederalfacilitiesintheregionandnonFederal
licenseesinthefollowingRegionInonAgreementStatesandtheDistrictofColumbia:Connecticut,Delaware,
Maine,Massachusetts,NewJersey,Pennsylvania,andVermont.Allmailedorhanddeliveredinquiries,
communications,andapplicationsforanewlicenseoranamendmentorrenewalofanexistinglicensespecifiedin
paragraph(b)(1)ofthissectionmustusethefollowingaddress:U.S.NuclearRegulatoryCommission,RegionI,475
AllendaleRoad,KingofPrussia,Pennsylvania194061415;whereemailisappropriateitshouldbeaddressedto
RidsRgn1MailCenter@nrc.gov.
(ii)RegionII.TheregionallicensingprograminvolvesallFederalfacilitiesintheregionandnonFederallicenseesin
thefollowingRegionIInonAgreementstatesandterritories:Virginia,WestVirginia,PuertoRico,andtheVirgin
Islands.Allmailedorhanddeliveredinquiries,communications,andapplicationsforanewlicenseoran
amendmentorrenewalofanexistinglicensespecifiedinparagraph(b)(1)ofthissectionmustusethefollowing
address:U.S.NuclearRegulatoryCommission,RegionIIMaterialLicensing/InspectionBranch,SamNunnAtlanta
FederalCenter,Suite23T85,61ForsythStreet,Atlanta,Georgia303038931;whereemailisappropriateitshouldbe
addressedtoRidsRgn2MailCenter@nrc.gov.
(iii)RegionIII.TheregionallicensingprograminvolvesallFederalfacilitiesintheregionandnonFederallicenseesin
thefollowingRegionIIInonAgreementStates:Indiana,Michigan,Minnesota,Missouri,Ohio,andWisconsin.All
mailedorhanddeliveredinquiries,communications,andapplicationsforanewlicenseoranamendmentorrenewal
ofanexistinglicensespecifiedinparagraph(b)(1)ofthissectionmustusethefollowingaddress:U.S.Nuclear
RegulatoryCommission,RegionIII,MaterialLicensingSection,801WarrenvilleRoad,Lisle,Illinois605324351;
whereemailisappropriateitshouldbeaddressedtoRidsRgn3MailCenter@nrc.gov.
(iv)RegionIV.TheregionallicensingprograminvolvesallFederalfacilitiesintheregionandnonFederallicenseesin
thefollowingRegionIVnonAgreementStatesandaterritory:Alaska,Hawaii,Montana,Oklahoma,SouthDakota,
160
Wyoming,andGuam.Allmailedorhanddeliveredinquiries,communications,andapplicationsforanewlicenseor
anamendmentorrenewalofanexistinglicensespecifiedinparagraph(b)(1)ofthissectionmustusethefollowing
address:U.S.NuclearRegulatoryCommission,RegionIV,MaterialRadiationProtectionSection,611RyanPlaza
Drive,Suite400,Arlington,Texas760114005;whereemailisappropriateitshouldbeaddressedto
RidsRgn4MailCenter@nrc.gov.
[48FR16031,Apr.14,1983,asamendedat49FR19631,May9,1984;49FR47824,Dec.7,1984;50FR14694,Apr.15,
1985;51FR36001,Oct.8,1986;52FR8241,Mar.17,1987;52FR38392,Oct.16,1987;52FR48093,Dec.18,1987;53FR
3862,Feb.10,1988;53FR43420,Oct.27,1988;57FR18390,Apr.30,1992;58FR7736,Feb.9,1993;58FR64111,Dec.6,
1993;59FR17466,Apr.13,1994;60FR24551,May9,1995;62FR22880,Apr.28,1997;68FR58806,Oct.10,2003]
nnnnn)
thispartbyanyofficeroremployeeoftheCommissionotherthanawritteninterpretationbytheGeneralCounsel
willberecognizedtobebindingupontheCommission.
ooooo)
(a)DiscriminationbyaCommissionlicensee,anapplicantforaCommissionlicense,oracontractororsubcontractor
ofaCommissionlicenseeorapplicantagainstanemployeeforengagingincertainprotectedactivitiesisprohibited.
Discriminationincludesdischargeandotheractionsthatrelatetocompensation,terms,conditions,orprivilegesof
employment.Theprotectedactivitiesareestablishedinsection211oftheEnergyReorganizationActof1974,as
amended,andingeneralarerelatedtotheadministrationorenforcementofarequirementimposedunderthe
AtomicEnergyActortheEnergyReorganizationAct.
(1)Theprotectedactivitiesincludebutarenotlimitedto:
(i)ProvidingtheCommissionorhisorheremployerinformationaboutallegedviolationsofeitherofthestatutes
namedinparagraph(a)introductorytextofthissectionorpossibleviolationsofrequirementsimposedundereither
ofthosestatutes;
(ii)Refusingtoengageinanypracticemadeunlawfulundereitherofthestatutesnamedinparagraph(a)
introductorytextorundertheserequirementsiftheemployeehasidentifiedtheallegedillegalitytotheemployer;
(iii)RequestingtheCommissiontoinstituteactionagainsthisorheremployerfortheadministrationorenforcement
oftheserequirements;
(iv)TestifyinginanyCommissionproceeding,orbeforeCongress,oratanyFederalorStateproceedingregarding
anyprovision(orproposedprovision)ofeitherofthestatutesnamedinparagraph(a)introductorytext.
(v)Assistingorparticipatingin,orisabouttoassistorparticipatein,theseactivities.
(2)Theseactivitiesareprotectedevenifnoformalproceedingisactuallyinitiatedasaresultoftheemployee
assistanceorparticipation.
(3)Thissectionhasnoapplicationtoanyemployeeallegingdiscriminationprohibitedbythissectionwho,acting
withoutdirectionfromhisorheremployer(ortheemployersagent),deliberatelycausesaviolationofany
requirementoftheEnergyReorganizationActof1974,asamended,ortheAtomicEnergyActof1954,asamended.
161
(b)Anyemployeewhobelievesthatheorshehasbeendischargedorotherwisediscriminatedagainstbyanyperson
forengaginginprotectedactivitiesspecifiedinparagraph(a)(1)ofthissectionmayseekaremedyforthedischarge
ordiscriminationthroughanadministrativeproceedingintheDepartmentofLabor.Theadministrativeproceeding
mustbeinitiatedwithin180daysafteranallegedviolationoccurs.Theemployeemaydothisbyfilingacomplaint
allegingtheviolationwiththeDepartmentofLabor,EmploymentStandardsAdministration,WageandHour
Division.TheDepartmentofLabormayorderreinstatement,backpay,andcompensatorydamages.
(c)Aviolationofparagraphs(a),(e),or(f)ofthissectionbyaCommissionlicensee,anapplicantforaCommission
license,oracontractororsubcontractorofaCommissionlicenseeorapplicantmaybegroundsfor
(1)Denial,revocation,orsuspensionofthelicense.
(2)Impositionofacivilpenaltyonthelicenseeorapplicant.
(3)Otherenforcementaction.
(d)Actionstakenbyanemployer,orothers,whichadverselyaffectanemployeemaybepredicatedupon
nondiscriminatorygrounds.Theprohibitionapplieswhentheadverseactionoccursbecausetheemployeehas
engagedinprotectedactivities.Anemployeesengagementinprotectedactivitiesdoesnotautomaticallyrenderhim
orherimmunefromdischargeordisciplineforlegitimatereasonsorfromadverseactiondictatedbynonprohibited
considerations.
(e)(1)Eachspecificlicensee,eachapplicantforaspecificlicense,andeachgenerallicenseesubjecttopart19shall
prominentlyposttherevisionofNRCForm3,NoticetoEmployees,referencedin10CFR19.11(c).
(2)ThepostingofNRCForm3mustbeatlocationssufficienttopermitemployeesprotectedbythissectionto
observeacopyonthewaytoorfromtheirplaceofwork.Premisesmustbepostednotlaterthan30daysafteran
applicationisdocketedandremainpostedwhiletheapplicationispendingbeforetheCommission,duringtheterm
ofthelicense,andfor30daysfollowinglicensetermination.
(3)CopiesofNRCForm3maybeobtainedbywritingtotheRegionalAdministratoroftheappropriateU.S.Nuclear
RegulatoryCommissionRegionalOfficelistedinappendixDtopart20ofthischapter,bycalling(301)4155877,via
emailtoforms@nrc.gov,orbyvisitingtheNRCsWebsiteathttp://www.nrc.govandselectingformsfromtheindex
foundonthehomepage.
(f)Noagreementaffectingthecompensation,terms,conditions,orprivilegesofemployment,includinganagreement
tosettleacomplaintfiledbyanemployeewiththeDepartmentofLaborpursuanttosection211oftheEnergy
ReorganizationActof1974,maycontainanyprovisionwhichwouldprohibit,restrict,orotherwisediscouragean
employeefromparticipatinginprotectedactivityasdefinedinparagraph(a)(1)ofthissectionincluding,butnot
limitedto,providinginformationtotheNRCortohisorheremployeronpotentialviolationsorothermatterswithin
NRCsregulatoryresponsibilities.
[58FR52409,Oct.8,1993,asamendedat60FR24551,May9,1995;61FR6765,Feb.22,1996;68FR58806,Oct.10,
2003]
ppppp)
162
requirementscontainedinthispartundercontrolnumber31500020.
(b)Theapprovedinformationcollectionrequirementscontainedinthispartappearin40.9,40.23,40.25,40.26,
40.27,40.31,40.35,40.36,40.41,40.42,40.43,40.44,40.51,40.60,40.61,40.64,40.65,40.66,40.67,andappendixAtothis
part.
(c)Thispartcontainsinformationcollectionrequirementsinadditiontothoseapprovedunderthecontrolnumber
specifiedinparagraph(a)ofthissection.Theseinformationcollectionrequirementsandthecontrolnumbersunder
whichtheyareapprovedareasfollows:
(1)In40.31,40.43,40.44,andappendixA,NRCForm313isapprovedundercontrolnumber31500120.
(2)In40.31,FormN71isapprovedundercontrolnumber31500056.
(3)In40.42,NRCForm314isapprovedundercontrolnumber31500028.
(4)In40.64,DOE/NRCForm741isapprovedundercontrolnumber31500003.
[49FR19626,May9,1984,asamendedat56FR40768,Aug.16,1991;58FR68731,Dec.29,1993;62FR52187,Oct.6,
1997]
qqqqq)
40.9Completenessandaccuracyofinformation.
(a)InformationprovidedtotheCommissionbyanapplicantforalicenseorbyalicenseeorinformationrequiredby
statuteorbytheCommissionsregulations,orders,orlicenseconditionstobemaintainedbytheapplicantorthe
licenseeshallbecompleteandaccurateinallmaterialrespects.
(b)EachapplicantorlicenseeshallnotifytheCommissionofinformationidentifiedbytheapplicantorlicenseeas
havingfortheregulatedactivityasignificantimplicationforpublichealthandsafetyorcommondefenseand
security.Anapplicantorlicenseeviolatesthisparagraphonlyiftheapplicantorlicenseefailstonotifythe
Commissionofinformationthattheapplicantorlicenseehasidentifiedashavingasignificantimplicationforpublic
healthandsafetyorcommondefenseandsecurity.NotificationshallbeprovidedtotheAdministratorofthe
appropriateRegionalOfficewithintwoworkingdaysofidentifyingtheinformation.Thisrequirementisnot
applicabletoinformationwhichisalreadyrequiredtobeprovidedtotheCommissionbyotherreportingorundating
requirements.
[52FR49371,Dec.31,1987]
rrrrr)
40.10Deliberatemisconduct.
(a)Anylicensee,applicantforalicense,employeeofalicenseeorapplicant;oranycontractor(includingasupplieror
consultant),subcontractor,employeeofacontractororsubcontractorofanylicenseeorapplicantforalicense,who
knowinglyprovidestoanylicensee,applicant,contractor,orsubcontractor,anycomponents,equipment,materials,
orothergoodsorservicesthatrelatetoalicenseesorapplicantsactivitiesinthispart,maynot:
(1)Engageindeliberatemisconductthatcausesorwouldhavecaused,ifnotdetected,alicenseeorapplicanttobein
violationofanyrule,regulation,ororder;oranyterm,condition,orlimitationofanylicenseissuedbythe
Commission;or
163
(2)DeliberatelysubmittotheNRC,alicensee,anapplicant,oralicenseesorapplicantscontractororsubcontractor,
informationthatthepersonsubmittingtheinformationknowstobeincompleteorinaccurateinsomerespect
materialtotheNRC.
(b)Apersonwhoviolatesparagraph(a)(1)or(a)(2)ofthissectionmaybesubjecttoenforcementactioninaccordance
withtheproceduresin10CFRpart2,subpartB.
(c)Forthepurposesofparagraph(a)(1)ofthissection,deliberatemisconductbyapersonmeansanintentionalactor
omissionthatthepersonknows:
(1)Wouldcausealicenseeorapplicanttobeinviolationofanyrule,regulation,ororder;oranyterm,condition,or
limitation,ofanylicenseissuedbytheCommission;or
(2)Constitutesaviolationofarequirement,procedure,instruction,contract,purchaseorder,orpolicyofalicensee,
applicant,contractor,orsubcontractor.
[63FR1896,Jan.13,1998]
sssss)
Exemptions
ttttt)
40.11PersonsusingsourcematerialundercertainDepartmentofEnergyand
NuclearRegulatoryCommissioncontracts.
ExcepttotheextentthatDepartmentfacilitiesoractivitiesofthetypessubjecttolicensingpursuanttosection202of
theEnergyReorganizationActof1974ortheUraniumMillTailingsRadiationControlActof1978areinvolved,any
primecontractoroftheDepartmentisexemptfromtherequirementsforalicensesetforthinsections62,63,and64
oftheActandfromtheregulationsinthisparttotheextentthatsuchcontractor,underhisprimecontractwiththe
Department,receives,possesses,uses,transfersordeliverssourcematerialfor:(a)Theperformanceofworkforthe
DepartmentataUnitedStatesGovernmentownedorcontrolledsite,includingthetransportationofsourcematerial
toorfromsuchsiteandtheperformanceofcontractservicesduringtemporaryinterruptionsofsuchtransportation;
(b)researchin,ordevelopment,manufacture,storage,testingortransportationof,atomicweaponsorcomponents
thereof;or(c)theuseoroperationofnuclearreactorsorothernucleardevicesinaUnitedStatesGovernmentowned
vehicleorvessel.Inadditiontotheforegoingexemptions,andsubjecttotherequirementforlicensingofDepartment
facilitiesandactivitiespursuanttosection202oftheEnergyReorganizationActof1974ortheUraniumMillTailings
RadiationControlActof1980,anyprimecontractororsubcontractoroftheDepartmentortheCommissionisexempt
fromtherequirementsforalicensesetforthinsections62,63,and64oftheActandfromtheregulationsinthispart
totheextentthatsuchprimecontractororsubcontractorreceives,possesses,uses,transfersordeliverssource
materialunderhisprimecontractorsubcontractwhentheCommissiondeterminesthattheexemptionoftheprime
contractororsubcontractorisauthorizedbylaw;andthat,underthetermsofthecontractorsubcontract,thereis
adequateassurancethattheworkthereundercanbeaccomplishedwithoutunduerisktothepublichealthand
safety.
[40FR8787,Mar.3,1975,asamendedat43FR6923,Feb.17,1978;45FR65531,Oct.3,1980]
uuuuu)
40.12Carriers.
(a)Exceptasspecifiedinparagraph(b)ofthissection,commonandcontractcarriers,freightforwarders,
warehousemen,andtheU.S.PostalServiceareexemptfromtheregulationsinthispartandtherequirementsfora
licensesetforthinsection62oftheActtotheextentthattheytransportorstoresourcematerialintheregularcourse
ofthecarriageforanotherorstorageincidentthereto.
164
(b)Theexemptioninparagraph(a)ofthissectiondoesnotapplytoapersonwhopossessesatransientshipment(as
definedin40.4(r)),animportshipment,oranexportshipmentofnaturaluraniuminanamountexceeding500
kilograms,unlesstheshipmentisintheformoforeororeresidue.
[52FR9651,Mar.26,1987]
vvvvv)
40.13Unimportantquantitiesofsourcematerial.
(a)Anypersonisexemptfromtheregulationsinthispartandfromtherequirementsforalicensesetforthinsection
62oftheActtotheextentthatsuchpersonreceives,possesses,uses,transfersordeliverssourcematerialinany
chemicalmixture,compound,solution,oralloyinwhichthesourcematerialisbyweightlessthanonetwentiethof1
percent(0.05percent)ofthemixture,compound,solutionoralloy.Theexemptioncontainedinthisparagraphdoes
notincludebyproductmaterialasdefinedinthispart.
(b)Anypersonisexemptfromtheregulationsinthispartandfromtherequirementsforalicensesetforthinsection
62oftheacttotheextentthatsuchpersonreceives,possesses,uses,ortransfersunrefinedandunprocessedore
containingsourcematerial;provided,that,exceptasauthorizedinaspecificlicense,suchpersonshallnotrefineor
processsuchore.
(c)Anypersonisexemptfromtheregulationinthispartandfromtherequirementsforalicensesetforthinsection
62oftheActtotheextentthatsuchpersonreceives,possesses,uses,ortransfers:
(1)Anyquantitiesofthoriumcontainedin(i)incandescentgasmantles,(ii)vacuumtubes,(iii)weldingrods,(iv)
electriclampsforilluminatingpurposes:Provided,Thateachlampdoesnotcontainmorethan50milligramsof
thorium,(v)germicidallamps,sunlamps,andlampsforoutdoororindustriallighting:Provided,Thateachlampdoes
notcontainmorethan2gramsofthorium,(vi)rareearthmetalsandcompounds,mixtures,andproductscontaining
notmorethan0.25percentbyweightthorium,uranium,oranycombinationofthese,or(vii)personnelneutron
dosimeters:Provided,Thateachdosimeterdoesnotcontainmorethan50milligramsofthorium.
(2)Sourcematerialcontainedinthefollowingproducts:
(i)Glazedceramictableware,providedthattheglazecontainsnotmorethan20percentbyweightsourcematerial;
(ii)Piezoelectricceramiccontainingnotmorethan2percentbyweightsourcematerial;
(iii)Glasswarecontainingnotmorethan10percentbyweightsourcematerial;butnotincludingcommercially
manufacturedglassbrick,paneglass,ceramictile,orotherglassorceramicusedinconstruction;
(iv)Glassenamelorglassenamelfritcontainingnotmorethan10percentbyweightsourcematerialimportedor
orderedforimportationintotheUnitedStates,orinitiallydistributedbymanufacturersintheUnitedStates,before
July25,1983.1
(3)Photographicfilm,negatives,andprintscontaininguraniumorthorium;
(4)Anyfinishedproductorpartfabricatedof,orcontainingtungstenormagnesiumthoriumalloys,providedthat
thethoriumcontentofthealloydoesnotexceed4percentbyweightandthattheexemptioncontainedinthis
subparagraphshallnotbedeemedtoauthorizethechemical,physicalormetallurgicaltreatmentorprocessingofany
suchproductorpart;and
165
(5)Uraniumcontainedincounterweightsinstalledinaircraft,rockets,projectiles,andmissiles,orstoredorhandled
inconnectionwithinstallationorremovalofsuchcounterweights:Provided,That:
(i)ThecounterweightsaremanufacturedinaccordancewithaspecificlicenseissuedbytheCommissionorthe
AtomicEnergyCommissionauthorizingdistributionbythelicenseepursuanttothisparagraph;
(ii)Eachcounterweighthasbeenimpressedwiththefollowinglegendclearlylegiblethroughanyplatingorother
covering:DepletedUranium;2
(iii)Eachcounterweightisdurablyandlegiblylabeledormarkedwiththeidentificationofthemanufacturer,andthe
statement:UnauthorizedAlterationsProhibited;2and
(iv)Theexemptioncontainedinthisparagraphshallnotbedeemedtoauthorizethechemical,physical,or
metallurgicaltreatmentorprocessingofanysuchcounterweightsotherthanrepairorrestorationofanyplatingor
othercovering.
(6)Naturalordepleteduraniummetalusedasshieldingconstitutingpartofanyshippingcontainer:Provided,That:
(i)TheshippingcontainerisconspicuouslyandlegiblyimpressedwiththelegendCAUTIONRADIOACTIVE
SHIELDINGURANIUM;and
(ii)Theuraniummetalisencasedinmildsteelorequallyfireresistantmetalofminimumwallthicknessofone
eighthinch(3.2mm).
(7)Thoriumcontainedinfinishedopticallenses,providedthateachlensdoesnotcontainmorethan30percentby
weightofthorium;andthattheexemptioncontainedinthissubparagraphshallnotbedeemedtoauthorizeeither:
(i)Theshaping,grindingorpolishingofsuchlensormanufacturingprocessesotherthantheassemblyofsuchlens
intoopticalsystemsanddeviceswithoutanyalterationofthelens;or
(ii)Thereceipt,possession,use,transfer,orofthoriumcontainedincontactlenses,orinspectacles,orineyepiecesin
binocularsorotheropticalinstruments.
(8)Thoriumcontainedinanyfinishedaircraftenginepartcontainingnickelthoriaalloy,Provided,That:
(i)Thethoriumisdispersedinthenickelthoriaalloyintheformoffinelydividedthoria(thoriumdioxide);and
(ii)Thethoriumcontentinthenickelthoriaalloydoesnotexceed4percentbyweight.
(9)Theexemptionsinthisparagraph(c)donotauthorizethemanufactureofanyoftheproductsdescribed.
(d)Anypersonisexemptfromtheregulationsinthispartandfromtherequirementsforalicensesetforthinsection
62oftheActtotheextentthatsuchpersonreceives,possesses,uses,ortransfersuraniumcontainedindetectorheads
foruseinfiredetectionunits,providedthateachdetectorheadcontainsnotmorethan0.005microcurieofuranium.
Theexemptioninthisparagraphdoesnotauthorizethemanufactureofanydetectorheadcontaininguranium.
[26FR284,Jan.14,1961]
EditorialNote:ForFederalRegistercitationsaffecting40.13,seetheListofCFRSectionsAffectedintheFinding
Aidssection.
166
1OnJuly25,1983,theexemptionofglassenamelorglassenamelfritwassuspended.Theexemptionwaseliminated
onSeptember11,1984.
2Therequirementsspecifiedinparagraphs(c)(5)(ii)and(iii)ofthissectionneednotbemetbycounterweights
manufacturedpriortoDec.31,1969:Provided,Thatsuchcounterweightsweremanufacturedunderaspecificlicense
issuedbytheAtomicEnergyCommissionandwereimpressedwiththelegendrequiredby40.13(c)(5)(ii)ineffect
onJune30,1969.
wwwww) 40.14Specificexemptions.
(a)TheCommissionmay,uponapplicationofanyinterestedpersonoruponitsowninitiative,grantsuch
exemptionsfromtherequirementsoftheregulationinthispartasitdeterminesareauthorizedbylawandwillnot
endangerlifeorpropertyorthecommondefenseandsecurityandareotherwiseinthepublicinterest.
(b)[Reserved]
(c)TheDepartmentofEnergyisexemptfromtherequirementsofthisparttotheextentthatitsactivitiesaresubject
totherequirementsofpart60or63ofthischapter.
(d)Exceptasspecificallyprovidedinpart61ofthischapteranylicenseeisexemptfromtherequirementsofthispart
totheextentthatitsactivitiesaresubjecttotherequirementsofpart61ofthischapter.
[37FR5747,Mar.21,1972,asamendedat39FR26279,July18,1974;40FR8787,Mar.3,1975;45FR65531,Oct.3,
1980;46FR13979,Feb.25,1981;47FR57481,Dec.27,1982;66FR55790,Nov.2,2001]
xxxxx)
yyyyy)
GeneralLicenses
40.20Typesoflicenses.
(a)Licensesforsourcematerialandbyproductmaterialareoftwotypes:generalandspecific.Licensesforlongterm
careandcustodyofresidualradioactivematerialatdisposalsitesaregenerallicenses.Thegenerallicensesprovided
inthispartareeffectivewithoutthefilingofapplicationswiththeCommissionortheissuanceoflicensing
documentstoparticularpersons.Specificlicensesareissuedtonamedpersonsuponapplicationsfiledpursuantto
theregulationsinthispart.
(b)Section40.27containsagenerallicenseapplicableforcustodyandlongtermcareofresidualradioactivematerial
aturaniummilltailingsdisposalsitesremediatedundertitleIoftheUraniumMillTailingsRadiationControlActof
1978,asamended.
(c)Section40.28containsagenerallicenseapplicableforcustodyandlongtermcareofbyproductmaterialat
uraniumorthoriummilltailingsdisposalsitesundertitleIIoftheUraniumMillTailingsRadiationControlActof
1978,asamended.
[55FR45598,Oct.30,1990]
zzzzz)
40.21Generallicensetoreceivetitletosourceorbyproductmaterial.
Agenerallicenseisherebyissuedauthorizingthereceiptoftitletosourceorbyproductmaterial,asdefinedinthis
part,withoutregardtoquantity.Thisgenerallicensedoesnotauthorizeanypersontoreceive,possess,deliver,use,
ortransfersourceorbyproductmaterial.
167
[45FR65531,Oct.3,1980]
aaaaaa)
40.22Smallquantitiesofsourcematerial.
(a)Agenerallicenseisherebyissuedauthorizingcommercialandindustrialfirms,research,educationalandmedical
institutionsandFederal,Stateandlocalgovernmentagenciestouseandtransfernotmorethanfifteen(15)poundsof
sourcematerialatanyonetimeforresearch,development,educational,commercialoroperationalpurposes.A
personauthorizedtouseortransfersourcematerial,pursuanttothisgenerallicense,maynotreceivemorethana
totalof150poundsofsourcematerialinanyonecalendaryear.
(b)Personswhoreceive,possess,use,ortransfersourcematerialpursuanttothegenerallicenseissuedinparagraph
(a)ofthissectionareexemptfromtheprovisionsofparts19,20,and21,ofthischaptertotheextentthatsuchreceipt,
possession,useortransferarewithinthetermsofsuchgenerallicense:Provided,however,Thatthisexemptionshall
notbedeemedtoapplytoanysuchpersonwhoisalsoinpossessionofsourcematerialunderaspecificlicense
issuedpursuanttothispart.
(c)Personswhoreceive,possess,useortransfersourcematerialpursuanttothegenerallicenseinparagraph(a)of
thissectionareprohibitedfromadministeringsourcematerial,ortheradiationtherefrom,eitherexternallyor
internally,tohumanbeingsexceptasmaybeauthorizedbyNRCinaspecificlicense.
[26FR284,Jan.14,1961,asamendedat38FR22221,Aug.17,1973;42FR28896,June6,1977;45FR55420,Aug.20,
1980]
bbbbbb) 40.23Generallicenseforcarriersoftransientshipmentsofnaturaluranium
otherthanintheformoforeororeresidue.
(a)Agenerallicenseisherebyissuedtoanypersontopossessatransientshipmentofnaturaluranium,otherthanin
theformoforeororeresidue,inamountsexceeding500kilograms.
(b)(1)Personsgenerallylicensedunderparagraph(a)ofthissection,whoplantocarryatransientshipmentwith
scheduledstopsataUnitedStatesport,shallnotifytheDirector,DivisionofNuclearSecurity,OfficeofNuclear
SecurityandIncidentResponse,usinganappropriatemethodlistedin40.5.Thenotificationmustbeinwritingand
mustbereceivedatleast10daysbeforetransportoftheshipmentcommencesattheshippingfacility.
(2)Thenotificationmustincludethefollowinginformation:
(i)LocationofallscheduledstopsinUnitedStatesterritory;
(ii)ArrivalanddeparturetimesforallscheduledstopsinUnitedStatesterritory;
(iii)Thetypeoftransportvehicle;
(iv)Aphysicaldescriptionoftheshipment;
(v)Thenumbersandtypesofcontainers;
(vi)ThenameandtelephonenumberofthecarriersrepresentativesateachstopoverlocationintheUnitedStates
territory;
168
(vii)Alistingofthemodesofshipments,transferpoints,androutestobeused;
(viii)Theestimateddateandtimethatshipmentwillcommenceandthateachnation(otherthantheUnitedStates)
alongtherouteisscheduledtobeentered;
(ix)ForshipmentbetweencountriesthatarenotpartytotheConventiononthePhysicalProtectionofNuclear
Material(i.e.,notlistedinappendixFtopart73ofthischapter),acertificationthatarrangementshavebeenmadeto
notifytheDirector,DivisionofNuclearSecuritywhentheshipmentisreceivedatthedestinationfacility.
(c)PersonsgenerallylicensedunderthissectionmakingunscheduledstopsatUnitedStatesports,immediatelyafter
thedecisiontomakeanunscheduledstop,shallprovidetotheDirector,DivisionofNuclearSecuritytheinformation
requiredunderparagraph(b)ofthissection.
(d)AlicenseewhoneedstoamendanotificationmaydosobytelephoningtheDivisionofNuclearSecurityat(301)
4156828.
[52FR9651,Mar.26,1987,asamendedat53FR4110,Feb.12,1988;60FR24551,May9,1995;68FR58807,Oct.10,
2003]
cccccc)
dddddd)
40.24[Reserved]
40.25Generallicenseforuseofcertainindustrialproductsordevices.
(a)Agenerallicenseisherebyissuedtoreceive,acquire,possess,use,ortransfer,inaccordancewiththeprovisions
ofparagraphs(b),(c),(d),and(e)ofthissection,depleteduraniumcontainedinindustrialproductsordevicesforthe
purposeofprovidingaconcentratedmassinasmallvolumeoftheproductordevice.
(b)Thegenerallicenseinparagraph(a)ofthissectionappliesonlytoindustrialproductsordeviceswhichhavebeen
manufacturedorinitiallytransferredinaccordancewithaspecificlicenseissuedpursuantto40.34(a)ofthispartor
inaccordancewithaspecificlicenseissuedbyanAgreementStatewhichauthorizesmanufactureoftheproductsor
devicesfordistributiontopersonsgenerallylicensedbytheAgreementState.
(c)(1)Personswhoreceive,acquire,possess,orusedepleteduraniumpursuanttothegenerallicenseestablishedby
paragraph(a)ofthissectionshallfileNRCForm244,RegistrationCertificateUseofDepletedUraniumUnder
GeneralLicense,withtheDirectoroftheNRCsDivisionofIndustrialandMedicalNuclearSafety,byan
appropriatemethodlistedin40.5,withacopytotheappropriateNRCRegionalAdministrator.Theformshallbe
submittedwithin30daysafterthefirstreceiptoracquisitionofsuchdepleteduranium.Theregistrantshallfurnish
onFormNRC244thefollowinginformationandsuchotherinformationasmayberequiredbythatform:
(i)Nameandaddressoftheregistrant;
(ii)Astatementthattheregistranthasdevelopedandwillmaintainproceduresdesignedtoestablishphysicalcontrol
overthedepleteduraniumdescribedinparagraph(a)ofthissectionanddesignedtopreventtransferofsuch
depleteduraniuminanyform,includingmetalscrap,topersonsnotauthorizedtoreceivethedepleteduranium;and
(iii)Nameand/ortitle,address,andtelephonenumberoftheindividualdulyauthorizedtoactforandonbehalfof
theregistrantinsupervisingtheproceduresidentifiedinparagraph(c)(1)(ii)ofthissection.
(2)Theregistrantpossessingorusingdepleteduraniumunderthegenerallicenseestablishedbyparagraph(a)ofthis
sectionshallreportinwritingtotheDirector,DivisionofIndustrialandMedicalNuclearSafety,withacopytothe
RegionalAdministratoroftheappropriateU.S.NuclearRegulatoryCommissionRegionalOfficelistedinappendixD
169
ofpart20ofthischapter,anychangesininformationfurnishedbyhimintheFormNRC244Registration
CertificateUseofDepletedUraniumUnderGeneralLicense.Thereportshallbesubmittedwithin30daysafterthe
effectivedateofsuchchange.
(d)Apersonwhoreceives,acquires,possesses,orusesdepleteduraniumpursuanttothegenerallicenseestablished
byparagraph(a)ofthissection:
(1)Shallnotintroducesuchdepleteduranium,inanyform,intoachemical,physical,ormetallurgicaltreatmentor
process,exceptatreatmentorprocessforrepairorrestorationofanyplatingorothercoveringofthedepleted
uranium.
(2)Shallnotabandonsuchdepleteduranium.
(3)Shalltransferordisposeofsuchdepleteduraniumonlybytransferinaccordancewiththeprovisionsof40.51of
thispart.Inthecasewherethetransfereereceivesthedepleteduraniumpursuanttothegenerallicenseestablished
byparagraph(a)ofthissection,thetransferorshallfurnishthetransfereeacopyofthissectionandacopyofForm
NRC244.Inthecasewherethetransfereereceivesthedepleteduraniumpursuanttoagenerallicensecontainedin
anAgreementStatesregulationequivalenttothissection,thetransferorshallfurnishthetransfereeacopyofthis
sectionandacopyofFormNRC244accompaniedbyanoteexplainingthatuseoftheproductordeviceisregulated
bytheAgreementStateunderrequirementssubstantiallythesameasthoseinthissection.
(4)Within30daysofanytransfer,shallreportinwritingtotheDirector,DivisionofIndustrialandMedicalNuclear
Safety,withacopytotheRegionalAdministratoroftheappropriateU.S.NuclearRegulatoryCommissionRegional
OfficelistedinappendixDofpart20ofthischapter,thenameandaddressofthepersonreceivingthesource
materialpursuanttosuchtransfer.
(e)Anypersonreceiving,acquiring,possessing,using,ortransferringdepleteduraniumpursuanttothegeneral
licenseestablishedbyparagraph(a)ofthissectionisexemptfromtherequirementsofparts19,20and21ofthis
chapterwithrespecttothedepleteduraniumcoveredbythatgenerallicense.
[41FR53331,Dec.6,1976,asamendedat42FR28896,June6,1977;43FR6923,Feb.17,1978;43FR52202,Nov.9,
1978;52FR31611,Aug.21,1987;60FR24551,May9,1995;68FR58807,Oct.10,2003]
eeeeee)
40.26Generallicenseforpossessionandstorageofbyproductmaterialas
definedinthispart.
(a)Agenerallicenseisherebyissuedtoreceivetitleto,own,orpossessbyproductmaterialasdefinedinthispart
withoutregardtoformorquantity.
(b)Thegenerallicenseinparagraph(a)ofthissectionappliesonly:InthecaseoflicenseesoftheCommission,where
activitiesthatresultintheproductionofbyproductmaterialareauthorizedunderaspecificlicenseissuedbythe
Commissionpursuanttothispart,tobyproductmaterialpossessedorstoredatanauthorizeddisposalcontainment
areaortransportedincidenttosuchauthorizedactivity:Provided,Thatauthoritytoreceivetitleto,own,orpossess
byproductmaterialunderthisgenerallicenseshallterminatewhenthespecificlicenseforsourcematerialexpires,is
renewed,orisamendedtoincludeaspecificlicenseforbyproductmaterialasdefinedinthispart.
(c)Thegenerallicenseinparagraph(a)ofthissectionissubjectto:
(1)Theprovisionsofparts19,20,21,and40.1,40.2a,40.3,40.4,40.5,40.6,40.41,40.46,40.60,40.61,40.62,40.63,
40.65,40.71,and40.81ofpart40ofthischapter;and
170
(2)Thedocumentationofdailyinspectionsoftailingsorwasteretentionsystemsandtheimmediatenotificationof
theappropriateNRCregionalofficeasindicatedinappendixDto10CFRpart20ofthischapter,ortheDirector,
OfficeofNuclearMaterialSafetyandSafeguards,U.S.NuclearRegulatoryCommission,Washington,DC20555,of
anyfailureinatailingsorwasteretentionsystemthatresultsinareleaseoftailingsorwasteintounrestrictedareas,
orofanyunusualconditions(conditionsnotcontemplatedinthedesignoftheretentionsystem)thatifnotcorrected
couldleadtofailureofthesystemandresultinareleaseoftailingsorwasteintounrestrictedareas;andany
additionalrequirementstheCommissionmaybyorderdeemnecessary.Thelicenseeshallretainthisdocumentation
ofeachdailyinspectionasarecordforthreeyearsaftereachinspectionisdocumented.
(d)Thegenerallicenseinparagraph(a)ofthissectionshallexpireninemonthsfromtheeffectivedateofthis
subparagraphunlessanapplicablelicenseehassubmitted,pursuanttotheprovisionsof40.31ofthispart,an
applicationforlicenserenewaloramendmentwhichincludesadetailedprogramformeetingthetechnicaland
financialcriteriacontainedinappendixAofthispart.
[44FR50014,Aug.24,1979,asamendedat45FR12377,Feb.26,1980;45FR65531,Oct.3,1980;53FR19248,May27,
1988;56FR40768,Aug.16,1991]
ffffff)
40.27Generallicenseforcustodyandlongtermcareofresidualradioactive
materialdisposalsites.
(a)Agenerallicenseisissuedforthecustodyofandlongtermcare,includingmonitoring,maintenance,and
emergencymeasuresnecessarytoprotectpublichealthandsafetyandotheractionsnecessarytocomplywiththe
standardspromulgatedundersection275(a)oftheAtomicEnergyActof1954,asamended,fordisposalsitesunder
titleIoftheUraniumMillTailingsRadiationControlActof1978,asamended.Thelicenseisavailableonlytothe
DepartmentofEnergy,oranotherFederalagencydesignatedbythePresidenttoprovidelongtermcare.The
purposeofthisgenerallicenseistoensurethaturaniummilltailingsdisposalsiteswillbecaredforinsuchamanner
astoprotectthepublichealth,safety,andtheenvironmentafterremedialactionhasbeencompleted.
(b)Thegenerallicenseinparagraph(a)ofthissectionbecomeseffectivewhentheCommissionacceptsasiteLong
TermSurveillancePlan(LTSP)thatmeetstherequirementsofthissection,andwhentheCommissionconcurswith
theDepartmentofEnergysdeterminationofcompletionofremedialactionateachdisposalsite.Thereisno
terminationofthisgenerallicense.TheLTSPmayincorporatebyreferenceinformationcontainedindocuments
previouslysubmittedtotheCommissionifthereferencestotheindividualincorporateddocumentsareclearand
specific.EachLTSPmustinclude
(1)Alegaldescriptionofthedisposalsitetobelicensed,includingdocumentationonwhetherlandandinterestsare
ownedbytheUnitedStatesoranIndiantribe.IfthesiteisonIndianland,then,asspecifiedintheUraniumMill
TailingsRadiationControlActof1978,asamended,theIndiantribeandanypersonholdinganyinterestintheland
shallexecuteawaiverreleasingtheUnitedStatesofanyliabilityorclaimbytheTribeorpersonconcerningorarising
fromtheremedialactionandholdingtheUnitedStatesharmlessagainstanyclaimarisingoutoftheperformanceof
theremedialaction;
(2)Adetaileddescription,whichcanbeintheformofareference,ofthefinaldisposalsiteconditions,including
existinggroundwatercharacterizationandanynecessarygroundwaterprotectionactivitiesorstrategies.This
descriptionmustbedetailedenoughsothatfutureinspectorswillhaveabaselinetodeterminechangestothesite
andwhenthesechangesareseriousenoughtorequiremaintenanceorrepairs.Ifthedisposalsitehascontinuing
aquiferrestorationrequirements,thenthelicensingprocesswillbecompletedintwosteps.Thefirststepincludesall
itemsotherthangroundwaterrestoration.Groundwatermonitoring,whichwouldbeaddressedintheLTSP,may
stillberequiredinthisfirststeptoassessperformanceofthetailingsdisposalunits.WhentheCommissionconcurs
withthecompletionofgroundwaterrestoration,thelicenseeshallassesstheneedtomodifytheLTSPandreport
171
resultstotheCommission.Iftheproposedmodificationsmeettherequirementsofthissection,theLTSPwillbe
consideredsuitabletoaccommodatethesecondstep.
(3)Adescriptionofthelongtermsurveillanceprogram,includingproposedinspectionfrequencyandreportingto
theCommission(asspecifiedinappendixA,criterion12ofthispart),frequencyandextentofgroundwater
monitoringifrequired,appropriateconstituentconcentrationlimitsforgroundwater,inspectionpersonnel
qualifications,inspectionprocedures,recordkeepingandqualityassuranceprocedures;
(4)Thecriteriaforfollowupinspectionsinresponsetoobservationsfromroutineinspectionsorextremenatural
events;and
(5)Thecriteriaforinstitutingmaintenanceoremergencymeasures.
(c)Thelongtermcareagencyunderthegenerallicenseestablishedbyparagraph(a)ofthissectionshall
(1)ImplementtheLTSPasdescribedinparagraph(b)ofthissection;
(2)CareforthedisposalsiteinaccordancewiththeprovisionsoftheLTSP;
(3)NotifytheCommissionofanychangestotheLTSP;thechangesmaynotconflictwiththerequirementsofthis
section;
(4)GuaranteepermanentrightofentrytoCommissionrepresentativesforthepurposeofperiodicsiteinspections;
and
(5)NotifytheCommissionpriortoundertakinganysignificantconstruction,actions,orrepairsrelatedtothe
disposalsite,eveniftheactionisrequiredbyaStateoranotherFederalagency.
(d)AsspecifiedintheUraniumMillTailingsRadiationControlActof1978,asamended,theSecretaryoftheInterior,
withtheconcurrenceoftheSecretaryofEnergyandtheCommission,maysellorleaseanysubsurfacemineralrights
associatedwithlandonwhichresidualradioactivematerialsaredisposed.Insuchcases,theCommissionshallgrant
alicensepermittinguseofthelandifitfindsthattheusewillnotdisturbtheresidualradioactivematerialsorthat
theresidualradioactivematerialswillberestoredtoasafeandenvironmentallysoundconditioniftheyare
disturbedbytheuse.
(e)Thegenerallicenseinparagraph(a)ofthissectionisexemptfromparts19,20,and21ofthischapter,unless
significantconstruction,actions,orrepairsarerequired.Ifthesetypesofactionsaretobeundertaken,thelicensee
shallexplaintotheCommissionwhichrequirementsfromthesepartsapplyfortheactionsandcomplywiththe
appropriaterequirements.
[55FR45598,Oct.30,1990]
gggggg) 40.28Generallicenseforcustodyandlongtermcareofuraniumorthorium
byproductmaterialsdisposalsites.
(a)Agenerallicenseisissuedforthecustodyofandlongtermcare,includingmonitoring,maintenance,and
emergencymeasuresnecessarytoprotectthepublichealthandsafetyandotheractionsnecessarytocomplywiththe
standardsinthispartforuraniumorthoriummilltailingssitesclosedundertitleIIoftheUraniumMillTailings
RadiationControlActof1978,asamended.ThelicenseewillbetheDepartmentofEnergy,anotherFederalagency
designatedbythePresident,oraStatewherethedisposalsiteislocated.Thepurposeofthisgenerallicenseisto
172
ensurethaturaniumandthoriummilltailingsdisposalsiteswillbecaredforinsuchamannerastoprotectthe
publichealth,safety,andtheenvironmentafterclosure.
(b)Thegenerallicenseinparagraph(a)ofthissectionbecomeseffectivewhentheCommissionterminates,orconcurs
inanAgreementStatesterminationof,thecurrentspecificlicenseandasiteLongTermSurveillancePlan(LTSP)
meetingtherequirementsofthissectionhasbeenacceptedbytheCommission.Thereisnoterminationofthis
generallicense.IftheLTSPhasnotbeenformallyreceivedbytheNRCpriortoterminationofthecurrentspecific
license,theCommissionmayissueaspecificordertotheintendedcustodialagencytoensurecontinuedcontroland
surveillanceofthedisposalsitetoprotectthepublichealth,safety,andtheenvironment.TheCommissionwillnot
unnecessarilydelaytheterminationofthespecificlicensesolelyonthebasisthatanacceptableLTSPhasnotbeen
received.TheLTSPmayincorporatebyreferenceinformationcontainedindocumentspreviouslysubmittedtothe
Commissionifthereferencestotheindividualincorporateddocumentsareclearandspecific.EachLTSPmust
include
(1)Alegaldescriptionofthedisposalsitetobetransferred(unlesstransferisexemptedunderprovisionsofthe
AtomicEnergyAct,83(b)(1)(A))andlicensed;
(2)Adetaileddescription,whichcanbeintheformofareferenceofthefinaldisposalsiteconditions,including
existinggroundwatercharacterization.Thisdescriptionmustbedetailedenoughsothatfutureinspectorswillhave
abaselinetodeterminechangestothesiteandwhenthesechangesareseriousenoughtorequiremaintenanceor
repairs;
(3)Adescriptionofthelongtermsurveillanceprogram,includingproposedinspectionfrequencyandreportingto
theCommission(asspecifiedinappendixA,Criterion12ofthispart),frequencyandextentofgroundwater
monitoringifrequired,appropriateconstituentconcentrationlimitsforgroundwater,inspectionpersonnel
qualifications,inspectionprocedures,recordkeepingandqualityassuranceprocedures;
(4)Thecriteriaforfollowupinspectionsinresponsetoobservationsfromroutineinspectionsorextremenatural
events;and
(5)Thecriteriaforinstitutingmaintenanceoremergencymeasures.
(c)Thelongtermcareagencywhohasagenerallicenseestablishedbyparagraph(a)ofthissectionshall
(1)ImplementtheLTSPasdescribedinparagraph(b)ofthissection;
(2)CareforthedisposalsiteinaccordancewiththeprovisionsoftheLTSP;
(3)NotifytheCommissionofanychangestotheLTSP;thechangesmaynotconflictwiththerequirementsofthis
section;
(4)GuaranteepermanentrightofentrytoCommissionrepresentativesforthepurposeofperiodicsiteinspections;
and
(5)NotifytheCommissionpriortoundertakinganysignificantconstruction,actions,orrepairsrelatedtothe
disposalsite,eveniftheactionisrequiredbyaStateoranotherFederalagency.
(d)Uponapplication,theCommissionmayissueaspecificlicense,asspecifiedintheUraniumMillTailings
RadiationControlActof1978,asamended,permittingtheuseofsurfaceand/orsubsurfaceestatestransferredtothe
UnitedStatesoraState.Althoughanapplicationmaybereceivedfromanyperson,ifpermissionisgranted,the
173
personwhotransferredthelandtoDOEortheStateshallreceivetherightoffirstrefusalwithrespecttothisuseof
theland.Theapplicationmustdemonstratethat
(1)Theproposedactiondoesnotendangerthepublichealth,safety,welfare,ortheenvironment;
(2)Whethertheproposedactionisofatemporaryorpermanentnature,thesitewouldbemaintainedand/orrestored
tomeetrequirementsinappendixAofthispartforclosedsites;and
(3)Adequatefinancialarrangementsareinplacetoensurethatthebyproductmaterialswillnotbedisturbed,orif
disturbedthattheapplicantisabletorestorethesitetoasafeandenvironmentallysoundcondition.
(e)Thegenerallicenseinparagraph(a)ofthissectionisexemptfromparts19,20,and21ofthischapter,unless
significantconstruction,actions,orrepairsarerequired.Ifthesetypesofactionsaretobeundertaken,thelicensee
shallexplaintotheCommissionwhichrequirementsfromthesepartsapplyfortheactionsandcomplywiththe
appropriaterequirements.
(f)IncaseswheretheCommissiondeterminesthattransferoftitleoflandusedfordisposalofanybyproduct
materialstotheUnitedStatesoranyappropriateStateisnotnecessarytoprotectthepublichealth,safetyorwelfare
ortominimizeoreliminatedangertolifeorproperty(AtomicEnergyAct,83(b)(1)(A)),theCommissionwill
considerspecificmodificationsofthecustodialagencysLTSPprovisionsonacasebycasebasis.
[55FR45599,Oct.30,1990]
hhhhhh)
iiiiii)
LicenseApplications
40.31Applicationforspecificlicenses.
(a)ApersonmayfileanapplicationforspecificlicenseonNRCForm313,ApplicationforMaterialLicense,in
accordancewiththeinstructionsin40.5ofthischapter.Informationcontainedinpreviousapplications,statements
orreportsfiledwiththeCommissionmaybeincorporatedbyreferenceprovidedthatthereferenceisclearand
specific.
(b)TheCommissionmayatanytimeafterthefilingoftheoriginalapplication,andbeforetheexpirationofthe
license,requirefurtherstatementsinordertoenabletheCommissiontodeterminewhethertheapplicationshouldbe
grantedordeniedorwhetheralicenseshouldbemodifiedorrevoked.Allapplicationsandstatementsshallbe
signedbytheapplicantorlicenseeorapersondulyauthorizedtoactforandonhisbehalf.
(c)ApplicationsanddocumentssubmittedtotheCommissioninconnectionwithapplicationswillbemadeavailable
forpublicinspectioninaccordancewiththeprovisionsoftheregulationscontainedinparts2and9ofthischapter.
(d)Anapplicationforalicensefiledpursuanttotheregulationsinthispartwillbeconsideredalsoasanapplication
forlicensesauthorizingotheractivitiesforwhichlicensesarerequiredbytheAct:Provided,Thattheapplication
specifiestheadditionalactivitiesforwhichlicensesarerequestedandcomplieswithregulationsoftheCommission
astoapplicationsforsuchlicenses.
(e)Eachapplicationforasourcemateriallicense,otherthanalicenseexemptedfrompart170ofthischapter,shallbe
accompaniedbythefeeprescribedin170.31ofthischapter.Nofeewillberequiredtoaccompanyanapplication
forrenewaloramendmentofalicense,exceptasprovidedin170.31ofthischapter.
(f)Anapplicationforalicensetopossessandusesourcematerialforuraniummilling,productionofuranium
hexafluoride,orfortheconductofanyotheractivitywhichtheCommissionhasdeterminedpursuanttosubpartAof
174
part51ofthischapterwillsignificantlyaffectthequalityoftheenvironmentshallbefiledatleast9monthspriorto
commencementofconstructionoftheplantorfacilityinwhichtheactivitywillbeconductedandshallbe
accompaniedbyanyEnvironmentalReportrequiredpursuanttosubpartAofpart51ofthischapter.
(g)InresponsetoawrittenrequestbytheCommission,anapplicantforalicensetopossessandusesourcematerial
inauraniumhexafluorideproductionplantorafuelfabricationplantandanyotherapplicantforalicensetopossess
andusemorethanoneeffectivekilogramofsourcematerial(exceptfororeprocessing,asdefinedin75.4(o)ofthis
chapter)shallfilewiththeCommissiontheinstallationinformationdescribedin75.11ofthischapter,onFormN
71.TheapplicantshallalsopermitverificationofthisinstallationinformationbytheInternationalAtomicEnergy
AgencyandtakeotheractionasmaybenecessarytoimplementtheUS/IAEASafeguardsAgreement,inthemanner
setforth75.6and75.11through75.14ofthischapter.
(h)Anapplicationforalicensetoreceive,possess,andusesourcematerialforuraniumorthoriummillingor
byproductmaterial,asdefinedinthispart,atsitesformerlyassociatedwithsuchmillingshallcontainproposed
writtenspecificationsrelatingtomillingoperationsandthedispositionofthebyproductmaterialtoachievethe
requirementsandobjectivessetforthinappendixAofthispart.Eachapplicationmustclearlydemonstratehowthe
requirementsandobjectivessetforthinappendixAofthisparthavebeenaddressed.Failuretoclearlydemonstrate
howtherequirementsandobjectivesinappendixAhavebeenaddressedshallbegroundsforrefusingtoacceptan
application.
(i)Asprovidedby40.36,certainapplicationsforspecificlicensesfiledunderthispartmustcontainaproposed
decommissioningfundingplanoracertificationoffinancialassurancefordecommissioning.Inthecaseofrenewal
applicationssubmittedbeforeJuly27,1990,thissubmittalmayfollowtherenewalapplicationbutmustbesubmitted
onorbeforeJuly27,1990.
(j)(1)Eachapplicationtopossessuraniumhexafluorideinexcessof50kilogramsinasinglecontaineror1000
kilogramstotalmustcontaineither:
(i)Anevaluationshowingthatthemaximumintakeofuraniumbyamemberofthepublicduetoareleasewouldnot
exceed2milligrams;or
(ii)Anemergencyplanforrespondingtotheradiologicalhazardsofanaccidentalreleaseofsourcematerialandto
anyassociatedchemicalhazardsdirectlyincidentthereto.
(2)Oneormoreofthefollowingfactorsmaybeusedtosupportanevaluationsubmittedunderparagraph(j)(1)(i)of
thissection:
(i)Allorpartoftheradioactivematerialisnotsubjecttoreleaseduringanaccidentbecauseofthewayitisstoredor
packaged;
(ii)Facilitydesignorengineeredsafetyfeaturesinthefacilitywouldreducetheamountoftherelease;or
(iii)Otherfactorsappropriateforthespecificfacility.
(3)Anemergencyplansubmittedunderparagraph(j)(1)(ii)ofthissectionmustincludethefollowing:
(i)Facilitydescription.Abriefdescriptionofthelicenseesfacilityandareanearthesite.
(ii)Typesofaccidents.Anidentificationofeachtypeofaccidentforwhichprotectiveactionsmaybeneeded.
(iii)Classificationofaccidents.Aclassificationsystemforclassifyingaccidentsasalertsorsiteareaemergencies.
175
(iv)Detectionofaccidents.Identificationofthemeansofdetectingeachtypeofradioactivematerialsaccidentina
timelymanner.
(v)Mitigationofconsequences.Abriefdescriptionofthemeansandequipmentformitigatingtheconsequencesof
eachtypeofaccident,includingthoseprovidedtoprotectworkersonsite,andadescriptionoftheprogramfor
maintainingtheequipment.
(vi)Assessmentofreleases.Abriefdescriptionofthemethodsandequipmenttoassessreleasesofradioactive
materials.
(vii)Responsibilities.Abriefdescriptionoftheresponsibilitiesoflicenseepersonnelshouldanaccidentoccur,
includingidentificationofpersonnelresponsibleforpromptlynotifyingoffsiteresponseorganizationsandtheNRC;
alsoresponsibilitiesfordeveloping,maintaining,andupdatingtheplan.
(viii)Notificationandcoordination.Acommitmenttoandabriefdescriptionofthemeanstopromptlynotifyoffsite
responseorganizationsandrequestoffsiteassistance,includingmedicalassistanceforthetreatmentofcontaminated
injuredonsiteworkerswhenappropriate.Acontrolpointmustbeestablished.Thenotificationandcoordination
mustbeplannedsothatunavailabilityofsomepersonnel,partsofthefacility,andsomeequipmentwillnotprevent
thenotificationandcoordination.ThelicenseeshallalsocommittonotifytheNRCoperationscenterimmediately
afternotificationoftheoffsiteresponseorganizationsandnotlaterthanonehourafterthelicenseedeclaresan
emergency.1
(ix)Informationtobecommunicated.Abriefdescriptionofthetypesofinformationonfacilitystatus,radioactive
releases,andrecommendedprotectiveactions,ifnecessary,tobegiventooffsiteresponseorganizationsandtothe
NRC.
(x)Training.Abriefdescriptionofthefrequency,performanceobjectivesandplansforthetrainingthatthelicensee
willprovideworkersonhowtorespondtoanemergencyincludinganyspecialinstructionsandorientationtoursthe
licenseewouldoffertofire,police,medicalandotheremergencypersonnel.Thetrainingshallfamiliarizepersonnel
withsitespecificemergencyprocedures.Also,thetrainingshallthoroughlypreparesitepersonnelfortheir
responsibilitiesintheeventofaccidentscenariospostulatedasmostprobableforthespecificsite,includingtheuse
ofteamtrainingforsuchscenarios.
(xi)Safeshutdown.Abriefdescriptionofthemeansofrestoringthefacilitytoasafeconditionafteranaccident.
(xii)Exercises.Provisionsforconductingquarterlycommunicationscheckswithoffsiteresponseorganizationsand
biennialonsiteexercisestotestresponsetosimulatedemergencies.Quarterlycommunicationscheckswithoffsite
responseorganizationsmustincludethecheckandupdateofallnecessarytelephonenumbers.Thelicenseeshall
inviteoffsiteresponseorganizationstoparticipateinthebiennialexercises.Participationofoffsiteresponse
organizationsinbiennialexercisesalthoughrecommendedisnotrequired.Exercisesmustuseaccidentscenarios
postulatedasmostprobableforthespecificsiteandthescenariosshallnotbeknowntomostexerciseparticipants.
Thelicenseeshallcritiqueeachexerciseusingindividualsnothavingdirectimplementationresponsibilityforthe
plan.Critiquesofexercisesmustevaluatetheappropriatenessoftheplan,emergencyprocedures,facilities,
equipment,trainingofpersonnel,andoveralleffectivenessoftheresponse.Deficienciesfoundbythecritiquesmust
becorrected.
(xiii)Hazardouschemicals.AcertificationthattheapplicationhasmetitsresponsibilitiesundertheEmergency
PlanningandCommunityRighttoKnowActof1986,titleIII,Pub.L.99499,ifapplicabletotheapplicantsactivities
attheproposedplaceoftheuseofthesourcematerial.
176
(4)Thelicenseeshallallowtheoffsiteresponseorganizationsexpectedtorespondincaseofanaccident60daysto
commentonthelicenseesemergencyplanbeforesubmittingittotheNRC.Thelicenseeshallprovideanycomments
receivedwithinthe60daystotheNRCwiththeemergencyplan.
(k)AlicenseapplicationforauraniumenrichmentfacilitymustbeaccompaniedbyanEnvironmentalReport
requiredundersubpartAofpart51ofthischapter.
(l)Alicenseapplicationthatinvolvestheuseofsourcematerialinauraniumenrichmentfacilitymustincludethe
applicantsprovisionsforliabilityinsurance.
[26FR284,Jan.14,1961,asamendedat31FR4669,Mar.19,1966;34FR19546,Dec.11,1969;36FR145,Jan.6,1971;
37FR5748,Mar.21,1972;46FR13497,Feb.23,1981;49FR9403,Mar.12,1984;49FR19626,May9,1984;49FR21699,
May23,1984;49FR27924,July9,1984;53FR24047,June27,1988;54FR14061,Apr.7,1989;57FR18390,Apr.30,
1992;68FR58807,Oct.10,2003]
1Thesereportingrequirementsdonotsupersedeorreleaselicenseesofcomplyingwiththerequirementsunderthe
EmergencyPlanningandCommunityRighttoKnowActof1986,TitleIII.Pub.L.99499orotherstateorfederal
reportingrequirements.
jjjjjj)
40.32Generalrequirementsforissuanceofspecificlicenses.
Anapplicationforaspecificlicensewillbeapprovedif:
(a)TheapplicationisforapurposeauthorizedbytheAct;and
(b)Theapplicantisqualifiedbyreasonoftrainingandexperiencetousethesourcematerialforthepurpose
requestedinsuchmannerastoprotecthealthandminimizedangertolifeorproperty;and
(c)Theapplicantsproposedequipment,facilitiesandproceduresareadequatetoprotecthealthandminimize
dangertolifeorproperty;and
(d)Theissuanceofthelicensewillnotbeinimicaltothecommondefenseandsecurityortothehealthandsafetyof
thepublic;and
(e)Inthecaseofanapplicationforalicenseforauraniumenrichmentfacility,orforalicensetopossessanduse
sourceandbyproductmaterialforuraniummilling,productionofuraniumhexafluoride,orfortheconductofany
otheractivitywhichtheCommissiondetermineswillsignificantlyaffectthequalityoftheenvironment,theDirector
ofNuclearMaterialSafetyandSafeguardsorhisdesignee,beforecommencementofconstructionoftheplantor
facilityinwhichtheactivitywillbeconducted,onthebasisofinformationfiledandevaluationsmadepursuantto
subpartAofpart51ofthischapter,hasconcluded,afterweighingtheenvironmental,economic,technicalandother
benefitsagainstenvironmentalcostsandconsideringavailablealternatives,thattheactioncalledforistheissuance
oftheproposedlicense,withanyappropriateconditionstoprotectenvironmentalvalues.Commencementof
constructionpriortothisconclusionisgroundsfordenialofalicensetopossessandusesourceandbyproduct
materialintheplantorfacility.Asusedinthisparagraph,thetermcommencementofconstructionmeansany
clearingofland,excavation,orothersubstantialactionthatwouldadverselyaffecttheenvironmentofasite.The
termdoesnotmeansiteexploration,roadsnecessaryforsiteexploration,boringstodeterminefoundation
conditions,orotherpreconstructionmonitoringortestingtoestablishbackgroundinformationrelatedtothe
suitabilityofthesiteortheprotectionofenvironmentalvalues.
(f)Theapplicantsatisfiesanyapplicablespecialrequirementscontainedin40.34.
177
(g)Iftheproposedactivityinvolvesuseofsourcematerialinauraniumenrichmentfacility,theapplicanthas
satisfiedtheapplicableprovisionsofpart140ofthischapter.
[26FR284,Jan.14,1961,asamendedat36FR12731,July7,1971;40FR8787,Mar.3,1975;41FR53332,Dec.6,1976;
43FR6924,Feb.17,1978;49FR9403,Mar.12,1984;57FR18390,Apr.30,1992]
kkkkkk)
40.33Issuanceofalicenseforauraniumenrichmentfacility.
(a)TheCommissionwillholdahearingpursuantto10CFRpart2,subpartsA,G,andI,oneachapplicationwith
regardtothelicensingoftheconstructionandoperationofauraniumenrichmentfacility.TheCommissionwill
publishpublicnoticeofthehearingintheFederalRegisteratleast30daysbeforethehearing.
(b)Alicenseforauraniumenrichmentfacilitymaynotbeissuedbeforethehearingiscompletedandadecision
issuedontheapplication.
[57FR18391,Apr.30,1992]
llllll)
40.34Specialrequirementsforissuanceofspecificlicenses.
(a)Anapplicationforaspecificlicensetomanufactureindustrialproductsanddevicescontainingdepleteduranium,
ortoinitiallytransfersuchproductsordevices,forusepursuantto40.25ofthispartorequivalentregulationsofan
AgreementState,willbeapprovedif:
(1)Theapplicantsatisfiesthegeneralrequirementsspecifiedin40.32;
(2)Theapplicantsubmitssufficientinformationrelatingtothedesign,manufacture,prototypetesting,qualitycontrol
procedures,labelingormarking,proposeduses,andpotentialhazardsoftheindustrialproductordevicetoprovide
reasonableassurancethatpossession,use,ortransferofthedepleteduraniumintheproductordeviceisnotlikelyto
causeanyindividualtoreceivein1yeararadiationdoseinexcessof10percentoftheannuallimitsspecifiedin
20.1201(a)ofthischapter;and
(3)Theapplicantsubmitssufficientinformationregardingtheindustrialproductordeviceandthepresenceof
depleteduraniumforamassvolumeapplicationintheproductordevicetoprovidereasonableassurancethat
uniquebenefitswillaccruetothepublicbecauseoftheusefulnessoftheproductordevice.
(b)Inthecaseofanindustrialproductordevicewhoseuniquebenefitsarequestionable,theCommissionwill
approveanapplicationforaspecificlicenseunderthisparagraphonlyiftheproductordeviceisfoundtocombinea
highdegreeofutilityandlowprobabilityofuncontrolleddisposalanddispersalofsignificantquantitiesofdepleted
uraniumintotheenvironment.
(c)TheCommissionmaydenyanapplicantforaspecificlicenseunderthisparagraphiftheendusesoftheindustrial
productordevicecannotbereasonablyforeseen.
[41FR53332,Dec.6,1976,asamendedat43FR6924,Feb.17,1978;58FR67661,Dec.22,1993;59FR41643,Aug.15,
1994]
mmmmmm)
40.35Conditionsofspecificlicensesissuedpursuantto40.34.
Eachpersonlicensedpursuantto40.34shall:
178
(a)Maintainthelevelofqualitycontrolrequiredbythelicenseinthemanufactureoftheindustrialproductordevice,
andintheinstallationofthedepleteduraniumintotheproductordevice;
(b)Labelormarkeachunitto:(1)Identifythemanufacturerorinitialtransferoroftheproductordeviceandthe
numberofthelicenseunderwhichtheproductordevicewasmanufacturedorinitiallytransferred,thefactthatthe
productordevicecontainsdepleteduranium,andthequantityofdepleteduraniumineachproductordevice;and
(2)statethatthereceipt,possession,use,andtransferoftheproductordevicearesubjecttoagenerallicenseorthe
equivalentandtheregulationsoftheU.S.NRCorofanAgreementState;
(c)Assurethatthedepleteduraniumbeforebeinginstalledineachproductordevicehasbeenimpressedwiththe
followinglegendclearlylegiblethroughanyplatingorothercovering:DepletedUranium;
(d)(1)Furnishacopyofthegenerallicensecontainedin40.25andacopyofFormNRC244toeachpersontowhom
hetransferssourcematerialinaproductordeviceforusepursuanttothegenerallicensecontainedin40.25;or
(2)FurnishacopyofthegenerallicensecontainedintheAgreementStatesregulationequivalentto40.25anda
copyoftheAgreementStatescertificate,oralternately,furnishacopyofthegenerallicensecontainedin40.25and
acopyofFormNRC244toeachpersontowhomhetransferssourcematerialinaproductordeviceforusepursuant
tothegenerallicenseofanAgreementState.Ifacopyofthegenerallicensein40.25andacopyofFormNRC244
arefurnishedtosuchperson,theyshallbeaccompaniedbyanoteexplainingthatuseoftheproductordeviceis
regulatedbytheAgreementStateunderrequirementssubstantiallythesameasthosein40.25;and
(e)(1)ReporttotheDirectoroftheOfficeofNuclearMaterialSafetyandSafeguards,byanappropriatemethodlisted
in40.5,alltransfersofindustrialproductsordevicestopersonsforuseunderthegenerallicensein40.25.Such
reportshallidentifyeachgenerallicenseebynameandaddress,anindividualbynameand/orpositionwhomay
constituteapointofcontactbetweentheCommissionandthegenerallicensee,thetypeandmodelnumberofdevice
transferred,andthequantityofdepleteduraniumcontainedintheproductordevice.Thereportshallbesubmitted
within30daysaftertheendofeachcalendarquarterinwhichsuchaproductordeviceistransferredtothegenerally
licensedperson.Ifnotransfershavebeenmadetopersonsgenerallylicensedunder40.25duringthereporting
period,thereportshallsoindicate;
(2)ReporttotheresponsibleAgreementStateAgencyalltransfersofindustrialproductsordevicestopersonsforuse
underthegenerallicenseintheAgreementStatesregulationequivalentto40.25.Suchreportshallidentifyeach
generallicenseebynameandaddress,anindividualbynameand/orpositionwhomayconstituteapointofcontact
betweentheAgencyandthegenerallicensee,thetypeandmodelnumberofdevicetransferred,andthequantityof
depleteduraniumcontainedintheproductordevice.Thereportshallbesubmittedwithin30daysaftertheendof
eachcalendarquarterinwhichsuchproductordeviceistransferredtothegenerallylicensedperson.Ifnotransfers
havebeenmadetoaparticularAgreementStateduringthereportingperiod,thisinformationshallbereportedtothe
responsibleAgreementStateAgency;
(3)Keeprecordsshowingthename,address,andapointofcontactforeachgenerallicensetowhomheorshe
transfersdepleteduraniuminindustrialproductsordevicesforusepursuanttothegenerallicenseprovidedin
40.25orequivalentregulationsofanAgreementState.Therecordsmustberetainedforthreeyearsfromthedateof
transferandmustshowthedateofeachtransfer,thequantityofdepleteduraniumineachproductordevice
transferred,andcompliancewiththereportrequirementsofthissection.
(f)Licenseesrequiredtosubmitemergencyplansby40.31(i)shallfollowtheemergencyplanapprovedbythe
Commission.ThelicenseemaychangetheplanwithoutCommissionapprovalifthechangesdonotdecreasethe
effectivenessoftheplan.ThelicenseeshallfurnishthechangetotheDirectoroftheOfficeofNuclearMaterialSafety
andSafeguards,byanappropriatemethodlistedin40.5,andtoaffectedoffsiteresponseorganizations,withinsix
monthsafterthechangeismade.Proposedchangesthatdecreasetheeffectivenessoftheapprovedemergencyplan
maynotbeimplementedwithoutapplicationtoandpriorapprovalbytheCommission.
179
[41FR53332,Dec.6,1976,asamendedat43FR6924,Feb.17,1978;52FR31611,Aug.21,1987;53FR19248,May27,
1988;54FR14062,Apr.7,1989;68FR58807,Oct.10,2003]
nnnnnn) 40.36Financialassuranceandrecordkeepingfordecommissioning.
Exceptforlicensesauthorizingthereceipt,possession,anduseofsourcematerialforuraniumorthoriummilling,or
byproductmaterialatsitesformerlyassociatedwithsuchmilling,forwhichfinancialassurancerequirementsareset
forthinappendixAofthispart,criteriaforprovidingfinancialassurancefordecommissioningareasfollows:
(a)Eachapplicantforaspecificlicenseauthorizingthepossessionanduseofmorethan100mCiofsourcematerialin
areadilydispersibleformshallsubmitadecommissioningfundingplanasdescribedinparagraph(d)ofthissection.
(b)Eachapplicantforaspecificlicenseauthorizingpossessionanduseofquantitiesofsourcematerialgreaterthan10
mCibutlessthanorequalto100mCiinareadilydispersibleformshalleither
(1)Submitadecommissioningfundingplanasdescribedinparagraph(d)ofthissection;or
(2)Submitacertificationthatfinancialassurancefordecommissioninghasbeenprovidedintheamountof$225,000
byJune2,2005usingoneofthemethodsdescribedinparagraph(e)ofthissection.Foranapplicant,thiscertification
maystatethattheappropriateassurancewillbeobtainedaftertheapplicationhasbeenapprovedandthelicense
issuedbutbeforethereceiptoflicensedmaterial.Iftheapplicantdefersexecutionofthefinancialinstrumentuntil
afterthelicensehasbeenissued,asignedoriginalofthefinancialinstrumentobtainedtosatisfytherequirementsof
paragraph(e)ofthissectionmustbesubmittedtoNRCpriortoreceiptoflicensedmaterial.Iftheapplicantdoesnot
deferexecutionofthefinancialinstrument,theapplicantshallsubmittoNRC,aspartofthecertification,asigned
originalofthefinancialinstrumentobtainedtosatisfytherequirementsofparagraph(e)ofthissection.
(c)(1)EachholderofaspecificlicenseissuedonorafterJuly27,1990,whichiscoveredbyparagraph(a)or(b)ofthis
section,shallprovidefinancialassurancefordecommissioninginaccordancewiththecriteriasetforthinthissection.
(2)EachholderofaspecificlicenseissuedbeforeJuly27,1990,andofatypedescribedinparagraph(a)ofthissection
shallsubmitadecommissioningfundingplanasdescribedinparagraph(d)ofthissectionoracertificationof
financialassurancefordecommissioninginanamountatleastequalto$1,125,000inaccordancewiththecriteriaset
forthinthissection.Ifthelicenseesubmitsthecertificationoffinancialassuranceratherthanadecommissioning
fundingplan,thelicenseeshallincludeadecommissioningfundingplaninanyapplicationforlicenserenewal.
Licenseesrequiredtosubmitthe$1,125,000amountmustdosobyDecember2,2004.
(3)EachholderofaspecificlicenseissuedbeforeJuly27,1990,andofatypedescribedinparagraph(b)ofthissection
shallsubmit,onorbeforeJuly27,1990,adecommissioningfundingplan,asdescribedinparagraph(d)ofthis
section,oracertificationoffinancialassurancefordecommissioninginaccordancewiththecriteriasetforthinthis
section.
(4)AnylicenseewhohassubmittedanapplicationbeforeJuly27,1990,forrenewaloflicenseinaccordancewith
40.43shallprovidefinancialassurancefordecommissioninginaccordancewithparagraphs(a)and(b)ofthissection.
ThisassurancemustbesubmittedwhenthisrulebecomeseffectiveNovember24,1995.
(d)Eachdecommissioningfundingplanmustcontainacostestimatefordecommissioningandadescriptionofthe
methodofassuringfundsfordecommissioningfromparagraph(e)ofthissection,includingmeansforadjustingcost
estimatesandassociatedfundinglevelsperiodicallyoverthelifeofthefacility.Costestimatesmustbeadjustedat
intervalsnottoexceed3years.Thedecommissioningfundingplanmustalsocontainacertificationbythelicensee
thatfinancialassurancefordecommissioninghasbeenprovidedintheamountofthecostestimatefor
180
decommissioningandasignedoriginalofthefinancialinstrumentobtainedtosatisfytherequirementsofparagraph
(e)ofthissection.
(e)Financialassurancefordecommissioningmustbeprovidedbyoneormoreofthefollowingmethods:
(1)Prepayment.Prepaymentisthedepositpriortothestartofoperationintoanaccountsegregatedfromlicensee
assetsandoutsidethelicenseesadministrativecontrolofcashorliquidassetssuchthattheamountoffundswould
besufficienttopaydecommissioningcosts.Prepaymentmaybeintheformofatrust,escrowaccount,government
fund,certificateofdeposit,ordepositofgovernmentsecurities.
(2)Asuretymethod,insurance,orotherguaranteemethod.Thesemethodsguaranteethatdecommissioningcosts
willbepaid.Asuretymethodmaybeintheformofasuretybond,letterofcredit,orlineofcredit.Aparent
companyguaranteeoffundsfordecommissioningcostsbasedonafinancialtestmaybeusediftheguaranteeand
testareascontainedinappendixAtopart30.Aparentcompanyguaranteemaynotbeusedincombinationwith
otherfinancialmethodstosatisfytherequirementsofthissection.Forcommercialcorporationsthatissuebonds,a
guaranteeoffundsbytheapplicantorlicenseefordecommissioningcostsbasedonafinancialtestmaybeusedifthe
guaranteeandtestareascontainedinappendixCtopart30.Forcommercialcompaniesthatdonotissuebonds,a
guaranteeoffundsbytheapplicantorlicenseefordecommissioningcostsmaybeusediftheguaranteeandtestare
ascontainedinappendixDtopart30.Fornonprofitentities,suchascolleges,universities,andnonprofithospitals,a
guaranteeoffundsbytheapplicantorlicenseemaybeusediftheguaranteeandtestareascontainedinappendixE
topart30.Aguaranteebytheapplicantorlicenseemaynotbeusedincombinationwithanyotherfinancialmethods
usedtosatisfytherequirementsofthissectionorinanysituationwheretheapplicantorlicenseehasaparent
companyholdingmajoritycontrolofthevotingstockofthecompany.Anysuretymethodorinsuranceusedto
providefinancialassurancefordecommissioningmustcontainthefollowingconditions:
(i)Thesuretymethodorinsurancemustbeopenendedor,ifwrittenforaspecifiedterm,suchasfiveyears,mustbe
renewedautomaticallyunless90daysormorepriortotherenewaldate,theissuernotifiestheCommission,the
beneficiary,andthelicenseeofitsintentionnottorenew.Thesuretymethodorinsurancemustalsoprovidethatthe
fullfaceamountbepaidtothebeneficiaryautomaticallypriortotheexpirationwithoutproofofforfeitureifthe
licenseefailstoprovideareplacementacceptabletotheCommissionwithin30daysafterreceiptofnotificationof
cancellation.
(ii)Thesuretymethodorinsurancemustbepayabletoatrustestablishedfordecommissioningcosts.Thetrusteeand
trustmustbeacceptabletotheCommission.AnacceptabletrusteeincludesanappropriateStateorFederal
governmentagencyoranentitywhichhastheauthoritytoactasatrusteeandwhosetrustoperationsareregulated
andexaminedbyaFederalorStateagency.
(iii)ThesuretymethodorinsurancemustremainineffectuntiltheCommissionhasterminatedthelicense.
(3)Anexternalsinkingfundinwhichdepositsaremadeatleastannually,coupledwithasuretymethodor
insurance,thevalueofwhichmaydecreasebytheamountbeingaccumulatedinthesinkingfund.Anexternal
sinkingfundisafundestablishedandmaintainedbysettingasidefundsperiodicallyinanaccountsegregatedfrom
licenseeassetsandoutsidethelicenseesadministrativecontrolinwhichthetotalamountoffundswouldbe
sufficienttopaydecommissioningcostsatthetimeterminationofoperationisexpected.Anexternalsinkingfund
maybeintheformofatrust,escrowaccount,governmentfund,certificateofdeposit,ordepositofgovernment
securities.Thesuretyorinsuranceprovisionmustbeasstatedinparagraph(e)(2)ofthissection.
(4)InthecaseofFederal,State,orlocalgovernmentlicensees,astatementofintentcontainingacostestimatefor
decommissioningoranamountbasedonparagraph(b)ofthissection,andindicatingthatfundsfor
decommissioningwillbeobtainedwhennecessary.
181
(5)Whenagovernmentalentityisassumingcustodyandownershipofasite,anarrangementthatisdeemed
acceptablebysuchgovernmentalentity.
(f)Eachpersonlicensedunderthispartshallkeeprecordsofinformationimportanttothedecommissioningofa
facilityinanidentifiedlocationuntilthesiteisreleasedforunrestricteduse.Beforelicensedactivitiesaretransferred
orassignedinaccordancewith40.41(b)licenseesshalltransferallrecordsdescribedinthisparagraphtothenew
licensee.Inthiscase,thenewlicenseewillberesponsibleformaintainingtheserecordsuntilthelicenseisterminated.
Ifrecordsimportanttothedecommissioningofafacilityarekeptforotherpurposes,referencetotheserecordsand
theirlocationsmaybeused.InformationtheCommissionconsidersimportanttodecommissioningconsistsof
(1)Recordsofspillsorotherunusualoccurrencesinvolvingthespreadofcontaminationinandaroundthefacility,
equipment,orsite.Theserecordsmaybelimitedtoinstanceswhencontaminationremainsafteranycleanup
proceduresorwhenthereisreasonablelikelihoodthatcontaminantsmayhavespreadtoinaccessibleareasasinthe
caseofpossibleseepageintoporousmaterialssuchasconcrete.Theserecordsmustincludeanyknowninformation
onidentificationofinvolvednuclides,quantities,forms,andconcentrations.
(2)Asbuiltdrawingsandmodificationsofstructuresandequipmentinrestrictedareaswhereradioactivematerials
areusedand/orstored,andoflocationsofpossibleinaccessiblecontaminationsuchasburiedpipeswhichmaybe
subjecttocontamination.Ifrequireddrawingsarereferenced,eachrelevantdocumentneednotbeindexed
individually.Ifdrawingsarenotavailable,thelicenseeshallsubstituteappropriaterecordsofavailableinformation
concerningtheseareasandlocations.
(3)Exceptforareascontainingdepleteduraniumusedonlyforshieldingoraspenetratorsinunusedmunitions,alist
containedinasingledocumentandupdatedevery2years,ofthefollowing:
(i)Allareasdesignatedandformerlydesignatedasrestrictedareasasdefinedunder10CFR20.1003;
(ii)Allareasoutsideofrestrictedareasthatrequiredocumentationunder40.36(f)(1);
(iii)Allareasoutsideofrestrictedareaswherecurrentandpreviouswasteshavebeenburiedasdocumentedunder
10CFR20.2108;and
(iv)Allareasoutsideofrestrictedareasthatcontainmaterialsuchthat,ifthelicenseexpired,thelicenseewouldbe
requiredtoeitherdecontaminatetheareatomeetthecriteriafordecommissioningin10CFRpart20,subpartE,or
applyforapprovalfordisposalunder10CFR20.2002.
(4)Recordsofthecostestimateperformedforthedecommissioningfundingplanoroftheamountcertifiedfor
decommissioning,andrecordsofthefundingmethodusedforassuringfundsifeitherafundingplanorcertification
isused.
[53FR24047,June27,1988,asamendedat58FR39633,July26,1993;58FR67661,Dec.22,1993;58FR68731,Dec.29,
1993;59FR1618,Jan.12,1994;60FR38238,July26,1995;61FR24674,May16,1996;62FR39090,July21,1997;63FR
29543,June1,1998;68FR57336,Oct.3,2003]
oooooo)
40.38Ineligibilityofcertainapplicants.
AlicensemaynotbeissuedtotheCorporationiftheCommissiondeterminesthat:
(a)TheCorporationisowned,controlled,ordominatedbyanalien,aforeigncorporation,oraforeigngovernment;
or
182
(b)Theissuanceofsuchalicensewouldbeinimicalto
(1)ThecommondefenseandsecurityoftheUnitedStates;or
(2)Themaintenanceofareliableandeconomicaldomesticsourceofenrichmentservices.
[62FR6669,Feb.12,1997]
pppppp)
qqqqqq)
Licenses
40.41Termsandconditionsoflicenses.
(a)Eachlicenseissuedpursuanttotheregulationsinthispartshallbesubjecttoalltheprovisionsoftheact,nowor
hereafterineffect,andtoallrules,regulationsandordersoftheCommission.
(b)Neitherthelicensenoranyrightunderthelicenseshallbeassignedorotherwisetransferredinviolationofthe
provisionsoftheAct.
(c)EachpersonlicensedbytheCommissionpursuanttotheregulationsinthispartshallconfinehispossessionand
useofsourceorbyproductmaterialtothelocationsandpurposesauthorizedinthelicense.Exceptasotherwise
providedinthelicense,alicenseissuedpursuanttotheregulationsinthispartshallcarrywithittherighttoreceive,
possess,andusesourceorbyproductmaterial.Preparationforshipmentandtransportofsourceorbyproduct
materialshallbeinaccordancewiththeprovisionsofpart71ofthischapter.
(d)Eachlicenseissuedpursuanttotheregulationsinthispartshallbedeemedtocontaintheprovisionssetforthin
sections183b.d.,oftheAct,whetherornotsaidprovisionsareexpresslysetforthinthelicense.
(e)TheCommissionmayincorporateinanylicenseatthetimeofissuance,orthereafter,byappropriaterule,
regulationororder,suchadditionalrequirementsandconditionswithrespecttothelicenseesreceipt,possession,
use,andtransferofsourceorbyproductmaterialasitdeemsappropriateornecessaryinorderto:
(1)Promotethecommondefenseandsecurity;
(2)Protecthealthortominimizedangeroflifeorproperty;
(3)Protectrestricteddata;
(4)Requiresuchreportsandthekeepingofsuchrecords,andtoprovideforsuchinspectionsofactivitiesunderthe
licenseasmaybenecessaryorappropriatetoeffectuatethepurposesoftheactandregulationsthereunder.
(f)(1)EachlicenseeshallnotifytheappropriateNRCRegionalAdministrator,inwriting,immediatelyfollowingthe
filingofavoluntaryorinvoluntarypetitionforbankruptcyunderanychapteroftitle11(Bankruptcy)oftheUnited
StatesCodebyoragainst:
(i)Thelicensee;
(ii)Anentity(asthattermisdefinedin11U.S.C.101(14))controllingthelicenseeorlistingthelicenseorlicenseeas
propertyoftheestate;or
(iii)Anaffiliate(asthattermisdefinedin11U.S.C.101(2))ofthelicensee.
183
(2)Thisnotificationmustindicate:
(i)Thebankruptcycourtinwhichthepetitionforbankruptcywasfiled;and
(ii)Thedateofthefilingofthepetition.
(g)NopersonmaycommenceoperationofauraniumenrichmentfacilityuntiltheCommissionverifiesthrough
inspectionthatthefacilityhasbeenconstructedinaccordancewiththerequirementsofthelicense.TheCommission
shallpublishnoticeoftheinspectionresultsintheFederalRegister.
[26FR284,Jan.14,1961,asamendedat31FR15145,Dec.2,1966;45FR65531,Oct.3,1980;48FR32328,July15,1983;
52FR1295,Jan.12,1987;57FR18391,Apr.30,1992]
rrrrrr)
40.42Expirationandterminationoflicensesanddecommissioningofsitesand
separatebuildingsoroutdoorareas.
(a)(1)Exceptasprovidedinparagraph(a)(2)ofthissection,eachspecificlicenseexpiresattheendofthedayonthe
expirationdatestatedinthelicenseunlessthelicenseehasfiledanapplicationforrenewalunder40.43notlessthan
30daysbeforetheexpirationdatestatedintheexistinglicense(or,forthoselicensessubjecttoparagraph(a)(2)of
thissection,30daysbeforethedeemedexpirationdateinthatparagraph).Ifanapplicationforrenewalhasbeenfiled
atleast30daysbeforetheexpirationdatestatedintheexistinglicense(or,forthoselicensessubjecttoparagraph
(a)(2)ofthissection,30daysbeforethedeemedexpirationdateinthatparagraph),theexistinglicenseexpiresatthe
endofthedayonwhichtheCommissionmakesafinaldeterminationtodenytherenewalapplicationor,ifthe
determinationstatesanexpirationdate,theexpirationdatestatedinthedetermination.
(2)EachspecificlicensethathasanexpirationdateafterJuly1,1995,andisnotoneofthelicensesdescribedin
paragraph(a)(3)ofthissection,shallbedeemedtohaveanexpirationdatethatisfiveyearsaftertheexpirationdate
statedinthecurrentlicense.
(3)Thefollowingspecificlicensesarenotsubjectto,orotherwiseaffectedby,theprovisionsofparagraph(a)(2)of
thissection:
(i)Specificlicensesforwhich,onFebruary15,1996,anevaluationoranemergencyplanisrequiredinaccordance
with40.31(j);
(ii)Specificlicenseswhoseholdersaresubjecttothefinancialassurancerequirementsspecifiedin10CFR40.36,and
onFebruary15,1996,theholderseither:
(A)Havenotsubmittedadecommissioningfundingplannorcertificationoffinancialassurancefor
decommissioning;or
(B)Havenotreceivedwrittennoticethatthedecommissioningfundingplanorcertificationoffinancialassurancefor
decommissioningisacceptable;
(iii)SpecificlicenseswhoseholdersarelistedintheSDMPListpublishedinNUREG1444,Supplement1(November
1995);
(iv)Specificlicenseswhoseissuance,amendment,orrenewal,asofFebruary15,1996,isnotacategoricalexclusion
under10CFR51.22(c)(14)and,therefore,needanenvironmentalassessmentorenvironmentalimpactstatement
pursuanttoSubpartAofPart51ofthischapter;
184
(v)SpecificlicenseswhoseholdershavenothadatleastoneNRCinspectionoflicensedactivitiesbeforeFebruary15,
1996;
(vi)Specificlicenseswhoseholders,astheresultofthemostrecentNRCinspectionoflicensedactivitiesconducted
beforeFebruary15,1996,havebeen:
(A)CitedforaSeverityLevelI,II,orIIIviolationinaNoticeofViolation;
(B)SubjecttoanOrderissuedbytheNRC;or
(C)SubjecttoaCALissuedbytheNRC.
(vii)SpecificlicenseswithexpirationdatesbeforeJuly1,1995,forwhichtheholdershavesubmittedapplicationsfor
renewalunder10CFR40.43ofthispart.
(b)EachspecificlicenserevokedbytheCommissionexpiresattheendofthedayonthedateoftheCommissions
finaldeterminationtorevokethelicense,orontheexpirationdatestatedinthedetermination,orasotherwise
providedbyCommissionOrder.
(c)Eachspecificlicensecontinuesineffect,beyondtheexpirationdateifnecessary,withrespecttopossessionof
sourcematerialuntiltheCommissionnotifiesthelicenseeinwritingthatthelicenseisterminated.Duringthistime,
thelicenseeshall
(1)Limitactionsinvolvingsourcematerialtothoserelatedtodecommissioning;and
(2)ContinuetocontrolentrytorestrictedareasuntiltheyaresuitableforreleaseinaccordancewithNRC
requirements;
(d)Within60daysoftheoccurrenceofanyofthefollowing,consistentwiththeadministrativedirectionsin40.5,
eachlicenseeshallprovidenotificationtotheNRCinwritingandeitherbegindecommissioningitssite,orany
separatebuildingoroutdoorareathatcontainsresidualradioactivity,sothatthebuildingoroutdoorareaissuitable
forreleaseinaccordancewithNRCrequirements,orsubmitwithin12monthsofnotificationadecommissioning
plan,ifrequiredbyparagraph(g)(1)ofthissection,andbegindecommissioninguponapprovalofthatplanif
(1)Thelicensehasexpiredpursuanttoparagraph(a)or(b)ofthissection;or
(2)Thelicenseehasdecidedtopermanentlyceaseprincipalactivities,asdefinedinthispart,attheentiresiteorin
anyseparatebuildingoroutdoorarea;or
(3)Noprincipalactivitiesunderthelicensehavebeenconductedforaperiodof24months;or
(4)Noprincipalactivitieshavebeenconductedforaperiodof24monthsinanyseparatebuildingoroutdoorarea
thatcontainsresidualradioactivitysuchthatthebuildingoroutdoorareaisunsuitableforreleaseinaccordancewith
NRCrequirements.
(e)Coincidentwiththenotificationrequiredbyparagraph(d)ofthissection,thelicenseeshallmaintainineffectall
decommissioningfinancialassurancesestablishedbythelicenseepursuantto40.36inconjunctionwithalicense
issuanceorrenewalorasrequiredbythissection.Theamountofthefinancialassurancemustbeincreased,ormay
bedecreased,asappropriate,tocoverthedetailedcostestimatefordecommissioningestablishedpursuantto
paragraph(g)(4)(v)ofthissection.
185
(1)Anylicenseewhohasnotprovidedfinancialassurancetocoverthedetailedcostestimatesubmittedwiththe
decommissioningplanshalldosowhenthisrulebecomeseffectiveNovember24,1995.
(2)Followingapprovalofthedecommissioningplan,alicenseemayreducetheamountofthefinancialassuranceas
decommissioningproceedsandradiologicalcontaminationisreducedatthesitewiththeapprovalofthe
Commission.
(f)TheCommissionmaygrantarequesttodelayorpostponeinitiationofthedecommissioningprocessifthe
Commissiondeterminesthatsuchreliefisnotdetrimentaltothepublichealthandsafetyandisotherwiseinthe
publicinterest.Therequestmustbesubmittednolaterthan30daysbeforenotificationpursuanttoparagraph(d)of
thissection.Theschedulefordecommissioningsetforthinparagraph(d)ofthissectionmaynotcommenceuntilthe
Commissionhasmadeadeterminationontherequest.
(g)(1)Adecommissioningplanmustbesubmittedifrequiredbylicenseconditionoriftheproceduresandactivities
necessarytocarryoutdecommissioningofthesiteorseparatebuildingoroutdoorareahavenotbeenpreviously
approvedbytheCommissionandtheseprocedurescouldincreasepotentialhealthandsafetyimpactstoworkersor
tothepublic,suchasinanyofthefollowingcases:
(i)Procedureswouldinvolvetechniquesnotappliedroutinelyduringcleanupormaintenanceoperations;
(ii)Workerswouldbeenteringareasnotnormallyoccupiedwheresurfacecontaminationandradiationlevelsare
significantlyhigherthanroutinelyencounteredduringoperation;
(iii)Procedurescouldresultinsignificantlygreaterairborneconcentrationsofradioactivematerialsthanarepresent
duringoperation;or
(iv)Procedurescouldresultinsignificantlygreaterreleasesofradioactivematerialtotheenvironmentthanthose
associatedwithoperation.
(2)TheCommissionmayapproveanalternatescheduleforsubmittalofadecommissioningplanrequiredpursuant
toparagraph(d)ofthissectioniftheCommissiondeterminesthatthealternativescheduleisnecessarytothe
effectiveconductofdecommissioningoperationsandpresentsnoundueriskfromradiationtothepublichealthand
safetyandisotherwiseinthepublicinterest.
(3)Theprocedureslistedinparagraph(g)(1)ofthissectionmaynotbecarriedoutpriortoapprovalofthe
decommissioningplan.
(4)Theproposeddecommissioningplanforthesiteorseparatebuildingoroutdoorareamustinclude:
(i)Adescriptionoftheconditionsofthesiteorseparatebuildingoroutdoorareasufficienttoevaluatethe
acceptabilityoftheplan;
(ii)Adescriptionofplanneddecommissioningactivities;
(iii)Adescriptionofmethodsusedtoensureprotectionofworkersandtheenvironmentagainstradiationhazards
duringdecommissioning;
(iv)Adescriptionoftheplannedfinalradiationsurvey;and
(v)Anupdateddetailedcostestimatefordecommissioning,comparisonofthatestimatewithpresentfundssetaside
fordecommissioning,andaplanforassuringtheavailabilityofadequatefundsforcompletionofdecommissioning.
186
(vi)Fordecommissioningplanscallingforcompletionofdecommissioninglaterthan24monthsafterplanapproval,
ajustificationforthedelaybasedonthecriteriainparagraph(i)ofthissection.
(5)TheproposeddecommissioningplanwillbeapprovedbytheCommissioniftheinformationtherein
demonstratesthatthedecommissioningwillbecompletedassoonaspracticableandthatthehealthandsafetyof
workersandthepublicwillbeadequatelyprotected.
(h)(1)Exceptasprovidedinparagraph(i)ofthissection,licenseesshallcompletedecommissioningofthesiteor
separatebuildingoroutdoorareaassoonaspracticablebutnolaterthan24monthsfollowingtheinitiationof
decommissioning.
(2)Exceptasprovidedinparagraph(i)ofthissection,whendecommissioninginvolvestheentiresite,thelicensee
shallrequestlicenseterminationassoonaspracticablebutnolaterthan24monthsfollowingtheinitiationof
decommissioning.
(i)TheCommissionmayapprovearequestforanalternatescheduleforcompletionofdecommissioningofthesiteor
separatebuildingoroutdoorarea,andlicenseterminationifappropriate,iftheCommissiondeterminesthatthe
alternativeiswarrantedbyconsiderationofthefollowing:
(1)Whetheritistechnicallyfeasibletocompletedecommissioningwithintheallotted24monthperiod;
(2)Whethersufficientwastedisposalcapacityisavailabletoallowcompletionofdecommissioningwithinthe
allotted24monthperiod;
(3)Whetherasignificantvolumereductioninwastesrequiringdisposalwillbeachievedbyallowingshortlived
radionuclidestodecay;
(4)Whetherasignificantreductioninradiationexposuretoworkerscanbeachievedbyallowingshortlived
radionuclidestodecay;and
(5)OthersitespecificfactorswhichtheCommissionmayconsiderappropriateonacasebycasebasis,suchasthe
regulatoryrequirementsofothergovernmentagencies,lawsuits,groundwatertreatmentactivities,monitored
naturalgroundwaterrestoration,actionsthatcouldresultinmoreenvironmentalharmthandeferredcleanup,and
otherfactorsbeyondthecontrolofthelicensee.
(j)Asthefinalstepindecommissioning,thelicenseeshall
(1)Certifythedispositionofalllicensedmaterial,includingaccumulatedwastes,bysubmittingacompletedNRC
Form314orequivalentinformation;and
(2)Conductaradiationsurveyofthepremiseswherethelicensedactivitieswerecarriedoutandsubmitareportof
theresultsofthissurvey,unlessthelicenseedemonstratesinsomeothermannerthatthepremisesaresuitablefor
releaseinaccordancewiththecriteriafordecommissioningin10CFRpart20,subpartEor,foruraniummilling
(uraniumandthoriumrecovery)facilities,Criterion6(6)ofAppendixAtothispart.Thelicenseeshall,as
appropriate
(i)Reportlevelsofgammaradiationinunitsofmillisieverts(microroentgen)perhouratonemeterfromsurfaces,
andreportlevelsofradioactivity,includingalphaandbeta,inunitsofmegabecquerels(disintegrationsperminuteor
microcuries)per100squarecentimetersremovableandfixedforsurfaces,megabecquerels(microcuries)permilliliter
forwater,andbecquerels(picocuries)pergramforsolidssuchassoilsorconcrete;and
187
(ii)Specifythesurveyinstrument(s)usedandcertifythateachinstrumentisproperlycalibratedandtested.
(k)Specificlicenses,includingexpiredlicenses,willbeterminatedbywrittennoticetothelicenseewhenthe
Commissiondeterminesthat:
(1)Sourcematerialhasbeenproperlydisposed;
(2)Reasonableefforthasbeenmadetoeliminateresidualradioactivecontamination,ifpresent;and
(3)(i)Aradiationsurveyhasbeenperformedwhichdemonstratesthatthepremisesaresuitableforreleasein
accordancewiththecriteriafordecommissioningin10CFRpart20,subpartE;orforuraniummilling(uraniumand
thoriumrecovery)facilities,Criterion6(6)ofAppendixAtothispart;
(ii)Otherinformationsubmittedbythelicenseeissufficienttodemonstratethatthepremisesaresuitableforrelease
inaccordancewiththecriteriafordecommissioningin10CFRpart20,subpartE.
(4)Recordsrequiredby40.61(d)and(f)havebeenreceived.
(l)Specificlicensesforuraniumandthoriummillingareexemptfromparagraphs(d)(4),(g)and(h)ofthissection
withrespecttoreclamationoftailingsimpoundmentsand/orwastedisposalareas.
[59FR36035,July15,1994,asamendedat60FR38239,July26,1995;61FR1114,Jan.16,1996;61FR24674,May16,
1996;61FR29637,June12,1996;62FR39090,July21,1997;66FR64738,Dec.14,2001;68FR75390,Dec.31,2003]
ssssss)
40.43Renewaloflicenses.
(a)ApplicationforrenewalofaspecificlicensemustbefiledonNRCForm313andinaccordancewith40.31.
(b)Ifanylicenseegrantedtheextensiondescribedin10CFR40.42(a)(2)hasacurrentlypendingrenewalapplication
fortheextendedlicense,thatapplicationwillbeconsideredtobewithdrawnbythelicenseeandanyrenewalfees
paidbythelicenseeforthatapplicationwillberefunded.
[59FR36037,July15,1994,asamendedat61FR1114,Jan.16,1996;62FR52187,Oct.6,1997]
tttttt)
40.44Amendmentoflicensesatrequestoflicensee.
ApplicationsforamendmentofalicenseshallbefiledonNRCForm313inaccordancewith40.31andshallspecify
therespectsinwhichthelicenseedesiresthelicensetobeamendedandthegroundsforsuchamendment.
[49FR19627,May9,1984,asamendedat56FR40768,Aug.16,1991]
uuuuuu) 40.45Commissionactiononapplicationstoreneworamend.
InconsideringanapplicationbyalicenseetoreneworamendhislicensetheCommissionwillapplytheapplicable
criteriasetforthin40.32.
[26FR284,Jan.14,1961,asamendedat43FR6924,Feb.17,1978]
188
vvvvvv)
40.46Inalienabilityoflicenses.
Nolicenseissuedorgrantedpursuanttotheregulationsinthispartshallbetransferred,assignedorinanymanner
disposedof,eithervoluntarilyorinvoluntarily,directlyorindirectly,throughtransferofcontrolofanylicensetoany
person,unlesstheCommissionshallaftersecuringfullinformation,findthatthetransferisinaccordancewiththe
provisionsofthisact,andshallgiveitsconsentinwriting.
wwwwww)
TransferofSourceMaterial
xxxxxx) 40.51Transferofsourceorbyproductmaterial.
(a)Nolicenseeshalltransfersourceorbyproductmaterialexceptasauthorizedpursuanttothissection.
(b)Exceptasotherwiseprovidedinhislicenseandsubjecttotheprovisionsofparagraphs(c)and(d)ofthissection,
anylicenseemaytransfersourceorbyproductmaterial:
(1)TotheDepartmentofEnergy;
(2)TotheagencyinanyAgreementStatewhichregulatesradioactivematerialspursuanttoanagreementwiththe
CommissionortheAtomicEnergyCommissionundersection274oftheAct;
(3)ToanypersonexemptfromthelicensingrequirementsoftheActandregulationsinthispart,totheextent
permittedundersuchexemption;
(4)ToanypersoninanAgreementStatesubjecttothejurisdictionofthatStatewhohasbeenexemptedfromthe
licensingrequirementsandregulationsofthatState,totheextentpermittedundersuchexemptions;
(5)Toanypersonauthorizedtoreceivesuchsourceorbyproductmaterialundertermsofaspecificlicenseora
generallicenseortheirequivalentsissuedbytheCommissionoranAgreementState;
(6)Toanypersonabroadpursuanttoanexportlicenseissuedunderpart110ofthischapter;or
(7)Asotherwiseauthorizedbythecommissioninwriting.
(c)BeforetransferringsourceorbyproductmaterialtoaspecificlicenseeoftheCommissionoranAgreementStateor
toagenerallicenseewhoisrequiredtoregisterwiththeCommissionorwithanAgreementStatepriortoreceiptof
thesourceorbyproductmaterial,thelicenseetransferringthematerialshallverifythatthetransfereeslicense
authorizesreceiptofthetype,form,andquantityofsourceorbyproductmaterialtobetransferred.
(d)Thefollowingmethodsfortheverificationrequiredbyparagraph(c)ofthissectionareacceptable:
(1)Thetransferormayhaveinhispossession,andread,acurrentcopyofthetransfereesspecificlicenseor
registrationcertificate;
(2)Thetransferormayhaveinhispossessionawrittencertificationbythetransfereethatheisauthorizedbylicense
orregistrationcertificatetoreceivethetype,form,andquantityofsourceorbyproductmaterialtobetransferred,
specifyingthelicenseorregistrationcertificationnumber,issuingagencyandexpirationdate;
(3)Foremergencyshipmentsthetransferormayacceptoralcertificationbythetransfereethatheisauthorizedby
licenseorregistrationcertificatetoreceivethetype,form,andquantityofsourceorbyproductmaterialtobe
189
transferred,specifyingthelicenseorregistrationcertificatenumber,issuingagencyandexpirationdate:Provided,
Thattheoralcertificationisconfirmedinwritingwithin10days;
(4)Thetransferormayobtainothersourcesofinformationcompiledbyareportingservicefromofficialrecordsofthe
CommissionorthelicensingagencyofanAgreementStateastotheidentityoflicenseesandthescopeandexpiration
datesoflicensesandregistrations;or
(5)Whennoneofthemethodsofverificationdescribedinparagraphs(d)(1)to(4)ofthissectionarereadilyavailable
orwhenatransferordesirestoverifythatinformationreceivedbyoneofsuchmethodsiscorrectoruptodate,the
transferormayobtainandrecordconfirmationfromtheCommissionorthelicensingagencyofanAgreementState
thatthetransfereeislicensedtoreceivethesourceorbyproductmaterial.
[45FR65532,Oct.3,1980]
yyyyyy)
zzzzzz)
Records,Reports,andInspections
40.60Reportingrequirements.
(a)Immediatereport.EachlicenseeshallnotifytheNRCassoonaspossiblebutnotlaterthan4hoursafterthe
discoveryofaneventthatpreventsimmediateprotectiveactionsnecessarytoavoidexposurestoradiationor
radioactivematerialsthatcouldexceedregulatorylimitsorreleasesoflicensedmaterialthatcouldexceedregulatory
limits(eventsmayincludefires,explosions,toxicgasreleases,etc.).
(b)Twentyfourhourreport.EachlicenseeshallnotifytheNRCwithin24hoursafterthediscoveryofanyofthe
followingeventsinvolvinglicensedmaterial:
(1)Anunplannedcontaminationeventthat:
(i)Requiresaccesstothecontaminatedarea,byworkersorthepublic,toberestrictedformorethan24hoursby
imposingadditionalradiologicalcontrolsorbyprohibitingentryintothearea;
(ii)InvolvesaquantityofmaterialgreaterthanfivetimesthelowestannuallimitonintakespecifiedinappendixBof
20.100120.2401of10CFRpart20forthematerial;and
(iii)Hasaccesstothearearestrictedforareasonotherthantoallowisotopeswithahalflifeoflessthan24hoursto
decaypriortodecontamination.
(2)Aneventinwhichequipmentisdisabledorfailstofunctionasdesignedwhen:
(i)Theequipmentisrequiredbyregulationorlicenseconditiontopreventreleasesexceedingregulatorylimits,to
preventexposurestoradiationandradioactivematerialsexceedingregulatorylimits,ortomitigatetheconsequences
ofanaccident;
(ii)Theequipmentisrequiredtobeavailableandoperablewhenitisdisabledorfailstofunction;and
(iii)Noredundantequipmentisavailableandoperabletoperformtherequiredsafetyfunction.
(3)Aneventthatrequiresunplannedmedicaltreatmentatamedicalfacilityofanindividualwithspreadable
radioactivecontaminationontheindividualsclothingorbody.
190
(4)Anunplannedfireorexplosiondamaginganylicensedmaterialoranydevice,container,orequipmentcontaining
licensedmaterialwhen:
(i)Thequantityofmaterialinvolvedisgreaterthanfivetimesthelowestannuallimitonintakespecifiedinappendix
Bof20.100120.2401of10CFRpart20forthematerial;and
(ii)Thedamageaffectstheintegrityofthelicensedmaterialoritscontainer.
(c)Preparationandsubmissionofreports.Reportsmadebylicenseesinresponsetotherequirementsofthissectionmust
bemadeasfollows:
(1)Licenseesshallmakereportsrequiredbyparagraphs(a)and(b)ofthissectionbytelephonetotheNRC
OperationsCenter.1Totheextentthattheinformationisavailableatthetimeofnotification,theinformation
providedinthesereportsmustinclude:
(i)Thecallersnameandcallbacktelephonenumber;
(ii)Adescriptionoftheevent,includingdateandtime;
(iii)Theexactlocationoftheevent;
(iv)Theisotopes,quantities,andchemicalandphysicalformofthelicensedmaterialinvolved;and
(v)Anypersonnelradiationexposuredataavailable.
(2)Writtenreport.Eachlicenseewhomakesareportrequiredbyparagraph(a)or(b)ofthissectionshallsubmita
writtenfollowupreportwithin30daysoftheinitialreport.Writtenreportspreparedpursuanttootherregulations
maybesubmittedtofulfillthisrequirementifthereportscontainallofthenecessaryinformationandthe
appropriatedistributionismade.ThesewrittenreportsmustbesenttotheNRCsDocumentControlDeskbyan
appropriatemethodlistedin40.5,withacopytotheappropriateNRCregionalofficelistedinappendixDtopart
20ofthischapter.Thereportsmustincludethefollowing:
(i)Adescriptionoftheevent,includingtheprobablecauseandthemanufacturerandmodelnumber(ifapplicable)
ofanyequipmentthatfailedormalfunctioned;
(ii)Theexactlocationoftheevent;
(iii)Theisotopes,quantities,andchemicalandphysicalformofthelicensedmaterialinvolved;
(iv)Dateandtimeoftheevent;
(v)Correctiveactionstakenorplannedandtheresultsofanyevaluationsorassessments;and
(vi)Theextentofexposureofindividualstoradiationortoradioactivematerialswithoutidentificationofindividuals
byname.
(3)Theprovisionsof40.60donotapplytolicenseessubjecttothenotificationrequirementsin50.72.Theydo
applytothosepart50licenseespossessingmateriallicensedunderpart40whoarenotsubjecttothenotification
requirementsin50.72.
191
[56FR40768,Aug.16,1991,asamendedat59FR14086,Mar.25,1994;68FR58807,Oct.10,2003]
1ThecommercialtelephonenumberfortheNRCOperationsCenteris(301)8165100.
aaaaaaa)
40.61Records.
(a)Eachpersonwhoreceivessourceorbyproductmaterialpursuanttoalicenseissuedpursuanttotheregulationsin
thispartshallkeeprecordsshowingthereceipt,transfer,anddisposalofthissourceorbyproductmaterialas
follows:
(1)Thelicenseeshallretaineachrecordofreceiptofsourceorbyproductmaterialaslongasthematerialispossessed
andforthreeyearsfollowingtransferordispositionofthesourceorbyproductmaterial.
(2)Thelicenseewhotransferredthematerialshallretaineachrecordoftransferorsourceorbyproductmaterialuntil
theCommissionterminateseachlicensethatauthorizestheactivitythatissubjecttotherecordkeepingrequirement.
(3)ThelicenseeshallretaineachrecordofdisposalofsourceorbyproductmaterialuntiltheCommissionterminates
eachlicensethatauthorizestheactivitythatissubjecttotherecordkeepingrequirement.
(4)Ifsourceorbyproductmaterialiscombinedormixedwithotherlicensedmaterialandsubsequentlytreatedina
mannerthatmakesdirectcorrelationofareceiptrecordwithatransfer,export,ordispositionrecordimpossible,the
licenseemayuseevaluativetechniques(suchasfirstinfirstout),tomaketherecordsthatarerequiredbythisPart
accountfor100percentofthematerialreceived.
(b)Thelicenseeshallretaineachrecordthatisrequiredbytheregulationsinthispartorbylicenseconditionforthe
periodspecifiedbytheappropriateregulationorlicensecondition.Ifaretentionperiodisnototherwisespecifiedby
regulationorlicensecondition,eachrecordmustbemaintaineduntiltheCommissionterminatesthelicensethat
authorizestheactivitythatissubjecttotherecordkeepingrequirement.
(c)(1)Recordswhichmustbemaintainedpursuanttothispartmaybetheoriginalorreproducedcopyormicroform
ifthereproducedcopyormicroformisdulyauthenticatedbyauthorizedpersonnelandthemicroformiscapableof
producingaclearandlegiblecopyafterstoragefortheperiodspecifiedbyCommissionregulations.Therecordmay
alsobestoredinelectronicmediawiththecapabilityforproducinglegible,accurate,andcompleterecordsduring
therequiredretentionperiod.Recordssuchasletters,drawings,specifications,mustincludeallpertinent
informationsuchasstamps,initials,andsignatures.Thelicenseeshallmaintainadequatesafeguardsagainst
tamperingwithandlossofrecords.
(2)IfthereisaconflictbetweentheCommissionsregulationsinthispart,licensecondition,orotherwritten
Commissionapprovalorauthorizationpertainingtotheretentionperiodforthesametypeofrecord,theretention
periodspecifiedintheregulationsinthispartforsuchrecordsshallapplyunlesstheCommission,pursuantto
40.14ofthispart,hasgrantedaspecificexemptionfromtherecordretentionrequirementsspecifiedinthe
regulationsinthispart.
(d)Priortolicensetermination,eachlicenseeauthorizedtopossesssourcematerial,inanunsealedform,shall
forwardthefollowingrecordstotheappropriateNRCRegionalOffice:
(1)Recordsofdisposaloflicensedmaterialmadeunder20.2002(includingburialsauthorizedbeforeJanuary28,
1981(1)),20.2003,20.2004,20.2005;and
(2)Recordsrequiredby20.2103(b)(4).
192
(e)Iflicensedactivitiesaretransferredorassignedinaccordancewith40.41(b),eachlicenseeauthorizedtopossess
sourcematerial,inanunsealedform,shalltransferthefollowingrecordstothenewlicenseeandthenewlicensee
willberesponsibleformaintainingtheserecordsuntilthelicenseisterminated:
(1)Recordsofdisposaloflicensedmaterialmadeunder20.2002(includingburialsauthorizedbeforeJanuary28,
19811),20.2003,20.2004,20.2005;and
(2)Recordsrequiredby20.2103(b)(4).
(f)Priortolicensetermination,eachlicenseeshallforwardtherecordsrequiredby40.36(f)totheappropriateNRC
RegionalOffice.
[45FR65532,Oct.3,1980,asamendedat53FR19248,May27,1988;61FR24674,May16,1996]
1Aprevious20.304permittedburialofsmallquantitiesoflicensedmaterialsinsoilbeforeJanuary28,1981,without
specificCommissionauthorization.See20.304containedinthe10CFR,parts0to199,editionrevisedasofJanuary
1,1981.
bbbbbbb) 40.62Inspections.
(a)EachlicenseeshallaffordtotheCommissionatallreasonabletimesopportunitytoinspectsourceorbyproduct
materialandthepremisesandfacilitieswhereinsourceorbyproductmaterialisusedorstored.
(b)EachlicenseeshallmakeavailabletotheCommissionforinspection,uponreasonablenotice,recordskeptbyhim
pursuanttotheregulationsinthischapter.
[45FR65532,Oct.3,1980]
ccccccc)
40.63Tests.
Eachlicenseeshallperform,orpermittheCommissiontoperform,suchtestsastheCommissiondeemsappropriate
ornecessaryfortheadministrationoftheregulationsinthispart,includingtestsof:
(a)Sourceorbyproductmaterial;
(b)Facilitieswhereinsourceorbyproductmaterialisutilizedorstored;
(c)Radiationdetectionandmonitoringinstruments;and
(d)Otherequipmentanddevicesusedinconnectionwiththeutilizationandstorageofsourceorbyproductmaterial.
[45FR65533,Oct.3,1980]
ddddddd) 40.64Reports.
(a)Exceptasspecifiedinparagraphs(d)and(e)ofthissection,eachspecificlicenseewhotransfers,receives,or
adjuststheinventory,inanymanner,ofuraniumorthoriumsourcematerialwithforeignobligationsby1kilogram
ormoreorwhoimportsorexports1kilogramofuraniumorthoriumsourcematerialshallcompleteaNuclear
MaterialTransactionReportincomputerreadableformatinaccordancewithinstructions(NUREG/BR0006and
193
NMMSSReportD24,PersonalComputerDataInputforNRCLicensees).Copiesoftheinstructionsmaybe
obtainedeitherbywritingtheU.S.NuclearRegulatoryCommission,DivisionofNuclearSecurity,OfficeofNuclear
SecurityandIncidentResponse,Washington,DC205550001,byemailtoRidsNsirDns@nrc.gov,orbycalling(301)
4156828.EachlicenseewhotransfersthematerialshallsubmitaNuclearMaterialTransactionReportincomputer
readableformatinaccordancewithinstructionsnolaterthanthecloseofbusinessthenextworkingday.Each
licenseewhoreceivesthematerialshallsubmitaNuclearMaterialTransactionReportincomputerreadableformat
inaccordancewithinstructionswithinten(10)daysafterthematerialisreceived.TheCommissionscopyofthe
reportmustbesubmittedtotheaddressspecifiedintheinstructions.Theseprescribedcomputerreadableforms
replacetheDOE/NRCForm741whichhasbeenpreviouslysubmittedinpaperform.
(b)Exceptasspecifiedinparagraphs(d)and(e)ofthissection,eachlicenseeauthorizedtopossessatanyonetime
andlocationmorethan1,000kilogramsofuraniumorthorium,oranycombinationofuraniumorthorium,shall
submittotheCommissionwithin30daysafterSeptember30ofeachyearorwiththelicenseesmaterialstatus
reportsonspecialnuclearmaterialfiledunderpart72or74,astatementofitssourcematerialinventorywithforeign
obligationsasdefinedinthispart.Thisstatementmustbesubmittedtotheaddressspecifiedinthereporting
instructions(NUREG/BR0007),andincludetheReportingIdentificationSymbol(RIS)assignedbytheCommission
tothelicensee.CopiesofthereportinginstructionsmaybeobtainedeitherbywritingtotheU.S.NuclearRegulatory
Commission,DivisionofNuclearSecurity,OfficeofNuclearSecurityandIncidentResponse,Washington,DC20555
0001,byemailtoRidsNsirDns@nrc.gov,orbycalling(301)4156828.
(c)(1)Exceptasspecifiedinparagraph(d)ofthissection,eachlicenseewhoisauthorizedtopossessuraniumor
thoriumpursuanttoaspecificlicenseshallnotifytheNRCHeadquartersOperationsCenterbytelephone,atthe
numberslistedinappendixAofpart73ofthischapter,ofanyincidentinwhichanattempthasbeenmadeoris
believedtohavebeenmadetocommitatheftorunlawfuldiversionofmorethan6.8kilograms(kg)[15pounds]of
suchmaterialatanyonetimeormorethan68kg[150pounds]ofsuchmaterialinanyonecalendaryear.
(2)ThelicenseeshallnotifytheNRCassoonaspossible,butwithin4hours,ofdiscoveryofanyincidentinwhichan
attempthasbeenmadeorisbelievedtohavebeenmadetocommitatheftorunlawfuldiversionofsuchmaterial.A
copyofthewrittenfollowupnotificationshouldalsobemadetotheDirector,DivisionofNuclearSecurity,Officeof
NuclearSecurityandIncidentResponse,byanappropriatemethodlistedin40.5.
(3)Theinitialnotificationshallbefollowedwithinaperiodofsixty(60)daysbyawrittenfollowupnotification
submittedinaccordancewith40.5.Acopyofthewrittenfollowupnotificationshallalsobesentto:ATTN:
DocumentControlDesk,Director,DivisionofNuclearSecurity,OfficeofNuclearSecurityandIncidentResponse,
U.S.NuclearRegulatoryCommission,Washington,DC205550001.
(4)Subsequenttothesubmissionofthewrittenfollowupnotificationrequiredbythisparagraph,thelicenseeshall
promptlyupdatethewrittenfollowupnotification,inaccordancewiththisparagraph,withanysubstantive
additionalinformation,whichbecomesavailabletothelicensee,concerninganattemptedorapparenttheftor
unlawfuldiversionofsourcematerial.
(d)Thereportsdescribedinparagraphs(a),(b),and(c)ofthissectionarenotrequiredfor:
(1)Processedorescontaininglessthanfive(5)percentofuraniumorthorium,oranycombinationofuraniumor
thorium,bydryweight;
(2)Thoriumcontainedinmagnesiumthoriumandtungstenthoriumalloys,ifthethoriumcontentinthealloysdoes
notexceed4percentbyweight;
(3)ChemicalcatalystscontaininguraniumdepletedintheU235isotopeto0.4percentorless,iftheuraniumcontent
ofthecatalystdoesnotexceed15percentbyweight;or
194
(4)Anysourcematerialcontainedinnonnuclearendusedevicesorcomponents,includingbutnotlimitedto
permanentlyinstalledshielding,teletherapy,radiography,Xray,acceleratordevices,ormunitions.
(e)Anylicenseewhoisrequiredtosubmitinventorychangereportsandmaterialstatusreportspursuanttopart75
ofthischapter(pertainingtoimplementationoftheUS/IAEASafeguardsAgreement)shallprepareandsubmitsuch
reportsonlyasprovidedin75.34and75.35ofthischapter(insteadofasprovidedinparagraphs(a)and(b)ofthis
section).
[35FR12195,July30,1970,asamendedat36FR10938,June5,1971;38FR1272,Jan.11,1973;38FR2330,Jan.24,
1973;40FR8787,Mar.3,1975;41FR16446,Apr.19,1976;45FR50710,July31,1980;49FR24707,June15,1984;51FR
9766,Mar.21,1986;52FR31611,Aug.21,1987;59FR35620,July13,1994;68FR10364,Mar.5,2003;68FR58807,Oct.
10,2003]
eeeeeee)
40.65Effluentmonitoringreportingrequirements.
(a)Eachlicenseeauthorizedtopossessandusesourcematerialinuraniummilling,inproductionofuranium
hexafluoride,orinauraniumenrichmentfacilityshall:
(1)Within60daysafterJanuary1,1976andJuly1,1976,andwithin60daysafterJanuary1andJuly1ofeachyear
thereafter,submitareporttotheDirectoroftheOfficeofNuclearMaterialSafetyandSafeguards,usingan
appropriatemethodlistedin40.5,withacopytotheappropriateNRCRegionalOfficeshowninappendixDtopart
20ofthischapter;whichreportmustspecifythequantityofeachoftheprincipalradionuclidesreleasedto
unrestrictedareasinliquidandingaseouseffluentsduringtheprevioussixmonthsofoperation,andsuchother
informationastheCommissionmayrequiretoestimatemaximumpotentialannualradiationdosestothepublic
resultingfromeffluentreleases.Ifquantitiesofradioactivematerialsreleasedduringthereportingperiodare
significantlyabovethelicenseesdesignobjectivespreviouslyreviewedaspartofthelicensingaction,thereportshall
coverthisspecifically.OnthebasisofsuchreportsandanyadditionalinformationtheCommissionmayobtainfrom
thelicenseeorothers,theCommissionmayfromtimetotimerequirethelicenseetotakesuchactionasthe
Commissiondeemsappropriate.
(2)[Reserved]
(b)[Reserved]
[40FR53230,Nov.17,1975,asamendedat41FR21627,May27,1976;42FR25721,May19,1977;52FR31611,Aug.
21,1987;57FR18391,Apr.30,1992;68FR58807,Oct.10,2003]
fffffff)
40.66Requirementsforadvancenoticeofexportshipmentsofnaturaluranium.
(a)Eachlicenseeauthorizedtoexportnaturaluranium,otherthanintheformoforeororeresidue,inamounts
exceeding500kilograms,shallnotifytheDirector,DivisionofNuclearSecurity,OfficeofNuclearSecurityand
IncidentResponse,byanappropriatemethodlistedin40.5.
Thenotificationmustbeinwritingandmustbereceivedatleast10daysbeforetransportoftheshipment
commencesattheshippingfacility.
(b)Thenotificationmustincludethefollowinginformation:
(1)Thename(s),address(es),andtelephonenumber(s)oftheshipper,receiver,andcarrier(s);
195
(2)Aphysicaldescriptionoftheshipment;
(3)Alistingofthemode(s)ofshipment,transferpoints,androutestobeused;
(4)Theestimateddateandtimethatshipmentwillcommenceandthateachnation(otherthantheUnitedStates)
alongtherouteisscheduledtobeentered;and
(5)AcertificationthatarrangementshavebeenmadetonotifytheDivisionofIndustrialandMedicalNuclearSafety
whentheshipmentisreceivedatthereceivingfacility.
(c)AlicenseewhoneedstoamendanotificationmaydosobytelephoningtheDivisionofIndustrialandMedical
NuclearSafetyat(301)4157197.
2003]
ggggggg) 40.67Requirementforadvancenoticeforimportationofnaturaluraniumfrom
countriesthatarenotpartytotheConventiononthePhysicalProtectionofNuclear
Material.
(a)Eachlicenseeauthorizedtoimportnaturaluranium,otherthanintheformoforeororeresidue,inamounts
exceeding500kilograms,fromcountriesnotpartytotheConventiononthePhysicalProtectionofNuclearMaterial
(seeappendixFtopart73ofthischapter)shallnotifytheDirector,DivisionofNuclearSecurity,OfficeofNuclear
SecurityandIncidentResponse,usinganappropriatemethodlistedin40.5.Thenotificationmustbeinwritingand
mustbereceivedatleast10daysbeforetransportoftheshipmentcommencesattheshippingfacility.
(b)Thenotificationmustincludethefollowinginformation:
(1)Thename(s),address(es),andtelephonenumber(s)oftheshipper,receiver,andcarrier(s);
(2)Aphysicaldescriptionoftheshipment;
(3)Alistingofthemode(s)ofshipment,transferpoints,androutestobeused;
(4)Theestimateddateandtimethatshipmentwillcommenceandthateachnationalongtherouteisscheduledtobe
entered.
(c)ThelicenseeshallnotifytheDivisionofIndustrialandMedicalNuclearSafetybytelephoneat(301)4157197
whentheshipmentisreceivedatthereceivingfacility.
(d)AlicenseewhoneedstoamendanotificationmaydosobytelephoningtheDivisionofIndustrialandMedical
NuclearSafetyat(301)4157197.
2003]
196
hhhhhhh) ModificationandRevocationofLicenses
iiiiiii)
40.71Modificationandrevocationoflicenses.
(a)Thetermsandconditionsofeachlicenseshallbesubjecttoamendment,revision,ormodificationbyreasonof
amendmentstotheAct,orbyreasonofrules,regulations,orordersissuedinaccordancewiththeAct.
(b)Anylicensemayberevoked,suspended,ormodified,inwholeorinpart,foranymaterialfalsestatementinthe
applicationoranystatementoffactrequiredundersection182oftheAct,orbecauseofconditionsrevealedbysuch
applicationorstatementoffactoranyreport,record,orinspectionorothermeanswhichwouldwarrantthe
Commissiontorefusetograntalicenseonanoriginalapplication,orforviolationof,orfailuretoobserveanyof,the
termsandconditionsoftheAct,orthelicense,orofanyrule,regulationororderoftheCommission.
(c)Exceptincasesofwillfulnessorthoseinwhichthepublichealth,interestorsafetyrequiresotherwise,nolicense
shallbemodified,suspended,orrevokedunless,priortotheinstitutionofproceedingstherefor,factsorconduct
whichmaywarrantsuchactionshallhavebeencalledtotheattentionofthelicenseeinwritingandthelicenseeshall
havebeenaccordedopportunitytodemonstrateorachievecompliancewithalllawfulrequirements.
[26FR284,Jan.14,1961,asamendedat35FR11460,July17,1970;48FR32328,July15,1983]
jjjjjjj)
kkkkkkk)
Enforcement
40.81Violations.
AtomicEnergyAct:
(1)Forviolationsof
(i)Sections53,57,62,63,81,82,101,103,104,107,or109oftheAtomicEnergyActof1954,asamended;
(iii)Anyrule,regulation,ororderissuedpursuanttothesectionsspecifiedinparagraph(b)(1)(i)ofthissection;
section.
(2)Foranyviolationforwhichalicensemayberevokedundersection186oftheAtomicEnergyActof1954,as
amended.
[57FR55074,Nov.24,1992]
197
lllllll)
Forpurposesofsection223,alltheregulationsinpart40areissuedunderoneormoreofsections161b,161i,or161o,
exceptforthesectionslistedinparagraph(b)ofthissection.
(b)Theregulationsinpart40thatarenotissuedundersections161b,161i,or161oforthepurposesofsection223are
asfollows:40.1,40.2,40.2a,40.4,40.5,40.6,40.8,40.11,40.12,40.13,40.14,40.20,40.21,40.31,40.32,40.34,40.43,
40.44,40.45,40.71,40.81,and40.82.
[57FR55075,Nov.24,1992]
mmmmmmm)
AppendixAtoPart40CriteriaRelatingtotheOperationofUranium
MillsandtheDispositionofTailingsorWastesProducedbytheExtractionor
ConcentrationofSourceMaterialFromOresProcessedPrimarilyforTheirSource
MaterialContent
Introduction.Everyapplicantforalicensetopossessandusesourcematerialinconjunctionwithuraniumorthorium
milling,orbyproductmaterialatsitesformerlyassociatedwithsuchmilling,isrequiredbytheprovisionsof
40.31(h)toincludeinalicenseapplicationproposedspecificationsrelatingtomillingoperationsandthedisposition
oftailingsorwastesresultingfromsuchmillingactivities.Thisappendixestablishestechnical,financial,ownership,
andlongtermsitesurveillancecriteriarelatingtothesiting,operation,decontamination,decommissioning,and
reclamationofmillsandtailingsorwastesystemsandsitesatwhichsuchmillsandsystemsarelocated.Asusedin
thisappendix,thetermaslowasisreasonablyachievablehasthesamemeaningasin20.1003ofthischapter.
Inmanycases,flexibilityisprovidedinthecriteriatoallowachievinganoptimumtailingsdisposalprogramona
sitespecificbasis.However,insuchcasestheobjectives,technicalalternativesandconcernswhichmustbetaken
intoaccountindevelopingatailingsprogramareidentified.Asprovidedbytheprovisionsof40.31(h)applications
forlicensesmustclearlydemonstratehowthecriteriahavebeenaddressed.
Thespecificationsmustbedevelopedconsideringtheexpectedfullcapacityoftailingsorwastesystemsandthe
lifetimeofmilloperations.Wherelaterexpansionsofsystemsoroperationsmaybelikely(forexample,wherelarge
quantitiesoforenowmarginallyuneconomicalmaybestockpiled),theamenabilityofthedisposalsystemto
accommodateincreasedcapacitieswithoutdegradationinlongtermstabilityandotherperformancefactorsmustbe
evaluated.
Licenseesorapplicantsmayproposealternativestothespecificrequirementsinthisappendix.Thealternative
proposalsmaytakeintoaccountlocalorregionalconditions,includinggeology,topography,hydrology,and
meterology.TheCommissionmayfindthattheproposedalternativesmeettheCommissionsrequirementsifthe
alternativeswillachievealevelofstabilizationandcontainmentofthesitesconcerned,andalevelofprotectionfor
publichealth,safety,andtheenvironmentfromradiologicalandnonradiologicalhazardsassociatedwiththesites,
whichisequivalentto,totheextentpracticable,ormorestringentthanthelevelwhichwouldbeachievedbythe
requirementsofthisAppendixandthestandardspromulgatedbytheEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyin40CFR
Part192,SubpartsDandE.
AllsitespecificlicensingdecisionsbasedonthecriteriainthisAppendixoralternativesproposedbylicenseesor
applicantswilltakeintoaccounttherisktothepublichealthandsafetyandtheenvironmentwithdueconsideration
totheeconomiccostsinvolvedandanyotherfactorstheCommissiondeterminestobeappropriate.Inimplementing
thisAppendix,theCommissionwillconsiderpracticableandreasonablyachievableasequivalentterms.
198
Decisionsinvolvedthesetermswilltakeintoaccountthestateoftechnology,andtheeconomicsofimprovementsin
relationtobenefitstothepublichealthandsafety,andothersocietalandsocioeconomicconsiderations,andin
relationtotheutilizationofatomicenergyinthepublicinterest.
Thefollowingdefinitionsapplytothespecifiedtermsasusedinthisappendix:
Aquifermeansageologicformation,groupofformations,orpartofaformationcapableofyieldingasignificant
amountofgroundwatertowellsorsprings.Anysaturatedzonecreatedbyuraniumorthoriumrecoveryoperations
wouldnotbeconsideredanaquiferunlessthezoneisorpotentiallyis(1)hydraulicallyinterconnectedtoanatural
aquifer,(2)capableofdischargetosurfacewater,or(3)reasonablyaccessiblebecauseofmigrationbeyondthe
verticalprojectionoftheboundaryofthelandtransferredforlongtermgovernmentownershipandcarein
accordancewithCriterion11ofthisappendix.
Asexpeditiouslyaspracticableconsideringtechnologicalfeasibility,forthepurposesofCriterion6A,meansasquicklyas
possibleconsidering:thephysicalcharacteristicsofthetailingsandthesite;thelimitsofavailabletechnology;theneed
forconsistencywithmandatoryrequirementsofotherregulatoryprograms;andfactorsbeyondthecontrolofthe
licensee.Thephrasepermitsconsiderationofthecostofcomplianceonlytotheextentspecificallyprovidedforbyuse
ofthetermavailabletechnology.
Availabletechnologymeanstechnologiesandmethodsforemplacingafinalradonbarrieronuraniummilltailings
pilesorimpoundments.Thistermshallnotbeconstruedtoincludeextraordinarymeasuresortechniquesthatwould
imposecoststhataregrosslyexcessiveasmeasuredbypracticewithintheindustry(oronethatisreasonably
analogous),(suchas,bywayofillustrationonly,unreasonableovertime,staffing,ortransportationrequirements,
etc.,consideringnormalpracticeintheindustry;laserfusionofsoils,etc.),providedthereisreasonableprogress
towardemplacementofthefinalradonbarrier.Todeterminegrosslyexcessivecosts,therelevantbaselineagainst
whichcostshallbecomparedisthecostestimatefortailingsimpoundmentclosurecontainedinthelicensees
approvedreclamationplan,butcostsbeyondtheseestimatesshallnotautomaticallybeconsideredgrosslyexcessive.
Closuremeanstheactivitiesfollowingoperationstodecontaminateanddecommissionthebuildingsandsiteusedto
producebyproductmaterialsandreclaimthetailingsand/orwastedisposalarea.
ClosureplanmeanstheCommissionapprovedplantoaccomplishclosure.
ComplianceperiodbeginswhentheCommissionsetssecondarygroundwaterprotectionstandardsandendswhenthe
owneroroperatorslicenseisterminatedandthesiteistransferredtotheStateorFederalagencyforlongtermcare.
Dikemeansanembankmentorridgeofeithernaturalormanmadematerialsusedtopreventthemovementof
liquids,sludges,solidsorothermaterials.
DisposalareameanstheareacontainingbyproductmaterialstowhichtherequirementsofCriterion6apply.
Existingportionmeansthatlandsurfaceareaofanexistingsurfaceimpoundmentonwhichsignificantquantitiesof
uraniumorthoriumbyproductmaterialshadbeenplacedpriortoSeptember30,1983.
Factorsbeyondthecontrolofthelicenseemeansfactorsproximatelycausingdelayinmeetingthescheduleinthe
applicablereclamationplanforthetimelyemplacementofthefinalradonbarriernotwithstandingthegoodfaith
effortsofthelicenseetocompletethebarrierincompliancewithparagraph(1)ofCriterion6A.Thesefactorsmay
include,butarenotlimitedto:
(1)Physicalconditionsatthesite;
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(2)Inclementweatherorclimaticconditions;
(3)AnactofGod;
(4)Anactofwar;
(5)Ajudicialoradministrativeorderordecision,orchangetothestatutory,regulatory,orotherlegalrequirements
applicabletothelicenseesfacilitythatwouldprecludeordelaytheperformanceofactivitiesrequiredfor
compliance;
(6)Labordisturbances;
(7)Anymodifications,cessationordelayorderedbyState,Federal,orlocalagencies;
(8)Delaysbeyondthetimereasonablyrequiredinobtainingnecessarygovernmentpermits,licenses,approvals,or
consentforactivitiesdescribedinthereclamationplanproposedbythelicenseethatresultfromagencyfailureto
takefinalactionafterthelicenseehasmadeagoodfaith,timelyefforttosubmitlegallysufficientapplications,
responsestorequests(includingrelevantdatarequestedbytheagencies),orotherinformation,includingapprovalof
thereclamationplan;and
(9)Anactoromissionofanythirdpartyoverwhomthelicenseehasnocontrol.
Finalradonbarriermeanstheearthencover(orapprovedalternativecover)overtailingsorwasteconstructedto
complywithCriterion6ofthisappendix(excludingerosionprotectionfeatures).
Groundwatermeanswaterbelowthelandsurfaceinazoneofsaturation.Forpurposesofthisappendix,ground
wateristhewatercontainedwithinanaquiferasdefinedabove.
Leachatemeansanyliquid,includinganysuspendedordissolvedcomponentsintheliquid,thathaspercolated
throughordrainedfromthebyproductmaterial.
Licensedsitemeanstheareacontainedwithintheboundaryofalocationunderthecontrolofpersonsgeneratingor
storingbyproductmaterialsunderaCommissionlicense.
Linermeansacontinuouslayerofnaturalormanmadematerials,beneathoronthesidesofasurfaceimpoundment
whichrestrictsthedownwardorlateralescapeofbyproductmaterial,hazardousconstituents,orleachate.
Milestonemeansanactionoreventthatisrequiredtooccurbyanenforceabledate.
Operationmeansthatauraniumorthoriummilltailingspileorimpoundmentisbeingusedforthecontinued
placementofbyproductmaterialorisinstandbystatusforsuchplacement.Apileorimpoundmentisinoperation
fromthedaythatbyproductmaterialisfirstplacedinthepileorimpoundmentuntilthedayfinalclosurebegins.
Pointofcomplianceisthesitespecificlocationintheuppermostaquiferwherethegroundwaterprotectionstandard
mustbemet.
Reclamationplan,forthepurposesofCriterion6A,meanstheplandetailingactivitiestoaccomplishreclamationofthe
tailingsorwastedisposalareainaccordancewiththetechnicalcriteriaofthisappendix.Thereclamationplanmust
includeascheduleforreclamationmilestonesthatarekeytothecompletionofthefinalradonbarrierincludingas
appropriate,butnotlimitedto,windblowntailingsretrievalandplacementonthepile,interimstabilization
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(includingdewateringortheremovaloffreestandingliquidsandrecontouring),andfinalradonbarrierconstruction.
(Reclamationoftailingsmustalsobeaddressedintheclosureplan;thedetailedreclamationplanmaybe
incorporatedintotheclosureplan.)
Surfaceimpoundmentmeansanaturaltopographicdepression,manmadeexcavation,ordikedarea,whichis
designedtoholdanaccumulationofliquidwastesorwastescontainingfreeliquids,andwhichisnotaninjection
well.
Uppermostaquifermeansthegeologicformationnearestthenaturalgroundsurfacethatisanaquifer,aswellaslower
aquifersthatarehydraulicallyinterconnectedwiththisaquiferwithinthefacilityspropertyboundary.
I.TechnicalCriteria
Criterion1Thegeneralgoalorbroadobjectiveinsitinganddesigndecisionsispermanentisolationoftailingsand
associatedcontaminantsbyminimizingdisturbanceanddispersionbynaturalforces,andtodosowithoutongoing
maintenance.Forpracticalreasons,specificsitingdecisionsanddesignstandardsmustinvolvefinitetimes(e.g.,the
longevitydesignstandardinCriterion6).Thefollowingsitefeatureswhichwillcontributetosuchagoalorobjective
mustbeconsideredinselectingamongalternativetailingsdisposalsitesorjudgingtheadequacyofexistingtailings
sites:
Remotenessfrompopulatedareas;
Hydrologicandothernaturalconditionsastheycontributetocontinuedimmobilizationandisolationof
contaminantsfromgroundwatersources;and
Potentialforminimizingerosion,disturbance,anddispersionbynaturalforcesoverthelongterm.
Thesiteselectionprocessmustbeanoptimizationtothemaximumextentreasonablyachievableintermsofthese
features.
Intheselectionofdisposalsites,primaryemphasismustbegiventoisolationoftailingsorwastes,amatterhaving
longtermimpacts,asopposedtoconsiderationonlyofshorttermconvenienceorbenefits,suchasminimizationof
transportationorlandacquisitioncosts.Whileisolationoftailingswillbeafunctionofbothsiteandengineering
design,overridingconsiderationmustbegiventositingfeaturesgiventhelongtermnatureofthetailingshazards.
Tailingsshouldbedisposedofinamannerthatnoactivemaintenanceisrequiredtopreserveconditionsofthesite.
Criterion2Toavoidproliferationofsmallwastedisposalsitesandtherebyreduceperpetualsurveillanceobligations,
byproductmaterialfrominsituextractionoperations,suchasresiduesfromsolutionevaporationorcontaminated
controlprocesses,andwastesfromsmallremoteabovegroundextractionoperationsmustbedisposedofatexisting
largemilltailingsdisposalsites;unless,consideringthenatureofthewastes,suchastheirvolumeandspecific
activity,andthecostsandenvironmentalimpactsoftransportingthewastestoalargedisposalsite,suchoffsite
disposalisdemonstratedtobeimpracticableortheadvantagesofonsiteburialclearlyoutweighthebenefitsof
reducingtheperpetualsurveillanceobligations.
Criterion3Theprimeoptionfordisposaloftailingsisplacementbelowgrade,eitherinminesorspecially
excavatedpits(thatis,wheretheneedforanyspeciallyconstructedretentionstructureiseliminated).Theevaluation
ofalternativesitesanddisposalmethodsperformedbymilloperatorsinsupportoftheirproposedtailingsdisposal
program(providedinapplicantsenvironmentalreports)mustreflectseriousconsiderationofthisdisposalmode.In
someinstances,belowgradedisposalmaynotbethemostenvironmentallysoundapproach,suchasmightbethe
caseifagroundwaterformationisrelativelyclosetothesurfaceornotverywellisolatedbyoverlyingsoilsand
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rock.Also,geologicandtopographicconditionsmightmakefullbelowgradeburialimpracticable:Forexample,
bedrockmaybesufficientlynearthesurfacethatblastingwouldberequiredtoexcavateadisposalpitatexcessive
cost,andmoresuitablealternativesitesarenotavailable.Wherefullbelowgradeburialisnotpracticable,thesizeof
retentionstructures,andsizeandsteepnessofslopesassociatedexposedembankmentsmustbeminimizedby
excavationtothemaximumextentreasonablyachievableorappropriategiventhegeologicandhydrologic
conditionsatasite.Inthesecases,itmustbedemonstratedthatanabovegradedisposalprogramwillprovide
reasonablyequivalentisolationofthetailingsfromnaturalerosionalforces.
Criterion4Thefollowingsiteanddesigncriteriamustbeadheredtowhethertailingsorwastesaredisposedof
aboveorbelowgrade.
(a)Upstreamrainfallcatchmentareasmustbeminimizedtodecreaseerosionpotentialandthesizeofthefloods
whichcoulderodeorwashoutsectionsofthetailingsdisposalarea.
(b)Topographicfeaturesshouldprovidegoodwindprotection.
(c)Embankmentandcoverslopesmustberelativelyflatafterfinalstabilizationtominimizeerosionpotentialandto
provideconservativefactorsofsafetyassuringlongtermstability.Thebroadobjectiveshouldbetocontourfinal
slopestogradeswhichareascloseaspossibletothosewhichwouldbeprovidediftailingsweredisposedofbelow
grade;thiscould,forexample,leadtoslopesofabout10horizontalto1vertical(10h:1v)orlesssteep.Ingeneral,
slopesshouldnotbesteeperthanabout5h:1v.Wheresteeperslopesareproposed,reasonswhyaslopelesssteep
than5h:1vwouldbeimpracticableshouldbeprovided,andcompensatingfactorsandconditionswhichmakesuch
slopesacceptableshouldbeidentified.
(d)Afullselfsustainingvegetativecovermustbeestablishedorrockcoveremployedtoreducewindandwater
erosiontonegligiblelevels.
Whereafullvegetativecoverisnotlikelytobeselfsustainingduetoclimaticorotherconditions,suchasinsemi
aridandaridregions,rockcovermustbeemployedonslopesoftheimpoundmentsystem.TheNRCwillconsider
relaxingthisrequirementforextremelygentleslopessuchasthosewhichmayexistonthetopofthepile.
Thefollowingfactorsmustbeconsideredinestablishingthefinalrockcoverdesigntoavoiddisplacementofrock
particlesbyhumanandanimaltrafficorbynaturalprocess,andtoprecludeundercuttingandpiping:
Shape,size,composition,andgradationofrockparticles(exceptingbeddingmaterialaverageparticlessizemustbe
atleastcobblesizeorgreater);
Rockcoverthicknessandzoningofparticlesbysize;and
Steepnessofunderlyingslopes.
Individualrockfragmentsmustbedense,sound,andresistanttoabrasion,andmustbefreefromcracks,seams,and
otherdefectsthatwouldtendtoundulyincreasetheirdestructionbywaterandfrostactions.Weak,friable,or
laminatedaggregatemaynotbeused.
Rockcoveringofslopesmaybeunnecessarywheretopcoversareverythick(orless);bulkcovermaterialshave
inherentlyfavorableerosionresistancecharacteristics;and,thereisnegligibledrainagecatchmentareaupstreamof
thepileandgoodwindprotectionasdescribedinpoints(a)and(b)ofthisCriterion.
Furthermore,allimpoundmentsurfacesmustbecontouredtoavoidareasofconcentratedsurfacerunofforabruptor
sharpchangesinslopegradient.Inadditiontorockcoveronslopes,areastowardwhichsurfacerunoffmightbe
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directedmustbewellprotectedwithsubstantialrockcover(riprap).Inadditiontoprovidingforstabilityofthe
impoundmentsystemitself,overallstability,erosionpotential,andgeomorphologyofsurroundingterrainmustbe
evaluatedtoassurethattherearenotongoingorpotentialprocesses,suchasgullyerosion,whichwouldleadto
impoundmentinstability.
(e)Theimpoundmentmaynotbelocatednearacapablefaultthatcouldcauseamaximumcredibleearthquake
largerthanthatwhichtheimpoundmentcouldreasonablybeexpectedtowithstand.Asusedinthiscriterion,the
termcapablefaulthasthesamemeaningasdefinedinsectionIII(g)ofAppendixAof10CFRPart100.Theterm
maximumcredibleearthquakemeansthatearthquakewhichwouldcausethemaximumvibratorygroundmotion
baseduponanevaluationofearthquakepotentialconsideringtheregionalandlocalgeologyandseismologyand
specificcharacteristicsoflocalsubsurfacematerial.
(f)Theimpoundment,wherefeasible,shouldbedesignedtoincorporatefeatureswhichwillpromotedeposition.For
example,designfeatureswhichpromotedepositionofsedimentsuspendedinanyrunoffwhichflowsintothe
impoundmentareamightbeutilized;theobjectofsuchadesignfeaturewouldbetoenhancethethicknessofcover
overtime.
Criterion5Criteria5A5DandnewCriterion13incorporatethebasicgroundwaterprotectionstandardsimposedby
theEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyin40CFRPart192,SubpartsDandE(48FR45926;October7,1983)which
applyduringoperationsandpriortotheendofclosure.Groundwatermonitoringtocomplywiththesestandardsis
requiredbyCriterion7A.
5A(1)Theprimarygroundwaterprotectionstandardisadesignstandardforsurfaceimpoundmentsusedto
manageuraniumandthoriumbyproductmaterial.Unlessexemptedunderparagraph5A(3)ofthiscriterion,surface
impoundments(exceptforanexistingportion)musthavealinerthatisdesigned,constructed,andinstalledto
preventanymigrationofwastesoutoftheimpoundmenttotheadjacentsubsurfacesoil,groundwater,orsurface
wateratanytimeduringtheactivelife(includingtheclosureperiod)oftheimpoundment.Thelinermaybe
constructedofmaterialsthatmayallowwastestomigrateintotheliner(butnotintotheadjacentsubsurfacesoil,
groundwater,orsurfacewater)duringtheactivelifeofthefacility,providedthatimpoundmentclosureincludes
removalordecontaminationofallwasteresidues,contaminatedcontainmentsystemcomponents(liners,etc.),
contaminatedsubsoils,andstructuresandequipmentcontaminatedwithwasteandleachate.Forimpoundmentsthat
willbeclosedwiththelinermaterialleftinplace,thelinermustbeconstructedofmaterialsthatcanpreventwastes
frommigratingintothelinerduringtheactivelifeofthefacility.
5A(2)Thelinerrequiredbyparagraph5A(1)abovemustbe
(a)Constructedofmaterialsthathaveappropriatechemicalpropertiesandsufficientstrengthandthicknessto
preventfailureduetopressuregradients(includingstaticheadandexternalhydrogeologicforces),physicalcontact
withthewasteorleachatetowhichtheyareexposed,climaticconditions,thestressofinstallation,andthestressof
dailyoperation;
(b)Placeduponafoundationorbasecapableofprovidingsupporttothelinerandresistancetopressuregradients
aboveandbelowthelinertopreventfailureofthelinerduetosettlement,compression,oruplift;and
(c)Installedtocoverallsurroundingearthlikelytobeincontactwiththewastesorleachate.
5A(3)Theapplicantorlicenseewillbeexemptedfromtherequirementsofparagraph5A(1)ofthiscriterionifthe
Commissionfinds,basedonademonstrationbytheapplicantorlicensee,thatalternatedesignandoperating
practices,includingtheclosureplan,togetherwithsitecharacteristicswillpreventthemigrationofanyhazardous
constituentsintogroundwaterorsurfacewateratanyfuturetime.Indecidingwhethertograntanexemption,the
Commissionwillconsider
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(a)Thenatureandquantityofthewastes;
(b)Theproposedalternatedesignandoperation;
(c)Thehydrogeologicsettingofthefacility,includingtheattenuativecapacityandthicknessofthelinersandsoils
presentbetweentheimpoundmentandgroundwaterorsurfacewater;and
(d)Allotherfactorswhichwouldinfluencethequalityandmobilityoftheleachateproducedandthepotentialforit
tomigratetogroundwaterorsurfacewater.
5A(4)Asurfaceimpoundmentmustbedesigned,constructed,maintained,andoperatedtopreventovertopping
resultingfromnormalorabnormaloperations,overfilling,windandwaveactions,rainfall,orrunon;from
malfunctionsoflevelcontrollers,alarms,andotherequipment;andfromhumanerror.
5A(5)Whendikesareusedtoformthesurfaceimpoundment,thedikesmustbedesigned,constructed,and
maintainedwithsufficientstructuralintegritytopreventmassivefailureofthedikes.Inensuringstructuralintegrity,
itmustnotbepresumedthatthelinersystemwillfunctionwithoutleakageduringtheactivelifeofthe
impoundment.
5B(1)Uraniumandthoriumbyproductmaterialsmustbemanagedtoconformtothefollowingsecondaryground
waterprotectionstandard:Hazardousconstituentsenteringthegroundwaterfromalicensedsitemustnotexceed
thespecifiedconcentrationlimitsintheuppermostaquiferbeyondthepointofcomplianceduringthecompliance
period.HazardousconstituentsarethoseconstituentsidentifiedbytheCommissionpursuanttoparagraph5B(2)of
thiscriterion.SpecifiedconcentrationlimitsarethoselimitsestablishedbytheCommissionasindicatedinparagraph
5B(5)ofthiscriterion.TheCommissionwillalsoestablishthepointofcomplianceandcomplianceperiodonasite
specificbasisthroughlicenseconditionsandorders.Theobjectiveinselectingthepointofcomplianceistoprovide
theearliestpracticablewarningthattheimpoundmentisreleasinghazardousconstituentstothegroundwater.The
pointofcompliancemustbeselectedtoprovidepromptindicationofgroundwatercontaminationonthe
hydraulicallydowngradientedgeofthedisposalarea.TheCommissionshallidentifyhazardousconstituents,
establishconcentrationlimits,setthecomplianceperiod,andmayadjustthepointofcomplianceifneededtoaccord
withdevelopeddataandsiteinformationastotheflowofgroundwaterorcontaminants,whenthedetection
monitoringestablishedunderCriterion7Aindicatesleakageofhazardousconstituentsfromthedisposalarea.
5B(2)Aconstituentbecomesahazardousconstituentsubjecttoparagraph5B(5)onlywhentheconstituentmeetsall
threeofthefollowingtests:
(a)Theconstituentisreasonablyexpectedtobeinorderivedfromthebyproductmaterialinthedisposalarea;
(b)Theconstituenthasbeendetectedinthegroundwaterintheuppermostaquifer;and
(c)TheconstituentislistedinCriterion13ofthisappendix.
5B(3)Evenwhenconstituentsmeetallthreetestsinparagraph5B(2)ofthiscriterion,theCommissionmayexcludea
detectedconstituentfromthesetofhazardousconstituentsonasitespecificbasisifitfindsthattheconstituentisnot
capableofposingasubstantialpresentorpotentialhazardtohumanhealthortheenvironment.Indecidingwhether
toexcludeconstituents,theCommissionwillconsiderthefollowing:
(a)Potentialadverseeffectsongroundwaterquality,considering
(i)Thephysicalandchemicalcharacteristicsofthewasteinthelicensedsite,includingitspotentialformigration;
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(ii)Thehydrogeologicalcharacteristicsofthefacilityandsurroundingland;
(iii)Thequantityofgroundwaterandthedirectionofgroundwaterflow;
(iv)Theproximityandwithdrawalratesofgroundwaterusers;
(v)Thecurrentandfutureusesofgroundwaterinthearea;
(vi)Theexistingqualityofgroundwater,includingothersourcesofcontaminationandtheircumulativeimpacton
thegroundwaterquality;
(vii)Thepotentialforhealthriskscausedbyhumanexposuretowasteconstituents;
(viii)Thepotentialdamagetowildlife,crops,vegetation,andphysicalstructurescausedbyexposuretowaste
constituents;
(ix)Thepersistenceandpermanenceofthepotentialadverseeffects.
(b)Potentialadverseeffectsonhydraulicallyconnectedsurfacewaterquality,considering
(i)Thevolumeandphysicalandchemicalcharacteristicsofthewasteinthelicensedsite;
(iii)Thequantityandqualityofgroundwater,andthedirectionofgroundwaterflow;
(iv)Thepatternsofrainfallintheregion;
(v)Theproximityofthelicensedsitetosurfacewaters;
(vi)Thecurrentandfutureusesofsurfacewatersintheareaandanywaterqualitystandardsestablishedforthose
surfacewaters;
(vii)Theexistingqualityofsurfacewater,includingothersourcesofcontaminationandthecumulativeimpacton
surfacewaterquality;
(viii)Thepotentialforhealthriskscausedbyhumanexposuretowasteconstituents;
(ix)Thepotentialdamagetowildlife,crops,vegetation,andphysicalstructurescausedbyexposuretowaste
constituents;and
(x)Thepersistenceandpermanenceofthepotentialadverseeffects.
5B(4)Inmakinganydeterminationsunderparagraphs5B(3)and5B(6)ofthiscriterionabouttheuseofground
waterintheareaaroundthefacility,theCommissionwillconsideranyidentificationofundergroundsourcesof
drinkingwaterandexemptedaquifersmadebytheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency.
5B(5)Atthepointofcompliance,theconcentrationofahazardousconstituentmustnotexceed
(a)TheCommissionapprovedbackgroundconcentrationofthatconstituentinthegroundwater;
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(b)Therespectivevaluegiveninthetableinparagraph5Ciftheconstituentislistedinthetableandifthe
backgroundleveloftheconstituentisbelowthevaluelisted;or
(c)AnalternateconcentrationlimitestablishedbytheCommission.
5B(6)Conceptually,backgroundconcentrationsposenoincrementalhazardsandthedrinkingwaterlimitsin
paragraph5Cstateacceptablehazardsbutthesetwooptionsmaynotbepracticallyachievableataspecificsite.
AlternateconcentrationlimitsthatpresentnosignificanthazardmaybeproposedbylicenseesforCommission
consideration.Licenseesmustprovidethebasisforanyproposedlimitsincludingconsiderationofpracticable
correctiveactions,thatlimitsareaslowasreasonablyachievable,andinformationonthefactorstheCommission
mustconsider.TheCommissionwillestablishasitespecificalternateconcentrationlimitforahazardousconstituent
asprovidedinparagraph5B(5)ofthiscriterionifitfindsthattheproposedlimitisaslowasreasonablyachievable,
afterconsideringpracticablecorrectiveactions,andthattheconstituentwillnotposeasubstantialpresentor
potentialhazardtohumanhealthortheenvironmentaslongasthealternateconcentrationlimitisnotexceeded.In
makingthepresentandpotentialhazardfinding,theCommissionwillconsiderthefollowingfactors:
(a)Potentialadverseeffectsongroundwaterquality,considering
(i)Thephysicalandchemicalcharacteristicsofthewasteinthelicensedsiteincludingitspotentialformigration;
(iii)Thequantityofgroundwaterandthedirectionofgroundwaterflow;
(iv)Theproximityandwithdrawalratesofgroundwaterusers;
(v)Thecurrentandfutureusesofgroundwaterinthearea;
(vi)Theexistingqualityofgroundwater,includingothersourcesofcontaminationandtheircumulativeimpacton
thegroundwaterquality;
(vii)Thepotentialforhealthriskscausedbyhumanexposuretowasteconstituents;
(viii)Thepotentialdamagetowildlife,crops,vegetation,andphysicalstructurescausedbyexposuretowaste
constituents;
(ix)Thepersistenceandpermanenceofthepotentialadverseeffects.
(b)Potentialadverseeffectsonhydraulicallyconnectedsurfacewaterquality,considering
(i)Thevolumeandphysicalandchemicalcharacteristicsofthewasteinthelicensedsite;
(iii)Thequantityandqualityofgroundwater,andthedirectionofgroundwaterflow;
(iv)Thepatternsofrainfallintheregion;
(v)Theproximityofthelicensedsitetosurfacewaters;(vi)Thecurrentandfutureusesofsurfacewatersinthearea
andanywaterqualitystandardsestablishedforthosesurfacewaters;
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(vii)Theexistingqualityofsurfacewaterincludingothersourcesofcontaminationandthecumulativeimpacton
surfacewaterquality;
(viii)Thepotentialforhealthriskscausedbyhumanexposuretowasteconstituents;
(ix)Thepotentialdamagetowildlife,crops,vegetation,andphysicalstructurescausedbyexposuretowaste
constituents;and
(x)Thepersistenceandpermanenceofthepotentialadverseeffects.
5CMaximumValuesforGroundWaterProtection
Maximum
concentration
Constituentorproperty
Milligramsperliter:
Arsenic
0.05
Barium
1.0
Cadmium
0.01
Chromium
0.05
Lead
0.05
Mercury
0.002
Selenium
0.01
Silver
0.05
Endrin(1,2,3,4,10,10hexachloro1,7expoxy1,4,4a,5,6,7,8,9aoctahydro1,4endo,endo5,8
dimethanonapthalene)
0.0002
Lindane(1,2,3,4,5,6hexachlorocyclohexane,gammaisomer)
0.004
Methoxychlor(1,1,1Trichloro2,2bis(pmethoxyphenylethane)
0.1
Toxaphene(C10H10C16,Technicalchlorinatedcamphene,6769percentchlorine)
0.005
2,4D(2,4Dichlorophenoxyaceticacid)
0.1
2,4,5TPSilvex(2,4,5Trichlorophenoxypropionicacid)
Picocuriesperliter:
Combinedradium226andradium228
Grossalphaparticleactivity(excludingradonanduraniumwhenproducinguranium
byproductmaterialorradonandthoriumwhenproducingthoriumbyproductmaterial)
15
5DIfthegroundwaterprotectionstandardsestablishedunderparagraph5B(1)ofthiscriterionareexceededata
licensedsite,acorrectiveactionprogrammustbeputintooperationassoonasispracticable,andinnoeventlater
thaneighteen(18)monthsaftertheCommissionfindsthatthestandardshavebeenexceeded.Thelicenseeshall
submittheproposedcorrectiveactionprogramandsupportingrationaleforCommissionapprovalpriortoputting
theprogramintooperation,unlessotherwiseagreedtobytheCommission.Theobjectiveoftheprogramistoreturn
hazardousconstituentconcentrationlevelsingroundwatertotheconcentrationlevelssetasstandards.Thelicensees
proposedprogrammustaddressremovinghazardousconstituentsthathaveenteredthegroundwateratthepointof
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complianceortreatingtheminplace.Theprogrammustalsoaddressremovingortreatinganyhazardous
constituentsthatexceedconcentrationlimitsingroundwaterbetweenthepointofcomplianceandthedowngradient
facilitypropertyboundary.Thelicenseeshallcontinuecorrectiveactionmeasurestotheextentnecessarytoachieve
andmaintaincompliancewiththegroundwaterstandard.TheCommissionwilldeterminewhenthelicenseemay
terminatecorrectiveactionmeasuresbasedondatafromthegroundwatermonitoringprogramandother
informationthatprovidereasonableassurancethatthegroundwaterprotectionstandardwillnotbeexceeded.
5EIndevelopingandconductinggroundwaterprotectionprograms,applicantsandlicenseesshallalsoconsiderthe
following:
(1)Installationofbottomliners(Wheresyntheticlinersareused,aleakagedetectionsystemmustbeinstalled
immediatelybelowthelinertoensuremajorfailuresaredetectediftheyoccur.Thisisinadditiontotheground
watermonitoringprogramconductedasprovidedinCriterion7.Whereclaylinersareproposedorrelativelythin,
insituclaysoilsaretoberelieduponforseepagecontrol,testsmustbeconductedwithrepresentativetailings
solutionsandclaymaterialstoconfirmthatnosignificantdeteriorationofpermeabilityorstabilitypropertieswill
occurwithcontinuousexposureofclaytotailingssolutions.Testsmustberunforasufficientperiodoftimetoreveal
anyeffectsiftheyaregoingtooccur(insomecasesdeteriorationhasbeenobservedtooccurratherrapidlyafter
aboutninemonthsofexposure)).
(2)Millprocessdesignswhichprovidethemaximumpracticablerecycleofsolutionsandconservationofwaterto
reducethenetinputofliquidtothetailingsimpoundment.
(3)Dewateringoftailingsbyprocessdevicesand/orinsitudrainagesystems(Atnewsites,tailingsmustbe
dewateredbyadrainagesysteminstalledatthebottomoftheimpoundmenttolowerthephreaticsurfaceandreduce
thedrivingheadofseepage,unlesstestsshowtailingsarenotamenabletosuchasystem.Whereinsitudewatering
istobeconducted,theimpoundmentbottommustbegradedtoassurethatthedrainsareatalowpoint.Thedrains
mustbeprotectedbysuitablefiltermaterialstoassurethatdrainsremainfreerunning.Thedrainagesystemmust
alsobeadequatelysizedtoassuregooddrainage).
(4)Neutralizationtopromoteimmobilizationofhazardousconstituents.
5FWheregroundwaterimpactsareoccurringatanexistingsiteduetoseepage,actionmustbetakentoalleviate
conditionsthatleadtoexcessiveseepageimpactsandrestoregroundwaterquality.Thespecificseepagecontroland
groundwaterprotectionmethod,orcombinationofmethods,tobeusedmustbeworkedoutonasitespecificbasis.
Technicalspecificationsmustbepreparedtocontrolinstallationofseepagecontrolsystems.Aqualityassurance,
testing,andinspectionprogram,whichincludessupervisionbyaqualifiedengineerorscientist,mustbeestablished
toassurethespecificationsaremet.
5GInsupportofatailingsdisposalsystemproposal,theapplicant/operatorshallsupplyinformationconcerningthe
following:
(1)Thechemicalandradioactivecharacteristicsofthewastesolutions.
(2)Thecharacteristicsoftheunderlyingsoilandgeologicformationsparticularlyastheywillcontroltransportof
contaminantsandsolutions.Thisincludesdetailedinformationconcerningextent,thickness,uniformity,shape,and
orientationofunderlyingstrata.Hydraulicgradientsandconductivitiesofthevariousformationsmustbe
determined.Thisinformationmustbegatheredfromboringsandfieldsurveymethodstakenwithintheproposed
impoundmentareaandinsurroundingareaswherecontaminantsmightmigratetogroundwater.Theinformation
gatheredonboreholesmustincludebothgeologicandgeophysicallogsinsufficientnumberanddegreeof
sophisticationtoallowdeterminingsignificantdiscontinuities,fractures,andchanneleddepositsofhighhydraulic
conductivity.Iffieldsurveymethodsareused,theyshouldbeinadditiontoandcalibratedwithboreholelogging.
208
Hydrologicparameterssuchaspermeabilitymaynotbedeterminedonthebasisoflaboratoryanalysisofsamples
alone;asufficientamountoffieldtesting(e.g.,pumptests)mustbeconductedtoassureactualfieldpropertiesare
adequatelyunderstood.Testingmustbeconductedtoallowestimatingchemisorptionattenuationpropertiesof
underlyingsoilandrock.
(3)Location,extent,quality,capacityandcurrentusesofanygroundwateratandnearthesite.
5HStepsmustbetakenduringstockpilingoforetominimizepenetrationofradionuclidesintounderlyingsoils;
suitablemethodsincludeliningand/orcompactionoforestorageareas.
Criterion6(1)Indisposingofwastebyproductmaterial,licenseesshallplaceanearthencover(orapproved
alternative)overtailingsorwastesattheendofmillingoperationsandshallclosethewastedisposalareain
accordancewithadesign1whichprovidesreasonableassuranceofcontrolofradiologicalhazardsto(i)beeffective
for1,000years,totheextentreasonablyachievable,and,inanycase,foratleast200years,and(ii)limitreleasesof
radon222fromuraniumbyproductmaterials,andradon220fromthoriumbyproductmaterials,totheatmosphere
soasnottoexceedanaverage2releaserateof20picocuriespersquaremeterpersecond(pCi/m2s)totheextent
practicablethroughouttheeffectivedesignlifedeterminedpursuantto(1)(i)ofthisCriterion.Incomputingrequired
tailingscoverthicknesses,moistureinsoilsinexcessofamountsfoundnormallyinsimilarsoilsinsimilar
circumstancesmaynotbeconsidered.Directgammaexposurefromthetailingsorwastesshouldbereducedto
backgroundlevels.Theeffectsofanythinsyntheticlayermaynotbetakenintoaccountindeterminingthecalculated
radonexhalationlevel.Ifnonsoilmaterialsareproposedascovermaterials,itmustbedemonstratedthatthese
materialswillnotcrackordegradebydifferentialsettlement,weathering,orothermechanism,overlongterm
intervals.
(2)Assoonasreasonablyachievableafteremplacementofthefinalcovertolimitreleasesofradon222fromuranium
byproductmaterialandpriortoplacementoferosionprotectionbarriersorotherfeaturesnecessaryforlongterm
controlofthetailings,thelicenseeshallverifythroughappropriatetestingandanalysisthatthedesignand
constructionofthefinalradonbarrieriseffectiveinlimitingreleasesofradon222toalevelnotexceeding20pCi/m2s
averagedovertheentirepileorimpoundmentusingtheproceduresdescribedin40CFRpart61,appendixB,
Method115,oranothermethodofverificationapprovedbytheCommissionasbeingatleastaseffectivein
demonstratingtheeffectivenessofthefinalradonbarrier.
(3)Whenphasedemplacementofthefinalradonbarrierisincludedintheapplicablereclamationplan,the
verificationofradon222releaseratesrequiredinparagraph(2)ofthiscriterionmustbeconductedforeachportion
ofthepileorimpoundmentasthefinalradonbarrierforthatportionisemplaced.
(4)Withinninetydaysofthecompletionofalltestingandanalysisrelevanttotherequiredverificationinparagraphs
(2)and(3)ofthiscriterion,theuraniummilllicenseeshallreporttotheCommissiontheresultsdetailingtheactions
takentoverifythatlevelsofreleaseofradon222donotexceed20pCi/m2swhenaveragedovertheentirepileor
impoundment.Thelicenseeshallmaintainrecordsuntilterminationofthelicensedocumentingthesourceofinput
parametersincludingtheresultsofallmeasurementsonwhichtheyarebased,thecalculationsand/oranalytical
methodsusedtoderivevaluesforinputparameters,andtheprocedureusedtodeterminecompliance.Theserecords
shallbekeptinaformsuitablefortransfertothecustodialagencyatthetimeoftransferofthesitetoDOEoraState
forlongtermcareifrequested.
(5)Nearsurfacecovermaterials(i.e.,withinthetopthreemeters)maynotincludewasteorrockthatcontains
elevatedlevelsofradium;soilsusedfornearsurfacecovermustbeessentiallythesame,asfarasradioactivityis
concerned,asthatofsurroundingsurfacesoils.Thisistoensurethatsurfaceradonexhalationisnotsignificantly
abovebackgroundbecauseofthecovermaterialitself.
209
(6)Thedesignrequirementsinthiscriterionforlongevityandcontrolofradonreleasesapplytoanyportionofa
licensedand/ordisposalsiteunlesssuchportioncontainsaconcentrationofradiuminland,averagedoverareasof
100squaremeters,which,asaresultofbyproductmaterial,doesnotexceedthebackgroundlevelbymorethan:(i)5
picocuriespergram(pCi/g)ofradium226,or,inthecaseofthoriumbyproductmaterial,radium228,averagedover
thefirst15centimeters(cm)belowthesurface,and(ii)15pCi/gofradium226,or,inthecaseofthoriumbyproduct
material,radium228,averagedover15cmthicklayersmorethan15cmbelowthesurface.
Byproductmaterialcontainingconcentrationsofradionuclidesotherthanradiuminsoil,andsurfaceactivityon
remainingstructures,mustnotresultinatotaleffectivedoseequivalent(TEDE)exceedingthedosefromcleanupof
radiumcontaminatedsoiltotheabovestandard(benchmarkdose),andmustbeatlevelswhichareaslowasis
reasonablyachievable.Ifmorethanoneresidualradionuclideispresentinthesame100squaremeterarea,thesum
oftheratiosforeachradionuclideofconcentrationpresenttotheconcentrationlimitwillnotexceed1(unity).A
calculationofthepotentialpeakannualTEDEwithin1000yearstotheaveragememberofthecriticalgroupthat
wouldresultfromapplyingtheradiumstandard(notincludingradon)onthesitemustbesubmittedforapproval.
Theuseofdecommissioningplanswithbenchmarkdoseswhichexceed100mrem/yr,beforeapplicationofALARA,
requirestheapprovaloftheCommissionafterconsiderationoftherecommendationoftheNRCstaff.This
requirementfordosecriteriadoesnotapplytositesthathavedecommissioningplansforsoilandstructures
approvedbeforeJune11,1999.
(7)Thelicenseeshallalsoaddressthenonradiologicalhazardsassociatedwiththewastesinplanningand
implementingclosure.Thelicenseeshallensurethatdisposalareasareclosedinamannerthatminimizestheneed
forfurthermaintenance.Totheextentnecessarytopreventthreatstohumanhealthandtheenvironment,the
licenseeshallcontrol,minimize,oreliminatepostclosureescapeofnonradiologicalhazardousconstituents,leachate,
contaminatedrainwater,orwastedecompositionproductstothegroundorsurfacewatersortotheatmosphere.
Criterion6A(1)Forimpoundmentscontaininguraniumbyproductmaterials,thefinalradonbarriermustbe
completedasexpeditiouslyaspracticableconsideringtechnologicalfeasibilityafterthepileorimpoundmentceases
operationinaccordancewithawritten,Commissionapprovedreclamationplan.(Thetermasexpeditiouslyas
practicableconsideringtechnologicalfeasibilityasspecificallydefinedintheIntroductionofthisappendixincludes
factorsbeyondthecontrolofthelicensee.)Deadlinesforcompletionofthefinalradonbarrierand,ifapplicable,the
followinginterimmilestonesmustbeestablishedasaconditionoftheindividuallicense:windblowntailings
retrievalandplacementonthepileandinterimstabilization(includingdewateringortheremovaloffreestanding
liquidsandrecontouring).Theplacementoferosionprotectionbarriersorotherfeaturesnecessaryforlongterm
controlofthetailingsmustalsobecompletedinatimelymannerinaccordancewithawritten,Commission
approvedreclamationplan.
(2)TheCommissionmayapprovealicenseesrequesttoextendthetimeforperformanceofmilestonesrelatedto
emplacementofthefinalradonbarrierif,afterprovidinganopportunityforpublicparticipation,theCommission
findsthatthelicenseehasadequatelydemonstratedinthemannerrequiredinparagraph(2)ofCriterion6that
releasesofradon222donotexceedanaverageof20pCi/m2s.Ifthedelayisapprovedonthebasisthattheradon
releasesdonotexceed20pCi/m2s,averificationofradonlevels,asrequiredbyparagraph(2)ofCriterion6,mustbe
madeannuallyduringtheperiodofdelay.Inaddition,oncetheCommissionhasestablishedthedateinthe
reclamationplanforthemilestoneforcompletionofthefinalradonbarrier,theCommissionmayextendthatdate
basedoncostif,afterprovidinganopportunityforpublicparticipation,theCommissionfindsthatthelicenseeis
makinggoodfaitheffortstoemplacethefinalradonbarrier,thedelayisconsistentwiththedefinitionofavailable
technology,andtheradonreleasescausedbythedelaywillnotresultinasignificantincrementalrisktothepublic
health.
(3)TheCommissionmayauthorizebylicenseamendment,uponlicenseerequest,aportionoftheimpoundmentto
accepturaniumbyproductmaterialorsuchmaterialsthataresimilarinphysical,chemical,andradiological
characteristicstotheuraniummilltailingsandassociatedwastesalreadyinthepileorimpoundment,fromother
sources,duringtheclosureprocess.Nosuchauthorizationwillbemadeifitresultsinadelayorimpedimentto
210
emplacementofthefinalradonbarrierovertheremainderoftheimpoundmentinamannerthatwillachievelevels
ofradon222releasesnotexceeding20pCi/m2saveragedovertheentireimpoundment.Theverificationrequiredin
paragraph(2)ofCriterion6maybecompletedwithaportionoftheimpoundmentbeingusedforfurtherdisposalif
theCommissionmakesafinalfindingthattheimpoundmentwillcontinuetoachievealevelofradon222releases
notexceeding20pCi/m2saveragedovertheentireimpoundment.Inthiscase,afterthefinalradonbarrieris
completeexceptforthecontinuingdisposalarea,(a)onlybyproductmaterialwillbeauthorizedfordisposal,(b)the
disposalwillbelimitedtothespecifiedexistingdisposalarea,and(c)thisauthorizationwillonlybemadeafter
providingopportunityforpublicparticipation.Reclamationofthedisposalarea,asappropriate,mustbecompleted
inatimelymannerafterdisposaloperationsceaseinaccordancewithparagraph(1)ofCriterion6;however,these
actionsarenotrequiredtobecompleteaspartofmeetingthedeadlineforfinalradonbarrierconstruction.
Criterion7Atleastonefullyearpriortoanymajorsiteconstruction,apreoperationalmonitoringprogrammustbe
conductedtoprovidecompletebaselinedataonamillingsiteanditsenvirons.Throughouttheconstructionand
operatingphasesofthemill,anoperationalmonitoringprogrammustbeconductedtomeasureorevaluate
compliancewithapplicablestandardsandregulations;toevaluateperformanceofcontrolsystemsandprocedures;
toevaluateenvironmentalimpactsofoperation;andtodetectpotentiallongtermeffects.
7AThelicenseeshallestablishadetectionmonitoringprogramneededfortheCommissiontosetthesitespecific
groundwaterprotectionstandardsinparagraph5B(1)ofthisappendix.Forallmonitoringunderthisparagraphthe
licenseeorapplicantwillproposeforCommissionapprovalaslicenseconditionswhichconstituentsaretobe
monitoredonasitespecificbasis.Adetectionmonitoringprogramhastwopurposes.Theinitialpurposeofthe
programistodetectleakageofhazardousconstituentsfromthedisposalareasothattheneedtosetgroundwater
protectionstandardsismonitored.Ifleakageisdetected,thesecondpurposeoftheprogramistogeneratedataand
informationneededfortheCommissiontoestablishthestandardsunderCriterion5B.Thedataandinformation
mustprovideasufficientbasistoidentifythosehazardousconstituentswhichrequireconcentrationlimitstandards
andtoenabletheCommissiontosetthelimitsforthoseconstituentsandthecomplianceperiod.Theymayalsoneed
toprovidethebasisforadjustmentstothepointofcompliance.ForlicensesineffectSeptember30,1983,the
detectionmonitoringprogramsmusthavebeeninplacebyOctober1,1984.ForlicensesissuedafterSeptember30,
1983,thedetectionmonitoringprogramsmustbeinplacewhenspecifiedbytheCommissioninordersorlicense
conditions.Oncegroundwaterprotectionstandardshavebeenestablishedpursuanttoparagraph5B(1),thelicensee
shallestablishandimplementacompliancemonitoringprogram.Thepurposeofthecompliancemonitoring
programistodeterminethatthehazardousconstituentconcentrationsingroundwatercontinuetocomplywiththe
standardssetbytheCommission.Inconjunctionwithacorrectiveactionprogram,thelicenseeshallestablishand
implementacorrectiveactionmonitoringprogram.Thepurposeofthecorrectiveactionmonitoringprogramisto
demonstratetheeffectivenessofthecorrectiveactions.Anymonitoringprogramrequiredbythisparagraphmaybe
basedonexistingmonitoringprogramstotheextenttheexistingprogramscanmeetthestatedobjectiveforthe
program.
Criterion8Millingoperationsmustbeconductedsothatallairborneeffluentreleasesarereducedtolevelsaslowas
isreasonablyachievable.Theprimarymeansofaccomplishingthismustbebymeansofemissioncontrols.
Institutionalcontrols,suchasextendingthesiteboundaryandexclusionarea,maybeemployedtoensurethatoffsite
exposurelimitsaremet,butonlyafterallpracticablemeasureshavebeentakentocontrolemissionsatthesource.
Notwithstandingtheexistenceofindividualdosestandards,strictcontrolofemissionsisnecessarytoassurethat
populationexposuresarereducedtothemaximumextentreasonablyachievableandtoavoidsitecontamination.
Thegreatestpotentialsourcesofoffsiteradiationexposure(asidefromradonexposure)aredustingfromdry
surfacesofthetailingsdisposalareanotcoveredbytailingssolutionandemissionsfromyellowcakedryingand
packagingoperations.Duringoperationsandpriortoclosure,radiationdosesfromradonemissionsfromsurface
impoundmentsofuraniumorthoriumbyproductmaterialsmustbekeptaslowasisreasonablyachievable.
Checksmustbemadeandloggedhourlyofallparameters(e.g.,differentialpressuresandscrubberwaterflowrates)
thatdeterminetheefficiencyofyellowcakestackemissioncontrolequipmentoperation.Thelicenseeshallretaineach
logasarecordforthreeyearsafterthelastentryinthelogismade.Itmustbedeterminedwhetherornotconditions
211
arewithinarangeprescribedtoensurethattheequipmentisoperatingconsistentlynearpeakefficiency;corrective
actionmustbetakenwhenperformanceisoutsideofprescribedranges.Effluentcontroldevicesmustbeoperativeat
alltimesduringdryingandpackagingoperationsandwheneverairisexhaustingfromtheyellowcakestack.Drying
andpackagingoperationsmustterminatewhencontrolsareinoperative.Whenchecksindicatetheequipmentisnot
operatingwithintherangeprescribedforpeakefficiency,actionsmustbetakentorestoreparameterstothe
prescribedrange.Whenthiscannotbedonewithoutshutdownandrepairs,dryingandpackagingoperationsmust
ceaseassoonaspracticable.Operationsmaynotberestartedaftercessationduetooffnormalperformanceuntil
neededcorrectiveactionshavebeenidentifiedandimplemented.Allthesecessations,correctiveactions,andrestarts
mustbereportedtotheappropriateNRCregionalofficeasindicatedinCriterion8A,inwriting,withintendaysof
thesubsequentrestart.
Tocontroldustingfromtailings,thatportionnotcoveredbystandingliquidsmustbewettedorchemicallystabilized
topreventorminimizeblowinganddustingtothemaximumextentreasonablyachievable.Thisrequirementmaybe
relaxediftailingsareeffectivelyshelteredfromwind,suchasmaybethecasewheretheyaredisposedofbelow
gradeandthetailingssurfaceisnotexposedtowind.Considerationmustbegiveninplanningtailingsdisposal
programstomethodswhichwouldallowphasedcoveringandreclamationoftailingsimpoundmentsbecausethis
willhelpincontrollingparticulateandradonemissionsduringoperation.Tocontroldustingfromdiffusesources,
suchastailingsandorepadswhereautomaticcontrolsdonotapply,operatorsshalldevelopwrittenoperating
proceduresspecifyingthemethodsofcontrolwhichwillbeutilized.
Millingoperationsproducingorinvolvingthoriumbyproductmaterialmustbeconductedinsuchamannerasto
providereasonableassurancethattheannualdoseequivalentdoesnotexceed25milliremstothewholebody,75
milliremstothethyroid,and25milliremstoanyotherorganofanymemberofthepublicasaresultofexposuresto
theplanneddischargeofradioactivematerials,radon220anditsdaughtersexcepted,tothegeneralenvironment.
UraniumandthoriumbyproductmaterialsmustbemanagedsoastoconformtotheapplicableprovisionsofTitle40
oftheCodeofFederalRegulations,Part440,OreMiningandDressingPointSourceCategory:EffluentLimitations
GuidelinesandNewSourcePerformanceStandards,SubpartC,Uranium,Radium,andVanadiumOres
Subcategory,ascodifiedonJanuary1,1983.
Criterion8ADailyinspectionsoftailingsorwasteretentionsystemsmustbeconductedbyaqualifiedengineeror
scientistanddocumented.Thelicenseeshallretainthedocumentationforeachdailyinspectionasarecordforthree
yearsafterthedocumentationismade.TheappropriateNRCregionalofficeasindicatedinAppendixDto10CFR
Part20ofthischapter,ortheDirector,OfficeofNuclearMaterialSafetyandSafeguards,U.S.NuclearRegulatory
Commission,Washington,DC,20555,mustbeimmediatelynotifiedofanyfailureinatailingsorwasteretention
systemthatresultsinareleaseoftailingsorwasteintounrestrictedareas,orofanyunusualconditions(conditions
notcontemplatedinthedesignoftheretentionsystem)thatisnotcorrectedcouldindicatethepotentialorleadto
failureofthesystemandresultinareleaseoftailingsorwasteintounrestrictedareas.
II.FinancialCriteria
Criterion9Financialsuretyarrangementsmustbeestablishedbyeachmilloperatorpriortothecommencementof
operationstoassurethatsufficientfundswillbeavailabletocarryoutthedecontaminationanddecommissioningof
themillandsiteandforthereclamationofanytailingsorwastedisposalareas.Theamountoffundstobeensured
bysuchsuretyarrangementsmustbebasedonCommissionapprovedcostestimatesinaCommissionapproved
planfor(1)decontaminationanddecommissioningofmillbuildingsandthemillingsitetolevelswhichallow
unrestricteduseoftheseareasupondecommissioning,and(2)thereclamationoftailingsand/orwasteareasin
accordancewithtechnicalcriteriadelineatedinSectionIofthisAppendix.Thelicenseeshallsubmitthisplanin
conjunctionwithanenvironmentalreportthataddressestheexpectedenvironmentalimpactsofthemilling
operation,decommissioningandtailingsreclamation,andevaluatesalternativesformitigatingtheseimpacts.The
suretymustalsocoverthepaymentofthechargeforlongtermsurveillanceandcontrolrequiredbyCriterion10.In
establishingspecificsuretyarrangements,thelicenseescostestimatesmusttakeintoaccounttotalcoststhatwould
212
beincurredifanindependentcontractorwerehiredtoperformthedecommissioningandreclamationwork.Inorder
toavoidunnecessaryduplicationandexpense,theCommissionmayacceptfinancialsuretiesthathavebeen
consolidatedwithfinancialorsuretyarrangementsestablishedtomeetrequirementsofotherFederalorstate
agenciesand/orlocalgoverningbodiesforsuchdecommissioning,decontamination,reclamation,andlongtermsite
surveillanceandcontrol,providedsucharrangementsareconsideredadequatetosatisfytheserequirementsandthat
theportionofthesuretywhichcoversthedecommissioningandreclamationofthemill,milltailingssiteand
associatedareas,andthelongtermfundingchargeisclearlyidentifiedandcommittedforuseinaccomplishingthese
activities.ThelicenseesssuretymechanismwillbereviewedannuallybytheCommissiontoassure,thatsufficient
fundswouldbeavailableforcompletionofthereclamationplaniftheworkhadtobeperformedbyanindependent
contractor.Theamountofsuretyliabilityshouldbeadjustedtorecognizeanyincreasesordecreasesresultingfrom
inflation,changesinengineeringplans,activitiesperformed,andanyotherconditionsaffectingcosts.Regardlessof
whetherreclamationisphasedthroughthelifeoftheoperationortakesplaceattheendofoperations,an
appropriateportionofsuretyliabilitymustberetaineduntilfinalcompliancewiththereclamationplanis
determined.
Thiswillyieldasuretythatisatleastsufficientatalltimestocoverthecostsofdecommissioningandreclamationof
theareasthatareexpectedtobedisturbedbeforethenextlicenserenewal.Thetermofthesuretymechanismmustbe
openended,unlessitcanbedemonstratedthatanotherarrangementwouldprovideanequivalentlevelofassurance.
Thisassurancewouldbeprovidedwithasuretyinstrumentwhichiswrittenforaspecifiedperiodoftime(e.g.,5
years)yetwhichmustbeautomaticallyrenewedunlessthesuretynotifiesthebeneficiary(theCommissionorthe
Stateregulatoryagency)andtheprincipal(thelicensee)somereasonabletime(e.g.,90days)priortotherenewaldate
oftheirintentionnottorenew.Insuchasituationthesuretyrequirementstillexistsandthelicenseewouldbe
requiredtosubmitanacceptablereplacementsuretywithinabriefperiodoftimetoallowatleast60daysforthe
regulatoryagencytocollect.
Proofofforfeituremustnotbenecessarytocollectthesuretysothatintheeventthatthelicenseecouldnotprovide
anacceptablereplacementsuretywithintherequiredtime,thesuretyshallbeautomaticallycollectedpriortoits
expiration.Theconditionsdescribedabovewouldhavetobeclearlystatedonanysuretyinstrumentwhichisnot
openended,andmustbeagreedtobyallparties.Financialsuretyarrangementsgenerallyacceptabletothe
Commissionare:
(a)Suretybonds;
(b)Cashdeposits;
(c)Certificatesofdeposits;
(d)Depositsofgovernmentsecurities;
(e)Irrevocablelettersorlinesofcredit;and
(f)CombinationsoftheaboveorsuchothertypesofarrangementsasmaybeapprovedbytheCommission.
However,selfinsurance,oranyarrangementwhichessentiallyconstitutesselfinsurance(e.g.,acontractwithaState
orFederalagency),willnotsatisfythesuretyrequirementsincethisprovidesnoadditionalassuranceotherthanthat
whichalreadyexiststhroughlicenserequirements.
Criterion10Aminimumchargeof$250,000(1978dollars)tocoverthecostsoflongtermsurveillancemustbepaid
byeachmilloperatortothegeneraltreasuryoftheUnitedStatesortoanappropriateStateagencypriortothe
terminationofauraniumorthoriummilllicense.
213
Ifsitesurveillanceorcontrolrequirementsataparticularsitearedetermined,onthebasisofasitespecific
evaluation,tobesignificantlygreaterthanthosespecifiedinCriterion12(e.g.,iffencingisdeterminedtobe
necessary),varianceinfundingrequirementsmaybespecifiedbytheCommission.Inanycase,thetotalchargeto
coverthecostsoflongtermsurveillancemustbesuchthat,withanassumed1percentannualrealinterestrate,the
collectedfundswillyieldinterestinanamountsufficienttocovertheannualcostsofsitesurveillance.Thetotal
chargewillbeadjustedannuallypriortoactualpaymenttorecognizeinflation.Theinflationratetobeusedisthat
indicatedbythechangeintheConsumerPriceIndexpublishedbytheU.S.DepartmentofLabor,BureauofLabor
Statistics.
III.SiteandByproductMaterialOwnership
Criterion11A.ThesecriteriarelatingtoownershipoftailingsandtheirdisposalsitesbecomeeffectiveonNovember
8,1981,andapplytoalllicensesterminated,issued,orrenewedafterthatdate.
B.Anyuraniumorthoriummillinglicenseortailingslicensemustcontainsuchtermsandconditionsasthe
Commissiondeterminesnecessarytoassurethatpriortoterminationofthelicense,thelicenseewillcomplywith
ownershiprequirementsofthiscriterionforsitesusedfortailingsdisposal.
C.TitletothebyproductmateriallicensedunderthisPartandland,includinganyintereststherein(otherthanland
ownedbytheUnitedStatesorbyaState)whichisusedforthedisposalofanysuchbyproductmaterial,oris
essentialtoensurethelongtermstabilityofsuchdisposalsite,mustbetransferredtotheUnitedStatesortheStatein
whichsuchlandislocated,attheoptionofsuchState.Inviewofthefactthatphysicalisolationmustbetheprimary
meansoflongtermcontrol,andGovernmentlandownershipisadesirablesupplementarymeasure,ownershipof
certainseverablesubsurfaceinterests(forexample,mineralrights)maybedeterminedtobeunnecessarytoprotect
thepublichealthandsafetyandtheenvironment.Inanycase,however,theapplicant/operatormustdemonstratea
seriousefforttoobtainsuchsubsurfacerights,andmust,intheeventthatcertainrightscannotbeobtained,provide
notificationinlocalpubliclandrecordsofthefactthatthelandisbeingusedforthedisposalofradioactivematerial
andissubjecttoeitheranNRCgeneralorspecificlicenseprohibitingthedisruptionanddisturbanceofthetailings.
Insomerarecases,suchasmayoccurwithdeepburialwherenoongoingsitesurveillancewillberequired,surface
landownershiptransferrequirementsmaybewaived.ForlicensesissuedbeforeNovember8,1981,theCommission
maytakeintoaccountthestatusoftheownershipofsuchland,andintereststherein,andtheabilityofalicenseeto
transfertitleandcustodythereoftotheUnitedStatesoraState.
D.IftheCommissionsubsequenttotitletransferdeterminesthatuseofthesurfaceorsubsurfaceestates,orboth,of
thelandtransferredtotheUnitedStatesortoaStatewillnotendangerthepublichealth,safety,welfare,or
environment,theCommissionmaypermittheuseofthesurfaceorsubsurfaceestates,orboth,ofsuchlandina
mannerconsistentwiththeprovisionsprovidedinthesecriteria.IftheCommissionpermitssuchuseofsuchland,it
willprovidethepersonwhotransferredsuchlandwiththerightoffirstrefusalwithrespecttosuchuseofsuchland.
E.MaterialandlandtransferredtotheUnitedStatesoraStateinaccordancewiththisCriterionmustbetransferred
withoutcosttotheUnitedStatesoraStateotherthanadministrativeandlegalcostsincurredincarryingoutsuch
transfer.
F.Theprovisionsofthispartrespectingtransferoftitleandcustodytolandandtailingsandwastesdonotapplyin
thecaseoflandsheldintrustbytheUnitedStatesforanyIndiantribeorlandsownedbysuchIndiantribesubjectto
arestrictionagainstalienationimposedbytheUnitedStates.Inthecaseofsuchlandswhichareusedforthedisposal
ofbyproductmaterial,asdefinedinthisPart,thelicenseeshallenterintoarrangementswiththeCommissionasmay
beappropriatetoassurethelongtermsurveillanceofsuchlandsbytheUnitedStates.
IV.LongTermSiteSurveillance
214
Criterion12Thefinaldispositionoftailings,residualradioactivematerial,orwastesatmillingsitesshouldbesuch
thatongoingactivemaintenanceisnotnecessarytopreserveisolation.Asaminimum,annualsiteinspectionsmust
beconductedbythegovernmentagencyresponsibleforlongtermcareofthedisposalsitetoconfirmitsintegrity
andtodeterminetheneed,ifany,formaintenanceand/ormonitoring.Resultsoftheinspectionsforallthesites
underthelicenseesjurisdictionwillbereportedtotheCommissionannuallywithin90daysofthelastsiteinspection
inthatcalendaryear.Anysitewhereunusualdamageordisruptionisdiscoveredduringtheinspection,however,
willrequireapreliminarysiteinspectionreporttobesubmittedwithin60days.Onthebasisofasitespecific
evaluation,theCommissionmayrequiremorefrequentsiteinspectionsifnecessaryduetothefeaturesofaparticular
disposalsite.Inthiscase,apreliminaryinspectionreportisrequiredtobesubmittedwithin60daysfollowingeach
inspection.
1.Inthecaseofthoriumbyproductmaterials,thestandardappliesonlytodesign.Monitoringforradonemissions
fromthoriumbyproductmaterialsafterinstallationofanappropriatelydesignedcoverisnotrequired.
2.Thisaverageappliestotheentiresurfaceofeachdisposalareaoveraperiodofaleastoneyear,butaperiodshort
comparedto100years.Radonwillcomefrombothbyproductmaterialsandfromcoveringmaterials.Radon
emissionsfromcoveringmaterialsshouldbeestimatedaspartofdevelopingaclosureplanforeachsite.The
standard,however,appliesonlytoemissionsfrombyproductmaterialstotheatmosphere.
3.TheabbreviationN.O.S.(nototherwisespecified)signifiesthosemembersofthegeneralclassnotspecificallylisted
bynameinthislist.
215
ExampleProcedures
SEALEDSOURCESURVEYSANDLEAKTESTS
I.
Scope
This procedure covers performance of required surveys for sealed sources

