INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES Volume 2, No 1, 2011

Copyright 2010 All rights reserved Integrated Publishing Association

Research article

ISSN 0976 4402

Water quality indices used for surface water vulnerability assessment

Bharti N, Katyal.D
University School of Environment Management, G.G.S.Indrapratha University, Dwarka,
New Delhi, India
deeksha_dce@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
Assessment of water quality can be defined as the analysis of physical, chemical and
biological characteristics of water. Water quality indices aim at giving a single value to the
water quality of a source reducing great amount of parameters into a simpler expression and
enabling easy interpretation of monitoring data. In this study, various water quality indices
(WQI) used for assessing surface water quality are discussed. As different National and
International Agencies involved in water quality assessment and pollution control defines
water quality criteria for different uses of water considering different indicator parameters, so
there are numerous WQI specific to any region or area. An attempt to cover all different
water quality indices developed worldwide, their background and application area has been
made here. In this context, this paper displays a comparative study of many indices and
detailed out eight WQIs perceived as simple, basic and most important indices for water
quality assessment. Their mathematical structure, set of parameters, calculation, aggregation
formula and flaws have also been detailed out.
Keywords: Surface water quality; parameters; water quality index; sub-indices; aggregation
formula.
1. Introduction
Assessment of surface water quality can be a complex process undertaking multiple
parameters capable of causing various stresses on overall water quality. To evaluate water
quality from a large number of samples, each containing concentrations for many parameters
is difficult (Almeida et al. 2007). To analyze water quality, different approaches like
statistical analyses of individual parameter, multi-stressors water quality indices, etc have
been considered (Venkatesharaju et al. 2010). Numerous water quality indices have been
formulated all over the world which can easily judge out the overall water quality within a
particular area promptly and efficiently. For example, US National Sanitation Foundation
Water Quality Index (NSFWQI) (Sharifi 1990), Canadian Council of Ministers of the
Environment Water Quality Index (CCMEWQI) (Lumb 2006), British Columbia Water
Quality Index (BCWQI), and Oregon Water Quality Index (OWQI)(Debels et al. 2005;
Kannel et al. 2007; Abbasi 2002). These indices are based on the comparison of the water
quality parameters to regulatory standards and give a single value to the water quality of a
source (Khan et al. 2003; Abbasi 2002).
Through this paper, , an effort has been made to carry out a review of important indices used
in water quality assessment and to display updated information about indices composition
and structure using a comparative and evaluative analysis among these indices.

Received on July 2011 Published on September 2011

154

Water quality indices used for surface water vulnerability assessment

2. Surface water vulnerability assessment techniques

2.1 Water Quality Index method
Water quality indices are tools to determine conditions of water quality and, like any other
tool require knowledge about principles and basic concepts of water and related issues
(Nikbakht, 2004). It is a well-known method of expressing water quality that offers a stable
and reproducible unit of measure which responds to changes in the principal characteristics of
water (Brown et al, 1972).
WQI is a mechanism for presenting a cumulatively derived numerical expression defining a
certain level of water quality (Bordalo et al. 2006). In other words, WQI summarizes large
amounts of water quality data into simple terms (e.g., excellent, good, bad, etc.) for reporting
to management and the public in a consistent manner.
2.2 History of Water Quality Indices
Attempts to categorize water according to its degree of purity date back to the mid-twentieth
century (Horton, 1965; Landwehr, 1974). Horton selected 10 most commonly measured
water quality variables for his index including dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, coliforms,
specific conductance, alkalinity, and chloride. The index weight ranged from 1 to 4 and the
index score was obtained with a linear sum aggregation function. The function consisted of
the weighted sum of the sub-indices divided by the sum of the weights and was multiplied by
two coefficients M1 and M2, reflecting temperature and obvious pollution, respectively.
Horton's pioneering effort has been followed up by several workers to formulate various
WQIs and their use has been strongly advocated by agencies responsible for water supply
and control of water pollution (Debels et al. 2005; Kannel et al. 2007; Abbasi 2002).
Dinius (1972) made an attempt to design a rudimentary social accounting system which
would measure the costs and impact of pollution control efforts and applied that index on an
illustrative basis to data on several streams in Alabama, USA. Like Hortons index, it had
decreasing scale, with values expressed as a percentage of perfect water quality
corresponding to 100%. Another multiplicative water quality index specifically designed for
decisison making was developed by Dinius (1987) using index method introduced by
Delphi(Helmer & Rescher 1959, Dalkey & Helmer 1963, Abbasi & Arya 2000) have also
introduce changes to Delphi method(Dalkey 1968).
Lately, Brown and co-workers presented a WQI similar to Hortons index (Brown et al.
1972). He proposed multiplicative form of the index where weights to individual parameters
were assigned based on a subjective opinion based on the judgement and critical analysis of
the author. The weight assigned reflected a parameters significance for a use and had
considerable impact on the index. Later on similar indices have been formulated by Bhargava
and dwivedi.(Bhargava et al. 1998; Dwivedi et al. 1997; Bhargava 2006, Devpura, Haridwar).
Various researchers have considered similar approaches which brought changes to the
methodology depending on the usage and parameters under consideration. Prati et al. (1971)
considered 13 different parameters of equal weight in their system (Bolton, 1978). Values of
these parameters are rated from 0 to 13 with values more than 8 denoting heavy pollution.
Inhaber (1975), however, developed a system based on two distinct sub-indices. The first of
these dealt with industrial and domestic wastes and the second with background water quality.
Bharti N, Katyal.D
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 2 No.1, 2011