located on campus. These include leak tests and measurements of ambient
radiationlevelswhereapplicable.
II.
Purpose
Itisnecessarytoleaktestsealedsourcesthatareinusetoensurethatpersonnelarenot
exposed to radioactive contamination and to ensure that any measurements or
calibrations made with these sources are accurate and correct. Federal
regulations (10 CFR 35) and NRC Materials License No. 3400029302 require
periodicleaktesting.
III.
References
10CFR20(StandardsforProtectionAgainstRadiation)
10CFR35(MedicalUseofByproductMaterial)
RegulatoryGuide10.8(GuideforthePreparationofApplicationsforMedicalUse
Programs)
IV.
Equipment
smearwipes
20mlliquidscintillationvials
cottonswabs
plasticsamplevials
protectivegloves
portableradiationdetectionmeter
specimentongs
NRC3forms
V.
Precautions
Follow approved procedures when handling any source. Always wear proper
dosimetryandprotectivegloves.Beconsciousoftime,distance,andshielding.
Sources may have high radiation levels on contact with the source. The
216
following precautions shall be taken when surveying or leak testing high dose
ratesources:
VI.
Tongsandcottonswabsshouldbeusedforhandlingandsmearwiping
thesourceswheneverpossible.
Extremityandpersonaldosimetryshallbeworn.
Minimizetheamountoftimethatthesourceisunshielded.
Procedures
1. ContactRSOtoarrangefortestingandaccesstothesource(s).
2. EnsureacurrentNRCForm3ispostedinthesourcestorageroomreplaceif
missingorobsolete
3. Verifyallinformationlistedonsealedsourcerecordsiscompleteandaccurate;
correctorenteranyincorrect,obsolete,ormissinginformation.
Ifitisnotbepossibletoobtainthemodelorserialnumberofthesource
itself.Inthiscase,themodelandserialnumbersofthedevicemaybe
used.
Recordsshouldalsoincludethename,office,andtelephonenumberofa
persontocontactwithanyquestionswhichmayariseregardingdayto
dayuseofthesource.
4. Extendthesourcefromthebottomofthenucleargaugeoropenthegaugeto
exposethesourceorsourceholder.
5. Wipeoutsideofsourceorsourcecapsulewithdrycottonswaborsmearwipe.
Payspecialattentiontoanyseamsoropenings.
6. Surveytheswaborsmearwipewithaportableradiationdetectioninstrument.
Ifthecountratenotedisinexcessof100CPMabovebackground,notifythe
RSOthatthesourcemaybeleakingandisnottobeuseduntilfurthernotice.
7. PlacesmearwipeorswabintoLSVandbreakofftip(ifswabused),thenreplace
thelidonthevial.Agammacounterisalsoacceptableforcountingsmearwipes
orcottonswabsifoneisavailableandacceptableforthenuclide(s)inquestion.
Cesium137,forexample,couldbecountedinthismanner.
217
8. Ifthesourceisthoughttobeleaking,obtainsmearwipesofthesourcestorage
containerifpossibleandnotifytheRSOimmediately.
9. Retractsourceintothegauge.
10. Countwipesonaliquidscintillationcounter(oringammacounter,ifavailable
andacceptable).
11. Recordresultsontheappropriaterecordform.Ifthesourceisdiscoveredtobe
leaking(orifleakageisconfirmed)notifytheRSOimmediately.NotifytheNRC
asrequiredby10CFR35.59(e)(2).
12. CompletedrecordsshallbegiventotheRSOforreview.
OPERATIONANDCALIBRATIONOFTHELUDLUMMODEL12SURVEY
METER
1.0
Scope
Thisproceduresetsforththespecificrequirementstobeusedfortheoperation
andcalibrationoftheLudlumModel12SurveyMeterforuseattheSRS.
2.0
Purpose
The purpose of this procedure is to provide instructions for the operation and
calibrationoftheLudlumModel12SurveyMeterinconjunctionwithModel449
GMPancakeProbes,Model435AlphaScintillationProbes,andModel4410NaI
Probes.
3.0
References,DefinitionsandDevelopmentalResources
3.1
References
3.1.1 Regulatory Guide 10.8, Rev. 21987, Guide for the Preparation of
ApplicationsforMedicalUsePrograms
3.1.2 ANSIN3.11987,Selection,QualificationandTrainingofPersonnel
ForNuclearPowerPlants
3.2
Definitions
218
3.2.1 ACTIVITYTherateofdisintegration(transformation)ordecayof
radioactive material.Theunitsof activityforthepurposesof this
procedure are disintegration per minute(dpm) or micro
Curies(FCi).
3.2.2 CALIBRATION CERTIFICATE Document certifying calibration.

Itindicatestheprocedureusedtocalibratetheinstrumentandthe
record of data obtained prior to and during calibration. These
documentsarereferredtoasInstrumentServicerecords.
3.2.3 CALIBRATION STICKER Sticker attached directly to instrument

whichindicatescalibrationstatusofinstrument.
3.2.4 CHECK SOURCE A sample of radioactive material in which the

exact quantity of radioactive material is not known but the type
and energy of the emission is known. These sources are used for
fieldresponsechecksofradiationdetectioninstrumentation.
3.2.5 PERFORMANCE CHECK A check of a radiation detection

instrumentinwhichtheperformanceoftheinstrumentischecked
againstareferencesourcewithanacceptancevalueof 10%ofthe
referencevalue.
3.2.6 REFERENCE STANDARD A sample of radioactive material,

usually with a long halflife, in which the number of radioactive
atoms and the type of emission is known and is NIST traceable.
These standards are used for calibration and performance checks
ofradiationdetectioninstrumentation.
3.2.7 QUALIFIED USER An individual that has demonstrated to

management the skills and abilities to use instrumentation and is
trained to perform specific program operations without
supervision.
3.3
DevelopmentalResources
3.3.1 InstructionmanualfortheLudlumModel12SurveyMeter
3.3.2 ANSIN3231978,InstrumentationTestandCalibration
219
4.0
Precautions,Limitations
4.1
Precautions
4.1.1 Take care not to puncture the thin mica window of the pancake
GMdetector.
4.1.2 To prevent contamination of probes, avoid contact with the

person(s)orobject(s)beingsurveyed.
4.1.3 Prior to returning an instrument for calibration, the instrument

shallbesurveyedforradioactivecontaminationifitwasusedinan
areawherethepotentialforcontaminationexisted.
4.2
Limitations
4.2.1 The operation of the Model 12 depends on the condition of the

battery. Therefore, the battery check should be performed
periodicallytoinsureproperoperation.
4.2.2 Calibration shall be performed annually, after maintenance is

performed,ifinstrumentfailstheperformancetestorifitsproper
operationisinquestion.
4.2.3 Adailyperformancetestisrequiredwhentheinstrumentisinuse.
4.2.4 Pancake GM Detectors shall be considered 10% efficient unless

otherwisenoted.
5.0
ResponsibilitiesandOualifications
5.1
Responsibilities
5.1.1 HealthPhysicsSupervisor
5.1.1.1
Implementationofthisprocedure.
5.1.1.2
Periodic review of the adherence of personnel to the
requirementsofthisprocedure.
220
5.1.1.3
Performs periodic surveillance of the use and

maintenanceoftheinstrument.
5.1.2 HealthPhysicsTechnician
5.1.2.1
Ensures that the instrument is calibrated at specified

intervals.
5.1.2.2
Documentationofallrecordsinthisprocedure.
5.1.2.3
Notification to Health Physics Supervision of any

unsafe or unusual conditions observed during
operationoftheinstrument.
5.2 Qualifications
5.2.1 Health Physics Technicians shall be qualified in accordance with

therequirementsofANSI3.11987tooperatethisinstrumentfor
any of the following surveys: job coverage and unconditional
releases.
5.2.2 Jr. Health Physics Technicians may operate this instrument under
supervision of a Health Physics Technician meeting the
requirementsofSection5.2.1
6.0
Procedure
6.1
Operation
6.1.1 VerifythattheinstrumenthasavalidCalibrationSticker,andthe
performance test has been performed and initialed on the
PerformanceTestSignoffSticker.
6.1.2 Examine the instrument for any obvious physical damage which
couldinterferewithitsproperoperation.
6.1.3 Performabatterycheckontheinstrument.
221
6.1.4 Set the audio, response (fast or slow), and range selector to the
appropriatesettings.
6.1.5 Proceedwithoperationinaccordancewiththedesireduse.
6.2
Calibration
6.2.1 Instrument Calibration shall be performed by an approved

instrumentVendorCompany.
6.2.2 The Calibration Certificate shall include as a minimum the

following:
6.2.2.1
Theprocedureusedtocalibratetheinstrument.
6.2.2.2
Thetechnicianwhoperformedthecalibration.
6.2.2.3
Datecalibratedandduedate.
6.2.2.4
TheinstrumentAsFoundandAsLeftdata.
6.2.2.5
Theinstrumentmodelandserialnumber.
6.3
PerformanceTest
6.3.1 Perform a performance test on the instrument and record all data
onthePerformanceTestLogSheet(HPF009)forthatinstrument.
Note: A performance test must be performed on each probe for

thatinstrument.(i.e.GMPancakeandAlphaScintillationProbe.)
6.3.2 ObtainthePerformanceTestsourcedesignatedbytheHPF009for
theinstrumentandprobe.
6.3.3 RecordtheinformationforeachsectionofHPF009.
222