155

Water quality indices used for surface water vulnerability assessment

By introducing different parameters to the two sub-indices they are given equal weighting
and are averaged to give the WQI which can range from 0 for best water quality to
increasingly large numbers for worse quality.
Dee et al. (1972, 1973) proposed a system for evaluating the environmental impact of large
scale water resources projects. The system included 12 variables (such as DO pH, turbidity,
and fecal coliforms), besides pesticides and toxic substances. The index was calculated with
and without considering the proposed water resources project. The difference between the
two scores provided a measure of the environmental impact (EI) of project.
An entirely different system which does not rely on rating curves and weightings has been
used by Harkins (1974, 1977). In this system the values are given numerical rankings in
relation to selected control values for different parameters. The information is then used to
compute the standardized distance from the control values for each parameter to produce an
index.
Walski and Parker (1974) gave index based on empirical information on the suitability of
water for a particular use specifically for the recreational water. The sensitivity functions
were determined to assign each parameter a value between one and zero, representing ideal
conditions and completely unacceptable conditions respectively. For substances that are
inversely related to water quality a negative exponential curve was thought to best represent
the sensitivity function. The sub-indices consist of nonlinear and segmented nonlinear
explicit functions. To aggregate the sub-indices, a geometric mean was employed.
Steinhart et al. (1982) applied a new environmental quality index to summarize technical
information on the status of, and trends in Great Lakes Ecosystem. In Canada, the water
quality index was introduced in mid 90s by Water Quality Guidelines Task Group of the
Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (Rocchini and Swain, 1995; Dunn, 1995;
Hebert, 1996). Newly developed CCMEWQI has been employed by various provinces and
Ecosystems all across Canada to assess water quality (CCME, 2001a,b; Cash et al., 2001;
Husain, 2001; Sharma, 2002; Lumb et al., 2002; Khan et al., 2003; Paterson et al., 2003).
These indices have been the product of efforts and research development from governmental
agencies in different strata, as well as from masters' and doctorate research. There are various
water quality indices (WQI) to compare various physicochemical and biological parameters
(Pandey and Sundaram 2002; Chetana and Somashekar 1997; Ram and Anandh 1996) which
have been discussed in the upcoming sections.
2.3 Comparison of WQI
Among the first prominent comparisons of water quality indices were Landwehr & Deininger
(1976), followed by Ott (1978), who revised water quality indices used in the USA, besides
publishing a detailed discussion about the practices and theories of environmental indices.
Steinhart et al. (1981) also reviewed more than 20 water quality indices being used till late
seventies. In Europe contributions have come from van Helmond and Breukel (1997), who
demonstrated that at least 30 water quality indices are of common use around the world.
Cooper et al (1994) and Richardson (1997), in South Africa and Australia respectively, have
also been occupied in for generating indices for estuaries. In Central America work of
Montoya (1997) and Len (1998) is evident.
Bharti N, Katyal.D
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 2 No.1, 2011

156

Water quality indices used for surface water vulnerability assessment

Almost all water quality indices depends upon normalizing, data parameter by parameter
according to expected concentrations and interpretation of good versus bad concentrations.
Then parameters are weighted according to their perceived importance to overall water
quality and the index is calculated as the weighted average of all observations of interest (e.g.,
Pesce and Wunderlin, 2000; Stambuk-Giljanovic, 1999; Sargaonkar and Deshpande, 2003;
Liou et al., 2004; Tsegaye et al., 2006). Summary of these indices is given in Table 1.
Table 1: Summary of water quality indices developed on a national or global level
Index
The Scatterscore
index