6.3.5 Verify that the instrument has a current Calibration Data Sticker ,
andPerformanceTestSignoffStickerattached.
6.3.6 PerformaBatteryChecktocheckthatthebatteryiswithintheBatt
OKrangeonthemeter.
6.3.7 Exposethedetectortotheperformancetestsource.Iftheresponse
iswithinthedesignatedrangeforthesource,proceedtostep6.3.9.
Iftheinstrumentfails,recordFforfailonHPF009andremove
theinstrumentfromserviceforrepairorcalibration.
6.3.8 Iftheinstrumentfailsanyportionoftheperformancetest,logthe
instrument as failing on the Performance Test Log Sheet, remove
fromservice,andnotifytheHealthPhysicsSupervisorordesignee.
Tagtheinstrumentoutofservice.
6.3.9 Iftheinstrumentpassestheperformancetest,recordPforpasson
HPF009, then initial the Performance Test Signoff Sticker on the
instrumentandinitialthePerformanceTestLogSheet.
6.4
Maintenance
6.4.1 Nospecialstoragerequirements.
6.4.2 Electronicmaintenance(exceptprobeandcablereplacements)shall
beperformedbyavendorcompanyinaccordancewithreferences.
7.0
Records
The following records will be generated as a result of using this procedure.
Calibration records shall be kept on file until project completion, and then
forwardedtotheBranchOffice.
7.1
PerformanceTestLogSheet,HPF009
8.0
Exhibits(seeattachments)
8.1 Exhibit1,PerformanceTestLogSheet,HPF009
223
OPERATIONANDCALIBRATIONOFTHELUDLUMMODELS12Sand19
MICRORMETERS
1.0
Scope
Thisproceduresetsforththespecificrequirementstobeusedfortheoperation
and calibration of the Ludlum Models 12S and 19 microR meters. This
procedure applies to R & R International, Inc. personnel who may use this
instrumentattheSRS.
2.0
Purpose
The purpose of this procedure is to provide instructions for the operation and
calibrationoftheLudlumModels12Sand19microRmetersinaccordancewith
therequirementsspecifiedinReference3.1.1.
3.0
References.DefinitionsandDevelopmentalResources
3.1
References
3.1.1 Regulatory Guide 10.8, Rev. 21987, Guide for the Preparation of
ApplicationforMedicalPrograms
3.1.2 ANSIN3.11987,Selection,Qualification,andTrainingofPersonnel
forNuclearPowerPlants
3.2
Definitions
3.2.1
ACTIVITY The rate of disintegration (transformation) or
decay of radioactive material. The units of activity for the
purposes of this procedure are disintegration per minute
(dpm)ormicroCuries(Ci).
3.2.2
CALIBRATION CERTIFICATE Document certifying
calibration. It indicates the procedure used to calibrate the
instrument and the record of data obtained prior to and
during calibration. These documents are referred to as
InstrumentServicerecords.
3.2.3
CALIBRATION STICKER Sticker attached directly to
instrumentwhichindicatescalibrationstatusofinstrument.
224
3.2.4
CHECK SOURCE A sample of radioactive material in

which the exact quantity of radioactive material is not
known but the type and energy of the emission is known.
Thesesourcesareusedforfieldresponsechecksofradiation
detectioninstrumentation.
3.2.5
PERFORMANCECHECKAcheckofaradiationdetection
instrument in which the performance of the instrument is
checkedagainstareferencesourcewithanacceptancevalue
of10%ofthereferencevalue.
3.2.6
REFERENCE STANDARD A sample of radioactive

material,usuallywith alonghalflife,inwhich the number
ofradioactiveatomsandthetypeofemissionisknownand
is NIST traceable. These standards are used for calibration
and performance checks of radiation detection
instrumentation.
3.2.7
QUALIFIEDUSERAnindividualthathasdemonstratedto
management the skills and abilities to use instrumentation
and is trained to perform specific program operations
withoutsupervision.
3.3
DevelopmentalResources
3.3.1 LUDLUMModel12SMicroRMeterInstructionManual
3.3.2 LUDLUMModel19MicroRMeterInstructionManual
3.3.3 ANSIN3231978, Radiation Protection Instrumentation Test and

Calibration
4.0
PrecautionsandLimitations
4.1
Precautions
225
4.1.1 Due to the very low ranges only the 5,000 R scale (Model 19) or
3,000R scale (Model 12S) can be calibrated to an actual source
reading.Allotherscaleswillbecalibratedtoapulsegenerator.
4.1.2 Thesedetectorsarenotguaranteedlighttightwhenoutsideoftheir
instrumentcases.
4.1.3 Prior to returning an instrument for calibration, the instrument

shall be surveyed for radioactive contamination if the instrument
wasusedinanareawherethepotentialforcontaminationexisted.
226

4.2
Limitations
4.2.1 Calibration shall be performed annually, after maintenance is
performed, if the instrument fails the performance test or if its
properoperationisinquestion.
4.2.2 This instrument shall be performance tested daily when in use in

accordancewithSection6.3.
5.0
ResponsibilitiesandOualifications
5.1
Responsibilities
5.l.1 HealthPhysicsSupervisor
5.1.1.1
5.1.1.2
Periodic review of the adherence of personnel
totherequirementsofthisprocedure.
5.1.1.3
Performs periodic surveillance of the use and
maintenanceoftheinstrument.
5.1.2 HealthPhysicsTechnician
5.1.2.1
Ensures that the instrument is calibrated at
specifiedintervals.
5.1.2.2
Documentationofallrecordsinthisprocedure.
5.1.2.3
Notification to Health Physics Supervision of
any unsafe or unusual conditions observed
duringoperationoftheinstrument.
5.2
Qualifications
5.2.1 Health Physics Technicians shall be qualified in accordance with

therequirementsofANSI3.11987tooperatethisinstrumentfor
227
any of the following surveys: job coverage, air sampling analysis

andunconditionalreleases.
5.2.2 Jr.HealthPhysicsTechniciansmayoperatethisinstrumentunder
supervision of a Health Physics Technician meeting the
requirementsofSection5.2.1
6.0
Procedure
6.1
Operation
6.1.1 VerifythattheinstrumenthasavalidCalibrationStickerandthe
daily performance test has been done and initialed on the
Performance Test Signoff sticker. If the performance test has not
beenperformed,seeSection6.3.
6.1.3 PerformabatterycheckbypressingtheBATbuttonontheModel
19orbyswitchingtotheBATpositionontheModel12S.
6.1.4 If the instrument fails any of the above checks, remove it from
serviceandnotifytheHealthPhysicsSupervisor.
6.1.5 Set the range multiplier to an appropriate range for the activity
beinginvestigated.
6.1.6 Readthemeteraftersufficientresponsetime(i.e.,themeterneedle
is relatively stable) changing ranges as necessary for the activity
encountered. If the meter is used for an extended period of time,
checkthebatteryconditionperiodicallytoensureproperoperation.
6.1.7 DocumentallsurveyresultsinaccordancewithHPOP20.
6.2
Calibration
6.2.1 Instrument Calibration shall be performed by an approved

instrumentVendorCompany.
228
6.2.2 The Calibration Certificate shall include as a minimum the

followingitems:
6.2.2.1Theprocedureusedtocalibratetheinstrument.
6.2.2.2Thetechnicianwhoperformedthecalibration.
6.2.2.3Datecalibratedandduedate.
6.2.2.4TheinstrumentAsFoundandAsLeftdata.
6.2.2.5Theinstrumentmodelandserialnumber.
6.3
PerformanceTest
6.3.1 Perform a performance test on the instrument and record all data
onHPF009,PerformanceTestLogSheet.
6.3.2 ObtaintheperformancetestsourcedesignatedonHPF009forthe
instrument.RecordtheinformationforeachSectionofHPF009.
6.3.4 Verify that the instrument has a current Calibration Data Sticker
andPerformanceTestSignoffSticker.
6.3.5 Perform a battery check by turning the selector switch to BAT

(Model 12S) or by turning the unit to 5000 R/hr scale and
depressing BAT button (Model 19). If the unit does not read in
BATTERYarea,replacethebatteries.
6.3.6 Expose the center of the detector to the designated source. If the
reading is within the range on HPF009, record P for PASS on
HPF009. Ifthereadingisoutsidetherange,recordF forFAIL
onHPF009andremovetheinstrumentfromservice.
6.3.7 Iftheinstrumentpassesallsectionsoftheperformancetest,initial
thePerformanceTestSignoffStickerandcompleteHPF009.
229

Note: Due to the extremely low ranges incorporated in these
instruments,onlythehighscalesmaybeperformancetestedwith
anactualsourcereading.
6.4
Maintenance
6.4.1 Nospecialstoragerequirements.
6.4.2 Electronic maintenance shall be performed by a Vendor company

inaccordancewithreferences.
6.4.3 Records of Maintenance shall be maintained with the calibration

records.
6.4.4 All maintenance shall be performed in accordance with the

manufacturersspecifications.
6.4.5 When the instrument is repaired, the HP Supervisor or designee

willreviewthenatureoftherepairanddetermineifacalibrationis
required.
6.4.6 Ifrecalibrationisnotrequired,performancetesttheinstrument(as
perStep6.3)priortoreturningtheinstrumenttoservice.
7.0
Records
Thefollowingrecordswillbegeneratedasaresultofusingthisprocedure.
7.1
PerformanceTestLogSheet,HPF009
8.0
Forms
8.1
HPF009,PerformanceTestLogSheetSeeattachments
DECONTAMINATIONANDRELEASEOFMATERIAL
1.0
Scope
This procedure sets forth specific requirements, methods and techniques used
fortheremovalofcontaminationfromequipmentandmaterials.
230

2.0
Purpose
Thisprocedureprovidesguidanceforequipmentandmaterialdecontamination
and to minimize the potential for unintentionally releasing contaminated items
fromRestrictedAreas.
3.0
ReferencesandDefinitions
3.1
References
3.1.1
10 CFR 20 (1192), Standard for Protection Against
Radiation.
3.1.2
Reg.Guide1.86(June1974),GuidelinesforDecontamination
FacilitiesEquipmentpriortoReleaseforUnrestrictedUse.
3.1.3
HPOP20 Performing Radiation and Contamination
Surveys.
3.2
Definitions
Activity.Therateofdisintegrationordecayofradioactivematerial.The
unitsofactivityforthepurposesofthisprocedurearedisintegrationsper
minute in microCuries for loose contamination, and disintegrations per
minute, milliroentgen, or millirad for fixed contamination. These terms
aredefinedin10CFR20.
Contamination. Deposition of radioactive material in any place it is not

desired,
particularlywhereitspresencemaybeharmful.Theharmmaybeactual
exposure
to individuals or release of the material to the environment or
generalpublic.
Contamination may be a result of the presence of

radionuclidesemittingalpha,
beta,orgammaradiation.
Fixed Contamination. Radioactive contamination that is not readily

removed from a surface by applying light to moderate pressure and
wipingwithapaperorclothdiscsmear.
231
LooseContamination.Radioactivecontaminationthatisreadilyremoved
fromasurfacebyapplyinglighttomoderatepressureandwipingwitha
paperorclothdiscsmear.
Minimum Detectable Activity (MDA). For purposes of this procedure,

MDAfor
removableradioactivecontaminationisdefinedasthesmallestamountof
sample
activity that will yield a net count with a 95% confidence

level,baseduponthe
background count rate of the counting system

used.
Release for Unconditional Use. A level of radioactive material that is

acceptable for use on property without license conditions or controls.
Under normal circumstances, authorized limits for residual radioactive
material are set to, or below, the values specified in USNRC Regulatory
Guide1.86.
RestrictedAreaAnarea,accesstowhichislimitedbythelicenseeforthe
purposes of protecting individuals against undue risks from exposure to

radiation
and radioactive materials. Restricted Area does not include

areasusedas
residential quarters, but separate rooms in a

residentialbuildingmaybesetapart
asaRestrictedArea.
4.0
4.1
Precautions
4.1.1
Vacuums used for decontamination purposes shall have a
HEPAfiltrationsystem,asnecessary.
4.1.2
When using water to decontaminate nonporous surfaces,
waste water must be contained for sampling before being
disposedof.
4.1.3
Care should be taken when choosing types of detergents,
agents, solvents and/or acids to prevent generating mixed
waste.
232
4.1.4
When using a sandblasting method of decontamination,

local containment should be used to prevent the spread of
contamination.
4.1.5
SurveysshallbeperformedinaccordancewithHPOP20.
4.1.6
Audibleresponseshallbeusedondirectfrisksurveysusing
portableinstrumentation.
4.2
Limitations
When using vacuums, the machine may become

contaminated.
4.2.1
4.2.2
5.0
The maximum probe speed of instruments used during

directfrisksurveyshallbe5cm/sec.
ResponsibilitiesandQualifications
5.1
Responsibilities
5.1.1
HealthPhysicsSupervisor
5.1.1.1
5.1.1.2
Initialqualificationoftechniciansandperiodic
review of the adherence of personnel to the
requirementsofthisprocedure.
5.1.1.3
Signature approval to release material or

equipment, or to permit use of material or
equipmentwithfixedactivityabovethelimits
specified in Section 6.1 of this procedure, but
not above the values specified in Regulatory
Guide1.86.
5.1.2
HealthPhysicsTechnicians
5.1.2.1
Performingtherequirementsofthisprocedure.
233
5.1.2.2
Adhere to other procedures referred to in this

procedure.
5.1.3.3
Authorization to release materials and

equipmentuptotheALARAlimitsspecifiedin
6.1ofthisprocedure.
5.2
Qualifications
5.2.1
All personnel performing equipment and material
decontaminationshallbequalifiedonthisprocedurepriorto
performingthetask.
6.0 Procedure
6.1
ALARAGoalsforUnconditionalReleaseofEquipmentandMaterials:
EMISSION
TOTALACTIVITY
Alpha
<20dpm/100cm2
Beta
<100dpm/100cm2
6.2
MaterialandEquipmentReleaseLimits(alllimitsindpm/100cm2)
NUCLIDE
Unat,U235,U238(alpha)
Transuranics,Ra226,Ra
228,Th230,Th228,Pa
231,Ac227,I125,I129
ThNat,Th232,Sr90,Ra
223,Ra224,U232,I126,I
131,I133
Betagammaemitters
AVERAGE
5.000
100
MAXIMUM
15,000
300
REMOVABLE
1,000
20
1,000
3,000
5,000
15,000
234
200
1,000

6.3
DecontaminationProcedure
6.3.1
Makeareasonableefforttoremoveallphysicalsignsof
contamination(e.g.,visibledust,dirt,mud.orrocks).
6.3.2
Selectaneffectivetechnique,suchasvacuumingorusing
shovels,trowels,brushes,orbrooms.
6.3.3
Usevacuumasthepreferredmethodforporoussurfaces.
6.3.4
Disposeofallmaterialremovedduringdecontamination
attemptsasradiologicallycontaminatedwaste.
6.3.5
Aftereachdecontaminationevolution,dryandresurveythe
equipmentormaterial.
6.4
SurveyProcedure
6.4.1
Performadirectfriskof100%ofallaccessibleareasofthe
equipmentormaterial,inaccordancewiththeinstruments
operationprocedure.
6.4.1.1
Ifthefriskindicatesradioactivematerialonthe
surfaceoftheequipmentormaterialatalevel
lowerthantheALARAgoals,thenthe
equipmentormaterialmaybereleased.
6.4.1.2
Ifthefriskindicatesradioactivematerialonthe
surfaceoftheequipmentormaterialatalevel
greaterthantheALARAgoals,butbelow
Regulatorylimits,thematerialorequipment
canbereleasedwithsupervisorypermission.If
thefriskindicatesalevelgreaterthan
regulatorylimits,thematerialmaynotbe
released.
6.4.2
Iftheequipmentormaterialssurfaceareaisgreaterthan100
cm2thenperformalargeareasmear.
235

6.4.2.1
Ifthepresenceofradioactivematerialisfound
abovebackground,theequipmentshallbe
treatedascontaminateduntiladetaileddisc
smearsurveyisperformed.
6.4.3
PerformDiscsmearoftheeffectiveaccessiblesurfacearea.
6.4.4
Countanddocumentthesmearsinaccordancewith
procedureHPOP20,PerformingRadiationand
ContaminationSurveys.
6.4.4.1
Recordsmeardata
6.4.4.2
Ifthesmearresultsindicatetransferable
activityabovetheALARAgoals,butbelowthe
valueslistedinSection6.2ofthisprocedures,
thematerialorequipmentmaybereleased
withsupervisorypermission.However,if
smearresultsaregreaterthanregulatory
limits,thematerialorequipmentmaynotbe
released.
NOTE:
Everyeffortshallbemadetodecontaminatethematerialand/or
equipmenttoalevelbelowthelimitssetforthinUSNRCReg.
Guide1.86,andpreferablybelowtheALARAlimitsinthis
procedure.
6.4.5
Materialorequipmentreleasedunconditionallyshallbe
documentedonHPF002,HealthPhysicsSurveyReport,
togetherwithanassociatedsurveylognumber.
236

SURVEYOFRADIOACTIVEMATERIALSHIPMENTS
1.0
Scope
Thisprocedureappliestotheshipmentofradioactivematerialandwasteatthe
SRS.
2.0
Purpose
Thisproceduredescribestheradiologicalsurveyrequirementsforoutgoing
shipmentsofradioactivematerialsandwaste.
3.0
ReferencesandDefinitions
3.1
References
3.1.1 10CFR20,StandardsforProtectionAgainstRadiation
3.1.2 10CFR71,TransportationofRadioactiveMaterial
3.2
Definitions
3.2.1 RadioactiveMaterialForthepurposesofthisprocedure,
radioactivematerialincludesanymaterial,equipment,orsystem
componentdeterminedtobecontaminatedorsuspectedofbeing
contaminated.Itemslocatedinknownorsuspected
ContaminationorAirborneRadioactivityAreasareconsidered
radioactivematerial.Radioactivematerialalsoincludesactivated
material,sealedandunsealedsources,andmaterialsthatemit
radiation.
3.2.2 TransportIndexTheTransportIndex(TI)isthemaximum
measureddoserateatone(1)meterfromthesurfaceofthe
package,roundedtothenearest0.1mrem/hr.TheTIisrequiredto
belistedontheshippinglabelperU.S.Departmentof
Transportation(DOT)regulations.
4.0
237
4.1
Theinstrumentsselectedtoconducttheradiologicalsurveysshouldbe
appropriateforthetypeofradiationtobedetected(i.e.,alphafriskerfor
alphacontamination,etc).
4.2
Allmaterialsthataretransferredoutofradiologicalareasaresubjectto
thereleasesurveyrequirementsthataredetailedinHPOP21.
4.3
AllwastegeneratedinContaminationandAirborneRadioactivityareas
shallbeconsideredradioactivewaste.
4.4
Allradioactivewastecontainersshallbeproperlypackagedandlabeled
accordingtotherequirementsofReference3.1.2.
4.5
TheinstrumentMinimumDetectableActivities(MDAs)shouldbeequal
toorlessthantheremovablecontaminationlimitsshowninAttachment1.
4.6
Intakeairfiltersshallbetreatedasnonradioactivewasteifthedirect
surveyofthesurfaceswithportableinstrumentation,after1weekof
decaytime,islessthantheinstrumentMDA.
4.7
Smearwipesshallbetreatedasnonradioactivewasteifthedirectsurvey
ofthesurfaceswithportableinstrumentationislessthantheinstrument
MDA.
4.8
Thetransportvehicleshallbesurveyedpriortoloadingtoverifythatit
complieswiththeestablishedcontaminationlimits.
5.0
Responsibilities
5.1
TheHealthPhysicsSupervisorshallberesponsiblefor:
5.1.1 Theimplementationandadministrationofthisprocedure.
5.1.2 Designationofpersonnelnecessarytocarryouttherequirementof
theprocedure.
5.1.3 Reviewofdocumentsgeneratedduringtheperformanceofthis
procedure.
238
5.2
6.0
HealthPhysicsTechniciansshallberesponsiblefortheperformanceofthe
requirementssetforthinthisprocedure.
Procedure
6.1
ExternalRadiologicalSurveysofOutgoingShipments
6.1.1 Visuallyinspecttheshippingcontainerandnoteanydamageon
the
radiologicalsurveyrecord.
6.1.2 Performanexternalradiationsurveytodeterminethemaximum
doserateat1meterfromtheshippingcontainer.Surveyat1meter
fromallsides,includingthetopandbottomofthecontainer,as
appropriate.
6.1.3 Performaremovablecontaminationsurveyoftheexteriorsurfaces
ofthecontainertobeshipped.
6.1.3.1
Wipethesurfaceofthecontainerwithamasslincloth
orotherabsorbentmaterial.
6.1.3.2
Surveytheswipewiththeappropriatesurvey
instrument(s).
6.1.4 Ifanyremovablecontaminationisdetected,thecontainershouldbe
decontaminatedandstep6.1.3repeated.
6.1.5 Iffurtherdecontaminationofthecontainerisimpractical,a
quantitativeremovablecontaminationsurveymustbeperformed.
Smearsshallbetakenover100cm2areas.Determinethemaximum
contaminationlevelindpm/cm2(seenote2toAttachment1).
6.1.6 Recordtheresultsoftheradiationandcontaminationsurveyson
theradiologicalSurveyForm
6.2
TransportVehicleSurveysforShipmentofRadioactiveMaterials
6.2.1 Fornonexclusiveusevehiclestransportingsinglepackageswith
lowdoserates,thissurveyisnotnecessary.
239

doserateatanyoccupiedlocationinthevehiclecab.
6.2.3 Surveythesurfacesofthetransportvehicletodeterminethe
maximumdoseratepresent.
doserateattwo(2)metersfromthesurfaceofthetransportvehicle
(orifaflatbedtrailer,atapointtwometersfromtheverticalplanes
attheedgesofthetrailer).
7.0
6.2.5 RecordtheresultsofthesurveyonaHealthPhysicsSurveyReport
(HPF002).
Records
7.1
HealthPhysicsSurveyReport,HPF002
7.2
RadioactiveShipmentRecords(CopytobekeptwithSurveyReport)
8.0
Exhibits
8.1
Exhibit1,ContaminationLimitsforShipmentsofRadioactiveMaterial
8.2
Exhibit2,ExternalRadiationLimitsforShipmentsofRadioactiveMaterial
240
UniversityofRochester
RadiationSafetyUnit
StandardOperatingProcedure
Procedure11
Revision0
12/17/98
RadiationandContaminationSurveys
Approvedby:__________________________
RSO,UniversityofRochester
Purpose
1.1
Thepurposeofthisprocedureistodefinehowtoconductradioactive
contaminationsurveys.Theperformanceofperiodicsurveysandtheway
inwhichtheyareperformedarerequiredundersectionsoftheNewYork
CodeofRulesandRegulations.Thisprocedureisbasedonthemodel
radiologicalsurveyproceduredevelopedbytheStateofNewYork.In
thisprocedure,stepswhicharemandatedbyNewYorklawareitalicized.
Scope
2.1
ThisprocedureappliestoallresearchlaboratoriesattheUniversityof
RochesterandStrongMedicalCenter.
References
3.1
NYSDOH,BureauofEnvironmentalProtectionRadiationGuideSeries
10.1rev.2,AppendixG
3.2
NYSDOH,BureauofEnvironmentalProtectionRadiationGuideSeries
10.2rev.1,AppendixI
3.3
NewYorkStateSanitaryCodeChapterI,Part16
Equipment
4.1
oneinch(2.5cm)diameterfilterpapersmearwipes(orequivalent)
4.2
impermeablegloves
4.3
radiationdetectioninstrument(liquidscintillationcounterorhandheld
meter)
241
Precautions
5.1
Protectiveglovesshouldbewornwhensmearwipingpotentially
contaminatedsurfaces
5.2
Wipesshouldbeseparatedtoavoidcrosscontamination
5.3
Donotuseasinglesmearwipetosurveymultiple100cm2locationsorto
surveyareassignificantlylargerthan100cm2(forexample,onesmear
wipemaynotbeusedtosurveyanentirelaboratorybenchtoporto
surveyseveral100cm2locationsonaworkbench)
Procedureforconductingsmearwipesurveysforradioactivecontamination
6.1
Researchlaboratorieswhereunsealedsourcesofradioactivematerialareused
shallbesurveyedmonthly.
6.2
Payspecialattentiontopostedworkareas,hoods,wastedisposalareas,
storageareas,floorsurfaces.Alsochecknonuseareasinlabssuchas
desks,trashcontainers,phonesandareaswherepossiblecross
contaminationmightoccur.
6.3
ConductwipeteststomeasurecontaminationlevelsfromH3,C14,S35,
Ni63and/orotherbetaemittingradionuclideswithdecayenergiesless
than300KeV.Wipetestsmaybeusedtodetectotherbetaemitting
radionuclides(e.g.P32)ifdesired.Wipetestsareperformedbywipinga
pieceofdryfilterpaperorequivalentoveranareaof100square
centimeters.
6.4
Countsmearwipesforremovablecontaminationinanappropriate
countingdevice(i.e.liquidscintillationcounterorbetacountingsystem)
6.5
Recordresultsasdescribedbelow
Procedureforconductingametersurveyforradioactivecontamination
7.1
Radiationmetersurveysmayonlybeperformedforisotopesemitting
gammaradiationorbetaparticleswithanenergygreaterthan300KeV.
7.2
Priortoconductingaradiationmetersurvey,thefollowingchecksshallbe
performed:
7.2.1 Allradiationdetectioninstrumentsmustbecalibratedannually.Verify
themetertobeusedisincalibration
7.2.2 Verifyproperbatteryoperationbytakingthemainswitchtothe
242
7.3
7.4
BatteryTestposition(orequivalent)andobservingtheneedle
deflectiontotheBatteryTest(orequivalent)position
7.2.3 Verifythephysicalconditionoftheinstrumentissatisfactory
7.2.4 Verifytheinstrumentcableisintact,ingoodphysicalcondition,
anddoesnothaveanycutsortearsintheinsulation
7.2.5 SettheaudibleresponseswitchtotheOnpositionandsetthe
responseswitchtotheF(fastresponse)position
7.2.6 Verifythemeterhasbeencheckedforproperresponseagainstasourceof
knownstrengthonthedayofuse.
Holdtheradiationdetectorbetween0.5and1cmfromthesurfacetobe
surveyedandmoveatarateof35cmpersecond.NOTE:holdingthe
probeatanexcessivedistanceormovingtheprobetoorapidlymayresult
innotdetectingradioactivecontamination.Holdingtheprobetoocloseto
thesurfacesurveyedmayresultincontaminationoftheprobe.
Recordthehighestnetcountratereadingnotedonthesurveymapas
noted.
7.4.1 Todeterminethenetcountrate,subtractbackgroundcountrate
fromtheinstrumentreading.Forexample,ifyouhave50cpm
frombackgroundradiation(measuredoutsidethelaboratory)and
theinstrumentreads300cpm,yournetcountrateis250cpm.
7.4.2 Convertthiscountratetoadisintegrationrateusingthemeterefficiency
fortheisotopeinuse.Forexample,ifacountrateof250countsper
minuteisnotedforP32andthemeterefficiencyforP32is50%,
thedisintegrationrateis500disintegrationsperminute(dpm).
Recordingsurveyresults
8.1
Permanentrecordswillbekeptofallsurveyresults,includingnegativeresults.
Theserecordsshallbemaintainedintheradiationsafetyrecordbinder
maintainedbyeachradiationpermitholder.
Therecordwillincludelocation,date,serialnumbersofinstrumentsused,results
8.2
ofthedailyinstrumentresponsecheck(see7.2.6,above),andthenameofthe
personconductingsurvey.Recordbackgroundcountrateinunitsofcounts
perminuteifadirectradiationmetersurveywasusedinsteadofsmear
wipes.
8.3
Thesurveyrecordwillincludedrawingsofareassurveyed,identifying
243
relevantfixturessuchasactivestorageareas,waste,andworkareas.
8.4
8.5
Resultsshallbenotedinunitsofdisintegrationsperminuteper100cm2.To
convertinstrumentcountratestodisintegrationrates,dividethecount
ratebytheinstrumentefficiencyforthespecificnuclidedetected.
TheRSOwillbeimmediatelynotifiedifcontaminationlevelsexceed500
dpmper100cm2.Anyareascontainingremovablecontaminationin
excessof200dpmper100cm2shallbedecontaminatedtolessthanthese
levels.
244
RunninganEffectiveHealthPhysicsProgram
Introduction
Radiationsafetyisarequirementforanyfacilitythatusesradiationorradioactivity.
Evensmallhospitalshavexrayandfluoroscopymachines,andlargerfacilitiesalso
haveCTunits,nuclearmedicine,andradiationoncologyaswell.Regardlessofthe
natureandsizeofahospitalsradiationsafetyprogram,someissuesareconstant
policiesandproceduresmustbedevelopedandenforced,personnelmustbeissuedand
requiredtoweardosimetry,regulatorsmustbeappeased,andsoforth.Ontheother
hand,runningalargemedicalhealthphysicsprogramalsohassomefundamental
differencescomparedtoasmallerprogram;theremaybeongoingresearch,many
moremodesofradiationandradioactivematerialsuse,thepresenceofaRadiation
SafetyCommittee,andmore.
Myexperienceisinrunningalargeresearchandmedicalradiationsafetyprogram,and
thischapteriswrittenfromthatperspective.Wherepossible,Iwillnotedifferences
betweenlargeandsmallprograms,andmanyofthesedifferenceswillbeobviouseven
withoutexplicitmention.Ialsodepartfromconventioninthischapterbywriting
muchofitinthefirstperson;itisbasedonmyexperiences,andwritinginthethird
personwouldbeawkwardatbest,andunreadableatworst.Finally,Iassumethatany
RSOisconversantintheregulatoryandtechnicalaspectsofhisorherjob,andmanyof
theseformthebasisofotherchaptersinthistext.Inaddition,manyoftheseissuesare
addressedquitenicelybyexistingreferences;inparticular,IhavefoundMillersbook
(Miller1992)andNCRPReport127(1998)tobeparticularlyhelpful.Inaddition,
OperationalRadiationSafetycontainsaplethoraofhelpfulandinformativepapersona
regularbasis.Inasimilarvein,therearemanyissuesrelatedtomanagingtheradiation
safetystaff,butthemajorityofthesemattersarelittledifferentfromothermanagement
challengesandareaddressedquitenicelyinbusinessandmanagementrelated
literatureandcourses.Accordingly,Iwillnotdwellonregulatory,management,and
technicalissuesbut,rather,onwhatIhavesometimescalledtheartofbeinganRSO.
MyprioritiesasRSOweretokeeppeoplesafefromharm,tocomplywithregulatory
andpolicyrequirements,andtoprovidethehighestlevelofservicepossibletothoseat
ourfacilitywhodependedonradiationandradioactivityfortheirwork.Onadaily
basis,beingaserviceproviderwaswhatwasmostnoticed,andourgoalwastobe
perceivedasanorganizationthathelped,nothinderedresearchandmedicalcare.
245

LicensingandDeviceRegistrationIssues
Themostcommonlicensingandregistrationissuesthatarisearethoseinvolvinginitial
applications,renewalapplications,andamendments.Bothinitialandrenewal
applicationsarefairlysimilar,sotheycanbetreatedsimilarly.
Donttieyourselfdownwithspecifics
TheruleofthumbIalwaystriedtofollowwithregardstolicensingmattersisthatitis
bettertobegenerallycorrectthantobespecificallywrong.Inotherwords,thereisnot
oftenaneedtotieyourselfdownwithveryspecificpromisesorstatementswhena
moregeneralstatementwillworkaswell.Asoneexample,Iworkedforalicenseethat
hadpromisedinitslicensethatbiologicalwaste(e.g.ratcarcasses)wouldbepackedin
lime,frozen,doublebagged,andplacedin33gallondrumswithabsorbentmaterials
forultimatedisposal.Thiswasexactlywhatthelicenseewasdoingatthetimeofthe
licenserenewal,sotheRSOwassimplyrecordingthecurrentpractice.Unfortunately,a
newwastebrokerandchangingpracticesledtoachangeinpracticeatthetimeI
workedforthislicensee,weweresimplydoublebaggingandfreezingthebiologics,
andpackingthemwithabsorbentsinto55gallondrumsfordisposal.Theover
specificityinourlicenseforcedustobeinnoncompliancewitheitherourlicense
conditions,orwithwasteacceptancecriteria.Whenwerenewedourlicense,thiswas
amendedtosaythatwewouldsimplypackageanddisposeofbiologicsinaccordance
withwasteacceptancecriteriasetforthbyourwastebrokeranddisposalcontractors.
Itisoftentemptingtogooverboardinalicenseapplicationoramendmenttopromise
todomorethanrequired,tobeextracareful,tobeseentoexceedexpectationssothat
therequestwillbegrantedmorequicklyandwithouttheanticipatedbackandforth
thatoftenaccompaniesanylicenserelatedrequests.Suchanapproachmay,indeed,
savetimeupfront,butitisalmostcertaintocostmoretimedowntheroad,andto
createalicensethatismorecomplicatedthanneedbethecase.
Inapplyingforalicenseorforalicenseamendment,Itendtoprefertoworkwith
regulatorsfromthestart.BythisImeanthat,beforeIbegindraftingthedocument(s),I
callourlicensereviewertotalkwiththemabouttherequest.Iwanttotellthemwhat
wewanttodoandwhy,howweintendtoproceed,andtoasktheirthoughtsonthe
matterwhatwemightbeforgetting,whetherornottherequestislikelytobe
approved,andwhatwemightneedtodotospeeduptheprocess.And,beforesending
offtherequest,Ioftenemailadraftversiontothelicensereviewertoagainaskfora
quickreadthroughandcommentsbeforeofficiallysubmittingtherequest.Thisprocess
246
takesmoreworkthansimplydraftingarequestandmailingitoff,butitalsohelps
ensurethat,bythetimealicenseorlicenseamendmentrequestissubmitted,ithasa
nearly100%chanceofbeingacceptedfairlyrapidlybecausethepeopleresponsiblefor
approvingthedocumentshavealready,ineffect,signedoffonit.And,attimes,this
processhashelpedmetounderstandthatarequestisprematureinoneinstance
(tryingtoextendourdecayinstoragehalflifelimitationfrom90daysto270days),I
wastoldthatourwastestorageareaneededupgradingbeforeanysuchrequestcould
beapprovedthisnotonlygavemeimpetustohastentheseupgrades,butalsosaved
methetimeandtroubleoftryingtogetanamendmentthathadnochanceofsuccess.
Minimizeattachments
Oneothercautioncomestomindwithrespecttosubmittinglicenseorlicense
amendmentapplications;theamountofsupportingdocumentsshouldberestrictedto
theminimumneeded.Forexample,manylicenseeswillsubmitcopiesoftheir
procedures,instrumentinventorylists,policies,lessonplans,andsoforthtoshowtheir
regulatorsexactlywhattheyintendtodo.Unfortunately,onesubmitted,these
documentsmaybeincorporatedintoalicense,leavingthelicenseeunabletomodify
themwithoutalicenseamendment.Ontheonehand,itisnicetohavearegulatory
stampofapprovalontheseimportantdocuments.Ontheotherhand,itisalsoniceto
beabletoeditandreviseimportantinternaldocumentswithoutgoingthroughthe
rigmaroleofalicenseamendment.Suchdocumentsshouldnotbesubmittedaspartof
alicenseoramendmentapplicationpackageunlessyourintentisthatthesedocuments
becomepartofyourlicense.
WorkingwithRegulators
Regulators,especiallyduringinspections,trytofindthingswrongwithourprograms,
whichtheyusetoembarrassus,putustowork,andmaybeevenfineus.Sincetheyare
tryingtodigupstufftouseagainstus,weshouldnottellorshowthemanythingexcept
exactlywhattheyaskfor.Intheworldofregulatorycompliance,itsuslicensees
againstthem,theregulators.Atleast,thisishowmanyRSOsviewthe
regulator/regulatedrelationship,andIthinkthisapproachisdeadwrong.Ihavehad
muchmoreluckworkingwithregulatorsthantryingtoworkagainstthem,andIhave
foundthatthisapproachislessstressfulandmoreproductivethanthealternate.What
thismeansfromapracticalstandpointisthatIthinkitmakessensetoworkwith
regulatorsonthingssuchasinformingthemofproblems(evenwhenthismaynotbe
required),cooperatingwiththemduringinspections,andaskingtheiradvicewhenit
makessense.
247
Keepingregulatorsinformed
Informingregulatorsofproblemsdoesnotmeanrunningtothemwitheveryminor
setback,ortattlingonyourself.Itmeans,instead,realizingtwofactsaboutyour
regulators:first,theyaregoingtofindoutaboutmajorproblemsanyhow,sowhynot
involvethematthestartand;second,yourregulatorsarearesourcewho,inmany
cases,haveseenmorevarietyofproblemsthanmanyRSOs.Whenaproblemdoes
arise,Ithinkitmakessensetofirststabilizethesituation(ifappropriate),thento
developanapproachtoaddresstheproblem,andfinallytogivemyinspectoraphone
call(whichIpreferoveranemail)todiscusstheproblemandmyproposedcourseof
actionsothattheregulatorhastheopportunitytothinkaboutwhetherornotmy
approachmakessense,orifImighthaveoverlookedsomething.
Forexample,wehadafairlyextensivespillofP32inoneofourlaboratories,whichmy
staffandIimmediatelywenttoworktocharacterizeandcleanup.Assoonasthe
situationwasundercontrolandarecoveryplandeveloped,Icalledourinspectorofthe
situationandwhatweintendedtodo.ImadeapointofnotingthatIwascalling
voluntarily,notbecauseIwasrequiredtodoso,andthatIwouldappreciateher
thoughtsandcomments.Shefeltthatweshouldperformurinebioassaytocheckfor
uptake,whichwassomethingIhadoverlooked.Ikeptourinspectoruptodatewith
recoveryactions,andshecontinuedtoadvisemewhenshefeltIhadoverlooked
something.CouldIhaveaddressedthisproblemwithoutinvolvingourregulators?
Certainly.Butbyinvolvingourregulatorsfromthestart,Iwasabletoobtainanother
perspective,togainsomevaluableadvice,and(mostimportantly)ourregulators
realizedthatIwasnottryingtohideapotentiallyembarrassingsituationbut,rather,
thatIsimplywantedtoaddresstheproblemaseffectivelyaspossible.
Survivinginspections
InspectionsareanotherareainwhichIthinkitmakessensetoworkwith,ratherthan
againstregulators.And,tome,itmakessensetotrytouseaninspectiontohelpyour
programratherthansimplyviewingitasaburden.
Firstandforemost,Istronglyfeelthataradiationsafetyprogramshouldbeinspection
readyatalltimes.Sincemostinspectionsareunannounced,youwilllikelynothave
theopportunitytoprepareforoneinadvance.Paperworkshouldbeorganized,
inspectionsandinstrumentcalibrationsshouldbeuptodate,wasteshouldbe
processed,andsoforthonacontinuingbasissothat,wheneveryouareinspected,the
inspectorswillfindthatyourdaytodayoperationsareacceptabletothem.Ifyouare
248
continuallyputtingoffsomethingimportantuntiljustbeforetheinspection,youare
indangerofhavinganunexpectedinspectionpreemptyourplannedwork.
Whentheinspectorsarrive,theywilllikelywishtospeakwiththeRSOinanentrance
interview.Thisgivesthemachancetotellyoutheirpurposeinappearingonyour
doorstepandtoaskyouaboutyourviewoftheprogram.Thiscanbeyouropportunity
tomakesuretheinspectorsknowofalltheimprovementsyouhavemadesincethelast
inspection,aswellastopointouttothemareasyouknowareweak(withinreason)and
yourplanstoaddresstheseweaknesses.Oneyear,forexample,Itoldourinspectors
thatIfeltIneededmorestaffandaskedthemtomentionthisintheirexitinterviewand
inspectionreportif,aftertheirinspection,theyagreed.Anotheryear,Inotedthatour
RadiationSafetyCommitteewasuncomfortableinoverseeingtheuseofmedical
devices(whichwereregisteredwiththestate,butnotincludedasradioactivematerials
onourlicense),andIaskedwhatothersimilarinstitutionsdid.Inbothcases,the
inspectorsmadecommentsintheirreportsthatsupportedmyposition,makingiteasier
togainapprovalforthesechanges.
Duringinspections,Iwouldensurethatourinspectorswereneverleftalone;atalltimes
(exceptduringrestroomvisits),amemberofmystaffwasonhandtoescortour
inspectors,tokeeptrackoftheprogressoftheinspection,andtoanswerquestionsand
addressconcernsimmediately.Forexample,thereistobenofoodstoragein
radiologicalpostedlaboratories,butmanylabskeeptablesaltandpowderedmilkas
laboratoryreagents.Anewinspectormaynotrealizethis,whichcouldleadtonotinga
potentialviolation.Ontheotherhand,ifescortedbyaknowledgeablehealthphysicist
ortechnician,theinspectorcanbeinformedthatthepowderedmilkisforlaboratory
useonly,andto(hopefully)showtheinspectorthattheboxislabeledtoshowthis.In
thisway,manypotentialviolationscanbeavoided.Intheeventthereisaviolation
found,itmaybepossiblefortheRadiationSafetystaffmembertocorrectitonthespot
or,attheveryleast,tobeabletoreporttotheRSOfirsthandwhatwasfound.
Whenpotentialviolationsarenoted,Iwillmakeanefforttocorrectthembeforethe
inspectionconcludessothat,attheexitinterview,wecanreportoncorrectiveactions.
Somecannotbeaddressedsoreadily,ofcourse,inwhichcaseIwilltrytosketchouta
correctiveactionplantopresenttoourregulatorsbeforetheydepart.
PerformingInspections
Largerlicenseeswillberequiredtoperformperiodicinspectionsofthevariousaspects
oftheirradiationsafetyprograms.Thismayincludeanalyticalandresearch
laboratories,roomsassignedtonuclearmedicineorradiationoncology,radioactive
249
wastestorageareas,andsimilarareasinwhichradioactiveworkisconducted.Even
smalllicenseesshouldconductperiodicinspections;examplesincludechecking
personneldosimetryuseamongradiologists,confirmingtheuseofgoodradiation
safetypracticesamongradiologytechnologists,orreviewingannualrefreshertraining
recordsamongcardiologistswhousefluoroscopy.
Theprimarygoalofinspectionsistoconfirmthatpersonnelarefollowingregulations
andsitespecificpolicies.Asecondarygoalistotalkwithradiationworkers,tofindout
whattheirconcernsare,togivethemachancetoaskquestions,andtoprovide
RadiationSafetypresenceonaregularbasis.ThepurposeofinspectionsisNOTtofind
fault,althoughproblemsthatareidentifiedshouldbenotedandcorrectedthisis
discussedingreaterdetailinthefollowingsection.Rather,thepurposeofaninspection
istoobtainasnapshotofthequalityofradiationsafetyinaparticularplaceatagiven
timegood,bad,orindifferent.RadiationSafetyhasanundeniableregulatory
function,especiallyinabroadscopelicensee.However,RadiationSafetyworksbest
whenitworksincooperationwithradiationworkers;ifRadiationSafetystaffcome
acrossastheradiationpolice,ifanadversarialatmosphereisallowed(orencouraged)
todevelop,theradiationworkerswillceaseworkingwithRadiationSafetyandwill,
instead,workagainstthem.Suchasituationisclearlynotinthebestinterestsofgood
radiationsafety.Mypreferencewasfortheinspectortobeaconduitofinformation
betweenthelaboratoryandRadiationSafety,andtobeseenasanassetandaresource
ratherthanasanopponent.
Conductofinspections
Inspectionsmustbeseenasfairandunbiasedbythosebeinginspected;otherwise
accusationsoffavoritismorbiasmayberaised.Itisinevitablethatyouwilllikesome
radiationworkersbetterthanothers;thiscannotbepermittedtoaffecttheinspection
program.Tothatend,Ihavefounditbesttodevelopaninspectionchecklistandto
distributecopiesofthechecklisttoallwhomaybeinspected.Bysodoing,theradiation
workersunderstandwhatisexpectedofthem,andtheyareassuredthattheywillbe
heldtoaconsistentsetofstandards,regardlessofpersonalfeelings.
Inspectionsshouldbethorough,butnotannoyinglysounlessthelaboratoryinquestion
hasahistoryofpoorbehaviororisrecoveringfromapreviousbadinspection.Itis
essentialtosetasidesufficienttimetoconductathoroughreviewoftherelevant
paperwork(inventoryrecords,trainingrecords,surveyrecords,dosimetryrecords,
etc.),toperformbothradiationandcontaminationsurveys,toobserveradiological
workpractices,andtochecktoensurethatradiationworkersexhibitanacceptablelevel
ofknowledgeofradiationsafety.Itisalsoimportanttolookatgoodradiological
250
housekeeping,radioactivewastestorage,andsoforth.Dependingonthesizeofa
laboratory,aninspectionmaytakeaslittleasahalfhour,orasmuchas23hours.By
itsnature,anyinspectionwillcausesomedegreeofinterruptioninalaboratorys
routine,butnoinspectionshouldbringworktoahaltorinterferesignificantlywiththe
dailyoperationofalaboratoryunlesssignificantsafetyorregulatoryviolationsare
found.
Duringthecourseofaninspection,itispossiblethatdeficiencieswillbenoted,andthe
mannerinwhichtheseareaddressedcanhaveasignificantimpactontherelations
betweenRadiationSafetyandtheradiationworkers.Violationsshouldbeaddressedin
aprofessional,matteroffactmanneratthetimetheyarenoted,theAuthorizedUseror
laboratorysupervisorshouldbeinformedoftheviolations,andnotifiedofthe
significanceoftheviolationsfound.Theinspectormayconsiderwaivingminor
violations,especiallyiftheyarecorrectedonthespotthiswasmypreferenceasRSO.
Thisandothercorrectiveactionoptionswillbediscussedinfurtherdetailinfollowing
sections.
Feedbackmustbeprovidedfollowinganinspection,evenifnodeficiencieswerenoted.
Thisshouldbeintheformofaletter;emailisacceptable,butahardcopyletteris
preferable.Ifviolationsaregiven,thelettershouldbesignedbytheRSO,after
reviewingandagreeingthatitisappropriatetoissuetheseviolations.
EnforcingCompliancewithRegulationsandPolicies
Rulesmustbefollowed,whethertheyareregulationsorinternalpolicies.Ifradiation
workersarefoundbreakingestablishedrules,theymustbeinformedoftheir
transgression,informedoftherequirements,andpossiblysubjectedtocorrectiveor
disciplinaryactionsifsuchactionsarewarranted.
Itisonlyfairthatradiationworkersbeawareoftheregulationsandpoliciestowhich
theyareexpectedtoadhere.Thisshouldbecommunicatedininitialandrefresher
radiationsafetytraining,viaperiodiccommunicationsfromRadiationSafetyto
radiationworkers,viaemail,andothermodesasapplicable.Itishelpfultodistribute
printedcopiesofyourRadiationSafetyManual(orequivalent)toalllaboratoriesand
departments,andtohavecopiesofthisavailableonlineaswell.Itisalsohelpfulto
providealistingofthemostcommonmajorandminorviolationsandalistingof
potentialactionsassociatedwiththeseviolations.
Thesecorrectiveordisciplinaryactionsshouldbeconsistentandshouldreflectthe
severityoftheviolationorviolationsnoted.Forexample,aminorpaperworkviolation
251
doesnotwarrantthesameresponseas,forexample,pipettingbymouth.Similarly,a
singleviolationdoesnotwarrantthesameresponseasmultipleviolations.AlthoughI
donotlikekeepingscore,Ihavefoundithelpfultohaveapointsystem.For
example,aminorviolationisworthahalfpointandamajorviolationisworthafull
point.Laboratoriesaccumulating4pointsinanysixmonthperiodwouldbesubjectto
formalactionbytheRadiationSafetyCommittee,whichcouldrangefromrequiring
refreshertrainingtosuspensionofaresponsibleindividualtosuspensionofa
laboratorysradioactivematerialspermit.Severepenalties(e.g.suspensionofan
individualoranentirelaboratory)shouldbeapprovedorissuedbytheRadiation
SafetyCommittee(ifthelicenseehasanRSC)orbytheRSOssupervisorifpossible.
ThisnotonlygivestheRSOasecondchecktoconfirmthattheviolation(s)warrant
somedegreeofpenalty,butalsoassuresthosepenalizedthatthecorrectiveor
disciplinaryactionshavebeenreviewedbymoreseniormanagementandfoundtobe
appropriate.
Althoughdecidingwhetherornottotakeactionscanberelativelysimple,deciding
whichaction(s)totakeismorecomplex.Forexample,ifasinglepersonisresponsible
forastringofviolations,itmaynotmakesensetopenalizeanentirelaboratory.
However,beforedoingthis,itsnecessarytomakesurethatyouhaveidentifiedthe
rightpersontakingactionagainstthewrongpersonnotonlyservesnocorrective
action,butcanactuallybecounterproductivebygeneratingcontemptofRadiation
Safety.Ontheotherhand,iftherearemultipleproblemscausedbygeneralnegligence,
iftheAuthorizedUserhasactivelyorpassivelyencouragedlaxradiationsafety
practices,orifasingleresponsiblepartycannotbeidentifiedthenitmaybeappropriate
totakeactionsagainsttheentirelaboratoryordepartment.Inthefollowingtable,Ilist
thecorrectiveactionsforanumberofviolationsfromincidentsataformerlicenseefor
whichIwasRSO.
Violation(s)
Corrective/DisciplinaryActions
Widespreadcontamination,failureto
Entirelaboratoryrequiredtoattend
performrequiredsurveys,foodstoragein specialradiationsafetyrefreshertraining
postedlab
givenbyRSO
Refusaltoweardosimetryfor6months,
Temporarysuspensionofradiationworker
refusaltocompleteradiationworker
statuspendingcompletionofrefresher
refreshertrainingfor3months
training
Widespreadcontaminationoflaboratory
Workersuspended2weeks,requiredto
duetosingleworkerfollowingpoorwork attendradiationworkerinitialtraining,
practices
requiredtoattendinterviewwithRSOand
towritereportoncausesofcontamination
252
incident
I125contaminationstemmingfrompoor Responsibleindividualsuspendedfor3
workpracticesandfailuretousecorrect
weeks,requiredtoattendradiationworker
detector,resultedinminoruptakeby6
initialtraining,requiredtoattend
people
interviewwithRSO
WidespreadP32contamination,useof
Laboratoryshutdownfor1week,
radioactivematerialsbyunauthorized
AuthorizedUserrequiredtomeetwith
personnel,deliberateuseofradioactive
RSOandRSCChair,refreshertraining
materialsinunpostedlaboratory,failureto requiredforalllaboratorypersonnel
informRadiationSafetyofcontamination
Radiationsurveymetersoutof
Violationswaived,laboratoryrequiredto
calibration,minoramountsof
haveinstrumentscalibrated
contamination
P32contaminationfoundinlaboratory
Allpersonnelusinglabrequiredtoattend
usedbymultiplepermitholders;culprit
refresherradiationsafetytraining
notidentified
presentedbyRSO,onemajorviolation
assignedtoeachpermitholderusingP32
inthisroom
Forthosepermitholderswhoreportedproblems(typicallyspillsorskincontamination)
mypolicywastofirstconcentrateoncorrectingtheproblem,leavingthequestionof
correctiveordisciplinaryactionsuntillater.Inparticular,Iwasreluctanttopenalize
radiationworkersforreportingaproblemtous,preferringtoencouragethissortof
selfreporting;myconcernwasthatradiationworkerswouldbelesslikelytocome
forwardtoaskforhelpiftheyfearedbeingpenalizedforthiscandor.
WorkingwithCommittees
Committeeworkisanecessarypart,somewouldsayanecessaryevil,ofworkingin
anymedicalorresearchenvironment.WhiletheRSOmaybeaskedtoparticipatein
committeesinavarietyofareas,thereareseveralcommitteesthataredirectlyrelevant
toRadiationSafetyworkandwithwhichtheRSO(orarepresentative)willberequired
toparticipate.TheseincludetheRadiationSafetyCommittee,theQualityAssurance
Committee,theHumanUseofRadionuclidesCommittee,andtheRadioactiveDrug
ResearchCommittee.Notalllicenseeswillhaveallofthesecommittees;thiswill
dependontheextentofradioactivematerialsuseataparticularlicensee.TheRSOmay
alsobeofferedtheopportunitytoparticipateinothercommittees;thismayberequired,
stronglyrecommended,orentirelyvoluntarydependingontheparticularlicensee,
guidanceprovidedbytheRSOssupervisor,andthepreferenceoftheRSO.Indeciding
253
whetherornottoparticipateinacommitteedirectly,indirectly,ornotatall,theRSO
shouldweightheimpactofthecommitteesworkontheactivitiesofRadiationSafety,
thecontributionRadiationSafetycanmaketothecommittee,theamountoftime
requiredforcommitteework,andotherfactorsthatmayberelevant.Forexample,if
theRSOisafacultymember,committeeworkmaybeexpectedforthosefaculty
applyingfortenure.
RadiationSafetyCommittee
LargelicenseeswillberequiredtohaveaRadiationSafetyCommittee(RSC)tooversee
theoperationsofRadiationSafetyandtheRSO.Ideally,theRSCshouldbecomprised
ofawidevarietyofpersonswhorepresentthoseinvolvedintheuseofradiationand
radioactivityatyourfacility.Thisshouldincluderepresentativesfromallmedical
departmentsthatuseradiationand/orradioactivity,arepresentativefromnursingif
nursesworkwithnuclearmedicinepatients,representativesofyourfacilitys
management,and(ifapplicable)researchersfromthevariousdisciplinesusing
radiationandradioactivityintheirwork.Thishelpsensurethatallradioactive
materialspermitholderswillhaveoneormorepeersontheRSCwhocanunderstand
theparticularsoftheirwork,andgivestheRSOknowledgeablepersonneltouseasa
resourcewhenestablishingnewpoliciesandwhendeterminingcorrectiveor
disciplinaryactions.TheRSCshouldbelargeenoughtoprovidethiscrosssection,but
notsolargeastobecomeunwieldy.Itisoftendifficulttopersuadebusyphysiciansand
researcherstotaketimetoattendRSCmeetings;acommitteethatisunnecessarilylarge
maysufferfromtheinabilitytoachieveaquorum.
AlthoughtheprimarypurposeoftheRSCisthatofoversight,theyalsorepresenta
tremendousintellectualassettotheRSO.Forexample,mostRSOsarenotphysicians,
andeventhosethatare,areusuallyauthorizedtopracticeinonlyonespecialtyarea.
HavingaccesstophysiciansinotherspecialtyareashelpstheRSOtobetterunderstand
theworkof,forexample,anuclearpharmacyoraradiationoncologylinearaccelerator.
This,inturn,canhelptheRSOtounderstandtheimpactsuggestedpolicychangeson
thesedepartments,ortheeffectofsuggestedcorrectiveordisciplinaryactionsonthose
departments.
TheRSCcanalsoservethefunctionofprovidingbackupfortheRSO.Disciplinary
actions,forexample,thatareapprovedorissuedbytheRSCarelesspersonalthan
thoseissuedbytheRSO,andtheaffectedphysiciansorresearchersunderstandthatthe
theseactionswereapprovedbytheirpeersontheRSC;thattheyarenotthewildidea
ofanignorantRSO.Similarly,newpoliciesthatarereviewedbytheRSCaremore
likelytobewellreasonedandappropriatetoallthosewhoareimpacted,andaremore
likelytobeacceptediftheyareperceivedashavingtheapprovaloftheRSCthanif
254
they,too,areseenastheideaofanRSOwhomaybeseenasbeingignorantofthe
realitiesofrunningaresearchormedicallaboratory.Havingawidevarietyof
competentprofessionalsreviewpolicies,procedures,ordisciplinaryactionscanonly
helptoensurethattheseareconsistentnotonlywithgoodradiologicalworkpractices,
butalsowithefficientandeffectivemedicalandresearchpractices.
YetanotherfunctionoftheRSCwillbetoapproveresearchersandpossiblyphysicians
fortheuseofradioactivematerials.Forsomelicensees,thiscomprisesthebulkofthe
RSCworkwhile,forothers,thisisminor.Inmostcases,eitherstateregulationsor
internaldocumentswillspecifytherequirementstobeanauthorizedradioactive
materialsuserandtoprescriberadioactivematerialsformedicaldiagnosisortreatment.
TheroleoftheRSC,then,istoreviewthequalificationsoftheproposeduser(physician
orresearcher)todetermineifthesequalificationshavebeenmet.Thereviewmaybe
performedbytheentireRSC,byasubcommitteeoftheRSC,orbyanindividualRSC
member(usuallytheRSOorRSCChair).Inthelattertwocases,approvalbythefull
RSCwilltypicallyberequiredfollowingarecommendationbythesubcommitteeor
individualRSCmember.Nomatterhowtheapprovalprocessisadministered,itis
importantthatthisprocessbetakenseriouslyapprovinganunqualifiedphysician,for
example,canseverelydamageahospitalsreputation;especiallyifthatphysiciancomes
underregulatoryormediascrutiny.Althoughresearchersarelesslikelytowindupin
theheadlines,approvinganunqualifiedscientistasaradioactivematerialsusercan
bringunwantedregulatoryattentioniftheapprovalprocessisflawed.Ineithercase,it
behoovestheRSCtotakethisapprovalprocessseriouslyandtotakeallreasonable
stepstomakesurethatthepersoninquestionmeetstheregulatoryandinternal
requirementsandthattheirqualificationsarelegitimate.Todoso,itmaybenecessary
tocontactpreviousemployers,preceptors,andotherrelevantpersonstoconfirm
references,experience,coursework,andotherclaims.
MostRSOswillberequiredtosubmitanannualreportontheiractivitiestotheRSC.
AlthoughtheprimarypurposeofthisreportistokeeptheRSCapprisedoftheRSOs
workduringtheyear,itcanalsoserveasaremindertotheentireradiationworker
communityofthenatureandscopeofworkcarriedoutbytheRadiationSafetystaff.I
usedthisasanopportunitytosummarizealloftheworkweperformed,ifonlyto
disabusethemedicalandresearchcommunitiesoftheimpressionthatweweresimply
theradiologicalequivalentofjanitors.OnceapprovedbytheRSC,theannualreports
wereconvertedtoPDFformatandpostedontheRadiationSafetywebsiteforpublic
access.Iwasfrequentlysurprisedwhenresearchersorphysicianstoldmetheyhad
readthereport.
255
QualityAssuranceCommittee
Ifyourfacilityusesmachinesforhumandiagnosisortherapy,somesortofQuality
AssuranceCommitteewillberequiredforthepurposeofoverseeingtheproper
maintenanceofthesemachines.TheQACwilltypicallymeettoreviewperiodic
qualityrelatedreports,includinggammacameratests,xraymachineQAchecks,and
otherfactorsrelatedtoimagequality.
Inmanycases,theQACissetupsuchthatitisvirtuallytoothless,oftenbecauseitlacks
theauthoritytoissuepenaltiesortoenforcedecisionsandrecommendations.Thiscan
beaddressed,inpart,byrequiringtheQACtoreporttoagroupthatdoeshavethis
authority;thiscanbetheRadiationSafetyCommittee,toaseniorhospital
administrator,ortoanotherhospitalcommitteewiththislevelofauthorityover
medicaldepartments.Intheabsenceofthislevelofauthority,QACommitteesoften
findtheylacktheabilitytoeffectchange.
HumanUseofRadionuclidesandRadioactiveDrugResearchCommittees
Somefacilitiesconductresearchinvolvingtheadministrationofradioactivematerialsto
humansubjects.Whilethisissometimesthesubjectofmuckrakingjournalism,such
researchprovidesvaluableinsightsintothefunctioningofthehumanbody(for
example,usingpositronemittingnuclidestoelucidatebrainfunction,usingtracer
levelsofradionuclidestoinvestigatepharmaceuticalbiokinetics,ortestingnewnuclear
medicinemodalities,tonameafew).However,anyhumanresearchinvolvingthe
administrationofradioactivematerialsissensitiveandrequiresahigherlevelof
oversightandreviewthannonisotopicresearch.Forthisreason,regulationstypically
callforreviewbynotonlyaResearchSubjectsReviewBoard(orequivalent),butalso
byoneormoreseparatecommitteesthatareaskedtolookonlyattheradiological
aspectsoftheresearch.Thesecommittees,oftencalledsomevariationofHumanUseof
RadionuclidesandRadioactiveDrugResearchCommittees,arecomprisedof
representativesofRadiationSafety,theresearchcommunity,andthemedical
community.AtleastonememberwillbetheRSO,anditisusuallyrequiredthat
anothermemberbealicensedpharmacist.
Theworkofthesecommitteesistoreviewproposedresearch,todetermineifthe
researchrequirestheuseofradionuclides,iftheresearcheriscompetenttoperformthe
research,iftheradioactivitytobeadministeredisappropriateforthetask,ifthe
radiationdoseiswithinacceptablelimits,iftheinformedconsentformisclearand
accurate,andifthereareothernonisotopicmethodsavailabletoaccomplishthesame
end.
256

Inmanyinstitutions,theHURCand/orRDRCwillmeetinfrequentlyandtheir
workloadmaybelow.Thisdoesnotlessenthesecommitteesimportancewhentheir
workisneeded,itmustbeofhighquality.Thesecommitteesaretypicallyrequiredby
regulations,andtheproposedworktheyreviewistypicallybothimportantand
potentiallycontroversial.Itisessentialthatthereviewprocessbethorough,thoughtful,
andinsightfulsothatanyprojectsapprovedwillstanduptobothprofessionaland
publicscrutiny.
WorkingwithPhysicians
Physiciansare,ofcourse,anecessarypartofanyhospital.Theycanalsobedifficultto
workwith,especiallyfromthestandpointofenforcingregulationsandpolicies.Many
physiciansarenomoredifficulttoworkwiththananyotherradiationworkers.
Unfortunately,therearemanyphysicianswhoeitherfeelthatcomplyingwithtime
consumingoronerousregulationsissomehowbeneaththeirdignityasphysicians,or
whofeelthattheirtimeandworkistoovaluabletobeconsumedwithminor
regulatorymatters.Ihavehadphysicianstellmethattheyaretoobusysavinglives,
toohighlypaid,toohighlyeducated,andsimplytoobusytowastetimeon
regulatorymatterssuchasundergoingannualrefreshertraining,wearingdosimetry,
undergoingfluoroscopycredentialing,andsoforth.Thiscancausedifficulties,
particularlyifthedepartmentchiefalsoopposestheserequirementsor,indeed,isone
oftheoffenders.WhileIwasneverabletodevelopauniversalresponsetosuch
challenges,Iwasabletodevelopsomeresponsesthat,onacasebycasebasiswereable
todefusemanyofthesesituations.
OneadvantageIhadwasthatmydirectsupervisorwasaphysicianandarespected
deanofthemedicalschool.Ashecommentedonce,myPh.D.helpedmanyphysicians
viewmewithslightlylesscontemptthanmightotherwisehavebeenthecase.
However,itdidnotearntherespectofthemostrecalcitrantofthephysicians,who
respectedonlyothermedicaldoctors.Thisiswheremybosshelpedtremendously
mostofmycommunicationstomedicalpractitionersortotheirdepartmentswere
countersignedbyhim,atleastuntilIwassufficientlyentrenchedtoearn,ifnotrespect,
atleastsomedegreeofcompliance.Mybosswasalsohelpfulinoneononemeetings
withdifficultphysicians,ifonlyasatacitreminderthatmyrequest,requirements,or
recommendationscamewiththeimprimaturofanotherphysician,whohad
presumablyscreenedoutthechaff.Alongsimilarlines,anotheraidinworkingwith
physicianswastheRadiationSafetyCommittee,twomembersofwhichwerealso
physicians.
257
Havingphysiciansbackmeup,however,wasnoguaranteethatallofourphysicians
wouldfollowalloftherequirementsespeciallythosesuchasannualrefreshertraining
orturningindosimetry,whichareoftenseenasbeingmoreobjectionablethanisreally
thecase.Inmanycases,weactuallyhadphysiciansspendmoretimetryingtoavoida
distastefulrequirementsthancompliancewouldhaverequired.
OnetacticIusedwithsomedegreeofsuccesswascommiserationIwouldwhole
heartedlyagreethat,forexample,annualrefreshertrainingwasawasteoftimefora
radiologist.Iwouldthenpointoutthat,nonetheless,itwasaregulatoryrequirement
becausetheidiotsinAlbanysimplydidntappreciatethis.Iwouldfurthernotethat,
wasteoftimeornot,thiswasarequirementandthatwecouldloseourabilityto
functionasahospitalifwewerefoundinnoncompliancewithregulatory
requirements.Finally,Iwouldpointoutthatwewenttogreatlengthstomakethe
refreshertrainingaspainlessasourregulatoryburdenwouldpermit,andthatIwould
hopethat15minutescouldbefoundtohelpkeepthemedicalcenteroutofregulatory
trouble.Thisapproachworkedmoreoftenornot.
Whenitfailed,mynextrecoursewastoinvolvemybossand,ifnecessary,thechiefof
theappropriatedepartmenttohelpreininthetransgressor.Suchrequestsweremade
intheformofalettertotheoffendingphysician,copiedtobothmybossandthe
appropriatedepartment.Intheseletters,Iclearlyspelledouttheregulatory
requirement,summarizedeffortsmadetoobtaincompliancefromthephysicianin
question,andsettingforththepossiblepenaltiesforcontinuednoncompliance.These
penaltiesalwaysincludedthepossibilityofsuspensionfromworkwithoraround
radiationuntilfullcompliancewasachieved.Thisapproachworkedinallbutone
instanceduringmyfiveyearsasRSO.
Theoneinstanceinwhichthisapproachfailedwasanolderphysicianwhoreceivedhis
medicaltraininginGermany,andwhowasadamantthathewouldnotwastetimeon
suchtrivialmatters.Followingthreemonthsofrepeatedletters,emails,telephone
calls,andotherentreatiestocompletehisannualrefreshertrainingandtowearhis
dosimetry,Ifinallyfeltitnecessarytosuspendhisprivilegestoworkaroundradiation
generatingequipmentuntilthesematterswereresolved.Thiswasdoneinconsultation
withmyboss,theChairoftheRSC,andtheChiefofRadiology(who,sadly,wasnota
supporterofRadiationSafety).Wealsokepthospitalmanagementinvolvedinthis
processthroughout,aswellastheQualityAssuranceCommittee.Althoughthe
physicianinquestionwaslividwhenhewassuspended,hefinallyacquiescedand
completedtherequirements,atwhichtimehisradiationworkerprivilegeswere
reinstated.Icanalsorelatethat,followingthisincident,wehadnofurtherproblems
258
withRadiology,orwithphysiciansfromotherdepartmentsformyremainingtimeas
RSO.
Assatisfyingassuspensioncanbe,itisastepIrecommendonlycautiously.This
physicianwastheonlypersonatourhospitalqualifiedtointerpretcertainradiologic
procedureshissuspensionmeantthatthesepatientswerereferredtootherhospitals
untilhewasreinstatedtwoweekslater.This,inturn,causedsomedegreeof
embarrassmentandalossofrevenuetoourhospitalandforcedmetojustifymyactions
toourmanagement.HadInotalreadyspentagreatdealoftimejustifyingthisaction
tomybossandtomyself,Imayhavebeenataloss,andIwouldcertainlyhavelosta
greatdealofcredibilitywithmyboss,theRSC,hospitalmanagement,andthemedical
community.
Intheparticularcase,mybosswasquiteinsistentthatIjustifytohimwhyafailureto
weardosimetryandtocompleterefreshertrainingdidwarrantsuchapunishmentand
inconveniencetoourpatients.Myreplywasthat,afterrepeated(morethan10)
attemptsovera3monthperiodtoachievecomplianceonthesematters,therecouldbe
noquestionthatthephysiciansfullyunderstoodtheregulatoryrequirements,their
basisinstatelaw,thepossibleconsequencesofnoncompliance,andexactlywhatwas
requiredtoachievecompliance.Accordingly,hisrefusaltomeettheserequirements
hadbecomeawillfuldisregardforregulatoryrequirementsand,assuch,deserveda
moredrasticresponsethanmerenoncompliancewiththeseparticularregulations.At
thatpoint,IfeltIhadnochoicebuttocarrythroughthethreatofsuspension,ifonlyso
thatthisparticularcasecouldserveasanexampletoothersthatanyrefusaltocomply
withregulatoryandpolicyrequirementswouldbedealtwith.Mysupervisorwasnot
enthusiasticinhisagreement,butdidsupportmeinthisaction.Inallhonesty,
althoughIremainconvincedthatItooktheonlyreasonableactionavailable,Isuspect
mysupervisorcontinuedtohavereservationsaboutthisparticularmatter.
Havingsaidthis,Ishouldalsopointoutthatthemajorityofourphysicianscomplied,
albeitgrudgingly,withourregulatoryrequirements.Insomecases,wewereableto
workradiationsafetyrefreshertrainingintotheirroutineinserviceandcontinuing
educationprogram,savingusallvaluabletime.Havingonlinerefreshertraining
helpedaswell,givingthemtheoptionofaccomplishingthistaskfromhomeifthey
desired.Itwasonlyasmallfractionwhoweredeterminedtomakethingsdifficult,and
mostofthemfellintolinewhen,insteadofthreateningthem,Icommiseratedand
pointedoutthatwewereallsubjecttothesamestateregulations.And,ofthese,there
wasonlyonceinfiveyearsthatIwasforcedtotakeactualdisciplinaryactions.On
balance,IthinkthatIspentmoretimeonaperpersonbasistryingtoconvince
physiciansoftheneedtocomplywithregulationsthanIdidwithournonphysician
259
medicalandourresearchpersonnel.However,thisworkpaidoffinthatItookfewer
disciplinarymeasureswithourphysiciansthanwiththeotherpopulations.
SummaryandConcludingThoughts
Managingamedicalradiationsafetyprogramcanbecomplex;thereiscertainlymoreto
itthanwhatIhavedescribedinthischapter.ThesuccessfulRSOwillhavetodohisor
herbesttopleasemanycommunities,mostofwhoseinterestsarenotalignedwitheach
otherorwithradiationsafety.Tomanymedicalpersonnel,radiationsafetyisseenasa
timeconsumingintrusionintotheirtimethatservesonlytoadd(tothem)anotherlayer
ofmeaninglessrequirementsthathasnorelationshiptosavinglivestothem,Iwould
pointoutthatlossofourlicensewouldalsoreducetheirabilitytosavelives.To
hospitaladministration,radiationsafetyisacostcenterthatdoesnotproducerevenue
tothem,IwouldpointoutthatRadiationSafetymadepossibletherevenuefrom
NuclearMedicine,RadiationOncology,ourresearchlaboratories,and(toaminor
extent)Radiology.Whilethisdidnoteliminatethegrumbling,itatleasthelpedkeepit
inchecktosomeextent.Othercommunitieshadotherpriorities,nottomentionthe
occasionalpersonalagendas,feuds,andpettybickeringandpositioningthatoccurs
everywhere.
Thereissometimesatemptationtotakeonaprojectthatmayhaveonlyaperipheral
relationshiptoRadiationSafety;oftenattherequestofsomeoneelse.Howeverwell
intentionedornecessarysuchprojectsmayappear,Ifounditbesttoviewthemwitha
greatdealofskepticism,andIlearnedtoavoidsuchprojectsunlesstheymetcertain
criteria.Theseincluded:
1. Didtheprojectrelatetoradiationsafety?
2. Wastheprojectinterestingtome?
3. DidIseeaneedfortheworktobedonethatjustifiedinvestingmytime?
4. WastheprojectsomethingthatIcouldactuallyhelpwith,orwasIbeing
recruitedonlyforthebenefitsofmyreputationorperceivedapproval?
5. Wastheprojectlikelytosucceedortoeffectthedesiredchanges?Wouldmy
participationincreasethechancesofsuccess?
6. Wouldworkingontheprojectdetractfrommycredibilityorfromthatof
RadiationSafety?
Ingeneral,Ipreferrednottoworkonprojectsthatseemedtohavelittlechanceof
successorthatmightnegativelyimpairmycredibilityorthatofRadiationSafety.My
approachasRSOwastofirstbuildmycredibilitybysuccessfullytacklingobvious
problemsinareasonablemanner,andexplainingmyreasoningtotheradiationworker
260
communitysothattheycouldunderstandtheproblemsolvingapproach.Myfeeling
wasthatthishelpedmebuildthecredibilityIneededtolatertakeonlessobvious
problems,ortoproposepotentiallycontroversialsolutions.Italsoletme,onoccasion,
takeonproblemsthatmightbeoutsidemyimmediatepurviewasRSOorthatmaynot
beasamenabletoeasysolution.Tome,mycredibilityasRSO,andthecredibilityof
RadiationSafetyasanorganizationwereresourcestobebuiltaspossible,andtobe
usedasnecessary;andnevertobesquanderedonhopelessand/orunimportant
matters.
References
Miller,Kenneth.CRCHandbookofManagementofRadiationProtectionPrograms,
SecondEdition.CRCPress,BocaRatonFL.1992
NationalCouncilonRadiationProtectionandMeasurements.Report#127(Operational
RadiationSafetyProgram).NCRP,BethesdaMD.1998
261
Examplesofformsandreports
Quality Assurance For Medical Uses of Radiation
Meeting date: 15-Nov-01
TEST:
2000
QUARTER:
2001
FILM PROCESSORS (TOTAL)
4th
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
1st
2nd
3rd
Standard
780
798
793
786
784
792
792
660
No. of processors checked
752
800
787
755
735
803
776
655
No. out of service
No. out of control
10
No. of repaired within 24hrs.
11
Percent out of control (<2.0%)
0.3
0.3
0.1
1.2
0.6
Standard
636
642
642
639
637
637
637
508
625
646
636
611
588
653
622
508
No. out of service
No. out of control
0.3
0.6
Standard
26
26
26
24
25
26
26
25
26
24
26
22
25
26
26
24
No. out of service
No. out of control
Percent out of control (<12%)
8.3
23.1
16
Standard
118
130
125
123
122
129
129
126
RADIOLOGY FILM PROCESSORS (daily, MWF, weekly)
RADIATION ONCOLOGY FILM PROCESSOR (T,TH)
DENTAL FILM PROCESSOR (daily)
101
130
125
122
122
124
128
122
No. out of service
No. out of control
Standard
21
20
16
21
20
17
15
30
No. of X-ray tubes surveyed
17
17
19
29
19
16
14
30
No. out of Service
No. of tubes -- failed test(s)
HEALTH PHYSICS SURVEY (annual)
262
CLINICAL IMAGING SURVEY (annual)

Standard
12
14
11
11
No. of X-ray Tubes Surveyed
12
14
11
11
Standard
45
47
54
46
49
58
40
33
No. of collimators checked
45
47
48
46
49
58
40
33
No. out of service
No. of collimators failed
Percent failure (<10%)
4.3
Standard (No. of Darkrooms)
No. of darkrooms evaluated
COLLIMATION CHECKS (quarterly)
DARKROOM FOG TESTING (semi-annual)
No. failing fog test
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Standard (number issued)
No. returned
No. of rooms with problems noted
No. corrected
Percent returned (=100%)
Standard (No. of viewboxes)
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
No. out of service
No. of viewboxes relamped
11
14
18
No. outside acceptance limits
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
No. repaired
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
No. rechecked satisfactory
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Percent failure (<30%)
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
3.7
4.2
5.8
3.8
No. of reports due
No. of reports received
Percent received (=100%)
100
87.5
Total No. of cassettes
13
14
12
12
12
No. of cassettes tested
13
14
12
No. of cassettes failing test
No. of cassttes repaired or replaced
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
% tested when placed in service (=100%)
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
No. retested satisfactory

Percent failure (=0%)
SAFETY DEVICE CHECKS (semi-annual)

*
FILM VIEWBOX RELAMPING (annual as of 4/1/99)*
REPEAT/REJECT ANALYSIS (% repeat)

Overall rate (excluding CT) (<4.5%)
ACCEPTANCE TESTING (as needed)
FILM SCREEN CONTACT (as needed)
263
**
PROTECTIVE DEVICES (semi-annual**)

No. of aprons
133
148
200-230
~300
No. of aprons tested
133
148
88
80
No. of aprons removed from service
Percent test (>80%)
80
80
40
27
No. required
21
19
18
18
No. performed
21
19
18
18
Percent Failure (=0%)
No. required (4 units as of 10/01/00)
39
39
39
39
52
54
52
53
No. performed
39
39
26
11
41
54
51
52
Number outside acceptance limits
Percent failure (=0%)
No. Required (Phantom Images)
17
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
No. performed
17
21
15
13
13
14
14
13
Percent failure
No. of defects (=0)

*Weekly testing required as of April 28 1999
No. Required ( 6 units)
78
73
78
78
78
79
78
77
No. Performed
78
73
78
78
78
82
77
77
No. of aprons failing test
HYPO RETENTION (semi-annual)
CT QUALITY ASSURANCE (weekly)
MAMMOGRAPHY QUALITY ASSURANCE (weekly)*
NUC. MED. SCINT. CAMERA RESOLUTION (weekly)
No. Outside Acceptance Limits
11
10.2
2.7
7.7
1.3
3.8
7.3
11.6
14.3
No. Required (6 units)
378
390
383
378
378
378
384
378
No. Performed
377
389
381
378
376
377
380
374
34
23
15
14
40
49
No. Repaired
34
23
15
12
Percent Failure
5.9
3.9
0.8
0.5
3.7
10.5
13
22
30
26
27
25
28
26
28
No. Performed
22
30
26
27
25
28
26
28
No. Outside acceptance Limits
No. Repaired
Percent Failure
Percent Failure
NUC. MED. SCINT. CAMERA UNIFORMITY (daily)
NUC. CARD. SCINT CAMERA RESOLUTION (weekly)
264
3.6
NUC. CARD. SCINT. CAMERA UNIFORMITY (daily)

122
133
128
128
122
128
128
126
No. Performed
122
133
128
128
122
128
128
126
No. Repaired
Percent Failure
0.8
No. Required (1 unit)
61
66
64
64
61
64
64
63
No. Performed
60
66
64
64
62
64
64
63
No. Repaired
1.7
No. Required
61
66
64
No. Performed
60
66
64
0
0
NUC. CARD. DOSE CALIBRATOR CONSTANCY (daily)
Percent Failure
NUC. CARD. DOSE CALIBRATOR ACCUR. (annual)
No. Repaired
1.7
No. Required
No. Performed
No. Repaired
Percent Failure
No.of Weekly Monitoring events Required
15
34
36
51
61
40+
66
No.of Weekly Monitoring events performed
21
27
24
29
42
47
55
42.8
45.5
45.8
33.3
48.6
23
Percent Failure
NUC. CARD. DOSE CALIBRATOR LINEARITY (qtrly)
* RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS *
NUCLEAR MEDICINE THYROID MONITORING (qtrly)
Per Cent failing to be monitored (=0%)

No. of Thyroid Uptakes Above Accepable Levels
RADIOACTIVE PHARMACEUTICALS (daily)

No. Prepared Nuclear Medicine
1686
1854
1687
1711
1698
1797
1959
No. Properly Administered
1686
1854
1687
1711
1698
1794
1959
No. Prepared Nuclear Cardiology
1077
1325
1237
1286
1382
1298
949
No. Properly Administered
1077
1325
1237
1286
1382
1298
949
No. of Misadministrations* (=0)
No. of Misadministrations* (=0)

*As defined by BERP, Section 16.25, 10NYCRR
265
NUC. MED. DOSE CALIBRATOR CONSTANCY (daily)

No. Required *(2 units as of 1/1/00)
89
159*
150
153
154
154 159
No. Performed
89
155
150
153
154
154 159
No Repaired
Percent Failure
No. Required
No. Performed
No Repaired
Percent Failure
No. Required
No. Performed
No. Repaired
Percent Failure
Initial Training
29
43
39
59
30
22
47 44
Refresher Training
31
270
143
NUC. MED. DOSE CALIBRATOR ACCURACY(semi-ann)
NUC.MED DOSE CALIBRATOR LINEARITY (qtrly)
RADIATION SAFETY TRAINING
* Safety device checklist were performed for research units and underway for Radiology.
** The CR cassettes were evaluated.
266
Examplelaboratoryinspectionchecklist
Date___________ PermitHolder__________________________ Permit#_______
Room(s)inspected________________________ Nameofinspector_______________
Administrativeitems:
ReviewofPreliminaryInspectionReport(PIR)byRSUpriortoinspection
______
Conditionofdoorpostings
______
Isotopeslistedinagreementwithpermit?
______
Areallrooms/storageareasofradioactivitylabeledorproperlyposted? ______
Inventory(bynuclide
Inventoryverificationacceptable?
______
Monthlydecaycorrectionsperformed(notrequiredforH3orC14)?
______
Areallisotopespresentauthorizedforuseinthislab?
______
Surveyrecords
Datesoflabsurveysduringpastquarter
___________
___________
Contaminationlevelsfound,enteredinDPM
___________
Surveysincludeallworkareasandrandomlocations
___________
Surveymetercalibrationduedate(s)
___________
Surveyinstrumentsappropriatefornuclide(s)used?
___________
IfNouseindicated,doradioactivematerialwastelogssupportthis?
___________
Trainingrecords
Dotrainingcertificatesexistforallpersonnelworkingwithradioactivematerials?____
Haveallpersonnelcompletedannualrefreshertrainingforthiscalendaryear?______
Haveallbadgedpersonnelbeenproperlytrained?
___________
Laboratorysafetyandradiologicalworkpractices
Personnelwearingbadgesifrequired
___________
BadgesnotinusestoredincentrallocationawayfromRAM
___________
Anyeating,drinking,orapplicationofcosmeticsnotedinlab
___________
Properlabattire(labcoat,gloves,noopentoedshoes,noshorts/skirts) ___________
Allcontaminatedequipment(pipettors,centrifuges,etc.)labeled
___________
Radioactivematerialssecured(doorsorfreezerslockedifappropriate)
___________
UseofS35doneinsafemannertominimizecontaminationandexposure ___________
Shieldingavailableandinuse(I125,P32,andotherappropriatenuclides)___________
267
Anyareaswithcontaminationinexcessof200dpm/100cm2
___________
Arefumehoodsinuse?____Ifyes,dateoflastflowcheck
___________
Listhighestradiationlevelnoted(mustbelessthan0.5mr/hrat30cm) ___________
Listhighestcontaminationlevelsnoted(mustbelessthan200dpm/100cm2)__________
Havethyroidbioassaysbeenperformedasrequired?(2472hoursfollowingany
useofmorethan1mCiofI125orI131)maynotapplytoalllabs
___________
Radioactivewaste
Numberofwastecontainerspresent:
liquid ________
solid __________
Wastecontainersoverlyfull
liquid ________
solid __________
(containersareoverlyfullifsolidwasteisatthetopofthecontainerorifliquidwasteis
<4fromcontainertop)
Eachwastecontainerhasinventorysheetshowingnuclide(s),activitypresent,andstock
vialIDnumber(RSnumber)foreachdischarge
___________
Wastesegregation(short/longlived,incinerable/nonincinerable,etc.)
___________
Biohazardous,mixedwaste,sharpssegregatedandmarked?
___________
Liquidwastesegregatedandlabeled(aqueous/organic,specificchemicals)___________
Secondarycontainmentprovidedforliquidwaste?
___________
Wasteproperlyshieldedandstoredawayfromhighoccupancylocations ___________
Radioactivelabelscompletelyremovedordefacedforallmaterialsin
shortlivedwastecontainer?
___________
Noinappropriatematerialsinwastecontainers(leadpigs,sharps,etc.)
___________
Anypersonnelreceivinglessthan70%onverbalexamination?
___________
Attachments:____RSUsurveyresult____RSUinspectionchecklist____Violation
letter
Verbalexaminationquestions(askatleast10)indicatequestionsaskedand/or
missed
1. Whatismeantbythetermhalflife?
2. Whatisotopesareusedinyourlaboratory?
3. Whatradiationisemittedbyeachisotopeusedinyourlaboratory?
4. Whatisthepropershieldingforthiskindofradiation?
5. WhatagencyregulatestheuseofradioactivematerialsintheStateofNewYork?
6. WhoistheRadiationSafetyOfficerattheUniversityofRochester?
7. Whatactionsshouldyoutakeintheeventofaspillofradioactivematerials?
8. Whatisthemaximumallowablelevelforradioactivecontamination?
268
9. WhendoyounotifyRadiationSafetyintheeventofaradiologicalemergency?
10. Namethreekindsofradiologicalemergencies.
11. Howfarfromthesurfacedoyouholdaradiationdetectorwhenperforminga
contaminationsurvey?
12. Howquicklyshouldyoumovethedetectoracrossthesurfaceduringasurvey?
13. Howfrequentlyshouldaradiationmeterbecalibrated?
14. Whatchecksdoyouneedtoperformbeforeeachuseofaradiationorcontamination
survey?
15. Whatistheappropriatedetectorfortheisotopesinuseinyourlaboratory?
16. Whatactionsdoyoutakeifyousplashasmallamountofradioactiveliquidonyour
skin?Onyourclothes?
17. Whatisthemaximumamountofradiationyoucanbeexposedtoatworkinayear?
18. Whatisbremsstrahlung?
19. Whatisthemostlikelyeffectofreceivinganoccupationalradiationdoseofabout
100mrem/yrfor40years?
20. Whodoyoucontactintheeventofaradiologicalemergencyafternormalworking
hours?
269
APPLICATION FOR AUTHORIZATION TO USE RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS

1. Principal Investigator:_______________
3.
5.
7.
9.
2. Date:_____/______/______
Department:______________________
4. Office Extension:____________
Lab Extension:________-____________
6. E-mail Address:____________________
SS#:_______-_______-____________
8. Date of Birth:____/_____/_______
Room(s) where isotopes are used /stored _____________
Radionuclide
Source Limit
(per stock vial)
Activity Limit
(Maximum possession
amount)
Physical and
Chemical Form
(Requisition of the above isotope(s) must be placed under the users name).
10. PERSONNEL (Please attach to this form a completed RADIATION WORKER
INFOMATION FORM for each radiation worker and for the PI ): Do you or your lab staff
require dosimetry?____
11. FACILITIES: please provide a map of the laboratory spaces with the following:
a. Area(s ) where radioisotope is used
b. Area(s) where radioisotope is stored
c. Show any shielding, hoods, or other safety features that are applicable
d. Show location of waste containers
Note: Liquid containers require secondary containment

12. CONTAMINATION / RADIATION MONITORING EQUIPEMENT
List all contamination and radiation detection equipment below indicate shared equipment
INSTRUMENT
MANUFACTURER
INSTRUMENT MODEL
AND SERIAL
NUMBERS
TYPE OF PROBE MODEL

AND SERIAL NUMBERS
INSTRUMENT
CALIBRATION DATES
LIST ANY EXTERNAL/INTERNAL STANDARDS USED WITH L.S.C. - ISOTOPE, ACTIVITY, ASSAY DATE
___________________________________________________________________________
HOODS (Note: A hood is not necessarily required for all types of radioactive material usage)
a. are radioactive materials used in a hood?______ b. Stored in hood? _______
c. Indicate the date of the last flow test was performed and the fpm reading__/__/__ f.p.m.___
(Note: The Principle Investigator is responsible for strict inventory control of all Radioactive
compounds. If the applicant wishes to delegate this responsibility, please indicate responsible
Authorized User ____________________
I have read the Radiation Safety Manual and agree to follow all regulations and policies.
Principle Investigators Signature ______________________Dated ____/____/____
Approval______________ Dated ____/____/__ Approval ___________Dated ___/_____/____
Radiation Safety Officer
Chair, Radiation Safety Committee
270
PART B
PROCEDURE SUMMARY FORM
1. Principle Investigator________________________ 2. Date________________

3. Department_______________________________
4. Lab. #_______________
5. Radionuclide(s)____________________________
5a. Intramural Box ______
6. If this part is not accompanied by Part A, supply the following:

(a) Maximum possession amount:___ mCi (b) Physical and Chemical Form:_____
7. USE IN ANIMALS
(a) Species of animals:___________________ (b) Where housed:____________
(c) Number of animals per day, week, or month:____________________________
(d) Max. injection dose in uCi per animal:___________ (e) Biological half -life:_____
(f) Special animal handling procedures to be used:__________________________
8. IN VITRO OR OTHER USE
(a) Unit of use (test tube, culture, etc.):____________________________________
(b) Number of above units per day, week, or month:__________________________
(c) Maximum concentration in microcuries/unit:_____________________________
9. HUMAN USE: ( Approval of Human Use Committee is required)
(a) Number of patients per month:________________________________________
(b) Maximum injection dose in microcuries/patient___________________________
10. Describe procedures used in the experiment (brief protocol, purpose, counting
method, and any special isotope handling or storage procedures):
11. RADIOACTIVE WASTE MATERIAL ESTIMATE: Describe and estimate the
amount of waste that will generated from the use described above.:
(a) Non-burnable solid:___________________________________ cu./ft./month
(b) Burnable solid:_______________________________________ cu./ft./month
(c) Animal carcasses: __________number month ________microcuries/carcass
(d) Tissue (describe):_______________________________________________
(e) Liquid:____________ gal/month_________ % water________ % flammable
(f) Other (describe)_________________________________________________
Principle Investigators Signature ______________________Dated ____/____/____
Approval________________________ Dated ____/____/__
271
COURSESLIDES
272

Slide 1
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________

Training Class
___________________________________
Andrew Karam, Ph.D., CHP

paksbi@rit.edu
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 2
___________________________________
Course outline
___________________________________
Monday - Scientific and technical basis

Tuesday - Instruments
Wednesday Regulatory stuff
Thursday The art of being an RSO
Friday Case studies and wrap-up
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 3
___________________________________
___________________________________
A historical perspective
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
273
Slide 4
___________________________________
Historical perspective
___________________________________
Radiation discovered in 1895 by Roentgen

Radioactivity discovered by Bequerel in 1896
Radiation injury recognized by 1900
X-rays and radioactivity (mostly radium) used
for legitimate and quack medical procedures
for several decades
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 5
___________________________________
Historical perspective (cont.)
___________________________________
Manhattan Project gave radiation studies

impetus
Atomic weapons testing and reactor
accidents have had biggest impact on
publics current view of radiation and
radioactivity
Other uses include medical, research, and
industrial
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 6
___________________________________
What this means.
___________________________________
We have over a century of experience

working with radiation and radioactivity
We know more about the health effects of
radiation than about virtually any other
harmful substance
Anyone who says otherwise is itching for a
fight!
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
274
___________________________________
Slide 7
___________________________________
___________________________________
How and where we use

radiation and radioactivity
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 8
___________________________________
Medical uses
___________________________________
Cancer therapy
X-ray and CT for diagnostic purposes
X-ray and fluoroscopy in the OR
Radiopharmaceuticals for medical
diagnosis
Radioactive immunoassay (RIA)
measurements to diagnosis disease
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 9
___________________________________
Research uses
___________________________________
Radioactively-tagged molecules used as

tracers of biological activity
Gene sequencing
Irradiation of cells or organisms for
research purposes
Toxicological studies (biokinetics of toxins
and drugs)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
275
Slide 10
___________________________________
Industrial uses
___________________________________
Industrial linear accelerators

Radiography devices
Gauges (tank levels, thickness, etc)
Electron and ion beams (welding, ion
implantation, etc.)
Well logging and soil density gauges
Smoke detectors, self-illuminating signs,
and other consumer products
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 11
___________________________________
Nuclear reactors
___________________________________
The US generates about 20% of its

electricity with about 100 nuclear power
plants
World-wide, nearly 500 nuclear reactors
produce about 16% of the worlds
electrical power
Nuclear reactors are also used to produce
isotopes for medical, industrial, research,
and military uses
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 12
___________________________________
___________________________________
Background information
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
276
Slide 13
___________________________________
Atomic structure
___________________________________
Atoms have a nucleus in the center of an

outer cloud of electrons
The nucleus contains both protons and
neutrons
The number of electrons is generally equal
to the number of protons
The number of protons is what determines
the chemical properties of an atom
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 14
___________________________________
Protons and neutrons
___________________________________
Protons carry a positive charge, and repel each

other
To assemble an atom, it is necessary to have a
force to overcome the electrostatic repulsion of
the protons
Neutrons carry the strong nuclear force, and
they act as the glue that holds the protons
together
There is an optimal neutron:proton ratio to make
an atom stable
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 15
___________________________________
In general
___________________________________
Atoms want to have the right ratio of

protons to neutrons to be stable
As we add or subtract neutrons, atoms
become unstable (radioactive)
As the neutron excess (or deficit)
increases, the half-life decreases and the
decay energy increases
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
277
Slide 16
___________________________________
half-life versus decay energy, alpha emitters
half-life (yrs)
1E+12
___________________________________
1E+10
1E+08
1E+06
10000
___________________________________
100
1
3.5
4.5
5.5
energy (MeV)decay energy versus half-life for beta-gamma emitters
___________________________________
1.E+11
1.E+09
half-life (yrs)
1.E+07
1.E+05
___________________________________
1.E+03
1.E+01
1.E-01
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
1.E-03
1.E-05
___________________________________
1.E-07
decay energy (KeV)
___________________________________
Slide 17
___________________________________
Whats an isotope/nuclide
___________________________________
An atomic nucleus contains protons and

neutrons
The number of protons determines which
chemical element is present
A nucleus may have different numbers of
neutrons
Each different number of neutrons with the
same number of protons is a different
isotope (or nuclide) of that element
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 18
___________________________________
Examples
___________________________________
C-12
C-14
P-32
Co-60
Cs-137
U-235
U-238
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
278
___________________________________
Slide 19
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart/reZoom.jsp?newZoom=1
___________________________________
Slide 20
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Radioactive decay
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 21
___________________________________
Conservation laws
___________________________________
Nucleon number
___________________________________
(# of protons + neutrons)
Electrical charge
Mass
Energy
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
279
Slide 22
___________________________________
Radioactive decay
___________________________________
Some atomic nuclei have too much energy

They shed this energy by emitting radiation
Each isotope has a specific rate at which it
decays and emits a specific radiation energy
Half-life is the time in which half of a given
amount of isotope will decay
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 23
___________________________________
Radioactive decay equation
___________________________________
A = N
ln 2
=
t1
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
At = Aoet
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 24
___________________________________
Units
___________________________________
Curie (Ci) the amount of an isotope that

has a decay rate of 37 billion decays per
second (dps)
Becquerel (Bq) the amount of an isotope
that has a decay rate of 1 dps
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Use the typical modifiers (m, k, M, , etc)
___________________________________
___________________________________
280
Slide 25
___________________________________
Example problem
___________________________________
Assume you have a 500 mCi Co-60 source that

is 25 years old
Co-60 half-life is 5.27 years
Make sure units are the same in the exponent
So, after 25 years (almost 5 half-lives):
Co 60
___________________________________
___________________________________
0.693
=
= 0.1315 yr 1
5.27 yrs
A25 yrs = 500mCi e
(0.1315 yr 1 25 yrs )
___________________________________
= 18.67 mCi
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 26
___________________________________
Types of radioactive decay
___________________________________
Alpha decay
Beta decay
Electron capture
Isomeric transition
Internal conversion
Spontaneous fission
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
The purpose of radioactive decay is to either

adjust the neutron : proton ratio or to help the
nucleus to shed excess energy
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 27
___________________________________
Radioactive decay series
___________________________________
U-235, U-238, and Th-232 all decay to

stability via a series of radioactive isotopes
These include both alpha and beta
emitters
For example, U-238 decays to Pb-206 via
14 series nuclides, including Ra-226,
Rn-222, and Po-210
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
281
___________________________________
Slide 28
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 29
___________________________________
Alpha decay/radiation
___________________________________
Alpha emitters are heavy atoms

Alpha particles are helium nuclei
Can shield alphas with a piece of paper
Alphas are very damaging to DNA
Alphas are emitted with a fixed energy
Example:
4
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
234
U
2 + 90
Th
238
92
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 30
___________________________________
Beta decay/radiation
___________________________________
All elements have at least one isotope that

decays via beta emission
Betas can have + or charge
Betas are emitted with a range of energies
Positively-charged betas (positrons) are
anti-matter and also emit high-energy
gamma radiation (2 x 511 keV photons)
234
234
Example: 90
Th
+ 91
Pa
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
282
Slide 31
___________________________________
Electron capture
___________________________________
Converts a proton into a neutron by

capturing an inner electron
Nucleus may emit a gamma ray, or the
nuclide produced may be radioactive
Example:
___________________________________
___________________________________
22
10
Na Ne +
22
11
EC
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 32
___________________________________
Isomeric transition
___________________________________
Following beta decay, the daughter

nuclide will sometimes be in an excited
(unstable) state, even if the atom is stable
The nucleus de-excites by emitting a
photon
Example:
137
137 m
Cs
137
IT
Ba +
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Ba +
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 33
___________________________________
Internal conversion
___________________________________
Sometimes an excited nucleus will emit

a photon thats absorbed by an inner
electron
This adds enough energy to eject the
electron from the atom
The electrons will be emitted with a
fixed energy
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Sometimes an x-ray will also be emitted
___________________________________
___________________________________
283
Slide 34
___________________________________
Spontaneous fission
___________________________________
Very large atomic nuclei are larger than

the range of the strong nuclear force
These atoms sometimes break in two
parts (fission) spontaneously
This leaves two fission fragments,
neutrons, and some gammas
Example:
238
92
137
55
U
SF
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Cs + Rb + 2n +
99
37
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 35
___________________________________
Types of radiation and their

properties
Radiation
Type
Mass
Charge
Range
QF
Shield
___________________________________
Alpha
4 amu
+2
<5 m
20
none
___________________________________
Beta
0.0005
+/- 1
< 1cm
Plastic
Gamma
WB
Lead
Neutron
WB
5-20
hydrogen
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 36
___________________________________
Bremsstrahlung
___________________________________
X-ray radiation emitted when beta particles

pass an atom
Heavy materials (such as lead) create
more brems. radiation
Best to use plastic to shield beta emitters
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Some hunters in Georgia (nation) recently

died of bremsstrahlung radiation burns
___________________________________
___________________________________
284
___________________________________
Slide 37
___________________________________
___________________________________
Radiation dose and shielding

calculations
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 38
___________________________________
Radiation dose
___________________________________
A measure of energy deposited in an

absorber by ionizing radiation
1 rad = 100 ergs/gram of absorber
=
6.242x107
___________________________________
___________________________________
MeV/gm
1 Gray (Gy) = 1 Joule/kg

=100 rads
___________________________________
Rem = rad x QF
Sievert (Sv) = Gy x QF
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 39
___________________________________
Distance effects on radiation

dose
___________________________________
Dose rate drops off as the inverse square

of the distance to the source
So doubling your distance reduces dose
rate by a factor of 4
___________________________________
___________________________________
r2
DR2 = DR1 12
r2
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
285
Slide 40
___________________________________
Example distance problem
5 rem/hr
10 meters
___________________________________
___________________________________
50 meters
___________________________________
? rem/hr
___________________________________
? = 5 rem
5
10 m
=
= 0.2 rem
hr 50 m
hr
25
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 41
___________________________________
Radiation Shielding
___________________________________
Used to reduce radiation dose to protect

personnel from over-exposure
Shielding equation:
___________________________________
DRsh = DRunsh e x
___________________________________
x is the shield thickness

is the attenuation coefficient in units of
cm2/gm
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 42
___________________________________
Buildup
___________________________________
In most real-life cases, the radiation beam is

broad, and some gammas will scatter within the
shield back into the primary beam
This is radiation that would not otherwise have
caused radiation dose
Buildup causes the radiation dose to be higher
than what would be calculated with just the
shield
Buildup factors vary according to the gamma
energy and shield material you must use a
reference to find them
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
286
Slide 43
___________________________________
The full shielding equation
___________________________________
___________________________________
DRsh = B DRunsh e x
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 44
___________________________________
Sample problem
___________________________________
6 Pb
___________________________________
DR = 15 rem/hr
at 1 foot
3 meters
___________________________________
= 0.02 cm2/gm
= 11.7 gm/cm3
6 = 15 cm
___________________________________
What is the dose rate to the worker?
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 45
___________________________________
Use distance and shielding
___________________________________
30cm
DR2 = 15rem / hr
= 0.15rem / hr
300cm
(
DR =150mrem/hre
0.02 cm
sh
___________________________________
___________________________________
) =4.48mrem/hr
11.7gm 315cm
gm
cm
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
287
Slide 46
___________________________________
Design a shield to reduce dose to

100 mrem/hr
DR = 15 rem/hr
___________________________________
? cm
___________________________________
1 meter
___________________________________
= 0.02 cm2/gm
= 11.7 gm/cm3
6 = 15 cm
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 47
___________________________________
Solve equation for x and solve

numerically:
___________________________________
DR2
0.1rem / hr
ln
ln
DR1
15rem / hr
x=
=
( ) ( 0.02cm2 / gm 11.7 gm / cm3 )
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
= 21.4cm = 8.45in
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 48
___________________________________
Using the gamma constant
___________________________________
Every gamma-emitting isotope will have

an associated gamma constant (which can
be referenced)
DR=A at one meter where is the
gamma constant in units of r/hr per Ci at a
distance of 1 meter (or equivalent SI units)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
288
Slide 49
___________________________________
Gamma constant example
___________________________________
Co-60 = 1.33 r/hr per Ci at 1 meter

So a 1000 Ci source will give a dose rate
of 1330 r/hr at 1 meter, or about 330 r/hr at
2 meters
___________________________________
___________________________________
Cs-137 = 0.332 r/hr per Ci at 1 meter

So calculate the dose from a 500 Ci Cs137 source that is 2 meters away
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 50
___________________________________
Interactions of photons with matter
___________________________________
Photo-electric effect
___________________________________
Photon absorbed by electron, knocks electron

from atom
Compton scattering
___________________________________
Photon absorbed by electron, re-emitted with

lower energy in random direction
Pair production
___________________________________
High-energy photon spontaneously forms

electron/positron pair when passing near
atomic nucleus
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 51
___________________________________
Photo-electric effect
Atomic #
Pair production
___________________________________
Compton
scattering
___________________________________
___________________________________
Photon energy 1.022 MeV
___________________________________
___________________________________
289
___________________________________
Slide 52
___________________________________
___________________________________
Some sample problems
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 53
___________________________________
Sample problem
___________________________________
Calculate radiation dose to a person spending 2

hours at a distance of 5 meters from a 1500 Ci
Co-60 source.
___________________________________
= 1.33 r/hr per Ci at 1 meter
What stay time would you give a person at this

distance?
Now calculate the radiation dose from this
source in 33 years
___________________________________
___________________________________
T1/2 = 5.27 yrs
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 54
___________________________________
Same source.
___________________________________
What is the radiation dose rate at 1 meter

from this source (when new) with 4 inches
of lead shielding?
___________________________________
2 inches of lead will reduce dose rate by a

factor of 10 for Co-60
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
290
Slide 55
___________________________________
Contamination surveys
___________________________________
You are counting a C-14 sample with a GM

pancake probe. The count rate is about 100,000
cpm and counting efficiency is 5%. How many
micro-Curies of activity do you have?
___________________________________
___________________________________
1 Ci = 2.22 million dpm
How many cpm do you expect from the same

activity in a P-32 source?
___________________________________
Counting efficiency = 35%
How many cpm do you expect with an NaI

probe?
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 56
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Background radiation
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 57
___________________________________
Sources
___________________________________
Radon 200 mrem/yr

Rocks and soils 28 mrem/yr
Biochemistry 40 mrem/yr
Cosmic radiation 27 mrem/yr
Medical procedures 53 mrem/yr
Consumer products 10 mrem/yr
Other 2 mrem/yr
Total 360 mrem/yr (average)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
291
Slide 58
___________________________________
Variations
___________________________________
Cosmic radiation dose is higher at high

elevations and near the poles
Dose from geology and radon are higher
in areas with more igneous rocks, coals,
and black shales at the surface
Cant change dose from biochemistry
Background radiation levels are up to 25
rem/yr (Ramsar, Iran)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 59
___________________________________
Ramsar
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 60
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
292
___________________________________
Slide 61
___________________________________
___________________________________
Biological effects of radiation

exposure
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 62
___________________________________
Interactions in the cell
___________________________________
Radiation causes ionizations in the cell

These can create free radicals that attack
DNA, causing many kinds of damage
Some of this damage can be carginogenic
In addition, radiation can directly cause
single- or double-stranded DNA breaks
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
However, radiation is considered a weak

carcinogen
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 63
___________________________________
Cellular response
___________________________________
Cells are capable of repairing DNA

damage from radiation and other
mutagens
A mutation only occurs if DNA damage is
passed on to a daughter cell
Cells that repair damage correctly or that
die do not cause mutations
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
293
Slide 64
___________________________________
DNA damage repair
___________________________________
Three options:
___________________________________
Damage is properly repaired (no mutation)

Damage is not repaired properly (or not
repaired) and cell dies (no mutation)
Damage is not repaired properly and cell does
not die (mutation)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 65
___________________________________
Mutations can be:
___________________________________
Harmful birth defects, cancer, etc.

Beneficial evolution
Neutral most common
___________________________________
___________________________________
Much of genome seems to be non-coding

Not all genes are active in any given cell
Many bases can be changed slightly without
changing the amino acid or protein
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 66
___________________________________
Factors affecting cells radiation

sensitivity
___________________________________
These factors make a cell more sensitive

to radiation
___________________________________
Less specialized
Faster rate of division
Longer reproductive lifetime
Higher level of oxygen
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
294
Slide 67
___________________________________
Two types of radiation exposure
___________________________________
Acute radiation exposure is exposure to

high levels of radiation in a short period of
time
___________________________________
Typical of radiation accident victims
___________________________________
Chronic exposure is exposure to low levels

of radiation for prolonged periods of time
___________________________________
Typical of radiation workers and HBRA

inhabitants
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 68
___________________________________
Acute whole-body exposure
___________________________________
~1 rem chromosomal damage

~25 rem changes in blood cell counts
~100 rem radiation sickness
~450 rem LD50
~1000 rem LD100
At higher levels of exposure, see some syndromes
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
GI, CNS, hematopoetic, etc.
High exposure to parts of body may not result in

death of patient (e.g. cancer therapy, XRD, etc)
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 69
___________________________________
Chronic exposure
___________________________________
Less well-defined
Most regulations based on Linear, NoThreshold (LNT) hypothesis that all
radiation above background is potentially
harmful and risk is proportional to dose
However, there is some evidence that
there is a threshold, below which radiation
is either harmless or beneficial (hormesis)
Subject of much study and debate for
many years
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
295
___________________________________
Slide 70
___________________________________
LNT
Cancer
risk
___________________________________
Supra-linear
Linear quadratic
Hormesis
___________________________________
Threshold
___________________________________
Radiation dose
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 71
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 72
___________________________________
Studies show:
___________________________________
Residents of HBRA are not affected by

high natural radiation levels
Radiologists are not affected by
occupational radiation exposure
Nuclear workers are not affected by
occupational radiation exposure
Some Hiroshima, Nagasaki, and
Chernobyl survivors show no increase (in
some cases a small drop) in cancer rates
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
296
Slide 73
___________________________________
Risks
___________________________________
Using LNT, the risk of getting cancer from

exposure to 100-200 mrem/yr above
background is about 1 in 10,000
Risk of dying in an auto accident is about
1 in 7,000 each year (about 1 in 100 over
a lifetime)
Background cancer risk is about 16 in 100
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 74
___________________________________
HPS and ICRP
___________________________________
HPS advises against calculating risk for

any exposures of less than 10 rem
because of high uncertainties in numbers
ICRP recommends against calculating
cancer deaths in a population when mostexposed individual receives a very small
dose
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 75
___________________________________
___________________________________
Radiation detectors and

personnel monitoring devices
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
297
Slide 76
___________________________________
Types of detectors
___________________________________
Gas-filled detectors
___________________________________
Geiger-Meller (GM) tubes

Ion chambers
Proportional counters
___________________________________
Scintillation-type detectors
Sodium-iodide (NaI) crystals
Zinc sulfide (ZnS) crystals
Liquid scintillation counters
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 77
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 78
___________________________________
Pulse height versus voltage
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
298
Slide 79
___________________________________
GM tubes
___________________________________
Apply high voltage to gas

Radiation causes complete ionization of gas,
giving a count on the meter
There is short dead time after each count,
so tube can saturate
Three types of probe pancake, hot dog,
and energy-compensated
Used for contamination and radiation
surveys
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 80
___________________________________
GM limitations
___________________________________
Not energy-sensitive (except for energycompensated GM)

Dead time means that very high count
rates can saturate tube
Not sensitive to low-energy betas and
gammas
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 81
___________________________________
GM benefits
___________________________________
Relatively simple and inexpensive

Relatively rugged
Relatively constant counting efficiency
across a variety of radiation energies
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
299
Slide 82
___________________________________
GM uses
___________________________________
Pancake probe very good for

contamination surveys
Hot dog probe useful for radiation surveys,
provided properly calibrated
Energy-compensated GM good for
radiation level surveys
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 83
___________________________________
Energy-dependence effect
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 84
___________________________________
Ion chambers
___________________________________
Radiation causes ionizations in chamber

Ionizations create electrical current, and
strength of current is related to radiation
dose rate
Used to measure radiation levels
Sensitivity does not depend on radiation
energy
Pressurized ion chamber more sensitive
and respond faster, but can develop leaks
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
300
Slide 85
___________________________________
Ion chamber pressure and

temperature correction factor
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 86
___________________________________
Proportional counters
___________________________________
Radiation interactions cause spike in

voltage reading
Size of spike is proportional to radiation
energy
Since particles are more energetic than
betas, can use same detector to count and
radiation simultaneously
However, need constant flow of gas
(propane) to function properly
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 87
___________________________________
Some proportional counters
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
301
___________________________________
Slide 88
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 89
___________________________________
NaI scintillation detectors
___________________________________
Crystal emits photons during interactions with

gamma rays
Photons travel to photo-multiplier tube, which
amplifies signal
Sensitive to gamma radiation
Used for contamination and radiation surveys for
gamma emitters
Also used for nuclide ID (when used with multichannel analyzer)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 90
___________________________________
NaI detector sizes
___________________________________
Thin-crystal (1 x 1mm) used for lowenergy gammas (10-100 keV)

Thick-crystal (1x1) used for highenergy gammas (100+ keV)
Thicker crystals available (2x2, 3x3,
and larger sizes)
Background counts increase as crystal
size increases up to 14,000 cpm for a
3x3)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
302
Slide 91
___________________________________
NaI limitations
___________________________________
Not sensitive to alpha or beta radiation

Often have low efficiency
Usually have higher background counts
than GM tubes (harder to detect low levels
of contamination)
Crystals are fragile and thermally sensitive
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 92
___________________________________
NaI benefits
___________________________________
Can have very large crystals to increase

sensitivity
Can be used to identify isotopes by
looking for a specific gamma energy
Can be used to measure radiation levels
because # photons is proportional to
gamma energy
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 93
___________________________________
NaI uses
___________________________________
Nuclide ID and gamma spectroscopy

Radiation levels (usually as part of a
micro-R meter)
Gamma contamination measurements
Can be used to measure beta emitters via
bremsstrahlung emitted from betas
interacting in crystal, but not reliable
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
303
___________________________________
Slide 94
___________________________________
Ideal
versus
actual
gamma
spectrum
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 95
___________________________________
Gamma spec features
___________________________________
X-ray peaks at around 100 keV. These are generated by photoelectric

absorption within the material surrounding the crystal.
Backscatter peaks at around 250 keV. These are a result of the backward
scattering of rays from outside of the detector.
An annihilation peak at 511 keV, from the detection of an annihilation photon
from pair production outside the Ge crystal.
Single and double escape peaks at energies of 511 keV and 1022 keV below
the photopeak energy. At energies greater than twice the rest mass of the
electron (1.022 MeV), pair production is a possibility. The positron may then
recombine with an electron and decay back to two 511keV rays which may be
detected in the annihilation peak, but if one or more of these escape from the
detector without any further interactions the escape peaks will be detected at
energies of - 511 keV and - 1022 keV.
The Compton edge and Compton continuum are caused by Compton
scattering. The Compton edge corresponds to a maximum energy transfer
when = 180. The continuum arises from all other scattering angles.
The Co photopeaks at 1173 and 1333 keV, correspond to all of the -ray
energy from the interaction being deposited in the detector.
The photopeaks are of most interest. To -ray spectroscopists, the majority of
interest lies in the region 0.2 - 2 MeV, and so the need to reduce the other
features becomes a priority.
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 96
___________________________________
ZnS crystals
___________________________________
Only used to measure alpha radiation

Crystals are sensitive to shock
Efficiency is typically low
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
304
Slide 97
___________________________________
Some alpha detectors
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 98
___________________________________
Liquid scintillation counters
___________________________________
Used to count emitters

Sensitive to very wide range of beta
energies
Can be self-correcting for counting
efficiencies (give DPM readout)
Can be tricked by static electricity and
chemical luminescence
Can be expensive ($40 K or more)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 99
___________________________________
Other detectors
___________________________________
Neutron detectors (fast and thermal

neutrons)
HPGe gamma spectroscopy units
Alpha spectroscopy (multiple types)
Radon detectors
High-pressure pressurized ion chambers
(up to 25 atmospheres)
Whole-body counters
More.
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
305
Slide 100
___________________________________
Counting geometry
___________________________________
Proportional counters can give nearly

4 geometry
4 means that the sample is
completely surrounded by the
counting medium
___________________________________
___________________________________
Comes from the surface area of a

sphere, which is equal to 4 steradians
___________________________________
Counting on a flat surface is 2

geometry
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 101
___________________________________
When selecting instruments for

response to an incident:
___________________________________
Choose appropriate detectors for expected

types of radiation
Take at least 1 backup instrument
If situation is unknown, take GM, NaI, and
ion chamber or micro-R meter
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 102
___________________________________
___________________________________
Statistics
___________________________________
Not very exciting, but important

anyhow
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
306
Slide 103
___________________________________
Basic terms
___________________________________
Mean
Mode
Median
Standard Deviation
Confidence Levels
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 104
___________________________________
Mean, median, and mode
___________________________________
Mean - the arithmetic average of a

collection of measurements.
Mode - the most likely value in a set
of measurements.
Median - the center value in a set of
measurements.
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
In a normal distribution, these are

the same value
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 105
___________________________________
Gaussian (normal) distribution
___________________________________
Centered around the

mean
Area beneath curve is
equal to 1
Asymptotically
approaches X-axis
The goal of statistics (in
D&D, for example) is to
decide if a given high
count-rate point is actual
contamination, or just a
high outlier in the
background distribution
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
307
Slide 106
___________________________________
Some more terminology
___________________________________
Accuracy how close is the data to

the true value?
Precision how closely clustered are
individual measurements?
Uncertainty how much do the data
vary from the true value.
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 107
___________________________________
Accuracy versus precision
___________________________________
Accuracy
___________________________________
___________________________________
Precision
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 108
___________________________________
Sampling a population
___________________________________
Statistical methods attempt to infer

information about an entire population from
a sample of that population
Population - the entire group of possible
measurements - population parameters are
the true values.
Sample - a small group of the population sample parameters are the estimate of the
true value made from the sample results.
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
308
Slide 109
___________________________________
Standard deviation
___________________________________
Standard Deviation a measure of the

variability in the data.
Mathematically noted as multiples of
___________________________________
68% of members of a population fall within

the 1 error bars
95% fall within the 2 error bars
99% fall within the 3 error bars
So, if a paper reports results to the 95%
confidence interval, they are reporting
results to the 2 level
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 110
___________________________________
Case study #1
___________________________________
In a remediation plan, one licensee

claimed a pile of soil was wellcharacterized and could be released for
disposal
___________________________________
___________________________________
The release limit was 35 pCi/g

Ave. contamination levels were 33 pCi/g
Standard deviation was 34.5 pCi/g
___________________________________
Should the licensees claim be believed?
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 111
___________________________________
Case study #2
___________________________________
A licensees I-131 emissions suddenly

skyrocketed, leading to cessation of I-131 use
for several months. However, 3 months after
use stopped, I-131 was still counted in the
sample filters.
The reason for this is that, with 1-minute sample
and background counts, random fluctuations in
background showed up as real counts and,
subsequently, as discharges
Solution was to increase counting times and to
use a single-channel analyzer to reduce
background counts in energy regions of interest
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
309
Slide 112
___________________________________
Case study #2 data

I minute background
trial
counts
1
407
2
432
3
407
4
414
5
428
6
431
7
469
8
448
9
423
10
452
11
426
trial
___________________________________
10 minute background
counts
count rate
1
4365
437
2
4492
449
3
4449
445
4
4581
458
5
4362
436
6
4417
442
7
4370
437
8
4263
426
9
4332
433
10
4364
436
Descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics
Mean
430.6364
Median
428
Mode
407
Standard Deviation
19.26797
Sample Variance
371.2545
Confidence Level(95.0%) 12.9444
Mean
439.95
Median
436.75
Mode
#N/A
Standard Deviation
8.954856
Sample Variance
80.18944
Confidence Level(95.0%) 6.405923
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 113
___________________________________
Control charts
___________________________________
Used to identify instrument trends, even before

an instrument goes out of specification
Obtain a number of sample counts for a source
and background.
Determine the mean and standard deviation of
both sets of data.
Plot daily or weekly checks against mean and
pre-determined error bars and examine for
trends
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 114
___________________________________
Expected response variations

around the mean
___________________________________
Alpha Background Control Chart

0.30
___________________________________
Alpha Background Count Rate (cpm)
0.25
0.20
0.15
___________________________________
Alpha Background
-2 Sigma
+2 Sigma
Average
0.10
0.05
___________________________________
0.00
-0.05
-0.10
6/8/2001
6/13/2001
6/18/2001
6/23/2001
6/28/2001
7/3/2001
7/8/2001
7/13/2001
___________________________________
7/18/2001
Date
___________________________________
310
Slide 115
___________________________________
Possible problem dropping

trend in beta readings
___________________________________
Beta Source Response Control Chart

4500
4400
___________________________________
Beta Source Response (cpm)
4300
4200
4100
___________________________________
Beta Response
+10%
-10%
Average
4000
3900
___________________________________
3800
3700
3600
3500
6/8/2001
6/13/2001
6/18/2001
6/23/2001
6/28/2001
7/3/2001
7/8/2001
7/13/2001
___________________________________
7/18/2001
Date
___________________________________
Slide 116
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Dosimetry
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 117
___________________________________
Types of dosimetry
___________________________________
Film badge
Thermo-luminescent dosimeters (TLD)
Optically-stimulated dosimeters (OSL)
Neutron badges (various types)
Electronic dosimeters
Self-reading dosimeters (usually not used
as dosimeter-of-record)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
311
Slide 118
___________________________________
Film badge
___________________________________
Radiation exposes film, so higher dose

gives darker film
Inexpensive, simple, cheap
Oldest dosimetry technology
Can be read multiple times
However, can be sensitive to environment
Lowest reading about 10 mrem
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 119
___________________________________
TLD
___________________________________
Radiation exposure causes electrons to

jump to higher stable energy level
Heating crystal releases e-, photon emitted
Rugged, accurate, mature technology
Sensitive to wide range of energies
Crystals can crack, can only be read once
Lowest reading about 10 mrem
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 120
___________________________________
OSL
___________________________________
Dose read by scanning with laser beam

instead of heating
Rugged, sensitive, can be re-read
More expensive than other badges
Sensitivity and performance sometimes
erratic (personal observation)
Only offered by Landauer
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
312
Slide 121
___________________________________
Neutron
___________________________________
Variety of types
Most are only sensitive to high OR lowenergy neutrons, not both
Need to know neutron energies in order to
use correct badge
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Neutrons are hard to measure!
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 122
___________________________________
Electronic dosimeters
___________________________________
Many designs
Can be used in specific situations (e.g.
entry into high radiation areas)
Can also be used (sometimes) as
dosimeter-of-record
Can have interference from outside
electrical signals
Usually rugged and reliable
Continuing to evolve at a rapid rate
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 123
___________________________________
Pocket ion chambers

(also called self-reading, or pen
dosimeters)
___________________________________
___________________________________
Usually used only for entry into high

radiation areas
Usually used only for worker information
Some recent models can be used as
dosimeter-of-record
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
313
Slide 124
___________________________________
Dosimeter regulations
___________________________________
Required for anyone expected to receive

more than 125 mrem in a calendar quarter
Required for anyone entering a radiation
area or high radiation area
In some cases, multiple dosimetry is
required
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Ring badges for people handling isotopes

Arm, collar, fetal, and other specialty badges
as appropriate
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 125
___________________________________
Importance of dose records
___________________________________
The single most important document to

protect your company in the event of a
radiation injury lawsuit is a set of dosimetry
records showing that the worker did not
exceed radiation exposure limits while
working for your company
Dose records must be retained for 30 years after
an employee leaves
May be asked to supply dose records to new
employers for a departing employee
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 126
___________________________________
___________________________________
Air sampling
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
314
Slide 127
___________________________________
Why perform air sampling?
___________________________________
Measure environmental releases

Measure breathing zone airborne nuclide
concentrations
Measure results of accidental release
Routine environmental monitoring (inside
and outside facility)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 128
___________________________________
Typical setup
___________________________________
Sample point
Sample lines
Filter
Pump
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 129
___________________________________
Sample point
___________________________________
Should be towards the center of the

airflow, in the air to be sampled
___________________________________
i.e. downstream of exhaust filter for

environmental sampling
___________________________________
Should be in a straight section of duct
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
315
Slide 130
___________________________________
Sample lines
___________________________________
Should be as straight as possible and

bends should be large radius
Should be as short as possible
Should slope downhill from sample
point to filter if possible
Should be material that will not react
chemically with isotopes
Should be smooth and warm enough
to keep volatile nuclides from
condensing
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 131
___________________________________
Filter
___________________________________
Should be suitable to capture isotopes of

interest
Must be able to collect for entire sampling
period (e.g. one week) without saturating
or releasing materials
Should be able to be removed and
counted easily and efficiently
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 132
___________________________________
Sample pump
___________________________________
Must be reliable sample times may be as

much as several months
Must draw enough air to maintain
isokinetic sampling conditions
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
316
Slide 133
___________________________________
Isokinetic sampling
___________________________________
Ideally, the flow velocity in the sample tube

should be equal to the flow velocity in the
exhaust stream
Different flow rates can lead to over- or
under-representing various particle sizes
___________________________________
___________________________________
Ex: faster flow rate in sample tube can skew

results towards larger particles
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 134
___________________________________
Isokinetic sampling equations
Velocity =
___________________________________
Flowrate
r2
Flowrateiso =
___________________________________
___________________________________
2
FRstack rstack
2
rsample
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 135
___________________________________
___________________________________
A little on bioassays
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
317
Slide 136
___________________________________
Bioassay programs
___________________________________
Required to perform bioassay whenever

there is an uptake, a potential uptake, or
when isotope use meets certain criteria
These criteria are specified in NUREG 8.9
and NUREG 4884 and ANSI standards
Examples your policy may call for
bioassay following use of 1 mCi of I-131 or
I-125, 40 mCi of H-3, or 20 mCi of C-14 or
S-35
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 137
___________________________________
Uses for bioassay
___________________________________
Confirm (or reject) uptake of radioactive

materials
Quantify uptake for subsequent internal
dosimetry
Track progress of elimination either
through natural means or following
decorporation therapy
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 138
___________________________________
Types of bioassay
___________________________________
In vivo bioassay performed on the

person (e.g. whole-body counting, thyroid
bioassay)
In vitro bioassay performed on sample
removed from the person (e.g. urine, fecal,
blood samples)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
318
Slide 139
___________________________________
In vitro bioassays
___________________________________
Typically urine sample, although other

media can be used
You will normally collect the sample and
then pipette 1 ml into a liquid scintillation
vial (or other appropriate medium) for
counting
May use fluorometry for gross U, gamma
counting for Cs-137, LSC for beta-emitters
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 140
___________________________________
Quantifying results
___________________________________
For urine bioassay, it may be possible to

relate the amount of isotope in the urine to
the amount in the whole body
___________________________________
For example, tritium, C-14, and Cs-137

typically distribute through the entire body
___________________________________
However, it may be necessary to

understand the biokinetics of the isotope
to be able to relate bioassay amounts to
uptake
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 141
___________________________________
One example Am-241

Table Am-3. Reference values for retention and excretion of 241Am (% of intake) as a function of time after acute inhalation of
moderately soluble form (Type M) by an adult; particle size = 5 m (AMAD)
Day after intake
24-h urine excretion
24-h fecal excretion
Retained in lungs
Retained in body
1.8E-01
1.1E+01
5.8E+00
5.0E+01
2.3E-02
1.5E+01
5.6E+00
2.6E+01
1.3E-02
8.0E+00
5.5E+00
1.5E+01
7.2E-03
1.3E+00
5.3E+00
5.8E-03
2.3E-01
5.2E+00
8.2E+00
10
4.9E-03
5.7E-02
5.0E+00
7.9E+00
15
3.9E-03
4.2E-02
4.6E+00
7.6E+00
20
3.3E-03
3.7E-02
4.3E+00
2.6E-03
2.8E-02
3.8E+00
7.1E+00
2.3E-03
2.1E-02
3.4E+00
6.8E+00
1.7E-02
3.1E+00
___________________________________
7.4E+00
30
2.0E-03
___________________________________
9.1E+00
40
50
___________________________________
___________________________________
6.6E+00
60
1.9E-03
1.3E-02
2.8E+00
6.4E+00
70
1.8E-03
1.0E-02
2.6E+00
6.3E+00
80
1.7E-03
8.2E-03
2.4E+00
6.2E+00
90
1.6E-03
6.6E-03
2.2E+00
6.1E+00
100
1.5E-03
5.4E-03
2.0E+00
6.0E+00
___________________________________
___________________________________
319
Slide 142
___________________________________
More on Am-241
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 143
___________________________________
In vivo bioassay
___________________________________
Most common in a non-reactor setting is a

thyroid count
May also perform whole-body counting for
gamma emitters
If isotope is unknown, or if there are
multiple isotopes, may need to also
perform gamma spectroscopy to ID
isotopes and to permit quantification
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 144
___________________________________
Interpreting in vivo bioassay
___________________________________
Will first need some sort of efficiency measurements for

your probe under the conditions of use
For example, with a thyroid bioassay, will have to use a
neck phantom and an NIST-traceable source to
determine counting efficiency
May need other phantoms for other parts of body (e.g.
lungs, stomach, etc.)
Once you know your counting efficiency, it is fairly easy
to determine the body (or organ) burden) from your
count
This can then be used to determine amount of uptake,
using your understanding of the biokinetics
From there, may be able to use information in FGR 11 or
other sources to determine body and organ dose
I prefer to do the calculations once, then set up a
spreadsheet
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
320
___________________________________
Slide 145
___________________________________
___________________________________
Professional resources
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 146
___________________________________
Professional organizations
___________________________________
Health Physics Society (www.hps.org)

May consider joining HPS RSO Section need not be
HPS member
___________________________________
American Academy of Health Physics

(www.hps1.org/aahp)
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (www.nrc.gov)
State regulators (usually Health Department,
although varies by state)
American Association of Physicists in Medicine
(www.aapm.org)
Each of these web pages has many links to
information or to other organizations
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 147
___________________________________
References
___________________________________
Health Physics and Radiological Health

Handbook
EPA Federal Guidance Document #11
(dose from uptake of radioactivity)
NCRP reports (www.ncrp.com)
ICRP reports (www.icrp.org)
UNSCEAR reports (published by UN)
BEIR reports (published by NAS)
IAEA techdocs (www.iaea.or.at)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
321
Slide 148
___________________________________
Other agencies and resources
___________________________________
State regulatory agencies usually have their own

web pages
DOE (www.doe.gov)
EPA (www.epa.gov)
DOT (www.dot.gov)
FDA (www.fda.gov)
ORISE HP resource CD-ROM
(www.orau.gov/orise.htm)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
HPS has an Ask the Expert feature on the HPS

web page
___________________________________
Slide 149
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Regulations
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 150
___________________________________
Regulatory agencies
___________________________________
NRC/state agencies regulate most uses of

radioactivity (10 CFR 20 and others)
DOT regulates transportation of radioactive
materials (49 CFR 171-173)
EPA regulates some NORM and some
environmental discharges or contamination
States regulate most NORM/TENORM and
radiation-generating machinery
FDA regulates medical devices that emit
radiation
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
322
Slide 151
___________________________________
Regulations cover
___________________________________
Dose to workers (10 CFR 20.1201)

Training requirements (10 CFR 19.12)
Badging requirements (10 CFR 20.1502)
Records (10 CFR 20.2101)
RSO qualifications (NUREG 1556)
RAM transportation (49 CFR 171-173)
Reports to regulators (10 CFR 20.2201)
Posting and labeling areas (10 CFR 20.1902)
Radioactive waste disposal (10 CFR 20.2001)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 152
___________________________________
To be an RSO
___________________________________
Training and experience requirements will

vary according to size and complexity of
program
Small programs may have part-time RSO
as a collateral duty
Large programs will need a full-time RSO
RSO is responsible for entire program
RSO must have authority from licensee to
carry out duties properly
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 153
___________________________________
Controlling radiological areas
___________________________________
Some areas require administrative and/or

engineering controls
One form of administrative controls is
posting a room or area as a radiologically
controlled area
Other areas require audible and visual
alarms and other controls
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
323
Slide 154
___________________________________
Posting requirements
___________________________________
Radiation area can exceed 5 mrem in 1 hr

High radiation area can exceed 100 mrem in 1 hr
Contamination area more than 1000 dpm/100
cm2 of removable contamination (up to 15,000 dpm
total)
Radioactive materials storage area contains
more than 10 times exemption limits of isotopes
(vary by isotope)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Sum of fractions rule applies
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 155
___________________________________
Other dose control features

HRAs must be locked and have entry controls
Irradiator rooms must have audible and visual
alarms
Doors must be interlocked to retract source if
opened
Must have visual confirmation room is empty
prior to exposing source or energizing
machine
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 156
___________________________________
Reports to regulators
___________________________________
Loss of radioactive materials

Personnel exceeding dose limits
Some instances of skin contamination or
uptake of radioactive materials
Other incidents or emergencies involving
radioactive materials (for example, a fire in
a RAM storage area)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
324
Slide 157
___________________________________
Transportation
___________________________________
RAM must be properly packaged

according to isotope(s) and activity
present
Package and vehicle external rad levels
determine mode of shipment, vehicle
placarding, and other requirements
Package rad levels and amount of activity
present determine labeling on package
Must attend DOT training every 3 years
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 158
___________________________________
More transportation stuff
___________________________________
May need shipping papers and/or manifest that

must be easily accessible by driver
All RAM must be properly blocked and braced in
vehicle
Vehicle should be exclusive-use if possible
(easier with company vehicle)
RAM must be secured against unauthorized
removal at all time
Vehicle may require placarding, depending on
activity and radiation levels
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 159
___________________________________
Receiving radioactive packages
___________________________________
Covered in 10 CFR 20.1906

Must have procedure for receiving rad
packages
Must survey (radiation and possibly
contamination) within 3 hours of receipt
Must inspect package for damage
Notify carrier (e.g. FedEx) if package is
damaged or contaminated)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
325
Slide 160
___________________________________
Dose limits
___________________________________
5 rem/yr Radiation workers (WB)

0.1 rem/yr everyone else
50 rem/yr any internal organ
15 rem/yr lens of eye
50 rem/yr skin and extremities
Can exceed dose limits for Planned
Special Exposure several requirements
in 10 CFR 20.1206
Minors are limited to 10% of adult doses
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 161
___________________________________
Pregnant workers
___________________________________
Pregnancy must be declared voluntarily

and in writing to the RSO
Worker must be given fetal badge (unless
she works with radiation that wont be
detected)
Fetal dose limits are 500 mrem during the
entire pregnancy, 50 mrem in any month
Worker may un-declare pregnancy at any
time
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 162
___________________________________
ALARA
___________________________________
As Low As Reasonably Achievable

Should take all reasonable measures to
reduce radiation dose as much as possible
Need not take unreasonable measures
All employees must be trained in ALARA
May need to put together an ALARA plan
for your company, depending on type of
work performed
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
326
Slide 163
___________________________________
Training requirements
___________________________________
All radiation workers require initial training

before working with radiation or
radioactivity
All radiation workers must receive
refresher training annually
Ancillary workers may require training,
depending on work duties
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Maintenance, housekeeping, etc.
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 164
___________________________________
Records to keep
___________________________________
Training records
Dose and exposure reports
Radiation surveys
Instrument calibration sheets
Maintenance and repair for all radiation
equipment
Sealed source inventory and leak tests
Internal audit and external inspection reports
RAM inventories
Shipping documents
Waste disposal
Incident reports
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 165
___________________________________
Training is important!
___________________________________
Make sure everyone receives the training

required by regulations
Keep training records for all attendees
Ensure content includes regulatory
requirements
Go over ALARA, pregnant worker
program, dose limits, and site-specific
information
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
327
Slide 166
___________________________________
Radioactive waste
___________________________________
Short-lived waste can be stored for decay

(usually <90 day half-life)
Long-lived solid waste must be shipped for
disposal to a licensed facility
Liquid wastes can sometimes be disposed
of into sanitary sewer system
Some wastes (animal carcasses and liquid
scintillation vials with H-3 and C-14) can
be treated as non-radioactive called de
minimis
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 167
___________________________________
Waste storage area
___________________________________
Must be capable of safely storing waste

through DIS period or until shipping
Must be dry and secure
Should have sprinkler system in case of fire
Should be inspected periodically to ensure
waste package integrity
Should also survey periodically for radiation
and contamination levels
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 168
___________________________________
Sewer disposal
___________________________________
Only for authorized liquids (nothing

hazardous)
Must calculate average activity
concentrations, based on flow of water
through sewer at facility
Average activity concentrations must be
less than those in CFRs or state
regulations for each isotope
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
328
___________________________________
Slide 169
___________________________________
___________________________________
ALI and DAC calculations
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 170
___________________________________
Airborne radioactivity
___________________________________
ALI allowable limit for intake the

amount of radioactivity that will give a
person 5 rem WB or 50 rem to an organ
DAC derived air concentration
radioactivity concentration that will give an
unprotected worker 1 ALI if breathed for
2000 hours (listed in FGR 11)
Can use ALI to determine dose from
uptake of radioactivity
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 171
___________________________________
DAC example
___________________________________
A worker who works in an atmosphere of 20

DAC for 10 hours will receive 200 DAC-hrs of
exposure
Workers are allowed 2000 DAC-hrs in a year,
which gives 5 rem WB or 50 rem organ dose
So 200 DAC-hrs will give a worker 10% of
allowable dose for the year
OR working 2000 hrs in 1 DAC atmosphere
while wearing a respirator with a protection
factor of 10 will also give 200 DAC-hrs of
exposure
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
329
Slide 172
___________________________________
ALI example
___________________________________
Ingesting 1 ALI will give a worker 5 rem

WB or 50 rem organ dose
So a worker who ingests 20% of the ALI
for a particular isotope will receive 10% of
their allowable dose for the year
___________________________________
___________________________________
ALI and DAC values are given in FGR 11

(an EPA document)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 173
___________________________________
ALI example
___________________________________
A worker accidentally ingests 10 Ci of Cs137 in powdered form

ALI for Cs-137 is 40 Ci with no target
organ
Worker ingestion is 0.25 ALI
Worker receives dose of 1.25 rem (25% of
5 rem WB limit)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 174
___________________________________
___________________________________
Common tasks
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
330
Slide 175
___________________________________
Surveys
___________________________________
Periodic radiation and/or contamination

surveys
___________________________________
Daily, weekly, or monthly, depending on

operating circumstances
Frequency depends on level of use
___________________________________
Special surveys
___________________________________
Post-work surveys if handling isotopes

Post-maintenance
After any significant change or work that could
affect shielding or other characteristics
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 176
___________________________________
Pre-survey checks
___________________________________
Confirm proper detector for survey

Verify meter calibrated within last year
Verify physical integrity of meter and cable
Perform battery check
Perform response check against source of
known strength (+/-20% of ave. counts)
Verify switch positions if appropriate
(audible on and response f or fast
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 177
___________________________________
Contamination surveys
___________________________________
Perform pre-survey meter checks

Hold detector no more than inch from
surface to be surveyed
Move detector at no more than 2/second
Survey 100% of surface if possible
Watch probe to ensure proper survey while
listening to detector if you hear an increase
in count rate, see if area is contaminated
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
331
Slide 178
___________________________________
Contamination surveys (cont)
___________________________________
Record any area in which count rate

increases appreciably (e.g. 50 cpm for a
GM, 100 200 for thin-xtal NaI)
Must record net cpm and dpm on survey
record
___________________________________
___________________________________
Cpm bkg = net cpm

Cpm/meter efficiency = dpm
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 179
___________________________________
Example
___________________________________
Say background levels are 50 cpm with a

GM probe
At a certain location, you read 130 cpm
130-50 = 80 net cpm
If meter efficiency is 40%:
___________________________________
___________________________________
dpm = 80 cpm/0.40 = 200 dpm
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 180
___________________________________
Radiation dose rate surveys
___________________________________
Use appropriate meter

Ion chamber, micro-R meter, etc.
___________________________________
For general area surveys, hold meter at waist

level (about 1 m above ground) and walk slowly
through area being surveyed
General area is 30 cm (1 foot) from any
surface
On contact used to measure hot spots
usually taken to be 1 from surface or point
surveyed
Record highest readings as well as area
readings
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
332
Slide 181
___________________________________
Some trouble-shooting:
common problems
___________________________________
Elevated counts, no contamination

Spurious high and/or low counts or erratic
readings
No readings (including background)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 182
___________________________________
Elevated count rate possible causes
___________________________________
Light leak (scintillation probes only)

Cover probe, then uncover; compare counts
Light leak indicated if counts when probe exposed
to light
___________________________________
Contaminated probe
___________________________________
Move probe a meter or so from survey location

If high counts remain, probe may be contaminated
High radiation levels
___________________________________
Hold probe near body

If readings drop, high counts may be due to high
radiation levels
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 183
___________________________________
Erratic readings
___________________________________
Most likely cause is a short or open circuit

in the cable (very common)
If high or low counts can be reproduced by
jiggling cable or holding probe in a certain
position relative to meter, you should
suspect a cable problem
Use another meter to survey location OR
change cable on problematic meter
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
333
Slide 184
___________________________________
No readings
___________________________________
Most likely cause is dead batteries
___________________________________
Perform battery check

Replace batteries
___________________________________
Also possible that detector is broken

or disconnected
If batteries are OK, use check source to
test meter response
Examine detector and detector window
for breakage, replace if necessary
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 185
___________________________________
If all else fails.
___________________________________
Change cable and probe OR

Send meter for re-calibration
Send meter for repair
Buy a new meter
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 186
___________________________________
Smear wipe surveys
___________________________________
May have to perform smear wipe survey for

isotopes with low meter efficiency (such as
H-3, C-14, S-35)
Smear wipes are dry filter paper, wiped over
100 cm2
Want to avoid cross-contamination of wipes
Want to avoid cross-contaminating surfaces
Usually counted in proportional counter,
gamma counter, or scintillation counter
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
334
Slide 187
___________________________________
Sealed source checks
___________________________________
Required to inventory sealed sources

either quarterly or semi-annually
Required to leak test sealed sources with
same periodicity
___________________________________
___________________________________
Some sources do not require leak testing

check your license or regulations
___________________________________
Performing a leak test does not

necessarily count as an inventory check
must record both events separately
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 188
___________________________________
Importance of surveys
___________________________________
If you do not have dosimetry records, your

survey records are the only means you
have to combat unjustified radiation injury
claims
For this reason, properly performing
complete surveys and retaining survey
records is crucial
Equally important is ensuring your survey
equipment is properly maintained and
calibrated
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 189
___________________________________
Leak testing
___________________________________
Must report significant source leakage

(check your regulations for amount)
Must be able to show that test
methodology will detect at or below
contamination limit
Several acceptable methods of leak
testing and inventory
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
335
Slide 190
___________________________________
Leak test methods
___________________________________
Best to directly wipe 100% of source

capsule
___________________________________
May wish to consider holding source and wipe

with tongs to reduce finger dose
___________________________________
Can also wipe area around source if

source is not directly accessible
Can also wipe outside of source holder
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 191
___________________________________
Inventory methods
___________________________________
Best to visually sight the source

Can also verify source in sealed container
that has been sealed since last inventory
Can also verify operability of device that
relies on presence of source
Other methods may be acceptable
check with the source/device manufacturer
and regulators
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 192
___________________________________
___________________________________
Radiation safety program

management
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
336
Slide 193
___________________________________
Priorities
___________________________________
Keep people safe and healthy

Violate as few regulations as possible
Provide HP support services to users
Remember that your priorities are not
necessarily those of your management or
users
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Authorized users are most concerned about their

research
A university is most concerned about grant
dollars, publications, and (hopefully) education
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 194
___________________________________
My primary goals as RSO
___________________________________
Make sure that we keep our license

Keep our program out of the news
Make sure our physicians and researchers
are relatively unaware of the existence of
Radiation Safety
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Unfortunately, our job is like people who do

lighting in theater nobody knows were
there unless we screw up
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 195
___________________________________
Policies and procedures
___________________________________
Policies give the big picture as to how radiation

and radioactivity are used at our facility
Ex: pregnant worker policy
___________________________________
Procedures are the little picture items that tell us

how to perform each task to comply with the
policies
___________________________________
Ex: where a fetal dosimeter is worn
Both are necessary, and both should be

reviewed and approved by management and/or
RSC
Both should be in writing and easily available to
all radiation workers and authorized users as the
RSM and SOPs
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
337
Slide 196
___________________________________
Radiation Safetys role.
___________________________________
Propose (and draft) new policies and

procedures as necessary
Enforce compliance with policies and
procedures via inspection
Determine appropriate corrective and/or
disciplinary actions in cases of noncompliance
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 197
___________________________________
Purpose of license
___________________________________
Gives the licensee permission to use

radioactive materials
Sets conditions for that use
May list specific users and/or specific
sources
___________________________________
___________________________________
For example irradiator sources will probably

be listed by serial number and activity
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 198
___________________________________
Incidents and emergencies
___________________________________
Need to train workers in how to respond to

unexpected events
___________________________________
Also need to train Security
Should maintain records of all radiological

incidents
May need to notify regulators, depending on
reporting requirements
___________________________________
___________________________________
I will often inform regulators of incidents even if a

formal report is not required helps build good
working relationship, and regulators may be able to
suggest actions I havent thought of
___________________________________
___________________________________
338
Slide 199
___________________________________
Incidents and emergencies (II)
___________________________________
Encourage reporting incidents to RS

We dont penalize honest mistakes that lead to spills,
skin contamination, etc.
Should have policy as to what level of incident your
rad workers can address on their own (e.g. major
vs. minor spills)
___________________________________
___________________________________
Train people in immediate actions to limit

incident (i.e. SWIM for spills)
Should investigate serious or potentially serious
incidents to find out what happened, why, and
what can be learned
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 200
___________________________________
Working with the RSC
___________________________________
RSC has three primary functions

Oversee activities of RS and RSO
Support RSO with advice in areas beyond
RSOs experience
Determine need for disciplinary or corrective
actions if necessary
___________________________________
___________________________________
RSO should keep RSC informed of

incidents as they occur
RSC can be a good sounding board for
policy changes, SOPs, etc.
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 201
___________________________________
Working with management
___________________________________
Need management support to have an effective radiation

safety program
Controversial or unpopular policies are more palatable if
supported by management
May need management to support disciplinary actions
___________________________________
So management needs to be kept in the loop!

Its best to consult with management early, especially if
decisions involve added cost, or researchers with lots of
funding
Should be able to explain to management the reasons
for any controversial actions
___________________________________
___________________________________
Regulatory requirements that were violated (or need to be met)

Possible litigation issues
JCAHO (if a medical center)
___________________________________
___________________________________
339
Slide 202
___________________________________
Working with regulators
___________________________________
Two approaches to working with

regulators adversarial or cooperative
Usually best to try to work with regulators
Can sometimes get useful support from
regulators if nothing else is working
___________________________________
___________________________________
Need for extra staff

Needed policy changes
Proper role of RS or RSU
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 203
___________________________________
Cultural differences: Management
___________________________________
Being cynical, I assume that management only

wants things to run smoothly at low cost with no
lawsuits or bad press
This means that you will have to justify policy
changes, extra expenses (equipment, staff...) in
terms of managements concerns
Similarly, if enforcement actions will affect a highly
funded researcher or a medical department, you
should be prepared to justify them in terms
management will relate to (JCAHO, fines, litigation
prevention, etc.)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 204
___________________________________
My general approach to being RSO
___________________________________
Assume people want to do things correctly, but

will sometimes make mistakes
If disciplinary actions are required, they should
be appropriate
Keep people informed as much as possible
Work with people in person instead of via phone,
e-mail, or letters
___________________________________
___________________________________
Get out and about to visit labs and meet PIs

Do some of the work (inspections, training, etc.)
instead of just attending meetings and writing policies
and procedures
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
340
___________________________________
Slide 205
___________________________________
___________________________________
Inspecting in your facility
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 206
___________________________________
Laboratory inspections a general

approach
___________________________________
We are not the radiation Gestapo - we

support research and medical care
Inspections are necessary to ensure
compliance with regulations, policies, and
good practices
We make every effort to make our
inspections objective and fair
Minor violations may be corrected on the
spot without being cited
Everything must be documented
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 207
___________________________________
U of R inspection stats
___________________________________
Compliance rate is about 90%

About 75% of violations we find are minor
and are not cited
We conduct about 650 inspections
annually and find about 100 violations
among all permit holders
Most cited and uncited violations are
directly or indirectly due to failing to
perform surveys
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
341
Slide 208
___________________________________
Inspection cycle
___________________________________
Good labs (those with no violations in

past 12 months) are inspected semiannually
Everyone else (including new permit
holders) are inspected quarterly
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Semi-annual inspections are more

thorough and include a formal inventory
verification
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 209
___________________________________
Old system
___________________________________
RS was responsible for monthly contamination

surveys, which doubled as inspection
Due to under-staffing, other duties and large
number of labs, most monthly surveys were
missed
When inspections were performed, they were
cursory at best
An external audit found violations in 70-80% of
labs mostly failure to perform needed surveys
and eating in posted areas
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 210
___________________________________
Changes we made
___________________________________
Labs became responsible for all monthly

surveys
Began quarterly inspection cycle
Developed inspection checklist and gave copies
to all permit holders
Began intensive training on radiation safety
policies during initial and refresher training,
along with scheduling meetings with all labs to
explain policy changes
Gradually ratcheted down on labs over a year to
get them used to the new system and expected
performance standards
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
342
Slide 211
___________________________________
Results of policy changes
Increased staff from 4 to 6 tech staff

Compliance changed from 20%90%
No violations in last 3 regulatory inspections
Freed up enough staff time to clean up
legacy waste, close out 3 un-needed waste
rooms, re-write RSM, and make other
needed changes
More thorough inspections also gives more
time to talk with rad workers during visits
improves relations
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 212
___________________________________
URs Chief Inspector
___________________________________
One person performs most of our inspections

Our inspector is very professional, calm, thorough,
fair, and cant be talked into looking the other way
Former Air Force Master Sergeant
Users respect our inspectors detailed knowledge of

radiation safety and his willingness to take time to
work with them during inspections
Having the same person do virtually all inspections
is a plus because of the heightened familiarity with
rad workers
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 213
___________________________________
Inspection preparation
___________________________________
Pull file on permit holder

Review past inspection reports
What isotopes do they work with?
Are there any permit conditions or
restrictions?
How active and how large is their program?
___________________________________
___________________________________
Assemble and check equipment
___________________________________
Appropriate meter for survey(s)

Smear wipes (if appropriate)
___________________________________
___________________________________
343
Slide 214
___________________________________
During inspection
___________________________________
Review paperwork
Observe work practices
Quiz rad workers on basic level of
knowledge questions
Perform confirmatory contam. survey
Perform radiation level survey
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Use this to confirm dosimetry not needed, as

long as rad levels are less than 0.2 mr/hr in
an accessible area
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 215
___________________________________
Paperwork review
___________________________________
Inventory verification
___________________________________
Waste container inventory sheets

Stock vial record sheets
Monthly survey review

Check for training and refresher training
certificates
Review dosimetry reports (if badges
issued)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 216
___________________________________
Work practices
___________________________________
Are workers properly garbed (lab coats,

gloves, no bare legs or feet)?
Are surveys performed properly?
Check for eating, drinking, or food storage
in posted areas
Do workers survey hands frequently
during work with isotope?
Look at radiological and general
housekeeping
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
344
Slide 217
___________________________________
What every radiation worker needs

to know:
___________________________________
Laboratory isotope use information
___________________________________
Isotope(s), half-lives, survey methods
Dose limits
Rad workers, pregnant workers, public
___________________________________
Work practices
Survey technique, bremsstrahlung, PPE
___________________________________
General information
Regulatory agency, who is RSO, etc.
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 218
___________________________________
Surveys
___________________________________
Inspection contamination surveys are

confirmatory in nature
___________________________________
They do not substitute for the labs required

surveys
___________________________________
Radiation surveys are performed only by

RSU
Used to justify not badging most of our
research rad workers
Rad levels can be used as proxy for personal
dosimeters
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 219
___________________________________
Violations
___________________________________
Two categories major and minor

Minor violations (meter out-of-cal, minor
paperwork problems, etc.) can often be corrected
on the spot
Major violations (inappropriate disposal of rad
waste, failure to survey, etc.) are cited in report
(with concurrence of RSO)
Permit holders can appeal violations to RSC
Need to reply in writing in two weeks with
corrective actions taken
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
345
Slide 220
___________________________________
Enforcement actions
___________________________________
Any researcher who receives more than 4 major

violations in any continuous six-month period is
subject to disciplinary or corrective actions
Actions are recommended by RSO and
approved by RSC
Failure to correct problems or to reply in a timely
manner is considered a major violation
We warn permit holders when they reach 3
violations or greater
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 221
___________________________________
What corrective or disciplinary

actions are available?
___________________________________
Mandatory refresher training for lab

Special meeting of lab staff with RSO
1-on-1 training with individual rad workers
Temporary suspension of a worker
Temporary permit suspension
Temporary suspension of ability to order
isotope
Permanent suspension of individual
worker or of permit
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 222
___________________________________
After the inspection - RS
___________________________________
We maintain records of compliance rate

and number of violations
Violations are tracked by area
___________________________________
Most common violations are failure to survey,

contamination in lab, meters out of calibration,
and radioactive material security
___________________________________
___________________________________
Summary statistics are presented to RSC

annually
___________________________________
___________________________________
346
Slide 223
___________________________________
After the inspection rad worker
___________________________________
Inspection report sent within 1 week of

inspection
Worker has two weeks to reply to any
violations with corrective actions or to
contest violation
May have follow-up inspection, depending
on number of violations
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 224
___________________________________
Summary
___________________________________
Managing a radiation safety program is not

simple, but it need not be all-consuming
Important to be able to understand and
work with a wide variety of people, each
with their own priorities
Inspections are a vital part of any good RS
program
Inspections need not be adversarial
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 225
___________________________________
___________________________________
Regulatory Inspections
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
347
Slide 226
___________________________________
Regulatory inspections
___________________________________
Most licensees will be inspected annually

Inspections may last from a half day to several
days
1 or more inspectors may show up at your door
Inspectors have the right to see any part of your
radiation safety program and to speak with any
worker
You have the right to accompany the inspectors
during their visit
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 227
___________________________________
What theyll look at
___________________________________
Training records
Dosimetry records
Survey records
Inventory records
Shipping papers (if appropriate)
Waste records (if appropriate)
Work practices
Meter calibration and maintenance records
Equipment service records (if appropriate)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 228
___________________________________
Other things that might happen
___________________________________
Interviews with management to confirm

support for Radiation Safety
Interviews with non-rad workers
General housekeeping inspection
Discussion of overall program with RSO
Review of Radiation Safety Committee
records
Entrance and exit interviews
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
348
Slide 229
___________________________________
If you get a violation
___________________________________
Apparent violations noted during exit interview

must be confirmed by formal inspection report
Try to correct violation during inspection and
notify inspectors of corrective actions
Take all violations seriously they are serious to
the inspectors
You may contest any violations, but should limit
this to those for which you have good
documentation
You must reply in writing, accepting violation and
noting corrective actions taken to resolve
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 230
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
About your license.
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 231
___________________________________
Licensing
___________________________________
Whether writing a new license, a license

amendment, or a license renewal, try to
stay as simple, as general, and as clean
as possible
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
349
Slide 232
___________________________________
Simplicity
___________________________________
Try to use the simplest language, procedures,

and the simplest approach possible when
addressing specific issues in the license
application
If you inherit a needlessly complex license,
consider the degree to which you can simplify it
during renewal
For example, it may be better to put everyone on
monthly (or quarterly) doismeter reads rather
than having quarterly for some, 6-month for
others, and monthly for the rest
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 233
___________________________________
Generality
___________________________________
Its better to be generally right than specifically

wrong
Try not to tie yourself down with needless
specificity when a broader generality will
accomplish the same thing
For example say that you will package
biological wastes in accordance with waste
acceptance criteria instead of promising to pack
in lime, freeze, double-bag, and surround with
absorbant materials
Or say that you will have alpha, beta, gamma,
and neutron survey meters on-hand; but dont
list your current instrument inventory
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 234
___________________________________
A clean license
___________________________________
Try to minimize attachments and

referenced materials the license should
be as stand-alone as possible
For example, avoid attaching your sitespecific procedures, radiation safety
manual, training book, etc. to your license
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Whatever materials you attach to the license

become part of your application, and you cant
change them without regulatory approval
___________________________________
___________________________________
350
___________________________________
Slide 235
___________________________________
___________________________________
Responding to radiological
incidents and emergencies
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 236
___________________________________
Spills
___________________________________
Stop spill
Warn others
Isolate the area
Minimize exposure
Stop ventilation if appropriate and possible
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Start to clean up after immediate actions

completed
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 237
___________________________________
Stop spill
___________________________________
Pick up container (if possible) and place

into bucket or deep tray
Place absorbent materials over spilled
liquid (or damp paper towels or rags over
spilled powder)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Idea is to stop adding more material to

spill and to limit contaminated area
___________________________________
___________________________________
351
Slide 238
___________________________________
Warn others
___________________________________
Call RSO or others who can assist

Inform others nearby
___________________________________
___________________________________
Idea is to keep unprepared people out of

spill area and to get help in cleaning spill
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 239
___________________________________
Isolate area
___________________________________
Put up physical boundary around spill

Spill boundary should be at least 1-2 meters
from farthest splash if possible
May simply close and lock door to room
ALWAYS put sign on spill boundary
Nobody should enter spill area unless dressed in
proper PPE
Nobody should leave spill area until surveyed by
RSO or trained rad worker (including personnel
in area when spill occurred)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 240
___________________________________
Minimize exposure
___________________________________
Take a short time to think through situation

Make sure you are taking proper and
reasonable actions
Make sure you know how to deal with
situation
Most radiological incidents are not lifeendangering you have the luxury of
taking a few minutes to make sure youre
doing the right thing
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
352
Slide 241
___________________________________
Stop ventilation
___________________________________
If spilled material is powdered or volatile,

stopping ventilation can help to reduce
spread of contamination
Whether or not to try to stop ventilation is
a judgment call on the part of the RSO or
person at the scene
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 242
___________________________________
Clean-up
___________________________________
Work from outside of spill area towards the

center
Work from top to bottom (if appropriate)
Can usually use commercial cleaners
(Formula 409, Windex, Easy-Off, etc.)
Use Radiac Wash and similar products if
you have radioactive metals
Monitor area periodically to ensure
cleanup efforts are effective
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 243
___________________________________
Skin contamination
___________________________________
Contact RSO immediately

Get good count rate on contaminated area
and write it down for future reference
Begin washing with mild soap and cool to
warm water
Count area every few washes to monitor
clean-up progress
May need to notify state, calculate skin
dose, and/or monitor for internal exposure
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
353
Slide 244
___________________________________
Skin contamination
___________________________________
The three Cs
___________________________________
Contact the Health and Safety Officer

Count the contaminated area with a Geiger
counter and record the count rate
Clean the contaminated area
___________________________________
___________________________________
In this case, rapid decontamination is

important should go to the nearest sink
to clean up
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 245
___________________________________
Skin decontamination
___________________________________
Dont do anything that will be painful or

uncomfortable
Use mild soap and cool to warm water
Get a good count rate every few washes and
record the information to make sure that
decontamination efforts are effective
Keep cleaning until Radiation Safety says its OK
to stop, or until all elevated counts are gone
Remember some isotopes are absorbed
through the skin, so dropping counts may also
indicate absorption and not decontamination
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 246
___________________________________
Injured personnel in radiological

incidents or emergencies
___________________________________
Must treat each on a case-by-case basis

Always make emergency responders or ER
personnel aware of radiological concerns
Even highly-contaminated patients pose very little
or no risk to emergency responders or to ER staff
Take care of most pressing problems first
Examples:
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Life-threatening injuries must be treated immediately

Mild injuries can sometimes wait for decontamination
Move injured personnel from dangerous radiation levels
___________________________________
___________________________________
354
Slide 247
___________________________________
High radiation levels
___________________________________
Get good dose reading in area and in

other populated areas (offices, etc.)
___________________________________
evacuate area if necessary
Try to determine source of radiation

Try to stop/shield source
___________________________________
Machines can be turned off

Sources must be either retracted or covered
with shielding such as lead
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 248
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
How to respond to a
radiological emergency
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 249
___________________________________
Priorities
___________________________________
Stay alive and healthy

Take care of victims
Put out fires and other emergency
response work
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
355
Slide 250
___________________________________
Protect yourself
___________________________________
Wear proper PPE including respiratory

protection
Wear your dosimetry (at least one person
per team)
Use radiation detectors (if available)
Use Universal Precautions when working
with contaminated victims
Limit stay time in dangerous areas
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 251
___________________________________
Caring for victims
___________________________________
Even highly-contaminated patients pose

very little or no risk to emergency
responders or to ER staff
Take care of most pressing problems first
Examples:
___________________________________
___________________________________
Life-threatening injuries must be treated

immediately
Mild injuries can sometimes wait for
decontamination
Move injured personnel from dangerous
radiation levels
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 252
___________________________________
Contamination control
___________________________________
If time and victims condition permit:
___________________________________
Remove outer clothing

Wrap in blanket or sheet
Cover with bunny suit
Wipe down with damp sponge or rag
Shower or spray with water to remove
contamination
___________________________________
___________________________________
Take whatever actions you can without

placing the patient at greater risk
___________________________________
___________________________________
356
___________________________________
Slide 253
___________________________________
___________________________________
Radioactive sources
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 254
___________________________________
What sources look like
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 255
___________________________________
Irradiators and radiography sources
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
357
___________________________________
Slide 256
___________________________________
___________________________________
Radiological terrorism
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 257
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 258
___________________________________
Scenario 1: RDD attack
___________________________________
A terrorist group sets off an RDD during

some big event
~50 people are killed by blast
About 10,000 people are directly
contaminated
Plume drifts across downtown and
surrounding neighborhoods
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
358
Slide 259
___________________________________
Some questions:
___________________________________
What are the likely radiation effects on

those in the area?
On emergency responders?
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 260
___________________________________
So is it safe?
___________________________________
1000 Ci of Co-60 will give a dose rate of

about 8 rem/hr
Co-60 is not a huge inhalation hazard, and
plume should settle fairly quickly
Contamination can be controlled by
wearing turnout gear
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 261
___________________________________
What about risks to the public?
___________________________________
Those at the scene may have heavy

contamination and possible inhalation
they are at the greatest risk.
However, many will probably have higher
risk from injuries and serious injuries
must be treated first
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
359
Slide 262
___________________________________
And the emergency responders?
___________________________________
Heat and fatigue are probably going to

keep an emergency responder from being
in an area long enough to develop
radiation sickness
___________________________________
___________________________________
It will take up to 12 hours in the area in this

scenario to start to get radiation sickness
___________________________________
So if responders wear their PPE, they

should not be at risk
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 263
___________________________________
Scenario 2: Irradiator attack
___________________________________
A terrorist group plops a 1000 Ci Co-60

irradiator in a movie theater (say for a Lord
of the Rings re-run)
During the movie, some people exit the
theater vomiting, and others complain that
there are sick and unconscious people in
the theater
An usher found a canister beneath a seat
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 264
___________________________________
Same questions:
___________________________________
What are the likely radiation effects on

those in the area? On emergency
responders?
What actions should the public take?
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
360
Slide 265
___________________________________
Radiation levels
___________________________________
1 meter from source, rad levels will be

fatal in about 45 minutes
2 meters from source, rad levels will fatal
in 3 hours
10 meters from source, rad levels will take
about 10 hours to make you sick
So you can work here just wear your
dosimeter
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 266
___________________________________
Risk to the public
___________________________________
A 1000 Ci source in a movie theater may kill up

to a dozen or so people assuming that
everyone stays for the entire movie
Up to 100 people may develop mild to severe
radiation sickness over the next several weeks,
again assuming they stay for the entire movie
There is NO risk to anyone else because
irradiated people do not become radioactive
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 267
___________________________________
Risk to emergency responders
___________________________________
There is NO risk to emergency responders,

provided they heed dose limits
Will probably have to use several teams to
recover bodies of those nearest the source
Recovering the source is potentially hazardous,
but can be done safely by radiation safety
professionals
At worst, will have to close theater for a few days
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
361
Slide 268
___________________________________
When to be worried
___________________________________
If radiation dose rate is greater than 10

rem/hr
If contamination levels are more than
100,000 cpm
If your dosimeter reads more than 3 rem (if
you are a radiation worker) or more than
75 mr (if youre not a radiation worker)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 269
___________________________________
When to leave the area right away
___________________________________
If radiation levels are more than 100

rem/hr or are off-scale
If contamination levels are too high to
register on the highest scale of the meter
If you see health physicists looking scared
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 270
___________________________________
___________________________________
Nuclear Terrorism
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
362
Slide 271
___________________________________
How Likely is Nuclear Terror?
___________________________________
Nobody believes any longer that it takes a

Manhattan Project to build a nuclear device
___________________________________
Given 235U in sufficient quantity building a gunassembled device is quite straight-forward

Few-man portable; mass probably < 200 kg
Yield ~ 100 tons to 1 kT
___________________________________
Given plutonium, it is possible to build simpler

implosion devices than Fat Man
___________________________________
Mass < 1000 kg

Yield ~ 1 kT to 10 kT
Weapons can be (have been?) stolen.
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 272
___________________________________
Primitive and Simple Nuclear Designs are

Well Known and Generally Understood
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 273
___________________________________
Design and Construction
___________________________________
Gun-assembled devices
Extremely simple
Target bolted to gun; cant miss
Builders will figure out the tricks along the way.
___________________________________
___________________________________
Implosion devices
Wont use Fatman-style lenses

Will be very unpredictable/unreliable
Yield could be as high as several kT
Very, very dirty from Pu contamination
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
363
Slide 274
___________________________________
Nuclear devices
___________________________________
Hiroshima
___________________________________
Weapon size about 15 kT (similar to IND)

Total inhabitants, 320,081
Deaths, 122,358
Injured, 79,130
Uninjured, 118,613
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 275
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 276
___________________________________
Comparison with terrorist device
___________________________________
No way to predict yield IND may be

small, while stolen weapon may be higher
Hiroshima was an airburst, while IND
would likely be a surface burst
___________________________________
___________________________________
Surface burst will be dirtier due to inclusion

of surface materials in blast
Site of detonation will influence effects
___________________________________
One likely scenario would be in port facilities,

although small (suitcase) device, or device in
cargo container may be taken almost
anywhere
___________________________________
___________________________________
364
Slide 277
___________________________________
Effects
___________________________________
Blast
Radiation and fallout can be fatal up to a
few miles away in the plume
Thermal
Firestorm as in Dresden and Tokyo, may
be more destructive than initial blast
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
All depend strongly on yield of device and

location of detonation
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 278
___________________________________
Making or getting nuclear weapons
___________________________________
Its thought that up to 40 former Soviet

suitcase nukes are not accounted for
There are a number of research reactors
still fueled with HEU
Pakistan offered nuclear technology to
many nations, including N. Korea, Iraq,
and Libya may have sold to others, too
May be able to purchase weapons, Pu, or
HEU on nuclear black market
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 279
___________________________________
The bottom line
___________________________________
It is likely that terrorist organizations are trying to

obtain nuclear weapons or fissionable materials
There are many opportunities to obtain such
weapons
Nuclear weapons effects, even for a fizzle or
low-yield device, would be horrific
Nuclear weapons can be smuggled in cargo
containers or suitcases detection is possible,
but only if we are looking for something
However, it is unlikely that such devices are now
in the possession of terrorists
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
365
Slide 280
___________________________________
Resources
___________________________________
Health Physics Society (www.hps.org)
___________________________________
Including Ask the Experts feature
CDC (http://www.bt.cdc.gov/)
AFRRI (http://www.afrri.usuhs.mil/)
REAC/TS (http://www.orau.gov/reacts/)
Radiation Information Network
(http://www.physics.isu.edu/radinf/)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 281
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
A few more odds and ends
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 282
___________________________________
Radiological triage flowchart
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
366
Slide 283
___________________________________
Radiological area entry and exit

point
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 284
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 285
___________________________________
One way to assess dose
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
367
Slide 286
___________________________________
Prognosis tool
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 287
___________________________________
Expected progression of symptoms

Symptoms
___________________________________
Dose of 0-0.75 Gy (0-75 rad) in air

Time post-exposure
Hours
Days
Weeks
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6
0-5% mild
Nausea
Vomiting/retching
Anorexia
Diarrhea/cramps
Fatigue
Weakness
Hypotension
Dizziness
Disorientation
Bleeding
Fever
Infection
Ulceration
Fluid loss/electrolyte
imbalance
Headache
Fainting
Prostration
Death
Medical treatment
Reassurance, counseling
Clinical remarks
Possible anxiety, possible mild lymphocyte depression in 24 hrs
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 288
Symptoms
___________________________________
Dose of 0.75-1.5 Gy (75-150 rad) in air

Time post-exposure
Hours
Days
Weeks
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6
5-30% mild
5-20% mild
___________________________________
Nausea
Vomiting/retching
Anorexia
Diarrhea/cramps
15-50% mild
Fatigue
Weakness
Hypotension
Dizziness
Disorientation
Bleeding
Fever
Infection
A
A
Ulceration
B
imbalance
Headache
Fainting
Prostration
Death
Medical treatment
Debridement and primary closure of wounds, no surgery delay
Clinical remarks
A. Moderate drop in lymphocyte, platelet, granulocyte counts
B. Increased susceptibility to non-opportunistic pathogens
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
368
Slide 289
Symptoms
Nausea
Vomiting/retching
Anorexia
Diarrhea/cramps
Fatigue
Weakness
Hypotension
Dizziness
Disorientation
Bleeding
Fever
Infection
Ulceration
imbalance
Headache
Fainting
Prostration
Death
Medical treatment
Clinical remarks
___________________________________
Dose of 1.5 - 3.0 Gy (150-300 rad) in air

Time post-exposure
Hours
Days
Weeks
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6
30-70% mild-moderate
50-90%
___________________________________
mild
mild
___________________________________
A
10% mild
10-50%
___________________________________
___________________________________
<5%
Fluid, electrolytes for GI losses, cytokines for immune compromised
A. Drop in platelets from 3 to 0.8-1.8 x105 per mm3
B. Drop in granulocytes from 6 to 2.0-4.5 x 103 per mm3
3
3
C. Drop in lymphocytes from 3 to 1.0-2.0 x10 per mm
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 290
Symptoms
Nausea
Vomiting/retching
Anorexia
Diarrhea/cramps
Fatigue
Weakness
Hypotension
Dizziness
Disorientation
Bleeding
Fever
Infection
Ulceration
imbalance
Headache
Fainting
Prostration
Death
Medical treatment
Clinical remarks
___________________________________
Dose of 3.0 to 5.3 Gy (300 to 530 rad) in air

Time post-exposure
Hours
Days
Weeks
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6
70-90% moderate
0-80% moderate
90-100% severe
60%
10% moderate
40-60%
60-90% moderate
mild
moderate
60-90% moderate
mild
moderate
___________________________________
___________________________________
0-50% moderate
B
C 80% moderate
D 30% mod.
___________________________________
___________________________________
5-50%
Fluid, electrolytes for GI losses, cytokines, specific antibiotics
A. Drop in platelets from 3 to 0.1-0.8 x105 per mm3
B. Drop in granulocytes from 6 to 0.5-2.0 x 103 per mm3
C. Drop in lymphocytes from 3 to 0.4-1.0 x103 per mm3
D. Possible epilation
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 291
Symptoms
Nausea
Vomiting/retching
Anorexia
Diarrhea/cramps
Fatigue
Weakness
Hypotension
Dizziness
Disorientation
Bleeding
Fever
Infection
Ulceration
imbalance
Headache
Fainting
Prostration
Death
Medical treatment
Clinical remarks
___________________________________
Dose of 5.3 to 8.3 Gray (530-830 rad) in air

Time post-exposure
Hours
Days
Weeks
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6
90-100% mod - severe
60-100%
80-100% mod-severe
severe
100%
100%
10% moderate to severe
60-100% severe
90-100% moderate to severe
90-100% moderate to severe
___________________________________
___________________________________
60% moderate
60% moderate
A 50-100% mod-sev
B 60-100% mod-severe
___________________________________
C
D 50% mild-mod
40% mild to
moderate
50% mild-moderate
E 30%
50%
50%
60%
50-99%
Tertiary level intensive care, cytokines, fluids, antibiotics, GI decon
5
3
A. Severe platelet drop to 0.0-0.1 x10 per mm
3
3
B. Severe granulocyte drop to 0.0-0.5 x10 per mm
5
3
Complete surgery 36-48 C. Severe lymphocyte drop 0.0-0.1 x10 per mm
hrs, or wait for 6 weeks D. Epilation
E. Mild intestinal damage
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
369
Slide 292
Symptoms
Nausea
Vomiting/retching
Anorexia
Diarrhea/cramps
Fatigue
Weakness
Hypotension
Dizziness
Disorientation
Bleeding
Fever
Infection
Ulceration
imbalance
Headache
Fainting
Prostration
Death
Medical treatment
Clinical remarks
Bone marrow totally
depleted
Dose of 8.3 to 11 Gy (830-1100 rad) in air

Time post-exposure
Hours
Days
Weeks
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5
100%
100%
100%
100%
100% severe
100% severe
80% moderate
80% moderate
___________________________________
6
___________________________________
___________________________________
100% severe
100% severe
100% severe
A 100% severe
B 100% severe
C
D 100% severe
E 80%
severe
100% severe
___________________________________
___________________________________
80% mod to severe

100%
Supportive therapy, aggressive therapy if evidence of response
A. Platelet count drops to nearly 0
B. Granulocyte count drops to nearly 0
C. Lymphocyte count drops to nearly 0
D. Epilation
E. Moderate intestinal damage
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 293
Symptoms
Nausea
Vomiting/retching
Anorexia
Diarrhea/cramps
Fatigue
Weakness
Hypotension
Dizziness
Disorientation
Bleeding
Fever
Infection
Ulceration
imbalance
Headache
Fainting
Prostration
Death
Medical treatment
Clinical remarks
___________________________________
Dose 11-15 Gray (1100-1500 rad) in air

Time post-exposure
Hours
Days
Weeks
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6
100% moderate-severe
100% severe
100% mod-severe
100% severe
100% severe
100% severe
10% severe
100% severe
100% severe
100% severe
A 80% mild
100% severe
100% severe
100% severe
100% severe
100% severe
B 100% severe
B 100% severe
B
C 100% severe
100% moderate to
D 100% severe
severe
100% severe
70% mod-severe
70% mod-severe
100%
Bone marrow totally depleted, tertiary care may help somewhat
A. Blood press drops 25%, temp increases to 102 F
B. Platelet, lymphocyte, granulocyte counts drop to 0
C. Epilation
D. Moderate to severe intestinal damage
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 294
Symptoms
Nausea
Vomiting/retching
Anorexia
Diarrhea/cramps
Fatigue
Weakness
Hypotension
Dizziness
Disorientation
Bleeding
Fever
Infection
Ulceration
imbalance
Headache
Fainting
Prostration
Death
Medical treatment
Clinical remarks
___________________________________
Dose of 15-30 Gray (1500-3000 rad) in air

Time post-exposure
Hours
Days
Weeks
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6
100% severe
100% severe
100% severe
100% severe
100% severe
100% severe
20% severe
100% severe
100% severe
100% severe
100% severe
100% severe
A 100% severe
45-80% mod-severe
A 100% severe
A
100% severe
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
B 100% moderate to severe

100% severe
80% severe
80% severe
80% severe
C 100%
Supportive therapy
A Platelet, granulocyte, lymphocyte counts drop to 0
B Severe intestinal damage
Bone marrow completely C Renal failure
depleted within days.
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
370
Slide 295
___________________________________
Lymphocyte depletion
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 296
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Case studies
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 297
___________________________________
Problem 1: Spill
___________________________________
Technician calls to tell you about a spill.

He claims to have readings of 20 mr/hr on
a GM counter a meter above a spill of Tc99m (10 mCi).
Is this reading reasonable?
How do you confirm your answer above?
What equipment do you bring to the spill?
How do you deal with the incident?
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
371
Slide 298
___________________________________
Problem 2: Refractory brick
___________________________________
A load of brick from your furnace trips a

landfill radiation alarm.
Why does this happen?
What do you do with the brick?
What sort of risk do your employees face
from the radiation?
Do you have to get a license and train
your employees as radiation workers?
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 299
___________________________________
Problem 3: Landfill alarm
___________________________________
A load of residential waste sets off a

landfill radiation portal monitor. The hot
waste is traced to a nuclear medicine
patient from your hospital.
What do you do with the waste?
What instruments would you take to the
landfill?
Are you responsible for the patients
waste?
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 300
___________________________________
Problem 4: High badge readings
___________________________________
An employees badge reads 53 rem one

month. The employee did nothing
different compared to other months.
How can you confirm or reject this
reading?
What actions do you need to take?
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
372
___________________________________
Slide 301
___________________________________
___________________________________
Licensing exercise
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 302
___________________________________
For the exercise
___________________________________
Break into groups of 5 or so

Draw up a brief description of a license
application that addresses the questions
on the following slide
Include sketches as necessary and
appropriate
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 303
___________________________________
Irradiator license application
___________________________________
You want to get a license for a 500 Ci Co-60

research irradiator.
What instrumentation do you need for surveys?
Where in your building should the irradiator be
placed?
What topics should you include in your training?
Who should receive dosimetry? Do you need
any other dosimeters?
How do you leak test this source?
How do you return a spent source to the
vendor?
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
373
___________________________________
Slide 304
___________________________________
___________________________________
Closing thoughts
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 305
___________________________________
Health risks
___________________________________
At levels allowed by regulations, radiation

is not harmful
In most cases, radiological risks can be
readily managed and reduced
Many activities (e.g. driving, some sports)
are much more dangerous
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 306
___________________________________
Legal risks
___________________________________
Nevertheless, it is possible to be sued

over radiation-induced illness, even if the
probability of causation is very low
For this reason, personnel monitoring and
radiological survey records (and
instrument maintenance records) are
essential documents
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
374
Slide 307
___________________________________
RSOs role
___________________________________
The RSO is the single person most

responsible for maintaining a safe and
legal radiation safety program
Most people in the organization will look to
the RSO for information and advice
Dont give out erroneous information if
you dont know the answer, look it up or
ask someone for assistance
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 308
___________________________________
If you have any questions:
E-mail me at
___________________________________
___________________________________
paksbi@rit.edu
___________________________________
Check out the HPS web site at

www.hps.org
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 309
___________________________________
___________________________________
Bonus Materials
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
375
___________________________________
Slide 310
___________________________________
___________________________________
How uranium enrichment

works
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 311
___________________________________
Uranium enrichments
___________________________________
Natural U 99.2% U-238, 0.72% U-235

Enriched U - >1% U-235
Reactors 3-8%
Research reactors 20%
Weapons 90+%
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 312
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
376
___________________________________
Slide 313
___________________________________
Communicating with the
Media and the Public
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 314
___________________________________
___________________________________
There is a tendency to assume that reporters

either cant understand technical issues, is
not interested in technical issues, or has
already made up its mind. This is not always
the case, and we should generally treat them
as willing and able to learn about issues of
importance. Anyone who picks up the phone
to call has already made an effort to learn
something we must respect that effort.
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 315
___________________________________
Questions to consider
___________________________________
What prompted the communication in

the first place?
Who are you talking to?
What information is the other person
looking for?
What information do you want to
convey?
Is this an opportunity to get any other
information across?
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
377
Slide 316
___________________________________
What prompted the communication

in the first place?
___________________________________
News story
___________________________________
Nuclear power
Radioactive waste
Radiological terrorism
Nuclear proliferation
___________________________________
Exposure to radiation (to the person

calling or to a family member)
Medical problem thought to be linked
to previous radiation exposure
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 317
___________________________________
Who are you talking with?
___________________________________
An experienced science writer

A junior reporter
___________________________________
What beat? Science, environment,

political, city, national, etc.?
___________________________________
Someone trained in science, or some

other field?
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 318
___________________________________
What information do you want to convey?
___________________________________
Salient points about radiation

High levels of radiation can be harmful
The risks of exposure to low levels of radiation are
typically over-stated
Radiation is a weak carcinogen and very poor at
inducing reproductive effects
___________________________________
___________________________________
Salient points about the matter at hand

Evaluate dose calculations (if applicable)
Compare calculated dose with those required to
produce effects
Is dose less than 10 rem? If so, refer to HPS position
paper regarding low-dose risks
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
378
Slide 319
___________________________________
Is this an opportunity to get any

other information across?
___________________________________
Radiation is a natural part of the

environment and varies widely around
the world
HPS and ICRP have both advised
against calculating risk from low doses
of radiation
We have over a century of experience
working with radiation and know a
great deal about its biological and
medical effects
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 320
___________________________________
___________________________________
Dont try to sugarcoat the issues; if there are

negative aspects to the story or question,
acknowledge this. But dont be afraid to point
out that the negative is not as bad as many
would lead us to believe. We win if the end
result is someone with accurate information
and the inclination to call us back in the
future. We lose if we are seen as being as
biased as the antis.
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 321
___________________________________
What is the media after?
___________________________________
Accurate information
The most important relevant facts
A good story that educates readers
Increased readership, viewers, listeners
Balance
Background information (if time permits)
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
379
Slide 322
___________________________________
General rules
___________________________________
Only talk about things you know about

Dont be patronizing or condescending
Leave yourself enough time to review
background information dont rush the
interview
Assume anything you say may be quoted
Be ready to refer reporter on to other HPs
who may know more about the subject
matter
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 323
___________________________________
Time is always an issue
___________________________________
All reporters have deadlines to meet

Reporters deadlines are usually fixed
and unchangeable
If a reporter cant talk with you and meet
their deadline, theyll go to press without
your information
Non-reporters (i.e. the curious public) is
important, too dont make them wait
either. Something prompted their call,
and they deserve a timely response.
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 324
___________________________________
Dont be afraid to say I dont

know if appropriate.
Hopefully this will be followed
by I know who can help
you. or Let me find out and
Ill get back to you.
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
380
Slide 325
___________________________________
Accurate information
___________________________________
In my experience, the vast majority of

reporters want accurate information
Only a few reporters are out to confirm
their preconceptions
Each reporter can reach thousands or even
millions of people with their stories by
talking with reporters, you are talking to the
public too
We do everyone a disservice if the
information we convey is not accurate
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 326
___________________________________
A good story:
___________________________________
Sheds light on a topic of interest or

importance
Helps the public make informed decisions
about some matter
Helps decision-makers better understand
the issues at stake
Helps sell the media to the public (i.e. more
newspapers, more viewers, more listeners,
etc.)
May provide a different way of looking at an
issue
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 327
___________________________________
A balanced story
___________________________________
Has information from all sides of an issue

May not give equal weight to all sides, but
tries to give appropriate weight to all sides
Makes an effort to let the readers decide,
based on the facts presented
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
381
___________________________________
Slide 328
___________________________________
There is a tendency to be suspicious of

the media and to assume they will
distort information to support their preconceived notions or to sell more
papers. This is sometimes the case,
but most reporters honestly want to
write a good, accurate story.
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 329
___________________________________
Breaking news:
___________________________________
When something is unfolding, there

may be only a little time to try to work
with either the public or the media
Examples:
___________________________________
___________________________________
Tokaimura
Arrest of dirty bomb suspect
Kursk sinking
Any actual future radiological or nuclear
attack, incident, or emergency
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 330
___________________________________
In a breaking story:
___________________________________
Reporters generally have a higher sense

of urgency
There may not be time to go into much
background information
Its best to stick to the most pertinent facts
regarding the story and radiation in
general
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
382
___________________________________
Slide 331
I take the approach that the reporter
is doing me a favor by giving me the
opportunity to present the public with
good information. That means that I
expect to work with the interviewer to
return the favor by helping set up
interview times, locations, or settings
that will make the interview
convenient and valuable for the crew.
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 332
___________________________________
Example: Dirty bombs
___________________________________
Radiological versus nuclear weapons
LNT debate
Natural background exposure levels
___________________________________
Pertinent information
Immediate actions go inside, not to car
Not radiologically dangerous
Contaminated patients no risk to doctors
___________________________________
Ancillary information
___________________________________
Contamination vs. dose

HPS position paper on low-dose risk
Detecting radiation and contamination
Results of calculations (if you have any)
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 333
___________________________________
Example: Fetal radiation exposure
___________________________________
Where fetal exposure comes from
Regulatory dose limits
We have a century of information about radiation
health effects
___________________________________
___________________________________
It takes at least 5 rem to harm a fetus
Unless there are multiple CT scans or a lot of
fluoroscopy, chances are that there will be no
harm
___________________________________
There is a background rate of birth defects and
miscarriage for everyone
___________________________________
___________________________________
383
Slide 334
___________________________________
Example: Nuclear war in South Asia
___________________________________
What is a nuclear weapon and how does it work?
What effects have been noted in the past?
___________________________________
US not likely to have any health effects from
nuclear war in Asia
Limited nuclear war, although horrible, will not
end civilization
___________________________________
___________________________________
How can we detect nuclear weapons or weapons

testing?
How can someone make a nuclear weapon?
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 335
___________________________________
Talking on radio
___________________________________
Try to speak slowly and distinctly so its easy to

understand you
Use analogies if possible and appropriate
___________________________________
Try to create a picture in the listeners minds
Avoid jargon and technical terminology except

when absolutely necessary (and then explain
the terms)
Simplify as much as possible, but not to the
point of being patronizing, condescending, or
being unable to support your main points
Dont be afraid to ask the interviewer for tips on
how to make sure their audience will get what
youre trying to say
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 336
___________________________________
TV interviews
___________________________________
Dress comfortably and professionally

Dont move too quickly
Look wherever the interviewer or camera
person tells you to look usually NOT at
the camera
If you give demonstrations, keep them
simple, easy to follow, and easy to
understand
Ask about props (i.e. meters) or preferred
locations for filming
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
384
Slide 337
Some common comments and rebuttals
___________________________________
You cant put a value on human life.
___________________________________
Do you have a life insurance policy? Medical insurance?
Risks from driving and working are voluntary and

controllable.
___________________________________
How do you get to the store? Can you control the

drunk/teenage/distracted idiot in the car next to yours?
___________________________________
We dont know enough about the effects of

radiation
___________________________________
Weve been working with radiation for over a century

far longer than almost any other harmful agent. We
know a LOT about the effects of radiation, especially
compared to most toxins or carcinogens
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 338
___________________________________
More snappy answers to common

comments
___________________________________
Cancer rates are going up because of

radiation
___________________________________
100 years ago the average person lived for 40

years. How many people 40 and younger get
cancer?
___________________________________
There is no safe level of radiation

exposure.
___________________________________
Define safe low levels of radiation are no

more dangerous than driving, working, or
eating fast food
___________________________________
___________________________________
Slide 339
___________________________________
Summary
___________________________________
We have an obligation to share accurate

information with the public, either directly
or through members of the media
We have an obligation to make sure our
information is correct
This need not be a stressful or adversarial
process
Our profession can gain much from this
process, especially if we do it responsibly
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
385
AppendixA:GlossaryofTerminology
Activity:thenumberofnucleartransformationsoccurringinagivenamountofmaterial
perunittime
A=mN(a)
W
A=activitylevelindisintegrations/sec
=decayconstant(units=/sec)=ln(2)/t1/2
m=massofmaterialpresent(units=grams)
N(a)=Avogadrosnumber=6.023x1023
W=atomicweight(units=atomicmassunits)
Base:oneofthefourfundamentalbuildingblocksofDNA(A=adenine,C=cytosine,G=
guanine,T=thymine);basesonoppositesidesoftheDNAmoleculealwayspairupso
thatAisacrossfromTandCacrossfromGthiscombinationiscalledabasepair
BEIR:BiologicalEffectsofIonizingRadiation;aseriesofreportsissuedbyacommitteeof
theNationalAcademyofSciences
Bq(Becquerel):theamountofmaterialthatgivesadisintegrationrateof1disintegration
persecondtheBecquerelistheSIunitforactivitylevel
Ci(Curie):theamountofmaterialwhichgivesadisintegrationrateof3.7x1010
disintegrationspersecondameasureofactivity;theCurieistheAmericanunitforactivity
level
1Ci=3.7x1010Bq
Codon:agroupofthreebasepairsthatcodesforasingleaminoacid
DecayChain(series):aseriesofisotopesresultingfromthedecayofaparentnuclideand
itssubsequentradioactivedaughterstoanultimatestableform
DecayConstant:thefractionofthenumberofatomsthatwilldecayinaunitintervalof
time =ln(2)
386
t1/2
t1/2=isotopehalflife
DNA:deoxyribonucleicacid,theprimarygeneticinformationmoleculeforallknownlife
exceptforRNAbasedviruses
Dose(absorbed):theenergyimpartedtomatterbyionizingradiationperunitmassof
irradiatedmaterialattheplaceofinterestD=drxt
dr=doserateinmrhr1
t=timeinhrs
UnitsofDose:
1rad=100ergs/graminanymaterial=6.242x107MeVg1
1roentgen=2.58x104Coulombkg1ofair
1gray=100rad=10,000ergsg1inanymaterial
DoseEquivalent:thebiologicaldamagecausedbytheabsorbeddose
DE=DxQF
QF=qualityfactor =1(betaandgammaradiation)
=3(thermalneutronradiation)
=10(fastneutronradiation)
=20(alpharadiation)
DoseRate:absorbeddosedeliveredperunittime(mr/hr)
Gy(Grayradiationdose):TheSIunitofradiationdose;1Gray(Gy)=1Joulekg1
energydepositionfromionizingradiation
HalfLife(effective):theamountoftimerequiredforradioactivematerialsubjectto
multiplelosstermstohaveitsactivityreducedby50%byacombinationofradioactive
decayandotherlosses.
t1/2(1)xt1/2(rad)
t1/2(eff)=
t1/2(1)+t1/2(rad)
HalfLife(radiological):theamountoftimethatisrequiredforaradioactivesubstanceto
lose1/2ofitsactivity
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HalfValueLayer(HVL):Thatamountofamaterialthatisrequiredtoreducethedose
ratefromaradiationsourcebyafactorof2
HealthPhysics:theprofessiondevotedtothesafeuseofradiationandradioactivity
Hormesis:thepresenceofbeneficialeffectsfromexposuretoanagentinsmallquantities,
evenifthatagentmaybeharmfulinlargequantities
IAEA:InternationalAtomicEnergyAgency
ICRP:InternationalCouncilonRadiationProtection(aninternationaladvisorybody)
Isotope:atomofthesameatomicnumber(containingthesamenumberofprotons)but
withadifferentnumberofneutronsinthenucleus(differentatomicmass)canbestable
orradioactive
LNT:Linear,NoThreshold;ahypothesisforradiationdoseresponsethatsuggeststhat
allexposuretoradiationispotentiallyharmfulandtheriskincreaseslinearlywithdose
NCRP:NationalCouncilonRadiationProtectionandMeasurements(aUSgovernmental
advisorybody)
Nuclide:anatomcharacterizedbythenumberofprotonsinitsnucleusANDitsenergy
level(ex:Tc99misadifferentnuclidethanTc99,exhibitingadifferenthalflifeand
differentdecayenergiesduetoitsexistinginadifferentnuclearexcitation(metastable)
state
Nuclide(parent):thenuclidethatexistspriortoradioactivedecay,decayingtoformthe
progenynuclide
ex:Xe138willBdecaytoformCs138therefore,Xe138istheparentnuclideandCs138,
theprogenynuclide
Nuclide(progeny):thenuclideresultingfromtheradioactivedecayofaparentnuclide
(currentterminologyhasreplacedthetermdaughterwithprogeny)
Radiation:theemissionandpropagationofenergythroughspaceand/orthrougha
materialmediumintheformofwavesor,byextension,corpuscularemissionssuchas
orparticles
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Rad:thedepositioninanyabsorberof100ergsg1duetotheabsorptionofionizing
radiation
Rem:exposuretothatamountofionizingradiationcausingthebiologicaldamage
equivalenttothedepositionof100ergsg1inbodytissue;theremistheUSunitfordose
equivalent
Radioactivity:thepropertyofcertainnuclidesofspontaneouslyemittingparticlesor
gammaradiationfollowingorbitalelectroncapture,electronemission,isomerictransition,
nuclearrearrangement,orspontaneousfission
RNA:ribonucleicacid;aninformationtransfermoleculeusedinmostcells,RNAisalso
theprimaryinformationcarryingmoleculeforRNAviruses
Sievert(Sv):exposuretothatamountofanionizingradiationcausingthebiological
damageequivalenttothedepositionof1Jkg1inbodytissue;theSvistheSIunitfordose
equivalent
UNSCEAR:UnitedNationsScienceCommitteeontheEffectsofAtomicRadiation
6. UV:
ultraviolet light; that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that has a

higher frequency and shorter wavelength than violet light; UV has three recognized
wavelength bands, UVA (320-400 nm), UVB (290-320 nm), and UVC (<290 nm)
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Appendix B: How Nuclear Reactors Work
Contents
2) Introduction
3) TheNuclearFuelCycle
4) KindsofNuclearReactors
5) EnvironmentalIssuesandSustainability
6) Conclusions
GlossaryofTerms
ActivationproductsAtomsthatbecomeradioactiveafterbeingbombardedwith
neutronradiation(seeneutronactivation)
AVLISatomicvaporlaserisotopicseparation;amethodofusingcarefullytunedlaser
beamstoincreasetheamountof235Utomakereactorfuel
Becquerel(Bq)aunitofradioactivityequaltooneradioactivedisintegrationper
second.Metricsystemmultiplesareusedtodescribelargeamountsofactivitysothata
kBqis1000Bq,anMBqis106Bq,aGBqis109Bq,andaTBqis1012Bq
Boilingwaterreactoratypeofnuclearreactorinwhichwaterinthereactorcoreboils,
generatingsteamtoproducepower
Controlrodsneutronabsorbingrods(oftenmadeofcadmium,hafnium,silver,
indium,orsomeotherneutronabsorbingmetal)thatareusedtocontrolreactorpower;
insertingcontrolrodsintothereactorcorebringsthecriticalitytoahalt
Depleteduraniumuraniumfromwhich235Uhasbeenremoved(inordertomake
enricheduranium);depleteduraniumhaslessthan0.72%235U
Desalinizationtheprocessofremovingsaltfromseawatertomakeitdrinkableor
useableinagriculture
Emergencycoolingsystemasystemdesignedtoremovewasteheatfromareactors
coreintheeventanemergencyrendersthereactorcoolantpumpsinoperable
Enricheduraniumuraniuminwhichtheamountof235Uhasbeenincreasedtoalevel
greaterthan0.72%inordertomakereactorfuel
Fissionproducts(alsocalledfissionfragments)radioactiveatomsformedfroman
atomthatfissions;fissionof235Uleadstotheformationoffissionfragmentswithatomic
massesaround100and135atomicmassunits.
Fuelthefissionablematerial(usuallyenricheduranium)thatmakesitpossibleto
sustainacriticalchainreaction;theuraniumfuelisloadedintofuelrodswhich,inturn,
areassembledintofuelassemblies
Gascentrifugeamethodofuraniumenrichmentinwhichcentrifugalforceisusedto
helpseparatemoleculescontainingthelighteratomsof235Ufromtheuraniumfeed
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Gascooledreactoratypeofnuclearreactorinwhichgas(usuallyhelium)isusedto
transfertheheatofnuclearfissionfromthereactorcoretoasteamgeneratororturbine
Gaseousdiffusionamethodofenrichinguraniuminwhichtheslightlylighter
moleculesgasmoleculescontaining235Uaremorelikelytopenetrate(ordiffuse
through)apermeablebarrier
Graphitemoderatedreactoratypeofnuclearreactorinwhichgraphiteisusedto
moderate(orslowdown)neutrons,makingfissionpossible
Millandminetailingsthewastematerialsleftoverafterdigginguraniumorefrom
thegroundandremovingtheuraniumfromitforfurtherprocessing
Moderationtheprocessofslowingdownfastneutronsreleasedfromnuclearfission
bycausingthemtocollide,andexchangeenergywithatomsofthemoderator
Neutronactivationbombardingstableatomswithneutronradiationwillresultin
someatomsabsorbingneutrons;thisprocessmakestheatomsradioactive
Nuclearcriticalitytheprocessbywhichanuclearreactorproducespower;inacritical
reactor,thenumberofneutrons(ameasureofreactorpowerproduction)remains
constantovertimenotethatallnuclearreactorsarecriticalwhenoperating
Nuclearfissionwhensomeatomsabsorbneutronstheywillsplitintotwoormore
partsandwillemitneutrons;thisprocessiscallednuclearfission
Nuclearreactoradevicethatisdesignedtoproducepowerbyallowingnuclear
fissiontoproceedinacontrolledmannerforprolongedperiodsoftime
Oreageologicbodyinwhichitiseconomicallyfeasibletorecovermineralsormetals
forindustrialorcommercialuse
Pebblebedmodularreactoratypeofnuclearreactorinwhichsmallspheresof
moderatorandfuelarelooselystacked;heliumiscirculatedthroughthespheresasa
coolant
PersonSv(orpersonrem)radiationexposuretoagroupofpeople,definedasthe
summationofdosetoeverypersonmeasured;forexample,adoseof0.1Svtoagroup
of10,000peoplewillgiveacollectivedoseof1000personSv
Pressurizedwaterreactoratypeofnuclearreactorinwhichthecoolant(water)is
pressurizedtokeepitfromboilingasittransfersheatfromthecoretoasteam
generator
Primaryplant(systems)thepartsofanuclearreactorthatcomeindirectcontactwith
coolantthathaspassedthroughthereactorcore
Radiationthetransferofenergyfromoneplacetoanotherviaanintermediary;in
particular,ionizingradiationusesalpha,beta,orgammaradiationtotransferexcitation
energyfromanunstableatomicnucleustoanabsorber
Radiationdoseameasureofenergydepositedinanabsorberbyionizingradiation;1
Gray(Gy)isthedoseresultingfromtheabsorptionof1Jouleofenergyperkgof
absorber.TheSievert(Sv)isameasureofdoseequivalenceandaccountsforthefact
thatsomekindsofradiationaremoredamagingthanothers
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Reactorcoolantpumpspumpsusedtocirculatereactorcoolant(usuallywater)
throughthereactorcore
SCRAManemergencyreactorshutdown;scramscanbeinitiatedautomaticallyor
manually
Secondaryplant(systems)inapressurizedwaterreactor,thesystemsthatdonot
havedirectcontactwithwaterthathaspassedthroughthereactorcore
Sievertexposuretoionizingradiationthatproducesthebiologicaldamageequivalent
todepositing1JouleofgammaradiationperkilogramofbodytissuetheUSunitis
therem
Steamgeneratorapieceofequipmentinwhichhotgasorwaterpassesthroughaheat
exchangerandisusedtoboilwatertoproducesteam;thesteamisthenusedtoturna
turbinetoproduceelectricalpower
TRUanacronymfortransuranic;anyelementheavierthanuranium
Turbineapieceofequipmentinwhichahotgassuchassteamcausestheturbineto
turn;theotherendoftheturbineisconnectedtoanelectricalgeneratortoproduce
electricity
Uraniumenrichmenttheprocessofincreasingtheamountof235Ufrom0.72%
(whichisfoundinnaturaluranium)toahigherpercentageneededformostnuclear
reactorstooperate
7. Summary
Nuclearpowerplantshavemanyapplicationsinoureverydayworld.Asignificant
fractionoftheglobalelectricitysupplyisproducedbytheworlds400+(asofJune,
2001)nuclearpowerplants.Othernuclearreactorsproduceradioactiveisotopesfor
researchandmedicaltreatmentorgenerateradiationsusedinotherscientificresearch.
Nuclearenergyalsopromisestohelpreducetheemissionsofgreenhousegases,and
somehavenotedthatnuclearenergymaybethebestwaytosupplythegrowing
demandforelectricalenergywithoutfurthercontributionstoglobalwarming.
However,nuclearenergyisnotanunmixedblessing.
Nuclearpowerplantshavealsobeendecriedasbeingcostly,unsafe,and
environmentallyunfriendly.Severalaccidentshavetarnishednuclearpowersimage,
andafewofthesehaveresultedinfatalities.Nuclearreactorsgeneratebothhighlevel
andlowlevelradioactivewaste,andtheultimatedisposalofthesewastesissubjecttoa
greatdealofpublicscrutinyandgeneratesconsiderableconcern.Thefearsofthe
publicandtheenvironmentalistsarefurtherheightenedbywidespreadfearofradiation
anditspotentiallongtermeffectsonthepublichealth.Nuclearpowercannotbe
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ignoredasapotentialsourceofglobalenergybecauseofitsundeniablebenefits;neither
canitbeembracedunquestionably,forthereasonsnotedabove.
Inthisarticle,manyoftheissuessurroundingnuclearenergywillbediscussed.This
discussionwillincludeabriefdescriptionofthemannerinwhichnuclearreactorsare
currentlyused,amoredetaileddescriptionofthenuclearfuelcycleandthetheory
underlyingnuclearreactoroperationsanddesign,andadiscussionofthescientific
basisformanyofthepublichealthconcernsraisedbynuclearpower.Finally,wewill
discusssomeofthepoliticalandenvironmentalissuessurroundingnuclearenergy,
comparingnuclearreactorstootherenergysourcesinanefforttoprovideanunbiased
comparisonofthebenefitsanddrawbackstheyprovide.
8. Introduction
a) Abriefhistoryofnuclearreactorsandtheiruses
ThefirstmanmadenuclearreactorwasconstructedattheUniversityofChicagoby
ateamledbyEnricoFermiin1943.BuiltaspartoftheManhattanProject,thisnuclear
reactorwasdesignedandconstructedexplicitlyforresearchleadingtotheeventual
constructionoftheworldsfirstnuclearweapons.Althoughmuchscientificresearch
suggestedthaturaniumcouldbeusedtogenerateaselfsustainingnuclearchain
reaction,untilFermisreactorachievedcriticality,thishadnotbeendemonstratedin
practice.Usingknowledgefromthisreactor,otherscientistswereabletodevelopnot
onlynuclearweapons,butalsobuiltthefirstplutoniumproductionreactors,usedto
createfuelforotheratomicbombs.Thus,fromtheverystart,nuclearreactorsbecame
intimatelyassociatedwithnuclearweapons;anassociationthathassincehauntedall
discussionofnuclearenergy.
FollowingtheendofWorldWarII,theUnitedStates,theSovietUnion,Canada,
andGreatBritainwerethefirstnationstocontinueexploringthepotentialofnuclear
energyforbothcivilianandmilitarypurposes.Inparticular,theUnitedStatesandthe
SovietUnion,spurredonbytheColdWar,ledthewayindesigningandbuilding
increasinglysophisticateddesignsforbothnuclearreactorsandnuclearweapons,as
wellasdevisinganincreasingnumberofusesfornuclearpowerinothersettings.This
ledtodevelopmentandconstructionofsmallreactorsforuseinresearch,somewhat
largerreactorsusedtoproduceradiolabeledcompoundsforresearchandmedical
purposes,andtheinvestigationofportablenuclearreactorsforgeneratingpowerin
nearcombatorremotelocations.Inaddition,nuclearreactorswereutilizedbyseveral
navies,wheretheyrevolutionizedsubmarinewarfare.
Theworldsfirstcommercialnuclearpowerplantwentintooperationinlate
June,1954intheRussiancityofObninsk,nearMoscow.Thiswasfollowedin1956by
theBritishplantinCalderHill,andin1957,thefirstAmericancommercialnuclear
powerplantwentonlineinShippingport,Pennsylvania.The1950s,andtoalesser
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extentthe1960s,wasanageofnuclearoptimism,particularlyintheUSandtheSoviet
Union.Thewidespreaduseofnuclearpowerwasseenasanearlyunlimitedsourceof
inexpensive,reliablepowerthatwouldhelptoliftmuchoftheworldoutofpoverty
whilesimultaneouslyprovidingfreshwaterviadesalinizationplants,newdrugsfrom
researchusingradioisotopes,bothatreducedenvironmentalimpactfromreduced
emissions.However,thecontinueddevelopmentofnuclearweapons,theirtestingin
theatmosphere,andthegrowingawarenessofthepotentialforradiationinjurybecame
concerns.Inthe1960s,withthegrowingstrengthoftheglobalenvironmental
movement,theseconcernswerevoicedtogovernmentswithincreasingvolume.One
milestonealongthispathwasLinusPaulingssuccessfulcampaigntohaltatmospheric
nuclearweaponstesting,whichwasgivenenhancedvisibilitybyhissubsequentNobel
PeacePrizeforhisefforts.However,itwasnotuntil1979,withtheaccidentattheUS
nuclearpowerplantatThreeMileIsland(TMI)thattheantinuclearpowermovement
reallytookoff.
AlthoughtheTMIaccidentresultedinexceedinglylowradiationexposuretothe
generalpublic,thereactorcorewasdestroyed,andtheperceptionwasthatit
representedanarrowlyaverteddisaster.Comingontheheelsofthesuccessful
(althoughtechnicallyinaccurate)movieTheChinaSyndrome,theaccidentwasan
unmitigateddisasterfortheUSnuclearpowerindustry.Sevenyearslater,muchmore
seriousaccidentattheSoviet(nowUkranian)Chernobylnuclearreactorgainedglobal
notoriety,thepoliticalresultsofwhicharestillfelttoday.
Asofthiswriting(June,2001),theglobaloutlookfornuclearenergyismixed.
Japan,France,andtoalesserextentRussia,Canada,andGreatBritainseemtohave
matureandrelativelypoliticallysecurenuclearpowercapabilities.SeveralEuropean
nations,however(includingSwedenandGermany)haveannouncedplanstoeliminate
nuclearpowerplants,althoughthesourceofalternateenergyhasnotyetbeen
announced.Stillothernations(particularlyChinaand,toalesserextent,Iran)are
embarkingonlargeprogramstoincreasetheirdependenceonnuclearenergy,andthe
USstanceremainsmixedandundecided.
b) Nuclearreactortheoryandoperationsageneraldescription
Nuclearreactorsgenerateenergybyfissioning(splitting)atomsofuranium.This
simplestatementhidesagreatdealofphysicsandengineering.Thephysicsdescribes
whysplittingatomsproducesenergyandhowthisfissioningcanbemaintainedfor
prolongedperiodsoftime,andtheengineeringisnecessaryifthisenergyistoserve
anyusefulpurpose.
Itisnotimmediatelyobviousthatsimplysplittingauraniumatomshouldrelease
energy.Afterall,splittingalog,orastone,oranyotherobjectwearefamiliarwith
requiresenergyswinginganaxishardwork.Similarly,thereisnoobviousreason
thatfissioningoneatomshouldresultinasecondatomsplitting,justasitisnotreadily
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apparentwhyuraniummustbeusedinsteadof,say,leadoriron.Abriefforayinto
nuclearstructureisnecessarytounderstandthis,butthedescriptionisneither
mathematicalnorabstract.
Allatomsarecomposedofacentralnucleussurroundedbyacloudofelectrons.
Theelectronsdonotconcernusforthepurposesofthisdiscussion.Thenucleus,in
turn,ismadeupofprotonswithapositiveelectricalchargeandneutronswithno
charge,allconfinedtoaverysmallspace.Similarelectricalchargesrepeloneanother,
andtheprotonsinthenucleusaresubjecttostrongforcesthattrytoforcethenucleus
apart.Whatholdsatomstogetherisaforce,calledthestrongnuclearforce,andthis
forceiscarriedbytheneutrons.Theneutronsaretheducttapethathelpstoholdthe
protonstogether.Howeverthestrongforceonlyworksoververyshortdistances,soas
atomicnucleibecomelarger,thestrongforcelosesitsabilitytoholdontoallofthe
protons.Thismeansthat,ingeneral,large,heavyatomsareinherentlylessstablethan
small,lightatoms.Anotherwaytolookatit,usingtheducttapeanalogy,isthatapiece
oftapehasafinitelength.Ifweusea30cmpieceoftapetoholdtogetherafewsticks,
itwillservequitewell.However,asthegroupofsticksgrows,thetapeislessableto
wraparoundtoholdthemall,andtheentirebundlebecomeslessstableandeasierto
tearorfallapart.
UraniumisthelargestatomthatexistsinabundanceonEarth.Therearesmall
amountsofplutoniumthatarepresentnaturally,andlargeamountsofplutoniumand
evenheavierelementsareformedinstellarexplosions,buttheyarenotlonglivedand
areuncommononEarth.Thismeansthaturaniumisalsotheatommostlikelytofall
apartonitsown(calledspontaneousfission)ortobeforcedapart(inducedfission)by
addinganeutrontotheatomicnucleus.Theadditionofanextraneutrontotheatomic
nucleusalsoaddsenergytothenucleus,makingitvibrate.Ifanatomisteeteringon
theedgeofstability,asisthecasewiththeuraniumatom,thisaddedenergyand
vibrationcancauseittoflyapart,orfission.
Uraniumalsocomesinseveralflavors,orisotopes.Thechemicalpropertiesofan
atomaredeterminedbythenumberofprotonsinthenucleus.Everyatomwith82
protons(lead)ischemicallyidentical,asiseveryatomwith92protons(uranium).
However,atomsofthesameelementcanhavedifferentnumbersofneutronspresent,
givingthemavarietyofatomicweightsanddifferentatomicproperties.Inthecaseof
uranium,99.2percentoftheuraniumintheworldhas92protonsand146neutrons,
givingitanatomicweightof238(writtenas238U,orU238).About0.72percenthas
threefewerneutrons;235U.Inspiteofhavingthesamechemicalproperties,U235and
U238havedifferentnuclearproperties,andU235ismorelikelytoabsorbpassing
neutronsthanisU238.Whenthishappensthestrongnuclearforce,alreadystretched
thinbythesheersizeofthenucleus,cannolongerholdtheatomtogetheranditfalls
apart.Astheatomfissions,itproducestwofissionfragments(whichareradioactive),
twotothreeneutrons,gammarays,andenergy.Theenergyreleasediswhatwe
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harnesstomakeelectricity,theneutronsgoontocauseotherfissions,andthefission
fragmentsbecomeradioactivewastethat,inmostcases,remainslockedwithinthefuel.
Asnotedabove,betweentwoandthreeneutronsarereleasedfromeachfission.
Someoftheseneutronsgoontobeabsorbedbythewater,steel,andleadofthereactor
plantandarelosttotheplant.Othersareabsorbedbyuraniumatoms,butdonotcause
fission,andstillothersescapethereactoraltogether.Theentiresecretofnuclearreactor
designistoarrangethefuelinsuchawaythat,foreachatomofuraniumthatfissions,
exactlyoneneutronisproducedthatgoesontocreateanotherfission.Whenthis
happens,thetotalnumberoffissionsinthereactoratanytimeisconstant,sothe
productionofenergyisconstant.Makingthishappenrequiresacertainmassof
uraniumarrangedinacertainconfiguration,calledthecriticalmassandcritical
geometry.Whenyouachievesuchconditions,thenuclearreactorissaidtobe
critical.Putanotherway,allnuclearreactorsarecriticalwhentheyareoperating,
andnuclearcriticalityinanoperatingnuclearreactorishardlyanemergency(asa
corollary,thosewhounderstandthisfactareusuallyamusedbytelevisionshowsor
moviesinwhichsomeoneannouncesinapanicstrickenvoicethatthereactoris
criticalthisjustindicatesthatthewriterisnotterriblyknowledgeableaboutnuclear
reactors,andsuggeststhattheirwritingshouldbeviewedwithsomedegreeof
skepticism).
Onanatombyatombasis,nuclearfissionreleasesatremendousamountofenergy.
Splittingoneuraniumatomproducesabout100timesasmuchenergyasburningone
moleculeofgasoline,sonuclearenergycanproducemuchhigherenergydensitiesthan
canplantsthatrelyonchemicalreactions(suchascombustion).However,thisenergy
isuselessunlessitcanbeharnessedinausableform;wecannotsimplypumpthrough
wires.Inthecaseofnuclearreactors,theenergygeneratedbyfissionturnsintoheat,
whichheatsthereactorfuel.Thefuelissurroundedbyacoolant,usuallywater,and
theheatenergyistransferredintothewater.Thehotwater,inturn,isusedtoproduce
steam,whichturnsturbines,whichgenerateelectricity.Althoughtheprocesssounds
somewhatlaborious,itisnomoresothanmanyotherformsofelectricitygeneration,
andtheefficiencyofmostnuclearpowerplants(i.e.theratioofelectricalenergyto
thermalenergy)ishigherthanmanycompetingformsofenergygeneration.
Technicalnoteinreality,energycannotbecreated,itcanonlybechangedfrom
oneformtoanother.Nuclearreactorsreleaseenergyalreadypresentinanatomic
nucleus,turnitintoheatenergy,andtheheatenergyistransformedintoelectrical
energy.Thetotalamountofenergycontainedinthepowerlinescomingoutofa
nuclearreactorplantisthesameasthetotalamountofenergyoriginallypresentinthe
uraniumatomsthatwerefissioned.
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c) Usesofnuclearreactors
Althoughthemostvisibleandobvioususestowhichnuclearreactorshavebeen
put,arethegenerationofelectricalenergyandtheproductionofmaterialsfornuclear
weapons.Theyhavefoundmanyotherusesinthehalfcenturyorsotheyhavebeenin
use.Theseusesincludetheproductionofradioactiveisotopesformedicaldiagnosis
andtreatment,productionofisotopesforresearch,anddesalinatingseawaterfor
drinkingandindustrialpurposes.Generatingpowerhasalreadybeendiscussedabove,
andnuclearweaponsarebeyondthescopeofthischapter,sothenextfewparagraphs
willdiscusstheuseofnuclearreactorsformilitary(nonweaponsrelated),research,and
medicalpurposes.
i) Military,nonweaponsuse
Thefirstnonweaponsusetowhichnuclearenergywasappliedwasinnuclear
submarines.Everymajornavalpowerimmediatelyunderstoodthatnuclearenergy
offeredthepromiseofcreatingasubmarineforcethatcouldoperatesubmergedfor
prolongedperiodsoftime,virtuallyundetectable.Earliersubmarineswerehybrid
machinestheyranondieselenginesonthesurfaceandonbatterieswhilesubmerged.
Sincetheirbatteriescouldonlygivealimitedamountofservicebeforerecharging,
dieselsubmarinesweredesignedtooperateonthesurfaceoftheocean,submerging
onlywhennecessarytoattackortohide.
Nuclearreactors,unlikedieselengines,donotneedairoroxygentoproduce
power.Anuclearsubmarinecouldoperateatfullpower,completelysubmerged,
almostindefinitely.Thereactorsactuallyproducemorethanenoughenergytomeet
theshipsneeds,leavingadditionalenergyfordistillingfreshwater,purifyingthe
atmosphere,andmore.Inaddition,freedfromtheconstraintsofalargebatteryfor
underwaterattacksorevasions(andthedieselstorechargeit),muchmoreofthe
volumecouldbedevotedtocarryingweapons,electronics,andcrew.Thedevelopment
ofnuclearsubmarineswasthemostsignificantrevolutioninthehistoryofsubmarines
andwasoneofthebiggestinnovationsinthehistoryofmodernnavalwarfare.
AlthoughnuclearpowerhasalsobeenputinuseonsurfacecombatantsbytheUSand
theSovietUnion(nowRussia),itsadvantagesontheoceanssurfacearenotnearlyas
pronouncedastheyarebeneaththewaves.
Inadditiontothenavaluseofnuclearreactors,somenationsexperimentedwith
portablenuclearpowerplantsthatcouldbeusedtosupplyenergytomilitary
headquartersinremotelocations.Anotherproposedusewasinanuclearairplane,a
projectbegunbutabandonedbytheUSinthe1960s.Othershaveusednuclearreactors
inspace.Thislatteruseshouldnotbeconfusedwithradioisotopicthermalgenerators
(orRTGs)whichareusedonmostdeepspacemissionstotheoutersolarsystem.RTGs
makeuseofheatreleasedbyradioactivedecay,buttheydonotusenuclearfissionfor
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thispurpose,theydonotgenerateradioactivefissionproductsorhighlevelsof
neutrons.
ii) Medicalandresearchuses
Althoughonlyafewisotopeswillfission,mostcanbeinducedtocapture
neutrons,protons,orotheratomicparticlesundertheappropriateconditions.When
thishappens,theresultingatomwillbecomeradioactive.Oneexampleofthisisthe
formationofradioactivecarbonintheatmosphere.Inthisreaction,acosmicray
neutronwillstrikeanitrogenatom,ejectingaprotonfromthenucleusandturningit
intoacarbonatom.Thisreactioniswritten
14
N + n =14 C + p
Thisreactionistheonethatcreatesthecarbon14usedtodatearcheologicalartifacts,
treerings,andmanyotherobjects.Similarreactionscanbeusedtocreatemanyother
isotopesthatarewidelyusedinresearch,todiagnosemedicalconditions,ortotreat
cancerandsomeotherdiseases.Researchperformedwiththeaidofnuclearreactor
generatedisotopesincludesgeneticsequencing,investigationofbasicbiological
functions,thedevelopmentandunderstandingofnewdrugs,andbetterunderstanding
ofbrainfunctions.
Nuclearreactorsarealsousedasasourceofneutronsforotherresearch
purposes.Neutronscanbeusedtoprobethestructureofmatterandtoinvestigatethe
chemicalcompositionofgeologicspecimens(alsocalledrocks).Cellculturescanbe
exposedtoradiationfromnuclearreactorstolearnmoreabouthowDNAisdamaged
andrepaired,nuclearreactorproducedneutronshavealsobeenusedtohelptreatsome
formsofcancer,andchemicalcompoundscontainingradioactiveatomscreatedin
nuclearreactorsareusedinresearchandinthediagnosisortreatmentofdisease.
d) Desalinatingseawater
Theprimaryproductofnuclearfissionisheat,andthisheatcanbeusedfor
purposesotherthangeneratingelectricity.Nucleardesalinizationplantsusethisheat
toboilsaltwaterbecausethesteamthatisproducedcanthenbecondensedtoform
freshwaterfordrinking.Nucleardesalinizationisnotanewtechnology;nuclear
submarinesandsurfaceshipsdothisroutinelytoproducedrinkingwaterfortheir
crewsandfreshwaterfortheengineeringplant.However,thistechnologyisnotused
formakingpublicdrinkingwaterbecauseofpublicresponseagainstnuclearreactors.
TheInternationalAtomicEnergyAgencyhasgiventhissubjectmuchstudyandhas
writtenseveralexcellentfactsheetsthatareworthreading.Nuclearenergyisnotthe
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leastexpensivemethodavailableformakingfreshwater,butitisoneoftheonly
technologiesthatcanproducemillionsofgallonsoffreshwaterdaily,invirtuallyany
partoftheworldthatisnearanocean.
9. TheNuclearFuelCycle
Asmentionedabove,naturaluraniumcannotsustainanuclearchainreaction;for
thistooccur,thefractionofU235presentintheuraniummustbeincreasedfrom0.72
percenttoatleastonepercentofthetotalnumberofuraniumatomspresent.Inreality,
theuraniummustbeenrichedfurtheryet,becausecommercialnuclearreactorsusefuel
containingfromthreetosixpercentU235.Somenuclearreactors,primarilythoseused
forresearch,makeuseoffuelenrichedto20percentU235,andsomemilitarynuclear
reactorsusefuelthatisnearlypure
U235(similartotheconcentrationsusedinsomeoldernuclearweapons).Asanaside,
thismeansthatcommercialandresearchnuclearreactorscannotexplodelikenuclear
bombsitisphysicallyimpossibleforthemtodosobecauseoftherelativelylow
concentrationsoffissionableuranium.Thisisnottosaythatnuclearreactorscannot
experienceaccidents;theChernobylaccidentspreadlargeamountsofradioactive
contaminationoveralargearea,andthereactorcoreatThreeMileIslandwas
destroyedinitsaccident(althoughthereleaseofradioactivityatTMIwasminor).
However,storiesofcommercialnuclearreactorsexplodinglikeatomicbombsare
wildlyinaccurate.
Theprocessofmakingfuelfornuclearreactorsbeginswhentheuraniumoreis
minedandprocessed,continuesthroughtheprocessofuraniumenrichment,and
culminateswithfabricationofthenuclearreactorfuel.Eventually,theU235inthe
reactorfuelisfissionedtothepointatwhichnuclearreactionsnolongeroccur,andthe
reactorisrefueledsoitmaycontinueoperating.Thespentfuelistheneitherstoredon
site,sentfordisposal,orrecycled.Thiswholeprocessiscalledthenuclearfuelcycle
andisthesubjectofthissection.
e) Uraniummining
Thefirststepinthenuclearfuelcycleislocatingauraniumoredepositand
bringingtheoretotheearthssurface.Virtuallyallrocks,soils,andmostwaters
containtraceamountsofuranium.However,theuraniumispresentinlowquantities,
anditisnotpossibletorecovertheuraniumatareasonablecost.Thetermoreisan
economicterm,notascientificone;oreisthepresenceofamaterial(usuallymetal)ina
placeandchemicalconcentrationthatmakesitpossibletomineataprofit.For
example,deepseamanganesenodulescontainlargeamountsofveryhighpurity
manganese,buttheirlocationontheseafloormakesthemetalhorrendouslyexpensive
torecover.Thesenodulesofnearlypuremetalarenotconsideredorebecauseofthis.
399
Ontheotherhand,largeminingoperationsintheAmericaNWestmakealotofmoney
miningorethatcontainssmallamountsofmanganese,simplybecauseitisfoundnear
theearthssurfaceandtheminingisnotexpensive.
Inthecaseofuranium,alargenumberoforedepositshavebeenfoundon
virtuallyeverycontinent.AmongthemostfamousarethoseintheAmericanwest,
Australia,Canada,andseveralplacesinAfrica.Someoftheseoredepositsarenearthe
earthssurface,andstripminingoperationsaresufficienttorecovertheore,while
othersaredeeplyburied,requiringmineshaftsandtunnels.Regardlessofhowtheore
ismined,itisbroughttothesurfacealongwithtensofthousands(orevenmillions)of
cubicmetersofotherrock.Thisotherrock(minetailings)isoftenmildlyradioactive
(becauseofelevated,butnoteconomiclevelsofuranium);itisgeneratedintheprocess
ofdiggingtotheorebody.Mostminesgeneratelargepilesoftailings,butinthecaseof
uraniummining,thetailingsareoftenregulatedandmustbetreatedasradioactive
waste.Thiscancreateproblems,becausethepilescanleachuraniumintogroundor
surfacewaters,theyemitradioactiveradongas,andmanynationslawswillnotpermit
theirdisposalintolandfillsorevenintothemineshaftsfromwhichtheywere
excavated.Thisforcescompaniestofindsomewaytocontainthetailings,withvarying
degreesofexpenseandsuccess.
f) Processingtheore
Afterremovalfromtheground,theuraniumoreisshippedtoaprocessing
facility.Here,therockiscrushedandchemicallyprocessedtoremoveasmuchofthe
uraniumaspossible.Theuraniummaythenbechemicallytreatedtoturnitinto
uraniumhexafluoride(UF6),makingitsuitableforenrichmentviagaseousdiffusion
(describedinthefollowingsection).Ifanotherenrichmentprocessisused,theuranium
maybeplacedinanotherchemicalformmoreconducivetothatparticularprocess.
Followingremovalofuraniumfromtherock,thereis,again,agreatdealofwaste
material.Someuraniumorescontainlessthanonepercenturaniumbyweight,andfar
lessbyvolume.Thismeansthatvirtuallyalloftheorebroughttotheuraniummillis
discardedaswaste,generatinghugepilesofmilltailings.Aswiththeminetailings,
thiswasteismildlyradioactiveandemitsradon.This,too,mustbeproperlyhandledto
adheretoregulatoryrequirementsandtominimizeenvironmentalandhealtheffects.It
mustbepointedoutthat,inthecaseofbothmineandmilltailings,theriskfrom
radioactivitypresentinthewastematerialsisexceptionallylow,andtherehavebeenno
documentedhumanhealtheffectsfromthisradioactivity.Itmustalsobenotedthatthe
radiationlevelsfromtheoreandtheUF6containersarealsotoolowtocreateahealth
risktothepublic.
400
g) Uraniumenrichment
Asofthiswriting,therearethreeprimarymethodsofuraniumenrichmentused
bymostnationswithdomesticuraniumprocessing.Thesearegaseousdiffusion,gas
centrifuge,andatomicvaporlaserisotopicseparation(AVLIS).Thefirsttwoofthese
makeuseoftheveryslightdifferenceinweightbetween235UF6and238UF6andAVLIS
takesadvantageofsmallatomicdifferencesthatcanbeusedtosorturaniumatomsto
concentratethe235Utowhateverdegreeisdesired.
h) Reactorfuelfabrication
Finally,theenricheduraniumisreadytobemadeintofuelforanuclearreactor.
Todothis,theUF6mustbechemicallyconvertedintouraniumoxide,whichismore
chemicallystableandlesshazardousthantheuraniumhexafluoride.Oncethisoxide
conversioniscompleted,theenricheduraniumoxidepowderismixedwithzirconium
orsomeothermetalandpressedintosmallpellets,eachabout1cmindiameteranda
fewcmlong.Thesefuelpelletsareloadedintostainlesssteelrods,andtherodsare
thenassembledintobundlescalledfuelassemblies.Itisthesefuelassembliesthatare
loadedintothereactorcore.
i) Reactorrefueling
Afteraperiodoftime,usually1218months,thereactorfuelcannolonger
sustainanuclearchainreactionefficientlybecausesomuchoftheU235hasbeen
fissioned.Duringthetimethefuelisinthereactoritisperiodicallymovedfromplace
toplacewithinthereactorcoretohelpmaximizethelifeofthefuelassemblywhile
maintainingdesiredcharacteristicswithinthecoreitself.Forexample,newreactorfuel
hasahigherconcentrationofU235soitwillproducemorepowerthananolderfuel
bundle,oritwillproducepowerinalessneutronrichenvironment.Suchbundlesare
oftenplacedneartheedgeofthereactorcore,wheretherearefewerneutrons,because
thishelpstobalancepowerproductioninthereactorcore.Asthefuelburnsout,itwill
beshiftedclosertothecenterofthecore,experiencinghigherneutronlevelsand
producingthesameamountofenergy.Afterasufficientlylongtimethefuelwillno
longerproduceenoughenergytowarrantkeepingitinthecore,soitisremovedand
morenewfuelisadded.
Theprocessofmovingandreplacingreactorfueliscomplexandcarrieswithit
thepotentialforveryhighradiationdosestoworkers.Forthisreason,reactorre
fuelingisdoneasinfrequentlyaspossible,andisneverdoneunlessnecessary.
Inaddition,thereactormustbeshutdowntoperformtherefueling,removingit
fromanationselectricalpowergenerationsystem.Shuttingthereactordownmeans
thatworkerscanenterthereactorcompartmenttoperformneededmaintenance,butit
alsomeansthatthereactorisnotgeneratingpowerorincome.Becauseofthis,these
outagesaretightlyscriptedtogetthemostworkpossibledonewiththeleastamount
401
ofexpenseandintheshortesttimepossible.IntheUS,mostplannedreactoroutages
arescheduledforthespringorautumn,whenneitherairconditioningnorheatingis
necessary,reducingelectricalpowerdemandsasmuchaspossible.
j) Reactorfuelreprocessing
Afterremovalfromthereactorcore,somenationssendthespentfueltoalarge
chemicalprocessingfacilitytorecoverasmuchunfissioneduraniumaspossible.
Althoughthespentfuelrodsaredangerouslyradioactivewhentheyarefirstremoved
fromthecore,thisradioactivityfadesrelativelyquicklybecausemostofthefission
productsthatmakethefuelradioactivehaveveryshorthalflives,donotremain
radioactiveforlong,andcanbesafelyhandledafterseveralmonths.
Inthereprocessingfacility,thefuelpelletsareremovedfromtheircladdingand
aredissolvedinnitricacid.Aftermuchchemicalprocessing,thefacilityisleftwith
uranium,plutonium,andwaste.Theplutoniumandwastewillbediscussedinother
sectionsofthischapter.Theuraniumisrecycled,enrichedagain,andmadeintonew
reactorfuel.
TheUnitedStatesreprocessedreactorfueluntilthemid1970s,atwhichtimethe
practicewashalted.ThereasontheUSstoppedreprocessingreactorfuelisbecauseof
theplutonium;PresidentCarterfeltthatthechanceforthisplutoniumtobeobtainedby
terroristsorbynationstryingtodevelopnuclearweaponswastoogreat.Atpresent,
theUSdoesnotrecyclereactorfuelbut,instead,considersitalltobewaste.Thefateof
spentreactorfuelandotherradioactivewastesisdiscussedinthefollowingsection.
k) Radioactivewaste
Radioactivewasteisanyradioactivematerialthatservesnousefulpurposeand
thatisnotinitsnaturalstate.Forexample,uraniumthatisfoundnaturallyinsoilisnot
radioactive,norisitconsideredwastewhenitisproducingenergyinanuclearreactor.
However,onceremovedfromthereactor,whenitisnolongeruseful,theremaining
uraniumcontainedwithinafuelrodisconsideredradioactivewasteandmustbe
properlydisposedof.Similarly,itemsmaderadioactivebybombardmentwith
neutronsbecomeradioactivewastewhentheyareremovedfromthesystem,anditems
contaminatedwithradioactivityarealsoconsideredradioactivewaste.
Contrarytopopularbeliefs,themajorityofradioactivewasteisnotglowing
greendeadlyliquid.Infact,mostradioactivewasteisgloves,tools,papertowels,rags,
andotheritemsthataremildlyradioactiveormildlycontaminated.Thereare,of
course,wastesthataredangerouslyradioactive,buttheyconstitutetheminorityofthe
volumethatissenttoradioactivewastedisposalfacilitiesaroundtheworld.
Mostnationshavestrictregulationsregardingthepackaging,shipping,disposal,
andaccountabilityofradioactivewastes.Typically,radioactivewastesareplacedintoa
largemetaldrumorbox,andtrainedtechnicianskeepaccurateanddetailedrecordsof
402
theexactcontentsofeachwastecontainer.Theserecordsareusedtodeterminethe
appropriatewaytoshipthewastes,andarekeptonhandbythedriveruntilthewaste
isdeliveredtothefinaldisposalfacility.Alongtheway,thewastemaybesentfor
processingtoreduceitsvolume,liquidwastesmaybesolidifiedbymixingthemwith
concrete,orotheractionsmaybetakentomakefinalwastedisposalassafeand
economicalaspossible.Wastetreatmentanddisposaldependsonmanyfactors,
includingthephysicalformofthewaste(solidorliquid)andthelevelofradioactivity
present(highlevelorlowlevelradioactivewaste).Someofthesefactorsaredescribed
inthefollowingsections.
i) Wastetreatmentandprocessing
Manyoptionsexistfortreatingorprocessingradioactivewastespriortoultimate
disposal.Forexample,radioactiveliquidsmaybemixedwithconcretetosolidifythem,
makingleakagelesslikely.Somematerials,includingmanysolvents,paper,plastics,
andwoodcanbeincineratedandtheashesshippedfordisposalthisreducesthe
volumeofthewastebyafactoroftenormore.Metalsmaybemelted,andtheingots
canthenbedisposedofinamorecompactform,andsomematerialsarevitrified
(turnedintoglass)anddisposed.Somematerialsmaybechemicallyprocessedto
removetheradioactivity,andothermaterialsaresimplycompactedbyenormous
hydraulicpressestoreducethefinalvolumeasmuchaspossiblebeforeburial.
Reducingthevolumeofradioactivematerialisaprimeconsiderationinmanyofthese
treatmenttechniquesbecausenolandfillhasunlimitedspaceavailable,andradioactive
wastelandfillsareevenmorerestrictedthanmanyothers.
ii) Wastedisposallowlevelradioactivewaste(LLRW)
Lowlevelradioactivewasteisgenerallywastethatposeslittleornohealthrisk
duetoitsradioactivity.Itmayormayposeotherhazardsduetoitschemicalor
physicalproperties;forexample,droppinga1000kgcontainerofLLRWonaperson
willhurtthatperson,eveniftheyreceivevirtuallynoradiationdosefromit!
Ingeneral,mostnationshaveatleastonespeciallydesignedrepositoryforthe
disposalofLLRW.Inmostcases,theserepositoriesmustadheretostrictsiting
guidelinesthatareintendedtominimizethechanceforradioactivitytoescapeintothe
environment.Suchsitesarealsotypicallyringedwithmonitoringstationsdesignedto
detecteventheslightestleakageofradioactivity,andtheyareinspectedfrequentlyby
regulatoryagencies.IntheearlyyearsofLLRWdisposalsomesitesdidexperiencethe
releaseofminoramountsofradioactivityintotheenvironment.However,inallcases
(exceptforafewintheformerSovietUnion)thesereleaseswerenotsufficienttocause
lastingharmtotheenvironment,toworkers,ornearbyresidents.
403
Insomenations,LLRWdisposalfacilitiesarenotunlikeotherproperlydesigned
landfills.Insuchfacilities,soilisexcavatedandtheresultingpitislinedwith
compactedclaytoisolateitfromthegroundwater.Clayisusedbecauseitisrelatively
inexpensive,abundant,candeformtoaccommodateshiftsintheground,andis
relativelyimpermeabletoliquids.Beneaththisclaytheremaybemonitoringlines,to
detectleakagethroughtheclayifitoccurs.Whenthewastecontainersareplacedinthe
pit,itiscappedwithmorecompactedclayandsometimesapolymersheetdesignedto
keeprainoutofthepit.
Inothernations,LLRWfacilitiesareconstructedaboveground.Inthese
facilities,concretevaultsarebuiltatopacompactedclayfoundation.Thesevaultsare
filledwithanorderlyarrayofwastecontainers.Aswiththebelowgroundwaste
facilities,theenvironmentismonitoredonacontinuingbasis,includinglookingfor
evidenceofradioactivityinthegroundwater.Thevaultsmaybecoveredwithsoil
whentheyarefilled,ortheymaybeleftuncoveredtofacilitateinspectingfordamage
overtheyears.Inanyevent,bothformsofwastedisposalhavegenerallyproventobe
effectiveatisolatingradioactivewastefromtheenvironmentsafely.
iii) Highlevelradioactivewaste,TRU,andspentreactorfuel
Asidefromlowlevelradioactivewastes,nuclearreactorsalsoproducehighlevel
radioactivewaste(HLRW),transuranic(TRU)waste,andspentreactorfuel.Theseare
alltreateddifferentlythanLLRWbecauseoftheuniquehazardseachposes.
HLRWisradioactivewastethatisdangerouslyradioactiveandmayremainso
formanyyears.Itcanincluderesinfromthewaterpurifyingunitsusedtoensure
waterpurityinthereactor,ornuclearreactorcomponentsthathavebecomeradioactive
afteryearsordecadesofneutronbombardment.HLRWisoftenplacedinspecialcasks
thatprovideadditionalshielding.Itmaybestoredinthismanneratthesitewhereit
wasgenerated,oritcanbeshippedfordisposalinaspecialHLRWfacility.Inmost
nations,HLRWisdisposedofindeepgeologicrepositories;tunnelsandchambers
drilledintosolidrock,oftenhundredsofmetersdeep.Thesearethoughttobecapable
ofsafelyholdingthewastesuntiltheyarenolongerradioactive.
Byneutroncapture,someuraniumatomswillbetransmutedintoplutonium,
americium,andotherelementsbeyonduraniumontheperiodictable.These
transuranicelementsareoftenveryradioactiveandmanyarechemicallytoxicaswell.
Inaddition,someisotopesofplutoniumarefissionableandcanbemadeintoeither
nuclearreactorfuelornuclearweapons.AlthoughPu,contrarytopopularbelief,isnot
themosttoxicsubstanceknowntoman,itisbothradioactiveandtoxicanditmustbe
treatedwithcare.However,thegreatestriskposedbyPuisthepotentialforittobe
seizedbyaterroristgrouporaroguenation,madeintoanuclearweapon,andthat
weaponusedinanactofterrorismorwar.ThisisoneofthereasonstheUSstopped
404
reprocessingspentnuclearreactorfuel;separatingPufromspentreactorfuelis
difficult,dangerous,andexpensive,anditisthoughtthatfewnationshavedeveloped
theabilitytodosoatthistime.IntheUS,TRUwastesarenowdisposedofattheWaste
IsolationPilotPlant(WIPP),locatednearCarlsbadNewMexicointheUSdesert
Southwest.WIPPislocatedwithinadeepundergroundlayerofsaltthat,overtime,
willengulfthewastecontainers,keepingthemsafeformillennia.
Inmanynations,spentreactorfuelisreprocessed,andtheresultingwasteis
disposedofasHLRW.TheUSandsomeothernations,however,disposeofspent
reactorfuel,whichcanremainhighlyradioactiveforseveralyearsafteritisremoved
fromthenuclearreactorcore.
TheUSisintheprocessofdevelopingaspentreactorfueldisposalfacilityinsideof
amountainintheNevadadesert,notfarfromLasVegas.Untilthattime,spentreactor
fuelisstoredatthenuclearreactorplantwhereitwasgenerated.Whenfirstremoved
fromthereactorcore,radioactivedecayoffissionproductsgeneratessomuchheatthat
thespentfueliskeptinalargetankofwater,calledaspentfuelpool.Thewaterhelps
tokeepthefuelcoolandalsoshieldstheradiationcomingfromthefuelassemblies.
However,duetothelongdelayinopeningtheYuccaMountainfacility,manyUS
reactorplantshavefilledtheirspentfuelpools,sotheyhavebegunmovingold,
colderspentfueltolandbasedstoragecontainers.Here,thespentfuelcanbesafely
maintainedformanyyears,untilitcanbesenttoYuccaMountainasafinalrepository.
Othernationshaveavarietyofmethodsfordealingwithspentfuel,includingsomeor
alloftheoptionsmentionedabove.
l) Summary
Thenuclearfuelcycleisalongandcomplexseriesofeventsthatinvolvesevery
facetofminingandprocessinguraniumtomakefuelfornuclearreactorsanddealing
withthewastesatallstepsofthisprocess.Althoughthedetailsvarybetween
countries,theoverallschemeremainsthesameuraniummustbeminedandenriched,
fuelmustbemanufacturedandinstalledintonuclearreactors,andtheinevitablewaste
productsmustbetreatedanddisposedofinasafemannerthatisprotectiveofthe
environment.
10. KindsofNuclearReactors
Thebasicphysicsbehinduraniumfissionisthesame,regardlessofthemannerin
whichithappens.EachatomofU235isvirtuallyidentical,eachrequiresthesame
conditionstofission,andeachbehavesroughlythesamewhenitfissions.Thereare
somedifferencesbetweenatomsduetoquantummechanicaluncertainties,but
generallyspeaking,theprocessoffissioninganatomofU235isthesameforallU235
atoms.However,themannerinwhichfissionisinitiated,controlled,andtheenergy
405
utilizedvariesbetweentypesofnuclearreactors.Inthissection,wewilllookatsomeof
themostcommonnuclearreactordesignsintermsofhowtheywork,theiradvantages
anddisadvantages,andhowmanyareinuseintheworld.First,however,wewill
brieflydiscussthesafetyfeaturespresentinvirtuallyallnuclearreactorsplantsbecause
itisthesesafetyfeaturesthatkeepanuclearreactoraccidentfrombecominga
catastrophe.Itmustbenotedthat,inthecaseoftheChernobylnuclearreactor,someof
thesesafetyfeatureswerenotinplaceorwerebypassed;majorfactorsthatledtothe
severityofthataccident.ItmustalsobenotedthattheaccidentattheUSThreeMile
Islandplant,whileverydamagingtothereactorcore,resultedinverylowradiation
dosetotheworkersandsurroundingpopulation,afactthatisoftennotappreciated.
Therehavebeenmanylawsuits,virtuallyallofwhichwerefoundtobewithout
scientificorlegalmerit.Severalstudieshaveconcluded,basedonreadingsfrom
dosimetersinplacearoundthefacilitybeforetheaccidentoccurred,thatthehighest
dosetoanypersonoutsidethefacilitywaslessthan10mrem.Thisislessthanthedose
fromanxrayandislessthanthevariationinradiationdosetosomeonemovingfroma
lowelevationtothemountains.TheofficialdosimetrystudiesperformedbytheNRC
werequitecompleteandtheresultswerereviewedbyanumberofindependent
scientistsandfoundtonothavebeenmanipulated.Alsonoteworthyisthecityof
Ramsar,Iraninwhichtheaverageradiationexposuretoresidentsis1001000times
higherthanwhatanyTMIresidentsreceived.OverallhealthinRamsar(aswellasin
thevicinityofThreeMileIsland)isnodifferentthaninnearbyareas.
a) NuclearReactorSafetyFeatures
Virtuallyallnuclearreactorsrequiresafetyfeaturestoensurethefollowing:
Thereactorwillautomaticallyshutdownifthecoreintegrityisthreatened
Thereactorcanbemanuallyshutdownifnecessary
Thereactorcorewillremaincool
Majorreleasesofradioactivitywillbeisolatedfromtheenvironment
Reactorsareshutdownbyinsertingneutronabsorbingcontrolrodsintothecore.In
virtuallyallnuclearreactors,thecontrolrodsarewithdrawnfromthereactorcoreby
energizingamotorthatpullsthemouttotherequiredposition.Astherodsarepulled,
apowerfulspring,thescramspringiscompressed.Onceinposition,powerfullatches
areactivatedelectricallyandtheyholdthecontrolrodsinplaceagainstthepressureof
thescramspring.Thecontrolrodsaretypicallypoweredfromthesamesourceof
electricityastheotherimportantreactorplantsystems.Ifelectricalpowerislost,the
electromagnetholdingthecontrolrodlatcheswilllosepowerandthelatcheswill
springopen.Withnothingtoholdtheminplace,thecontrolrodsareforcedintothe
corebythescramspring,shuttingdownthereactor.Theautomaticshutdownsystemis
406
alsodesignedtoactivateintheeventthatcertainreactorplantparametersbecome
serious.Forexample,ifthecoreisproducingtoomuchpower,ifthecoretemperature
istoohot,orifflowthroughthereactorcoredropsbelowacertainlevel,thesafety
systemswillscramthereactortokeepitfromdamagingitselforendangeringworkers,
theenvironment,orthepublic.Thissamesystemcanalsobeactivatedmanuallyifan
operatorturnsascramswitch.
Evenshutdown,thedecayofradioactivefissionproductswillproducelarge
amountsofheatthatcandamagethereactorcoreifnotremoved.Forthisreason,most
nuclearreactorshaveafewsystemstomakesurethatthereactorcoreiskeptfullof
coolant(usuallywater)andthatthiscoolantiscirculatedthroughaheatexchangerto
transferthisheatawayfromthereactor.Inmostcases,thesesystemsaredesignedso
thattheywillautomaticallyactivateifneeded.Innewerreactors,theyarealso
designedtotakeadvantageofbasiclawsofphysicssotheywilloperateproperlyeven
inthetotalabsenceofelectricalpower.Forexample,atanktokeepthereactorplant
fullofwaterwillbelocatedhighabovethereactorsothatgravitywillensurewater
flowsintothereactor.Othersystemsusenaturalcirculationandconvectiontocirculate
waterthroughthereactorcoreandintoheatexchangers,takingadvantageofthefact
thathotwater,beinglessdensethancoldwater,willriseintoaheatexchangerlocated
abovethereactorandthecooledwaterwilldescendthroughanotherpipebackintothe
reactorcore.Together,theseemergencysystemshelptoensurethattemperaturesin
thereactorcorearekeptlowenoughthatthefuelisnotseverelydamagedandthe
radioactivefissionproductsaresafelycontained.
Themainreasonforallofthesesystemsistomakesurethatthereactorfuelkeeps
itsintegritysothatthefissionproductsarekeptsafelywithinthefuelmatrix.However,
itisalwayspossibleforthecoretobedamagedinspiteofthesesystems,soafinal
defenseistoisolatethefissionproductsfromtheenvironmentbyusingmultiplelayers
tocontainthem.Thefirstlayerofcontainmentisthereactorfuelitself,andaslongas
thefuelisintact,thefissionproductsaresafe.Ifthefuelisbreached,ashappenedat
ThreeMileIsland,thefissionproductswillflowintothereactorplant,andthepiping
itselfactsasthesecondlayerofcontainment.Aslongasthereactorsystempiping
retainsitsintegrity,thefissionproductswillremainisolatedfromtheenvironment.
However,thistoocanfail,andtherehavebeeninstancesofbrokenreactorsystem
componentsthatreleasereactorcoolantintothereactorcompartment.Thus,theentire
buildinginwhichthereactorislocatedconstitutesyetanotherlayerofcontainment,the
finallayer.IntheUS,thereactorcontainmentbuildingsaredesignedtostringent
criteria,ensuringtheirabilitytowithstandtornados,earthquakes,terroristattacks,and
evenairplanecrashes.Aslongastheoutmostcontainmentremainsintact,theworstof
thefissionproductswillremainsafelyisolatedfromtheenvironment.Typicalreactor
containmentbuildingsconsistofareinforcedconcretebuildingthatiskeptataslight
negativepressuresothatradioactivitywillnotleakout.Doorsintothecontainmentare
407
airlocked,andatleastonedoormustbeshutatalltimes.Otherpenetrations(cables,
pipes,ventilationducts)aresealedtopreventleakagealongtheoutsideofthepipesor
cables,andthepipesandductsthemselvesareequippedwithvalvesthatautomatically
shutifhighradiationlevels,excessivepressures,hightemperatures,orotherconditions
existthatareindicativeofareactorplantproblem.Infact,atThreeMileIsland,
virtuallytheentirereactorcorewasdestroyedandthehighlyradioactivecoolantleaked
fromthereactorplantintothecontainmentbuilding.However,becauseofthe
containmentdesign,theradioactivitylargelystayedput,andverylittlewas
inadvertentlyreleasedtotheenvironment.Bycomparison,theChernobylplantlacked
acontainmentbuildingandtheaccidenttherereleasedenormousamountsof
radioactivitythatweretrackedthroughouttheNorthernHemisphere.
b) Typesofnuclearreactors
Thereareanumberofwaystouseaselfsustainingchainreactiontogenerate
electricalenergy,andthereareseveralcompetingdesignsfornuclearreactors.
However,allcommercialnuclearpowerplantshavesomepointsofsimilarity.Inthis
section,wewillfirstlookatthesesimilarities,followedbyabriefdescriptionofthe
mostimportantnuclearreactorplantdesigns,theirstrongandweakpoints,important
designcharacteristics,andtheirpopularityintheworldnuclearenergypicture.
i) Generalnuclearreactorplantdesign
Regardlessofdetailsofengineering,allcommercialnuclearreactorplantssharea
commonalityofpurpose;toproduceelectricalenergyaseffectivelyandefficientlyas
possible.Todoso,theymustaccomplishthefollowingtasks:
1. Maintainaselfsustainingnuclearchainreactionforprolongedperiodsoftime
2. Containfuelandfissionproductssafely
3. Provideadequatemarginsofsafetyagainstaccidents
4. Removeheatfromthecore
5. Convertthethermalenergyofthereactorcoreintoelectricalenergy
Ofthese,wehavealreadydiscussedthefirstthreeinprecedingsectionsandtheywill
notbefurtherdiscussedhere.
Thefissionprocessgeneratesatremendousamountofenergyandthisenergyis
depositedinthefuelintheformofheat.Leftuncooled,fueltemperaturewouldeasily
risetothepointofmeltingthefuel,destroyingthereactorcoreashappenedatThree
MileIsland.However,thisheatisthereasonforbuildinganuclearreactorinthefirst
place.Thetrickistosafelytransfertheheatofnuclearfissiontoaplacewhereitcanbe
408
usedtogenerateelectricity.Allcommercialnuclearreactorsdothisbycirculatingsome
coolingfluidthroughthenuclearreactorcoretotransfertheheatofnuclearfissiontoa
turbine,whichspinstogenerateelectricity.Thefluidvaries,anddifferentreactor
designsusewater,liquidmetal,liquidsalt,andhelium.Themethodofgenerating
electricityvariesaswell;somereactorsboilwaterdirectlytomakesteamwhichturns
theturbine,someusetheexpansionofhotgasinthereactorcore,somepasshotliquid
throughaheatexchangertogeneratesteam.Inspiteofthesedifferences,though,all
commercialnuclearreactorsneedtoaccomplishthesamegoaltousetheheat
producedbynuclearfissiontocauseaturbinetospinandgenerateelectricity.(Military
nuclearreactorsproducesteamforpropulsionandotherreactorsproduceneutronsfor
research,radioactiveisotopesformedicalorresearchuse,orplutoniumandtritiumfor
militarypurposes).Thereareseventypesofreactorswhichcanbeusedcommercially.
Pressurizedwaterreactors(PWR),boilingwaterreactors(BWR),gascooledreactors
(GCR),liquidmetalfastbreederreactors(LMFBR),heavywaterreactors(HWR),
graphitemoderatedreactors(LWGR),andpebblebedmoderatorreactors(PBMR).The
followingtabledescribessomeoftherelevantoperatingparametersandenvironmental
dischargesofeachofthese,andthereferencenoteciteswhereadditionalinformation
canbefound.
Reactor
type
Coolant
PWR
BWR
GCR
LMFBR
HWR
Lightwater
Lightwater
Helium
Sodium
Heavy
water3
Lightwater
Helium
N/A
LWGR
PBMR
Totals
1
2
3
Temp Pressure
erature (atm)1
(C)
325
150155
290
7075
740
4550
535
1
310
100105
280
870
N/A
6065
N/A
#in
use2
#on
order
256
92
32
2
43
33
6
0
3
9
13
0
438
1
2
54
GWe
Annual
generated Emission
s(TBq)
167.7
196
61.6
42.8
9.2
32.7
0.44
0.57
12.4
3940
7.8
0
259.2
Population
dose(person
Sv)
14.7
58
23.2
0.17
53.3
105
7.86
4212
157.25
Oneatmosphereisequalto14.5psi,101.325kPa,or760torr
AsofJuly,2001
Heavywaterconsistsofwatercontainingmoleculesofdeuterium(whichhasa
protonandaneutroninthenucleus)insteadofhydrogen(whichhasonlya
proton)
ThefirstPBMRsareonorder,butarenotyetcompleted.Accordingly,the
energyoutputofthesereactorscannotyetbereported.
409
Thedosereportedisspreadacrosstheentireexposedpopulationwhichis
severalhundredmillionpeople.Accordingly,thedosetoanysinglepersonis
verysmall.
NuclearNewsWorldListofNuclearReactors,March2001(Reactorplantstatistics)
UNSCEAR2000ReporttotheUNGeneralAssembly(emissions)
AGuidebooktoNuclearReactors(operatingparameters)
NuclearEngineering,RonaldKnief(operatingparameters)
11. EnvironmentalIssues
Anydiscussionofthemeritsofnuclearpowerasasourceofenergyinvariably
includesadiscussionofitsenvironmentalimpact.Ontheonehand,antinuclear
extremistsclaimthatnuclearpowerplantsandtheirwastearecausingirreversible
damagetotheearthsenvironment.Ontheotherhand,pronuclearextremistsclaim
thatnuclearenergymaybethebestwaytoreduceenvironmentaldegradationandeven
toundosomeenvironmentaldamage.Thereissomemerittoargumentsmadebyboth
sides,aswellassomefallacies.However,ratherthanattempttoresolvethisdebate,
thissectionwillsimplyattempttolayoutthescientificevidenceinasunbiaseda
manneraspossible.Inparticular,wewillexaminetheenvironmentalimpactsof
uraniummining,nuclearreactoroperations,thebiologicalrisksofexposureto
radiation,andradioactivewaste.Withrespecttoaccidentsduringreactorplant
operations,itshouldsufficetonotethat,inabout50yearsofnuclearreactorplant
operations,therehasbeenonlyoneseriousaccident,Chernobyl,thathasreleased
damagingamountsofradiationtotheenvironment,andthecircumstancesthatmade
thisaccidentsodamagingarenotlikelytoberepeated.
a) Uraniummining
AsnotedinSection3d,uraniumisminedinseverallocationsaroundtheworld,and
uraniumminingoftenresultsinthegenerationoflargeamountsofminetailings.What
wasnotmentionedisthaturaniumisanaturallyoccurringelementthatisfoundin,
quiteliterally,virtuallyeverybitofrockandsoilonEarth.Uraniumoreissimplya
rockformationinwhichtheuraniumhasbecomeconcentratedtoanunusualdegree.
However,thereisnodoubtthatmininguraniumproducesagreatdealofwasterock,
justashappenswhenminingcopper,molybdenum,gold,andanyothermetal.With
uraniumminetailings,theprimaryconcernistheemissionofradon,aradioactivegas,
fromtheminetailings,andmanypeopleworrythattheradoncandamagethehealthof
nearbyresidents.Forthisreason,manyUSminesarerequiredtotakemeasuresto
reduceradonemissionsfromtheiruraniumminetailings.However,itmustalsobe
notedthattheradonisrapidlydilutedintheair,andconcentrationsarereducedto
410
levelsthatcannotbedistinguishedfromnaturallyoccurringlevelsatdistancesofa
kilometerorsofromthetailings.
Anotherconcernwithusinguraniumasafuelisthatitmightrunout.Forthis
reason,theInternationalAtomicEnergyAgencyhasperformedperiodicassessmentsof
theeconomicallyrecoverableuraniumreservesandtheyhavedeterminedthattheyare
adequatetomeetprojectedenergyrequirementsforatleastthenext50100years.By
comparison,itisthoughtthatpetroleumreservesmayrunoutin5060years,natural
gasin7090years,andcoalin250300yearsatcurrentratesofconsumptionand
estimatedglobalreservesforeachoftheseenergysources.Somepotentialsourcesof
energy,suchassolar,wind,geothermal,andhydroelectricenergywillnotrunout,but
theseformsofenergyarelikelytoremainnicheprovidersforsometimeformany
reasonsthatarebeyondthescopeofthischapter.Itispossiblethatnewtechnologies
will,atsomepoint,maketheseoptionsviableforlargescaleenergyproduction,justas
itispossiblethathydrogenfusionwillbecomeeconomicallyviable,butthereisnoway
todaytoguesswhenthatdaywillarrive.
b) Nuclearreactorplantoperations
Nuclearreactorsunavoidablyemitradiationandradioactivitywhentheyoperate.
Thisradiationandradioactivityenterstheenvironmentandresultsinslightincreasesin
theamountofradiationtowhichnearbyresidentsandtheenvironmentareexposed.
Thissectionwilladdresstheamountofradioactivityreleasedbynuclearreactorsas
comparedtoothermethodsofenergyproductionandthenextsectionwilldiscussthe
biologicalandenvironmentaleffectsofthisexposure.
Itisinevitablethatminoramountsoffissionproductswillenterthereactorcoolant,
evenintheabsenceofdefectsinthefuelcladding.Traceamountsofuraniumare
almostalwayspresentintheclad,andthisuraniumcanfissiontoo,andthefission
productscanenterthereactorcoolant.Inaddition,thehighlevelsofneutronradiation
inthereactorcorecausegasesdissolvedinthereactorcoolanttobecomeradioactive.
Then,whenthecoolantisremovedfromthereactorplantforanyreason,these
radioactivegasescanescapeintotheenvironment.However,thisisexpected,the
potentialreleasepointsarecontinuallymonitored,andtheradiationexposuretothe
publicisverysmall.Infact,intheUS,dosetothepublicislimitedto0.25mSv
annually,whichislessonetenththeexposurefromnaturalsourcesofradiation.
AccordingtotheUnitedNationsScienceCommitteeontheEffectsofAtomicRadiation
(UNSCEAR)intheir2000reporttotheGeneralAssembly,thetotalradiationdosefrom
nuclearreactorsworldwideis157.2personSvperyearandthetotalamountof
radioactivityreleasedbytheworldscommercialnuclearreactorsisabout4212TBqper
year.
Althoughcoal,petroleum,andnaturalgasarenotnuclear,allofthesesourcesof
energycontainnaturallyoccurringradioactivematerials,andthesearereleasedtothe
411
environmentwhentheyareburnedtogenerateelectricity.AccordingtotheUS
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(USEPA),thetotalradiationdosetomembersofthe
USpopulationfromthesethreesourcesofenergyisgreaterthanthedosefromnuclear
powerplants.Asummaryoftheseexposuresiscontainedinthefollowingtable,andis
comparedtothetotalpopulationdosefromnaturalbackgroundradiationtothe
populationoftheUS.Asthistableshows,nuclearenergyexposespeopletonomore
radiation,evenonapermegawattbasis,thandootherformsofenergy.Itisalso
apparentthatnuclearenergyreleasessmalleramountsofgreenhousegasesthandoes
burningfossilfuels,andthaturaniumreservesarelikelytolastlongerthanthoseof
othersourcesofenergycurrentlyavailable.
Formof
TWyr Total
Radiation Global
Greenhousegas
energy
produce population
exposure
reserves emissions
1,2
d
radiationdose (personSv (years)1 (Gtonsofcarbon)1,
5
(personSv)3,4 perTWyr)
Nuclear
0.60
258
430
50100
0
Coal
2.89
14,161
4900
250300
638
Petroleum
4.06
6.61
1.63
5060
110
6
Natural
2.25
~500
~200
7090
72
gas
1 FromInternationalEnergyEnergyAnnual,DOE2001
2 1TWyrisequalto1012wattsofenergyproductionproducedoverthecourseof1
year
3 Bycomparison,radiationdosefromexposuretonaturalbackgroundradiationis
estimatedtobe144x106personSvannually(UNSCEAR2000)acrosstheentire
humanpopulation
4 Valuesforradiationdosefromfossilfuelplantsarecalculatedfromvaluesgivenin
NCRPReport#95
5 1Gtonisequalto109tons,or1012kgofcarbonemissions
6 Themajorityofradiationdosefromnaturalgascombustioncomesfromhomeuse
forcookingandheating;powergenerationproducesverylittleradiationexposure.
Thevaluesgivenareforelectricalpowergenerationonly;otherusesofnaturalgas
yieldabout2000personSvperyearacrosstheworldspopulation,anddisposalof
radiumcontainingwastesaddsafurther,unknowndose
c) HealthEffects
Theeffectsofexposuretohighlevelsofradiationarewellknownandunequivocal.
StudiesofthesurvivorsofHiroshima,Nagasaki,workersatChernobyl,andpeople
412
involvedinaccidentsinvolvingradiationorradioactivityshowconclusivelythat
exposuretohighlevelsofradiationwillcausecancerorradiationsickness,depending
ontheamountofradiationreceived.Ingeneral,afterasinglepersonsexposureto
morethan1Sv(100rem)ofradiationexposure,peoplewillstarttofeelillandtheirrisk
ofcancerwillincreasebyafactorof2ormore.Afterexposuretomorethanabout4Sv
(400rem),abouthalfofthoseexposedwilldieofradiationsickness,and100percentof
thoseexposedtodosesof910Sv(9001000rem)willdie.
Theeffectsofradiationexposuretoindividuals(describedinthepreceeding
paragraph)shouldnotbeconfusedwiththeeffectsofcollectiveradiationexposure,
suchasreportedinpreceedingtables.Collectiveradiationexposureisameasureof
radiationexposuretoanentirepopulationfromagivenactivity.Forexample,ifa
groupof100,000peopleeachreceiveadoseof0.01Sv(theannualdoselimittothe
generalpublicfromallsourcesofmanmaderadiationcombined)thenthecollective
dosewillbe1000personSv.Thisdoseisfarinexcessofthatwhichwillcauseafatality
toasingleperson,yetnoindividualisexpectedtofallillfromtheirindividuallow
exposure.
Whatisnotknownaspreciselyaretheeffectsofexposuretolowerlevelsof
radiation,suchasthoseinthevicinityofoperatingnuclearpowerplants.Thereason
theseeffectsarenotaswellknownisthattheeffects,ifany,areverysmallsotheyare
verydifficulttomeasurewithaccuracy.Infact,foreveryreportthatconcludesthatthis
levelofradiationexposureisharmful,thereisanotherreportshowingthereareno
effects,andevensomereportsshowingpossiblebeneficialeffectsfromexposuretolow
levelsofradiation.Themannerinwhichwerespondtolowlevelsofradiation
exposurewilllikelynotbeknownformanyyears.
Mostgovernmentssettheirradiationregulationsundertheassumptionthatall
exposuretoradiationispotentiallyharmful,andtheyfurtherassumethattheriskof
gettingcancerfromradiationisdirectlyproportionaltotheamountofdosereceived.
CalledtheLinear,NoThreshold(LNT)model,itisthemostconservativeofthemajor
hypothesesinusebecauseitassumesthegreatestriskfromradiation.UndertheLNT
model,apersonreceiving1mSvofradiationexposureperyearinexcessofbackground
levelswillhaveonechancein10,000ofdevelopingcancerasaresultofthatexposure.
Bycomparison,theoverallaveragecancerrateintheUSisabout1600in10,000.Other
models,whichsuggesttheremaybeathresholdlevelbelowwhichradiationexposure
isnotharmful,alsosuggestthisriskmaybeevenlower.Thereareafewconclusions
thatcanbedrawnfromthisdiscussion:
Nuclearpowerplantsproducelesspublicradiationexposurethanfossilfuel
plants,sothecancerriskfromfossilfuelplantsishigherthanfromnuclear
powerplants
413
Neitherfossilfuelplantsnornuclearpowerplantsemitenoughradiationto
constituteacancerthreattothepublic,evenunderthemostconservative
scenario
Weallreceivemoreradiationfromnaturalsources(includingnaturally
occurringradioactivepotassiuminourbodies)thanfromeithernuclearorfossil
fuelpowerplants
d) Radioactivewaste
Anotherareaofsomecontroversyisthesafedisposalofradioactivewaste,in
particular,spentreactorfuel.Manyantinuclearactivistsareconcernedthatradioactive
wastecannotbesafelyisolatedfromtheenvironmentandthatitposesalongtermrisk
totheenvironmentandtonearbyresidents.Theyarealsoconcernedthatspentreactor
fuel,whichisoftenhighlyradioactive,posesarisktothepopulationduringtransport
andsubsequentburial.Ontheotherhand,thenuclearpowerindustryfeelsitisquite
possibletosafelysequesterbothroutineradioactivewastesandspentreactorfuelfor
prolongedperiodsoftime,duringwhichtheradioactivitypresentwilldecaytosafe
levels.
Thoseopposedtonuclearenergyareparticularlyconcernedaboutthepossibility
thatradioactivewastedisposalsiteswillleak,lettingradioactivityentergroundwater
systems,theatmosphere,farms,andsoforth,andthatthisradioactivitywillboth
pollutetheenvironmentandcauselastinghealtheffectstonearbyresidents.Insupport
oftheirclaims,theynotethedifficultyofdesigningalandfilltosuccessfullyisolate
wasteforaperiodofdecades,andthatmanyitemsofradioactivewasteremain
radioactiveforcenturiesorlonger.Theseargumentsgainaddedstrengthwhen
discussingthedispositionofspentnuclearreactorfuel,whichcontainsplutoniumas
wellassomeradioactiveelementsthatremainradioactiveformillennia.
Ontheotherhand,advocatesofnuclearenergypointoutthatvirtuallyall
radioactivewastesitesarerequiredtohaveelaboratecontainmentandmonitoring
systemsthatwillcatchanyradioactiveleakagelongbeforeitcanbecomeahealth
concern.Inaddition,theynotethatthegreatmajorityofradioactivewastehasa
relativelyshorthalflifeandwilldecaywithinafewdecadesor,atmost,afew
centuries,sothatmostoftheradioactivitythatisputintoaradioactivewastedisposal
facilitywillvanishlongbeforeitcanescapeintotheenvironment.Withrespecttospent
reactorfuel,althoughitwillremainradioactiveforthousandsofyears,themajorityof
radioactivityisagaingonewithinafewcenturies,sothefuelwillbedangerousforonly
arelativelyshortperiodoftime,andthereislittledoubtthatitcanbesafelystoredfor
thattime.Finally,theplutoniumfoundinspentfuel,althoughdangerous,isnomore
dangerous(andnomoretoxic)thanmanyitemsfoundinchemistrylabs,anddoesnot
poseanyextraordinaryhazard.
414
Mostnationsthatoperatenuclearpowerplantshavebuiltrepositoriesforboth
radioactivewasteandspentreactorfuel.Virtuallyallradioactivewastefacilitiesare
designedtoallowcontinuousmonitoringforleaksaswellasenvironmentalmonitoring
foraccidentalreleases.Most,too,havestrictwasteacceptancecriteria,toensurethat
thewastereceivedwillremainsafelywithinitspackagefordecadesorlonger.And,in
thecaseofspentreactorfuelorveryhighlyradioactivewaste,manynationshavebuilt
orareintheprocessofconstructingdisposalfacilitiesburieddeeplyundergroundin
geologicallystableareasthatfullycapableofsafelycontainingthewasteformillionsof
years.Finally,manyscientiststakesomesolaceinnotingthatradioactivewasteatthe
Oklonaturalnuclearreactor(discoveredin1972)hasremainedstableforalmost2
billionyears,inspiteofbeinglocatedinporoussandstonethathasfrequentlybeen
belowthewatertable.
12. Conclusions
Forbetterorforworse,nuclearreactorsprovidemuchoftheworldsenergyneeds,
andprovideanimportantroleinpoweringnavalvesselsinseveraloftheworldsmost
powerfulnations.Likeanysourceofenergy,nuclearpowerplantshavebothgoodand
bad,andwecanonlyhopethatthebenefitswederivefromthecontinueduseof
nuclearenergyoutweighthenegative.Inmanyinstances,thisseemstobethecase,but
likeanytechnology,somerisksareunavoidableandwillalwaysremain.
Thereareseveralpointsinfavorofcontinueduseofnuclearenergy:
1) Nuclearpowerplantsreleasenomoreradioactivity(andpossiblyless)than
comparablefossilfueledpowerplants
2) Nuclearpowerplantsreleasefarfewergreenhousegasemissionsthandofossilfuel
plants
3) Theworldsuraniumreservesarelikelytolastforamuchlongerperiodoftimethan
fossilfuelreserves
4) Nuclearenergyismoredependablethanalternatesourcesofenergyandrelieson
proventechnology,ratherthanhopedforfuturebreakthroughs
5) Nuclearpowerplantsarenomoredangerousthanarefossilfuelpowerplantsand
have,infact,sufferedfeweraccidentsthanhaveothersectorsofthepowerindustry
However,therearealsosomedrawbackstonuclearenergyasasourceofpower:
1) Nuclearpowerplantsareoftenmoreexpensivetobuildthanareothertypesof
powerplants
415
2) Spentreactorfuelcanprovideasourceofplutoniumfornuclearweapons
production
3) Disposalofradioactivewasteisneithersimplenorinexpensive
4) Insomenations,publicoppositiontonuclearpowerisorganizedandvociferous,
makingpoliticalsupportofnuclearenergyproblematicattimes
Balancingtheseissuesisdifficult,evenunderthebestofcircumstances.Itis
reasonabletopointoutthatnuclearpowerhasbeeninuseforoverahalfcentury,and
(countingmilitarynuclearreactors),nearly1000nuclearreactorshaveoperatedatone
timeoranotherforthepast50years.Inadditiontotheenergyproducedbythese
nuclearreactors,millionshavebenefitedfromtheisotopesproducedwhichareusedin
medicineandresearch.Againstthat,wehavetheindisputabletragedyofChernobyl
andtheexpense(evenintheabsenceofrisk)ofThreeMileIsland.Itseemslikelythat
nuclearenergycanplayasafeandimportantroleinmeetingtheworldsincreasing
energyneeds,inspiteofthedrawbacksnotedabove,butthisisadecisionthatmustbe
madebytheworldscitizensandtheirgovernments.
Bibliography:
DOE;InternationalEnergyOutlook2001;March2001(availableontheWorldWide
Webatwww.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/index.html)
DOE;InternationalEnergyAnnual1999;February2001(availableontheWorldWide
Webatwww.wia.doe.gov/iea)
EisenbudandGesell,EnvironmentalRadioactivityfromNatural,Industrial,and
MilitarySources,FourthEdition,AcademicPress,1997
Knief,RA;NuclearEngineering,SecondEdition,HemispherePublishingCompany,
1992
NCRP,ReportNo.95,RadiationExposureoftheUSPopulationfromConsumer
ProductsandMiscellaneousSources,1987
NCRP,ReportNo.93,IonizingRadiationExposureofthePopulationoftheUnited
States,1987
Nero,AV;AGuidebooktoNuclearReactors,UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1979
NuclearNews;ThirdAnnualReferenceIssueandWorldListofNuclearPowerPlants,
March2001
OhioStateUniversityFactSheetsonRadioactiveWaste(foundontheWorldWideWeb
athttp://ohioline.osu.edu/lines/ennr.htmlandathttp://www.ag.ohio
state.edu/~rer/index.html)
UNSCEAR,ReporttotheGeneralAssembly,Volumes1and2,UnitedNationsScience
CommitteeontheEffectsofAtomicRadiation,2000
416
APPENDIXC:THENATURALNUCLEARREACTORATOKLO:A
COMPARISONWITHMODERNNUCLEARREACTORS
AllrightsarereservedbytheAuthor.Contacttheauthorforpermissiontousethisarticleforanypurposeotherthan
educational.
Editorsnote:Despitesomeclaims,thereisnoevidenceorevencredibletheorythattheOklonuclearreactorwas
anythingbutanaturalphenomenon.The6reactorzonesarespreadoverahugeareathatwasauraniummine
duringthetimeitwasfirstdiscovered.Thereactorzonesweretheresultofnaturalphysicalprocesses,activefor
thousandsofyears.ItshouldalsobenotedthatthepossibilityofnaturalnuclearreactorswasfirstpostulatedbyP.
K.Kuroda(1956).
i) Abstract
Uraniumcontainsonlyonenaturallyoccurringisotope,235U,whichwillsustainanuclearchainreactionusingnormal
watertomoderateandreflectneutrons.Atpresent,thisisotopeispresentinlowabundance(0.72%),requiring
enrichmentto3%orgreaterforeffectiveuseincommercialnuclearreactors.Twobillionyearsago,however,the
naturalabundanceof235Uwasapproximately3%.EvidenceindicatesthatarichuraniumdepositinGabon,West
Africaachievednuclearcriticalityandoperatedfortensofthousandsofyearsorlonger.Comparingthegeometric
andnuclearcharacteristicsoftheGabonreactorwiththoseofmodern,artificialnuclearreactorssupportsthis
possibility.Anexaminationofrareearthelementsand235Uabundanceintherocksthatcomprisethereactorzone
confirmthatanuclearreactordidoperateatthissiteabout2billionyearago(Ga),usingsurfaceandgroundwaters
tomoderateandreflectfissionneutronsinordertosustainthechainreaction.Finally,itisapparentthat239Puwas
producedinmeasurablequantities,suggestingthaturaniumisnottheheaviestnaturallyoccurringelementknown.
ii) Introduction
Naturaluraniumiscomposedofthreemajorisotopes,238U(abundance=99.2745%),235U(abundance=0.7200%),and
234U(abundance=0.0055%).Theisotopiccompositionofuraniumisthoughttobehomogeneousglobally(Faure,
1986).However,uraniuminarichdepositlocatedinGabon,WestAfrica,wasfoundtohave235Uabundancesaslow
as0.440%.
Subsequentinvestigationsindicatedthepresenceofisotopesofneodymiumandotherelementswhich,in
conjunctionwiththelower235Uabundance,suggestthatanaturalnuclearreactorexistedinthepast.Otherzones
containedslightlyelevatedabundancesof235U.Thesearethoughttorepresentthedecayproductsof239Pu,formedby
neutroncaptureof238Uduringreactoroperation.Similarreactionsoccurinmodernnuclearreactorsand,indeed,
formthebasisofplutoniumproduction.Thisreaction(includingthesubsequentdecayof239Pu,to=2.411x104a)is:
Theabsenceof236U(t1/2=2.342xl07a)indicatesthatinducedfissionstoppedatleast108yearsago.Datingofthestrata
inwhichthereactorisfoundindicatesanageofapproximately1.8Gy(Cowan,1976).Atthattime,235Uhadan
abundanceofapproximately3%,owingtoitsshorterhalfliferelativeto233U(t1/2=7.04xl08yrsand4.468xl09yrs,
respectively).ThispaperdiscussesbrieflythegeologicsettingoftheGabonreactorandcomparesitsnuclear
characteristicswiththoseofmodern,manmadenuclearreactorsintermsoffuelloading,geometry,neutronflux,
power,anduraniumenrichment.
417
iii) TheGabonReactor
TheGabonreactorconsistsofseveralmineralizedzonesofuraniummineralsinsandstoneandconglomerate.The
uraniumprobablyoriginatedinnearbyigneousdeposits,dissolvedinoxygenatedsurfacewaters,andwasdeposited
atanoxidationreductionfront(similartotherollfrontdepositsinTexas).Themobilization,therefore,probablydid
notcommenceuntiltherewassufficientfreeoxygenintheearthsatmospheretoallowoxygenationofsurfacewaters
(about2Ga).Theformationinwhichthedepositsresidewasdepositedabout1.74(+0.20)billionyearsago(Ga).At
thistime,235Uhadarelativeabundanceofapproximately3%.
AccordingtoNeuillyetal,(1972),thedepositisstratiform.Itislocatedwithinthesandstonewhichformsthebasis
oftheFrancevillian(sedimentarybasin).Thesedimentologicalcharacteristicsofthesesandstonessuggest
fluviodeltaicdepositconditions.Formedessentiallyofdetritalquartzwithsomeaccessoryfeldspars,theyhavea
cementconsistingofsecondarysilica,phyllite,andorganicmatter(ofasphaltictype).Theuraniferousmineralization
consistsprimarilyofoxides(uraninite,pitchblende).Itoccursinthecementwhichitmayalmosttotallyreplacein
zonesbearingthehighestgradeuraniumore.Itisassociatedwithafewsulfides(pyrite,galena,etc).
Thethicknessofthemineralizedlayerrangesfrom5to8meters.Thelayerislocallyaffectedbyatectonicmovement
whoseactivityservedtoupliftthesandstoneformationsborderingonanelongateddepressioninthesole.The
uraniferousmineralizationandanyredistributionsitmayhaveundergoneasaresultofgroundwaterflow,appears
almostcontemporaneouswiththesedimentationoftheFrancevillian.
Atotalof16reactorzoneshavebeenfoundintheprimarylocation,andanotherreactorzoneidentifiedabout20km
away(theBangombreactor).Currentthinkingisthatazoneofpetroleumformationproducedanoxygenfreezone
becauseoxygeningroundwaterwouldhavebeenremovedbychemicalreactionswiththepetroleum.Uranium,
whichisfairlyhighlysolubleinoxygenatedwaters,isinsolubleinanoxicwaters,sotheuraniumprecipitatedoutof
solutionasitcrossedtheoxidation/reductionfrontnearthepetroleumdeposits(Janeszek1999).Thisiswhatformed
thereactorzones.
AnillustrationofthereactorisshowninFigure1(fromCowan,1976).
418
iv) ArtificialNuclearReactors
AdiagramofatypicalnuclearreactorfuelassemblyisshowninFigure2(fromKnief,1990).
Nuclearreactorsproducepowerbycontrolledinducedsplitting(fission)offissionableatoms.Typicallytheseare235U
or239Pu(althoughthelatterisforbiddenforuseasreactorfuelintheUS).Theneutroncaptureprocess,however,
createsotherfissionablenuclidessuchas241Puand243Puwhich,bytheendofcorelife,cancontributesignificantlytoa
reactorspowerproduction(Knief,1992).Thenuclearfissionprocessismoreefficientwithlowenergy(thermal)
neutrons,althoughfastfissionofboth235Uand238Udoesoccurinthefuel.
Sincefissionneutronsareproducedwithhighenergies,theymustbesloweddown(thermalized)inamoderatorin
ordertobeeffectiveatinducingfission.Thismoderatoristypicallynormalwater,althoughgraphiteisalsoused,
particularlyinreactorsintendedforplutoniumproduction.Submergingthefuelinthemoderatorincreasesreactor
efficiency(anddecreasesrequiredfuelloading)byreflectingescapingneutronsbackintothecore,allowingthemto
participateinthefissionprocess.
Duetothelowabundanceof235Uatpresent,naturaluraniumdoesnotundergoasustainednuclearchainreaction
withnaturalwaterasamoderator.Thisisduetotherelativelyhighthermalneutroncrosssectionofhydrogen,
whichcausestheabsorptionofneutronsthatwouldotherwisecausefissions.Lightwaterreactors,suchasthe
RussianRBMK(graphitemoderated)ortheheavywatermoderatedCANDU(CANadianDeuteriumUranium)
reactorcanmaintainselfsustainingchainreactionswithnaturaluranium.Mostnuclearreactorsoperatewith
uraniumfuelwhichhasbeenenrichedin235U,typicallybetween3%and5%(Knief,1992),althoughresearchreactors
have235Uenrichmentsofupto20%.Militaryreactorsmayhaveenrichmentsinexcessof90%inordertoachievethe
powerdensitiesnecessaryfortheireffectiveuse.
419
v) ReactorPhysics
Nuclearreactorsoperateandproducepowerbymaintaininganuclearfissionchainreaction.Inorderforthereactor
tomaintainaconstantpowerlevel,asmanyneutronsmustbeproducedineachgenerationasareabsorbedorescape
fromthecore.
Ofthoseneutronswhichdonotescapethecore,manyareabsorbed,butdonotcausefissions.Absorberscanbe
metalnonfuelcomponentsofthecore,hydrogeninthemoderator,fissionproductsthathaveahighneutroncapture
crosssection,controlpoisonswhichareplacedintothecoretoshapetheneutronfluxandtocontrolreactorpower,
oruraniumatomswhichdonotfission.Whentheneutronpopulationofthecoreremainsconstantthereactorissaid
tobecritical.Agrowingneutronpopulationischaracteristicofasupercriticalreactorwhileashrinkingneutron
populationmakesareactorsubcritical.Therefore,allreactors,whenoperatingatconstantpower,arecritical.
Waterisusedtocoolthereactorcoreandalsotohelpcontrolreactorpower.Neutronsfromfissionwillcollidewith
theatomsinwater,losingenergywitheachcollisionthisiscalledmoderation.Thisslowstheneutronstothe
pointatwhichtheycancausefissionmoreefficiently.Waterwillalsoreflectescapingneutronsbackintothereactor
fuel,reducingthelossofneutronsfromthefuelbearingregion.Thiseffectivelyincreasestheneutronpopulationin
thecoreandhelpstoreducetheamountoffuelneededforacriticalassembly.Ifwaterislostfromthecore,the
amountofmoderationandreflectionisgreatlyreducedandthereactorshutsdown.
Thetermkeffreferstotherelativesizeofsubsequentneutronpopulations.Inacriticalreactor,keffisequalto1.The
valueofkeffisdeterminedbythesixfactorformulagivenbelow:
inwhich:
(thefastfissionfactor)referstotheratiooftotalfissionstothoseproducedby
thermalneutrons,
L (thefastnonleakagefactor)isthefractionoffastneutronsthatdonotleakfrom
thecore,
P(theresonanceescapeprobability)givesthefractionofneutronswhicharenot
resonantlyabsorbedinthecore,
L (thethermalnonleakageprobability)isthefractionofthermalneutronwhich
donotleakfromthecore,
f(thermalutilizationfactor)isthefractionofneutronswhichareabsorbedbythe
fuel,and
(thefissionyield)istheaveragenumberofneutronsproducedforeach
thermalneutroncapturedbyfuelmaterial.
f
th
ThefactorsLfandLth,areincludedinthebucklingterm(B2);afactorbasedoncoregeometrywhichdescribesthe
lossofneutronsfromthecorethroughcoreboundaries.Aspherehasthesmallestbucklingtermwhichisgivenby:
420

withRbeingtheradiusofthesphere.Thepresenceofareflectorreducesthegeometricbuckling,asdoesincreasing
thesizeofthefuelbearingregion.
Asshownbythesixfactorformulaandthebucklingequation,thereareseveralwaystoincreasetheprobabilitythat
areactorwillbeabletogocritical.Theseare:
Increasethesizeofthefuelbearingregioninordertoreducethebuckling(L and
L ,terms)
Increasethefueltowaterratiotoincreasetheprobabilitythatthermalneutrons
willbeabsorbedbyfissionablematerial
Minimizethenumberofnonfissionableatomswithhighneutroncapturecross
sections(poisons)
Provideareflectortofurtherreducebuckling
Useamoderatorwhichisclosetothemassofaneutroninordertohavethe
maximumenergytransferpercollision,reducingthechanceforresonance
absorptionoftheneutrons
f
th
vi) ReactorCharacteristics
Nuclearpowerreactorstypicallyoperateatpressuresandtemperaturesinexcessof1500psiand500F,although
mostresearchreactorsoperateatatmospherictemperaturesandpressures.Fuelloadingvariesgreatly,fromtensof
kilogramstohundredsofmetrictons.Neutronfluxes,too,varybasedonthecorecharacteristics,butaretypically
between1013and1015ncm2sec1.Acommercialnuclearreactortypicallyhasseveralhundredfuelassemblies,each
containing50or60fuelpinsthatareapproximately20feetlongandarrangedinacircleapproximately20feetin
diameter(Nero,1979).Militaryreactors,duetotheirhigherfuelenrichment,aremuchsmaller,asareresearch
reactors,duetotheirhigher235Uenrichmentandsmallerpoweroutput.
Criticalmassexperimentshaveshownthatauraniumspherewitha3%enrichmentthatisfullywaterreflectedwill
haveaminimumcriticalmassofapproximately2kginaheterogeneousreactorandnearly3kginahomogeneous
reactor.Thisminimumcriticalvolumewillbejustlargeenoughtogocriticalonetimeandwillnotsustainachain
reactionforaprolongedperiodoftime.Alargerreactorwillhaveeitherahigherpoweroutput,willbeableto
operatelonger,orboth.
vii)FissionProducts
Eachfissionproducesapproximately200MeVintheformofgammaradiationandthekineticenergyoftwofission
fragmentsthatareproduced.Thisenergyisdissipatedinthefuelmaterialasthefissionfragmentsinteractwith
surroundingatomsandslowdown.Thefissionfragmentsarenearlyalwaysofunevenmasswithvarying
probabilitiesofproduction.Fissionyieldsarehighestfornuclideswithmassesof95and140amu(whenfissioning
235U).Thedistributionoffissionproductsischaracteristicforeachfissionablenuclideandcanbeusedtoidentifythe
fuel.
421
Somefissionproductshavehighthermalneutroncapturecrosssections.Thesecanaccumulateandpoisonthechain
reactionresultingineitherlowerpowerorincreasedneutronfluxtocompensate.Theyareincludedinthethermal
utilizationfactorinthesixfactorformula.Thefinalmixoffissionproducts,therefore,willreflectthefissionyieldof
eachatomicmassnumber,thehalflifeandneutronabsorptioncrosssectionofmembersofeachfissionproduct
chain,andtheneutronfluxinthereactor.
viii)
NuclearCharacteristicsoftheGabonReactor
AtthetimethattheGabonreactorwentcritical,theabundanceof235Uwas3%,similartothatincurrentcommercial
nuclearreactors.Theapproximateshapeofthereactorzonesisthatofacompactmassofuraniumoxidesurrounded
byporousrocks,whichwerepresumablyhydraulicallyconnectedtosurfaceorgroundwater,allowingmoderation
andreflectionoftheneutronsproducedbyspontaneousfissionorcosmicrayinducedfission.
Therelativelylargesizeandsphericalshapeoftheuraniumbearingregionreducedbuckling.Whenthesurrounding
porousrocksweresaturatedwithwater,thesubsequentmoderationandreflectionallowedthereactortoachieve
criticality.Itislikelythatcriticalitywasnotcontinuous.Asthereactorpowerincreased,thewatermoderatorwould
heat,reducingitsdensityanditseffectivenessasamoderatorandreflector.Thisprocess,knownasanegative
temperaturecoefficient,helpstocontrolpowerduringtransientconditionsinmanmadenuclearreactors.
Ifsufficientpowerwasproducedthereactorwouldhavelostmoderationandreflection,resultinginashutdown.
Untilshortlivedfissionproductpoisonsdecayedaway,evenimmediateresaturationwithwatermaynothave
resultedinrestartingthenuclearchainreactions.Therefore,thereactorprobablydidnotoperatecontinuously,butat
discreteintervalswiththeoperatingtimedeterminedbythepoweroutput,watersupplypressureandtemperature,
andwaterflowthroughthereactor.Thedurationoftheshutdownperiodswouldhavebeendeterminedbythe
buildupoffissionproductpoisonsandthelengthoftimerequiredtoreplacethemoderator(ifitboiledaway)orto
coolitsufficientlytoresumethereaction.
Infact,arecentpaper(Meshiketal,2004)lookedattheoperationoftheOkloreactor.Theauthorsdeducedthatthe
reactorlikelyoperatedcyclically,operatingforahalfhouruntilaccumulatedheatboiledawaythewater,then
shuttingdownforupto2.5hoursuntiltherockscooledsufficientlytoallowwatersaturationagain.Theauthorsalso
notethatthemajorityoffissionproductsfromthesenuclearreactionshaveremainedinplacefornearly2billion
years,inspiteoftheirlocationinfractured,porous,andwatersaturatedsandstoneformostofthattime.
Inall,theOkloreactoristhoughttohaveoperatedforaperiodinexcessof150,000years,basedonthequantityof
fissionproductspresent.Thetotalneutronfluenceisthoughttohavebeenabout1021neutronspersquarecmover
thelifeofthereactor,producingatotalofabout15GWyrofthermalenergy.Duringthistimeitconsumedan
estimated56metrictonsof235U,andproducinganequalmassoffissionproducts(deLaeter,etal,1980).Meshick
estimatesanaverageoperatingpowerofabout100kW,similartothatofmodernresearchreactors.
Largecoresize,alowfuel/waterratio,andthepresenceoffissionproductpoisonswouldrequirealargeneutronflux
withrespecttoreactorpowerinordertomaintainreactorcriticality.Neuillyetal(1972)estimatedthattheGabon
reactorhadathermalneutronfluxofatleast109neutronscm2sec1andatotalfluenceof1021neutronspersquarecm.
Bycomparison,thecompletefissionofonekgof235Uinanucleardetonationwouldreleaseapproximately1026
neutronsinapproximatelyonemicrosecondthroughanareaofapproximately200cm2(Serber,1992),givinga
neutronfluxofabout1030neutronscm2sec1.Currentnuclearreactorshaveneutronfluxesontheorderof1013to1014
neutronscm2sec1.Theestimatesforneutronfluxare,therefore,notunreasonable,giventhereactorcharacteristicsof
lowpowerandlargecoresize.
TherocksoftheGabonreactorindicatethepresenceoffissionproductnuclidesinabundanceswhichroughlytally
withthoseexpectedof235Uinducedfission.Mostinterestingaretheisotopesofneodymium,whichshowenrichment
inthosemassnumbersthatarecharacteristicofuraniumfissionanddepletioninthosemassnumberswhichhavethe
422
highestneutroncapturecrosssections.ThedistributionofthesenuclidesisdescribedinCowan(1976)andinNeuilly
etal(1972).Alsoconvincingistheenrichmentin235Uandthepresenceof232Thnotedinsomesectionsofthereactor
zone.The235Uisthoughttorepresentareasinwhichneutroncaptureby238Uproduced239Puwhichsubsequently
decayedto235U.Thoriumisthoughttoresultfromthereaction:
Othercompellingevidenceofinduceduraniumfissionisthenegativecorrelationofuraniumcontentversus235U
abundancethroughthisdeposit.Thisindicatesthattheareasofhighesturaniumcontentunderwentthegreatest
depletionoffissionablematerial,whichwouldbeexpectedinanuclearreactor.
ix) Conclusions
ThereactorzonesfoundinGabonhavetherequisitephysicalandnuclearcharacteristicstoformaselfsustaining
chainreaction,giventheabundanceof235Upresentnearly2Ga.Thecompactmassofthereactorzoneswouldhave
beenconducivetominimizingbucklingandmaximizingthermalneutronutilizationintheuraniumwhilethe
surroundingsandstoneandconglomeratewouldprovideamplewatertomoderateandreflectneutrons,asisthe
casewithartificialreactorstoday.Theinventoryoffissionproductsandtheslightexcessof235Unotedinsomezones
supporttheconclusionthatinducedfissionof235Uandneutroncaptureby238Uoccurredinthisarea.
Italsoseemslikelythatothernaturalreactorswereoperationalinthepast.Otherpartsoftheworldhavelarge,high
assaydepositsofuraniummineralizationinsedimentarystrata,sothecircumstanceswhichledtotheformationof
theGabonreactormaynothavebeenunique.Itseemssafetoassumethatthisprocessmayhavetakenplace
throughoutthehistoryoftheearth.Indeed,therearehintsthatanaturalreactorwasoperationalintheColorado
Plateau,basedonaslightdepletionof235Uinorespecimensthere(Cowan,1976).Itmaybethatourknowledgeof
naturalnuclearreactorsislimitedprimarilybyourexplorationstodate.
Finally,althoughtheexistenceoftransuranicelementswaspredictedbyGoldschmidt,thecommonconceptionis
thaturaniumistheheaviestnaturalelement.Anynuclearreactor,however,producestransuranicelementsviathe
neutroncapturereactionsmentionedabove.Therefore,uraniummayneedtorelinquishthispositiontoplutoniumor
heavierelements.
b) Acknowledgements
c) Manythankstothefollowingpersons:
GunterFaure,myMSadvisorforwhoseclassthispaperwasoriginallywritten
BruceBusby,fortranslatingthisintoHTMLandmaintainingthepostingonline
JaroslavFranta,forprovidingfeedback,suggestions,andcorrectionstotheoriginal
(aswellasthedrawingofanactualfuelassembly)
GrahamCowan,forhelpfulcommentsandcorrectionstotheoriginal
423
References
Cowan,ANaturalFissionReactor,ScientificAmerican,7/76:3647
deLaeter,J.R.,Rosman,K.J.R,Smith,C.L.,TheOkloNaturalReactor:CumulativeFissionYieldsandRetentivityofthe
SymmetricMassRegionFissionProducts,EarthandPlanetaryScienceLetters,50(1980)238246
Faure,G.,PrinciplesofIsotopeGeology,JohnWileyandSons,1986
Janueczek,J.MineralogyandGeochemistryofNaturalFissionReactorsinGabon;Chapter7inReviewsinMineralogyvol.
38,Uranium:Mineralogy,Geochemistry,andtheEnvironment,BurnsPCandFinchR(eds);MineralogicalSocietyof
America;pp321392.1999
Knief,R.A.,NuclearEngineering:TheoryandTechnologyofCommercialNuclearPower,HemispherePublishing
Corporation,1992
KurodaPK;OntheNuclearPhysicalStabilityoftheUraniumMinerals.JournalofChemicalPhysicsvol25,pp781782.
1956
Meshik,A.P.etal.,RecordofCyclingoftheNaturalNuclearReactorintheOklo/OkelobondoAreainGabon.Physical
ReviewLettersvol93,No.18.2004
MeshikAPetal.,Anomalousxenoninzone13Okelobondo.GeochemicaetCosmochimicaActavol.64no.9,p1651
1661.2000
Nero,A.V.,AGuidebooktoNuclearReactors,UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1979
Neuilly,M.,etal,EvidenceofEarlySpontaneousChainReactionfoundinGabonMine,excerptsfrompressconference
regardingGeologicalandMineralDocumentationpublishedbyCommissariatalEnergieAtomique,1972
Paxton,H.C.andPruvost,N.L.,CriticalDimensionsofSystemsContaining235U,239PU,and233U,LosAlamosNational
Laboratory,1986
Serber,R.,TheLosAlamosPrimer:TheFirstLecturesonhowtoBuildandAtomicBomb,UniversityofCaliforniaPress,
1992
Thisdocumentwasoriginallywrittenin1996asapaperforagraduateclassin
environmentalisotopegeology,taughtbyGunterFaure.Severalemailcorrespondents
havenotederrorsintheoriginalpaper;thisrevisionaccountsfortheircommentsas
wellasforresearchpaperspublishedbetween1996andApril2005.
424
Appendix D: Regulatory Guide 8.36 - Radiation Dose to

the Embryo/Fetus
July1992
d) A.INTRODUCTION
Section20.1208of10CFRPart20,StandardsforProtectionAgainstRadiation,requiresthateachlicenseeensure
thatthedosetoanembryo/fetusduringtheentirepregnancy,fromoccupationalexposureofadeclaredpregnant
woman,doesnotexceed0.5rem(5mSv).Paragraph20.1208(b)requiresthelicenseetomakeeffortstoavoid
substantialvariationaboveauniformmonthlyexposureratetoadeclaredpregnantwomanthatwouldsatisfythe
0.5rem(5mSv)limit.Thedosetotheembryo/fetusistobethesumof(1)thedeepdoseequivalenttothedeclared
pregnantwoman(10CFR20.1208(c)(1))and(2)thedosetotheembryo/fetusfromradionuclidesintheembryo/fetus
andradionuclidesinthedeclaredpregnantwoman(10CFR20.1208(c)(2)).
Thisguideisbeingdevelopedtoprovideguidanceoncalculatingtheradiationdosetotheembryo/fetus.Regulatory
Guide8.13,InstructionConcerningPrenatalRadiationExposure,providesinstructionsconcerningtherisks
associatedwithprenatalradiationexposure.
Anyinformationcollectionactivitiesmentionedinthisregulatoryguidearecontainedasrequirementsin10CFR
Part20,whichprovidestheregulatorybasisforthisguide.Theinformationcollectionrequirementsin10CFRPart20
havebeenclearedunderOMBClearanceNo.31500014.
e) B.DISCUSSION
Calculatingtheradiationdosetotheembryo/fetusfrominternallydepositedradionuclidesrequiresquantitative
informationaboutmaternalradionuclideintake,placentaltransferandkinetics,andresultingembryo/fetus
radionuclideconcentrations.Intakesofradioactivematerialoccurringpriortothepregnancymayalsobeimportant
ifthesematerialsremaininthepregnantwomanduringallorpartofthegestationperiod.Transferkineticsfromthe
mothertotheembryo/fetusaremodeledasafunctionofstageofpregnancy,routeofintakebythepregnantwoman,
andtimeafterintake.Thestageofgestation(orfetaldevelopment)isanimportantparameterinestimating
radionuclideconcentrationsintheembryo/fetus.Thegeometryoftheembryo/fetus(i.e.,sizeandweight)affectsthe
radionuclidedosimetry.
Itisrecognizedthatcalculationofprenatalradiationdosesfrominternallydepositedradionuclideshasmany
associateddifficulties,includingalackofquantitativeinformationaboutprenatalradionuclideconcentrationsand
transferacrosstheplacenta.TheInternationalCommissiononRadiologicalProtection(ICRP)inPublication56(Ref.
1)statesthat,formostradionuclides,preliminaryestimatesfromdosimetricandbiokineticmodelsindicatethatthe
dosetotheembryocanbeapproximatedbythedosetotheuterus.Thedosetothefetusisdependentuponthe
activitypresentinbothfetalandmaternaltissues.ICRPPublication56(Ref.1)alsostatesthat,formost
radionuclides,thedosetofetaltissuewillbesimilartoorlessthanthedosetothecorrespondingmaternaltissues.
Thecurrentmethodsavailableforassessingtheradiationdosetothehumanembryo/fetusfrominternallydeposited
radioactivematerialsinthepregnantwomanaresubjecttoanumberofuncertainties.Revison1toNUREG/CR5631,
ContributionofMaternalRadionuclideBurdenstoPrenatalRadiationDosesInterimRecommendations(Ref.2),
providesrecommendationsandmethodsforestimatingtheradiationdosestotheembryo/fetusfrominternal
radionuclides.InRevision1toNUREG/CR5631,anumberofradionuclideswereevaluated.Toexpediteefforts,the
initialevaluationwasdirectedtothoseradionuclidesthatwereexpectedtobeofgreatestsignificanceforprenatal
425
exposureintheworkenvironment.Theradionuclidesthatwereidentifiedandincludedwere3H,14C,57Co,58Co,
60Co,89Sr,90Sr,106Ru,125I,131I,132I,133I,134I,135I,134Cs,137Cs,233U,234U,235U,238U,238Pu,239Pu,and241Am.Themethods
ofRevision1toNUREG/CR5631areconsideredinterimaseffortscontinuetofurtherdevelopthebasesand
calculationalmethodsforestimatingprenatalradiationdoses.Revision1toNUREG/CR5631providesdetailsofthe
dataandbasesforthedosimetricfeaturesthatwereusedfortheradionuclideslistedabove.
Itisexpectedthattheembryo/fetusdoseassessmentmethodswillevolveoverthenextseveralyearsasmore
researchisconductedinthisarea.Asadditionalresearchisconducted,betterestimatesofactualembryo/fetusdoses
resultingfromtheexposureofthedeclaredpregnantwomanwillbepossible.Forinternaldoses,researchthat
categorizesthedegreeofplacentaltransfer,theresultingembryo/fetus/placentaconcentrations,andthepotential
radiationexposuresoftheembryo/fetusfromradionuclidesintheirmoreusualchemicalformsshouldsimplify
assessmentofthedosetotheembryo/fetusbasedonthematernalexposure.TheICRPisconsideringtheformulation
ofdoseassessmentmethodsspecificfortheembryo/fetus.
Thisregulatoryguideprovidesacceptablemethodsthatmaybeusedindeterminingthedosetotheembryo/fetus.
Forinternalexposure,asimplifiedapproachandamoredetailedmethodologyarepresentedforconductingdose
evaluations.TheregulatorypositionspecifiedinSection1providesguidanceonthethresholdcriteriaforusein
determiningwhenthedosetotheembryo/fetusneedstobeevaluated.TheregulatorypositionspecifiedinSection2
presentsasimplifiedapproachforestimatingthedosetotheembryo/fetusfromintakesbythedeclaredpregnant
woman.TheregulatorypositionspecifiedinSection3providesanalternative,moredetailedmethodologyfora
limitednumberofradionuclides,usingthegestationtimedependentdosimetricdatafromRevision1toNUREG/CR
5631(Ref.2).
Agradedapproachfordeterminingwhentoevaluate,withbothasimpleandmoredetaileddoseassessment
methodology,isprovided.Bothmethodsareacceptableforevaluatingthedosetotheembryo/fetus.Itisrecognized
thatsomelicenseeswillonlyneedtodemonstratethatthedosetotheembryo/fetusisnotlikelytoexceedthe0.05
rem(0.5mSv)monitoringthresholdof10CFR20.1502,whileotherlicenseesmayneedtodetermineanembryo/fetus
dosefordemonstratingcompliancewiththedoselimitof10CFR20.1208andtherecordkeepingrequirementsof10
CFR20.2106(e).
AppendixAprovidesinformationonandatableofdoseequivalentfactorsforuseinapproximatingthe
embryo/fetusdosefromradionuclidesinmaternalblood.AppendixBisatableofblooduptakefractionsforingested
activity.AppendixCcontainstablesofgestationtimedependentdosestotheembryo/fetusfollowingintroductionof
specifiedradionuclidesandchemicalformsintomaternalblood.Examplesoftheuseofdoseassessmentmethodsare
providedinAppendixD.
Thetotalradiationdosetotheembryo/fetusisthesumofthedeepdoseequivalenttothedeclaredpregnantworker
andthedosetotheembryo/fetusfromintakesofthedeclaredpregnantworker.Ifmultipledosimetricdevicesare
usedtomeasurethedeepdoseequivalenttothedeclaredpregnantworker,theresultsofmonitoringthataremost
representativeofthedeepdosetotheembryo/fetusmaybeused.Thelicenseeneednotusethedeepdosetothe
maximallyexposedportionofthewholebodyofthemotherasthedeepdosetotheembryo/fetus.Thelicenseemay
employtemporaryorpermanentshieldingtoreducethedeepdosetotheembryo/fetus.Alternatively,deepdoseto
theembryo/fetusmaybelimitedbyplacingmorestringentrestrictionsontheexposureofthedeclaredpregnant
womanthanonothermembersoftheoccupationalworkforce.
Asspecifiedin10CFR20.1208(a),thedosetotheembryo/fetusfromoccupationalexposureofthedeclaredpregnant
womanduringtheentiregestationperiodisnottoexceed0.5rem(5mSv).Inaddition,thelicenseeisrequiredto
makeeffortstoavoidsubstantialvariationinthemonthlyexposurethroughouttheperiodofgestation.Ifthedoseto
theembryo/fetusisfoundtohaveexceeded0.5rem(5mSv)oriswithin0.05rem(0.5mSv)ofthisdosebythetime
thewomandeclaresthepregnancytothelicensee,thelicenseeisrequiredtolimittheadditionaldosetothe
embryo/fetusto0.05rem(0.5mSv)duringtheremainderofthepregnancy.
426
Thetablesintheappendicestothisguidewereprepareddirectlyfromthecomputeroutputs,whichledtothevalues
generallybeingexpressedtothreesignificantfigures.Thisindicatesgreateraccuracythaniswarrantedbythe
dosimetrymodel,buttheresultsarepresentedinthisformtoavoidroundofferrorsincalculations.Ingeneral,final
resultsshouldberoundedtothenearestthousandthofarem.
f) C.REGULATORYPOSITION
i) 1.CRITERIAFORDETERMININGDOSETOTHEEMBRYO/FETUS
1.1Monitoring
Thedoseequivalenttotheembryo/fetusshouldbedeterminedbasedonthemonitoringofthedeclaredpregnant
womanasrequiredby10CFR20.1502.Specifically,10CFR20.1502(a)(2)requiresmonitoringtheexposureofa
declaredpregnantwomanwhenthedosetotheembryo/fetusislikelytoexceed,in1year,adosefromexternal
sourcesinexcessof10%ofthelimitof10CFR20.1208(i.e.,0.05rem).Accordingto10CFR20.1502(b)(2),thelicensee
mustmonitortheoccupationalintakesofradioactivematerialforthedeclaredpregnantwomanifherintakeislikely
toexceed,in1year,acommittedeffectivedoseequivalentinexcessof0.05rem(0.5mSv).Basedonthis0.05rem(0.5
mSv)threshold,thedosetotheembryo/fetusshouldbedeterminediftheintakeislikelytoexceed1%ofALI
(stochastic)duringtheentireperiodofgestation.
Thesemonitoringthresholdswillensurethatanypotentiallysignificantexposurestotheembryo/fetusareevaluated
and,asappropriate,dosesaredetermined.Theconditionsspecifiedin10CFR20.1502(a)and(b)arebasedona1
yearperiod.Priortodeclarationofpregnancy,thewomanmaynothavebeensubjecttomonitoringbasedon
conditionsspecifiedin10CFR20.1502(a)(1)and10CFR20.1502(b)(1).Inthiscase,thelicenseeshouldestimatethe
exposureduringtheperiodmonitoringwasnotprovided,usinganycombinationofsurveysorotheravailabledata
(forexample,airmonitoring,areamonitoring,bioassay).
Themonitoringcriteriacontainedin10CFR20.1502donotestablishrequiredlevelsofdetectionsensitivity.Forsome
radionuclidesitmaynotbefeasibletoactuallyconfirmbybioassaymeasurementsanintakeof1%oftheirstochastic
ALI.Workplacemonitoring,occupancyfactors,andaccesscontrolshouldbeconsideredasappropriateinevaluating
potentialexposuresandmonitoringrequirements.
1.2EvaluationofDosetotheEmbryo/Fetus
Theappropriatedosetobeevaluatedfortheembryo/fetusisthedoseequivalentforthedurationofthepregnancy.
Anassessmentofthe50yearcommitteddoseisnotappropriate.Also,itisnotappropriatetouseeffectivedose
equivalentorcommittedeffectivedoseequivalent.(Note:thecommitteddoseequivalenttotheuterusmaybe
appliedtotheembryo/fetusundercertainconditionsasasimplifiedapproachasdescribedintheregulatoryposition
specifiedinSection2.)
1.3ExternalDosetotheEmbryo/Fetus
Accordingto10CFR20.1208(c)(1),thedeepdoseequivalenttothedeclaredpregnantwomanwillbetakenasthe
externaldosecomponenttotheembryo/fetus.Thedeterminationofexternaldoseshouldconsideralloccupational
exposuresofthedeclaredpregnantwomansincetheestimateddateofconception.Thedeepdoseequivalentthat
shouldbeassignedisthatdosethatwouldbemostrepresentativeoftheexposureoftheembryo/fetus(i.e.,inthe
motherslowertorsoregion).Ifmultiplemeasurementshavebeenmade,assignmentofthehighestdeepdose
equivalentforthedeclaredpregnantwomantotheembryo/fetusisnotrequiredunlessthatdoseisalsothemost
representativedeepdoseequivalentfortheregionoftheembryo/fetus.
427
1.4InternalDosetotheEmbryo/Fetus
Theinternaldosetotheembryo/fetusshouldconsidertheexposuretotheembryo/fetusfromradionuclidesinthe
declaredpregnantwomanandintheembryo/fetus.Thedosetotheembryo/fetusshouldincludethecontribution
fromanyradionuclidesinthedeclaredpregnantwoman(bodyburden)fromoccupationalintakesoccurringpriorto
conception.Theintakeforthedeclaredpregnantwomanshouldbedeterminedusingairsampledata,bioassaydata,
oracombinationofthetwo.Guidanceonbioassaymeasurementsusedtoquantifyintakeisbeingdevelopedandhas
beenissuedforpubliccommentasDraftRegulatoryGuideDG8009,InterpretationofBioassayMeasurements.
SpecificguidanceonworkplaceairsamplingisinRevision1toRegulatoryGuide8.25,AirSamplinginthe
Workplace.
1.5EvaluatingContinuousExposure
Forcontinuousornearcontinuousexposuretoradioactivematerialthatmaybeinhaledoringested,thecumulative
intakeshouldbequantifiedandthedosedeterminedatleastevery30days.Ifsignificantvariationintheexposure
levelsmayhaveoccurred,thetimeintervalforquantifyingtheintakeshouldbereduced.Morefrequentevaluations
shouldbeconsideredasthepotentialdosetotheembryo/fetusapproachesthelimit.
1.6ExistingMaternalBodyBurdens
Maternalbodyburdensresultingfrominternaloccupationalexposurespriortoconceptionshouldbeincludedin
determiningtheembryo/fetusdose.Thecontributiontotheembryo/fetusdosefromamaternalburdenexistingatthe
timeofconceptionshouldbeevaluatedifthematernalburdenatthetimeofpregnancyexceeds1%ofthe
radionuclidesstochasticALIvaluefortheappropriatemodeofintakeandclass(forinhalationintakes).Formultiple
radionuclideburdens,thedoseshouldbeevaluatedifthesumofthequotientsofeachburdendividedbyits
stochasticALIexceeds0.01.Onlybodyburdensexistingatthetimeofconceptionneedtobeconsideredinevaluating
thisthreshold;radioactivematerialalreadyeliminatedfromthebodyshouldnotbeincluded.
Thisthresholdof1%ALIprovidesasimplifiedapproachfordeterminingwhenpreexistingbodyburdensshouldbe
evaluated.Atthisthreshold,itisunlikelythatanyresultantdosetotheembryo/fetuswouldbesignificant(i.e.,
greaterthan10%ofthe0.5rem(5mSv)limit).Asanalternative,thedoseassessmentmethodspresentedinthe
regulatorypositionspecifiedinSection3ofthisguidemaybeusedfordeterminingwhetherapreexistingbody
burdenrepresentsapotentiallysignificantdose(i.e.,greaterthan0.05rem(0.5mSv)).
ii) 2.SIMPLIFIEDMETHODFORDETERMININGEMBRYO/FETUSDOSE
FROMMATERNALINTAKES
Thedeterminationofthedosetotheembryo/fetusfromtheintakeofradioactivematerialbythepregnantwoman
shouldbebasedonthebestavailablescientificdata.Atpresent,theNRCstaffconsidersRevision1toNUREG/CR
5631(Ref.2)toprovidesuchdata.Formostradionuclides,thedosetotheembryo/fetuswillbesimilartoorlessthan
thedosetothematernaluterus(Ref.1).However,thedatainRevision1toNUREG/CR5631indicatethatforsome
radionuclidestheembryo/fetusdosemaybesignificantlydifferent,eithergreaterthanorlessthanthedosetothe
uterus.
Basedonthesepremises(uterusdosesimilartofetaldoseandthedatainRevision1toNUREG/CR5631(Ref.2)),a
setofdosefactorshasbeendevelopedforuseincalculatinganembryo/fetusdose.Exceptforthoseradionuclides
addressedinRevision1toNUREG/CR5631(Ref.2),thedosefactorspresentedinAppendixAtothisguide
representthecommitteddoseequivalenttotheuterusperintroductionofunitactivityintothefirsttransfer
compartment(i.e.,blood)ofthewoman.1FortheradionuclidesinRevision1toNUREG/CR5631,thedosefactorsin
AppendixArepresentthemaximumdoseequivalenttotheembryo/fetusforthegestationperiodfromthe
428
introductionofunitactivityintothefirsttransfercompartmentofthewomanatanytimeduringthegestation
period.
Thedoselimitfortheembryo/fetusisexpressedasa9monthgestationdoseequivalent.Particularlyforcertain
radionuclideswithbothlongradiologicalhalflivesandlongtermbiologicalretention,thecommitteddose
equivalenttotheuterusmaybesignificantlydifferentfroma9monthgestationdoseequivalenttotheembryo/fetus.
SeveralradionuclidesofthistypehavebeenevaluatedinRevision1toNUREG/CR5631(Ref.2),anddatahavebeen
developedforcalculatinganembryo/fetusgestationdoseinsteadofusingthecommitteddoseequivalenttothe
uterus.
Fordemonstratingcompliancewiththedoselimitsof10CFR20.1208,thedosefactorsinAppendixAmaybeused
forapproximatingtheembryo/fetusdoseequivalentfortheentiregestationperiod.
Thestepsfordeterminingtheembryo/fetusdose,usingthesimplifiedmethod,areasfollows:
2.1Includealltheintakesbythedeclaredpregnantwomanatanytimeduringthegestationperiodinthecalculation
oftheembryo/fetusdose.
2.2Foringestedradionuclides,determinetheactivityuptakebythefirsttransfercompartment(blood)by
multiplyingtheintake(I)bytheappropriateuptakefactor(f1)fromAppendixB(adaptedfromFederalGuidance
ReportNo.11,Table3(Ref.4)).Theuptakefactor,f1,isthefractionofaningestedcompoundofaradionuclidethatis
transferredintothefirsttransfercompartment(i.e.,blooduptakefraction).
2.3Forinhaledradionuclides,determiningthefractionofinitialintakethatistransferredtothebloodinvolvesan
evaluationofthedepositioninthethreecompartmentsofthelungandthesubsequenttimedependenttransfertothe
bodyfluidsandtotheGItract.Unlessitisknownotherwise,itshouldbeassumedthatthetransferfromthelungto
bodyfluidsandfromlungtoGItracttobodyfluidsfollowstheICRP30(Ref.3)modeling(whichisthebasisforthis
guide).
2.4Forsimplicityandconservatisminthemodeling,thetotaluptakeintothebloodfromthematernalintakeis
assumedtobeinstantaneous.However,forradionuclideswithlungclearanceclassofW(10to100dayhalflife
clearance)orY(greaterthan100dayhalflifeclearance),theactualtranslocationfromthelunganduptakeinthe
bloodmayoccuroveratimeperiodthatexceedsthegestationperiod.Clearancefromthelungmaytakeupto
severalyears.Alltheinitiallydepositedmaterialisnotimmediatelyavailableforuptakebythefirsttransfer
compartment(blood).However,anincrementaltransferfromthelungtothebloodmaybeassessedbasedonthe
lungmodelasdescribedinICRPPublications30and19(Refs.3and5).2
Table1,adaptedfromthedatainFigure5.2ofICRP30(Ref.3),maybeusedfordeterminingthetotaltransferfrom
thelungtothefirsttransfercompartment(i.e.,blood),wheref1istheblooduptakefractionfromAppendixB.3The
lungclearanceclass(D,W,orY)foraparticularchemicalformofaparticularradionuclidemaybeobtainedfrom
AppendixBto10CFR20.100120.2401.
429
Table1
TransferFractionofInhaledActivitytoFirstTransferCompartment
Class
TransferFraction(TF)
0.46+0.15f1
0.12+0.51f1
0.05+0.58f1
2.5Basedonthedeterminationofthematernalintake,thedosetotheembryo/fetusfortheentiregestationperiod
shouldbecalculatedusingthefollowingequations:
Foringestionintakes:
DE=Iixf1,ixDF1
(Equation1)
Forinhalationintakes:
DE=IixTFixDF1
(Equation2)
where:
DE=doseequivalenttotheembryo/fetusfortheentiregestationperiodfromtheacuteintakesofallradionuclides
duringthegestationperiod(rem)
Ii=intakeofradionuclideibythedeclaredpregnantwomanatanytimeduringthegestationperiod(Ci)
DFi=dosefactorforuseinapproximatingthedoseequivalenttotheembryo/fetusfortheentiregestationperiod
fromtheintroductionofunitactivity(1Ci)intothematernalbloodatanytimeduringthegestationperiod,from
tabulardatapresentedinAppendixAtothisguide(rem/Ciinmaternalblood)
f1,i=thefractionofradionuclideireachingthebodyfluidsfollowingingestion(i.e.,thefractionofingestedactivityof
radionuclideithatenterstheblood),fromdatapresentedinAppendixBtothisguide
TFi=transferfractionofinhaledactivitytothefirsttransfercompartment(i.e.,thefractionofinhaledactivityof
radionuclideithatenterstheblood,seeTable1ofthisguide)
2.6Forpreexistingbodyburdens,thetotalburdendeterminedtoexistattimeofpregnancyshouldbeassumedtobe
availableforuptakeinthebloodofthewoman.Thedoseshouldbeassignedtotheembryo/fetusasifthematernal
blooduptakeoccurswithinthefirstmonthofpregnancy.Theembryo/fetusdoseiscalculatedbymultiplyingthe
maternalburdenoftheradionuclidebyitsdosefactorfromAppendixAusingtheequation:
DE=AixDF1
(Equation3)
where:
DE=doseequivalenttotheembryo/fetus
430
Ai=maternalburdenexistingattimeofpregnancy(Ci)
DFi=doseconversionfactor(AppendixA)
Thismethodprovidesasimplifiedandconservativeapproachforevaluatingthesignificanceofpreexisting
conditions.Iftheembryo/fetusislikelytoreceiveadoseinexcessof25%ofthelimitfrompreexistingburdens(i.e.,
greaterthan0.125rem(1.25mSv)),moredetailedmodelingshouldbeconsidered.4
2.7Dosesfrommultiplenuclidesormultipleintakesshouldbeevaluatedonafrequencycorrespondingtothe
determinationoftheintake.Multipledosedeterminationsshouldbeaddedtodeterminethetotaldose.Dosesmay
needtobereevaluatedifbetterestimatesofintakesareprovidedbyfollowupbioassaymeasurements.
iii) 3.DETERMININGGESTATIONTIMEDEPENDENTDOSETOTHE
EMBRYO/FETUSUSINGREVISION1TONUREG/CR5631METHODS
Asanalternativetothesimplifiedmethodspresentedabove,agestationtimedependentdosetotheembryo/fetus
maybecalculatedfortheradionuclidesaddressedinRevision1toNUREG/CR5631(Ref.2).Revision1to
NUREG/CR5631presentsdosimetricmethodsforcalculatingthedosetotheembryo/fetusfollowingthe
instantaneousintroductionofunitactivityintothefirsttransfercompartment(blood)ofthepregnantwomanat
successivestagesofgestation.Thesemethodsincludethecontributiontotheembryo/fetusdosefromtheresultant
bodyburdensofthedeclaredpregnantwomanandfromactivityintheembryo/fetusresultingfromtransferacross
theplacenta.RefertoRevision1toNUREG/CR5631(Ref.2)foradetaileddescriptionofthemodeling.
ThemethodsanddataofRevision1toNUREG/CR5631(Ref.2)maybeusedfordeterminingthedosetothe
embryo/fetusfrommaternalintakesatsuccessivestagesofgestationfortheradionuclides3H,14C,57Co,58Co,60Co,
89Sr,90Sr,106Ru,125I,131I,132I,133I,134I,135I,134Cs,137Cs,233U,234U,235U,238U,238Pu,239Pu,and241Am.
Thestepsfordeterminingtheembryo/fetusdoseusingtheRevision1toNUREG/CR5631(Ref.2)methodsareas
follows:
3.1ThemethodspresentedintheregulatorypositioninSections2.1through2.4shouldbeusedfordeterminingthe
uptakeinthefirsttransfercompartment(blood)ofthedeclaredpregnantwoman.
3.2Equations1and2oftheregulatorypositionspecifiedinSection2.5maybeusedfordeterminingthe
embryo/fetusdosewiththefollowingclarifications:
3.2.1ForEquations1and2,inplaceofthedosefactorparameter,DF,thedosevaluesshouldbetakenfrom
AppendixCtothisguideforthetimeperiodrepresentingthetimeofintakerelativetostageofgestation.Thedatain
AppendixCtothisguideareforanabsorbeddose(inrads)fromtheintroductionof1Cioftheradionuclideinto
thefirsttransfercompartment(blood)ofthewomanatthebeginningofthespecifiedmonthofgestation.Toconvert
fromanabsorbeddose(rad)toadoseequivalent(rem),thedatainAppendixCshouldbemultipliedbythe
appropriatequalityfactorfromTable1004(b).1of10CFRPart20.For3H,14C,57Co,58Co,60Co,89Sr,90Sr,106Ru,125I,
131I,132I,133I,134I,135I,134Cs,aqualityfactorof1shouldbeapplied.For233U,234U,235U,238U,238Pu,239Pu,and241Am,a
qualityfactorof20shouldbeapplied,recognizingthatmostoftheembryo/fetusdoseresultsfromalphadecay.
Forsomeradionuclides(e.g.,235U),ablooduptakeatthebeginningofthegestationperiodresultsinanegligibledose
contributiontotheembryo/fetus.TheseradionuclidesareidentifiedinthetablesinAppendixCtothisguidebyan
Nentryintherowforthe0dayofgestationatradionuclideintroduction(i.e.,thefirstrowofdosefactordata).For
anintakeoftheseradionuclideswithinthefirstmonthofgestation,atimeweighteddosefactorusingthesecond
monthdata(31dayrow)shouldbeused.The31daydosefactorshouldbemultipliedbythequotientofthedaysto
431
dateinthefirstgestationmonthattimeofintakedividedby30days.Forexample,assumingamaternalintakeof14C
resultingina1Ciblooduptakeonthe20thdayofthepregnancy,theembryo/fetusdoseshouldbedeterminedby
multiplyingthecumulateddosefromanintakeatday31(i.e.,TableC3,CumulatedDosecolumn,1.89E04rads)by
theratioof20daysto30days(i.e.,20dividedby30).
3.2.2Forusingthetabulardosedataincalculatingtheembryo/fetusdose,itmaybeassumedthatallintakes
occurringwithinanyofthe30dayperiodsofgestationoccuratthebeginningofthatperiod.5Thecumulateddose
columnshouldbeusedinordertodeterminethetotaldosefortheremainderofthegestationperiod.
3.2.3Forpreexistingbodyburdensfromoccupationalexposure,thetotalburdendeterminedtoexistattimeof
pregnancyshouldbeassumedtobeavailableforuptakeinthebloodofthewoman.Thedoseshouldbeassignedto
theembryo/fetusasifthematernalblooduptakeoccurswithinthefirstmonthofpregnancy.Theembryo/fetusdose
iscalculatedbymultiplyingthematernalburdenoftheradionuclidebyitsdosefactor(Equation3).Thedosefactor
tobeusedfromtheAppendixCtablesisthatfactorcorrespondingtothecumulateddosefora0dayofgestationat
radionuclideintroduction(i.e.,rightmostcolumn,firstdataentry).However,forthoseradionuclideswithanNfor
this0dayentry,theentryforthesecondgestationmonthshouldbeused(i.e.,therightmostcolumn,seconddata
entry).Alternatively,timedependentreleasekineticsmaybeusedforcalculatingthatfractionofthebodyburden
thatistranslocatedtothebloodthroughthedurationofthepregnancy.Thetimedependentreleaseisdescribedin
ICRPPublications30and54(Refs.3and6).Thisapproachiscomplex,involvinginterlinkingdifferentialequations,
andisconsideredoutsidethescopeofaroutinehealthphysicsprogram.
3.3Dosesfrommultiplenuclidesandmultipleintakesshouldbeevaluatedwithafrequencycorrespondingtothe
intake(i.e.,atleastonceevery30days).Multipledosedeterminationsshouldbeaddedtodeterminethetotaldose.
Dosesmayneedtobereevaluatedifbetterestimatesofintakesareprovidedbyfollowupbioassaymeasurements.
g) D.IMPLEMENTATION
ThepurposeofthissectionistoprovideinformationtoapplicantsandlicenseesregardingtheNRCstaffsplansfor
usingthisregulatoryguide.
Exceptinthosecasesinwhichanapplicantproposesanacceptablealternativemethodofcomplyingwithspecified
portionsoftheCommissionsregulations,themethodsdescribedinthisguidewillbeused
intheevaluationofapplicationsfornewlicenses,licenserenewals,andlicenseamendmentsandforevaluating
compliancewith10CFR20.100120.2401.
AppendixADoseEquivalentFactorsforUseinApproximatingTheEmbryo/fetusDosefromRadionuclidesin
MaternalBlood
AppendixBBloodUptakeFractionsforIngestedActivity
AppendixCRadiationAbsorbedDosetotheEmbryo/fetusFollowingIntroductionofSpecifiedRadionuclidesand
ChemicalFormsintotheMaternalTransferCompartment(Blood)
AppendixDExamplesofEmbryo/FetusDoseCalculations
h) REFERENCES
1.InternationalCommissiononRadiologicalProtection,AgeDependentDosestoMembersofthePublicfrom
IntakeofRadionuclides:Part1,ICRPNo.56,PergamonPressInc.,1989.
432
2.M.R.Sikovetal.,ContributionofMaternalRadionuclideBurdenstoPrenatalRadiationDosesInterim
Recommendations,NUREG/CR5631,Revision1(PNL7445),U.S.NuclearRegulatoryCommission,March1992.
3.InternationalCommissiononRadiologicalProtection,LimitsforIntakesofRadionuclidesbyWorkers,ICRPNo.
30,Parts1through4,includingsupplements,AnnalsoftheICRP,Volume2,No.3/4,PergamonPressInc.,1979.
4.K.F.Eckerman,A.B.Wolbarst,andA.C.B.Richardson,LimitingValuesofRadionuclideIntakeandAir
ConcentrationandDoseConversionFactorsforInhalation,Submersion,andIngestion,EnvironmentalProtection
Agency,FederalGuidanceReportNo.11(EPA520/188020),September1988.
5.InternationalCommissiononRadiologicalProtection,TheMetabolismofCompoundsofPlutoniumandOther
Actinides,ICRPNo.19,PergamonPressInc.,May1972.
6.InternationalCommissiononRadiologicalProtection,IndividualMonitoringforIntakeofRadionuclidesby
Workers:DesignandInterpretation,ICRPNo.54,AnnalsoftheICRP,Volume19,No.13,PergamonPressInc.,
1988.
Footnotes
1ThecommitteddoseequivalentfactorsfortheuteruspresentedinAppendixAwerecalculatedbasedonthe
modelingemployedduringthedevelopmentoftheICRP30(Ref.3)data.Itisrecognizedthatthemetabolismofthe
pregnantwomanmaynotbeadequatelyrepresentedbythestandardmetabolicmodel.However,partlybecauseof
thelackofmoredefinitivedata,thismodelinghasbeenusedfordeterminingthedosecommitmentfactorsforthe
uterusthatmaybeusedforevaluatingcompliancewiththeembryo/fetusdoselimit.
2AsmodeledinICRPPublications19and30,theclearancefromthedifferentlungcompartmentsisassumedto
followfirstorderkinetics.Thisapproachiscomplex,involvinginterlinkingdifferentialequations,andisconsidered
outsidethescopeofaroutineoperationalhealthphysicsprogram.
3ThecoefficientsforthetransferfractionequationsinTable1areapplicabletoparticleswitha1micrometeractivity
medianaerodynamicdiameter(AMAD).Asadefault,theseequationsmaybeusedforallparticlesizes.However,if
theactualparticlesizedistributionisknown,transferfractionsforotherAMADparticlesizesmaybederivedfrom
datainFigure5.2ofICRP30(Ref.3).
4Thisapproachforevaluatingpreexistingbodyburdensdoesnotspecificallyaddresstimedependentreleasesas
couldoccurforcertainradionuclideswithbothalongbiologicalretentionandradiologicalhalflife.However,the
assumptionofblooduptakeofthetotalburdeninthefirstmonthofthegestationperiodprovidesasimplemethod
withreasonableassurancethatanyactualdosetotheembryo/fetuswillnotbesignificantlyunderestimated.More
detailedevaluationsmaybeneededforunusualcircumstancesinwhichapreexistingbodyburdencouldpresenta
significantsourceofexposuretotheembryo/fetus.Anevaluationofthisnatureshouldbeconductedbyindividuals
knowledgeableintheareaofinternaldosimetry.Suchadetailedevaluationcouldconsidertheelementretention
functionsaspresentedinICRPPublications30and54(Refs.3and6).Also,themodelingpresentedinRevision1to
NUREG/CR5631(Ref.2)couldbeapplied.Thedetailsofthistypeofanevaluationarebeyondthetypesofanalyses
thatareconsideredroutinelyrequiredand,assuch,areoutsidethescopeofthisguide.
5Thecorrelationofintaketoactualstageofgestationcanonlyberoughlyestimated.Forthisreason,itisbelieved
thatthecorrelationshouldbelimitedtothebestestimateofthemonthofgestation.
433

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710 CFRPART19 ..................................................................................................................... 57

910CFRPART40 ................................................................................................................... 154

APPENDIXA:GLOSSARYOFTERMINOLOGY ............................................................. 386

public exhibition at Central Park in NY lets people use a fluoroscope to view

recommended treatmentfor accidentalentry ofplutonium into a cut orscratch

thorium, americium, uranium, and other radioactive elements still used, or

2. Does radiation interact within cell?

3. Does radiation (or radiation

4. Is the damage repaired

5. Is mis-repaired damage harmful?

6. Is damage lethal to cell?

7. Can damage cause cancer?

8. Will organism live long enough to

Cancer may develop

This procedure covers performance of required surveys for sealed sources

3.2.2 CALIBRATION CERTIFICATE Document certifying calibration.

3.2.3 CALIBRATION STICKER Sticker attached directly to instrument

3.2.4 CHECK SOURCE A sample of radioactive material in which the

3.2.5 PERFORMANCE CHECK A check of a radiation detection

3.2.6 REFERENCE STANDARD A sample of radioactive material,

3.2.7 QUALIFIED USER An individual that has demonstrated to

4.1.2 To prevent contamination of probes, avoid contact with the

4.1.3 Prior to returning an instrument for calibration, the instrument

4.2.1 The operation of the Model 12 depends on the condition of the

4.2.2 Calibration shall be performed annually, after maintenance is

4.2.4 Pancake GM Detectors shall be considered 10% efficient unless

Performs periodic surveillance of the use and

Ensures that the instrument is calibrated at specified

Notification to Health Physics Supervision of any

5.2.1 Health Physics Technicians shall be qualified in accordance with

6.2.1 Instrument Calibration shall be performed by an approved

6.2.2 The Calibration Certificate shall include as a minimum the

Note: A performance test must be performed on each probe for

CHECK SOURCE A sample of radioactive material in

REFERENCE STANDARD A sample of radioactive

3.3.3 ANSIN3231978, Radiation Protection Instrumentation Test and

4.1.3 Prior to returning an instrument for calibration, the instrument

4.2.2 This instrument shall be performance tested daily when in use in

5.2.1 Health Physics Technicians shall be qualified in accordance with

any of the following surveys: job coverage, air sampling analysis

6.2.1 Instrument Calibration shall be performed by an approved

6.2.2 The Calibration Certificate shall include as a minimum the

6.3.5 Perform a battery check by turning the selector switch to BAT

6.4.2 Electronic maintenance shall be performed by a Vendor company

6.4.3 Records of Maintenance shall be maintained with the calibration

6.4.4 All maintenance shall be performed in accordance with the

6.4.5 When the instrument is repaired, the HP Supervisor or designee

Contamination. Deposition of radioactive material in any place it is not

Contamination may be a result of the presence of

Fixed Contamination. Radioactive contamination that is not readily

Minimum Detectable Activity (MDA). For purposes of this procedure,

activity that will yield a net count with a 95% confidence

background count rate of the counting system

Release for Unconditional Use. A level of radioactive material that is

purposes of protecting individuals against undue risks from exposure to

and radioactive materials. Restricted Area does not include

residential quarters, but separate rooms in a

When using a sandblasting method of decontamination,

When using vacuums, the machine may become

The maximum probe speed of instruments used during

Signature approval to release material or

Adhere to other procedures referred to in this