Objective
Water quality

Method
Assesses increases or decreases in
parameters over time and space

The Well-being
of Nations

Human and
Ecosystem

Assesses human indices against

ecosystem indices

Environmental
Performance
Index

Environment
al health and
ecosystem
vitality
River health

Uses a proximity-to-target measure for

sixteen indices categorized into six
policy objectives

Index of River
Water Quality
Overall Index of
Pollution

River health

Chemical Water
Quality Index

Lake basin

Water Quality
Index for
Freshwater Life

Inland waters

Uses multiplicative aggregate function

of standardized scores for a number of
water quality parameters
Assessment and classification of a
number of water quality parameters by
comparing observations against Indian
standards and/or other accepted
guidelines e.g. WHO
Assesses a number of water quality
parameters by standardizing each
observation to the maximum
concentration for each parameter
Assesses quality of water against
guidelines for freshwater life

Author
Kim and
Cardone
(2005)
PrescottAllen
(2001)
Levy et al.
(2006)
Liou et al.
(2004)
Sargaonka
r and
Deshpand
e (2003)
Tsegaye et
al. (2006)
CCME
(2001)

Pesce and Wunderlin (2000) compared the performance of three water quality indices on the
Suqua River in Argentina. Then objective and subjective indices were computed as a
function of the normalized values, weights were assigned, and, in the case of the subjective
index, a constant that represented the visual impression of the contamination level of a
monitoring station. A third minimal index was calculated as the average of the normalized
values for three parameters only. The study concluded that the third minimal index was well
correlated to the objective index, and that both water quality indices were generally correlated
to the measured concentrations of different parameters.
In a similar study, Stambuk-Giljanovik (2003) compared the performance of several water
quality indices on Croatian waters. These indices were similar to the objective index used in
Argentina. Findings were that the two modified arithmetic indices were best suited for
discriminating sites according to water quality condition.
Bharti N, Katyal.D
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 2 No.1, 2011

157

Water quality indices used for surface water vulnerability assessment

Liou et al. (2004) developed an index of river water quality in Taiwan selecting some nine
parameters and giving them standardized scores based on predetermined rating curves. The
index relies on the geometric means of the standardized scores.
Kim and Cardone (2005) developed a Scatterscore index that evaluates changes in water
quality over time and space. It does not rely on water quality standards or guidelines and can
include an unlimited number of parameters. It was developed primarily to detect positive or
negative changes in water quality around mining sites in the United States, but it could be
applied to non-impacted sites as well.
Tsegaye et al. (2006) developed a chemical water quality index based on data from 18
streams in one lake-basin in northern Alabama that aggregates the concentration of seven
parameters after standardizing each observation to the maximum concentration for each
parameter.
In general, water quality indices are divided into five main groups (Sobhani, 2003):a. Public indices: these indices ignore the kind of water consumption in the evaluation
process, such as NSFWQI, Horton (Ott, 1978) (Horton, 1965).
b. Specific consumption indices: Here, the classification of water is on the basis of the kind
of consumption and application (drinking, industrial, ecosystem preservation, etc). The
most important and applicable of these indices are the Oregon and British Columbia
indices (DEQ, 2003).
c. Statistical indices: In these indices statistical methods are used and personal opinions are
not considered.
d. Designing indices: This category is an instrument, aiding decision making and planning
in water quality management projects.
3. Review of some important WQI
Cude (2001) stated that revisions of these WQIs is of great interest as various studies have
demonstrated new approaches and provided new tools for the development of other indices
(Dinius,1987; Kung et al., 1992; Dojlido et al.,1994). After a detailed literature review and
going through all of the different types of water quality indices, the ones which are most
commonly used and perceived as important are discussed here in detail because covering all
WQIs in this paper is out of our reach.
A. Canadian Council of Ministers of Environment (CCMEWQI)
CCMEWQI compares observations to a benchmark instead of normalizing observed values to
subjective rating curves, where the benchmark may be a water quality standard or site
specific background concentration (CCME, 2001; Khan et al., 2003; Lumb et al., 2006). So,
this acts as an advantage of the index which can be applied by the water agencies in different
countries with little modification. To categorize water quality under this, four categories have
been suggested i.e. Excellent, Good, Fair and Poor. Calculating index scores (Khan et al.
2004)

Find F1: the number of variables whose objectives are not met (scope)
F1= [No. of failed variables /Total no of variables]*100
Find F2: the frequency by which the objectives are not met (frequency)
Bharti N, Katyal.D
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 2 No.1, 2011

158

Water quality indices used for surface water vulnerability assessment

F2= [No of failed tests/Total no of tests]*100

Find F3: the amount by which the objectives are not met (amplitude)
(a) excursioni = [Failed test value/Objectivej ]-1
(b) nse =
/No of tests
(c) F3= [nse/0.01nse+0.01]
CCMEWQI

A recent study (Lumb et al. 2006) demonstrated that by using different CCME WQI
protocols and sensitivity analyses, the specific problematic parameters that may be
contributing towards lowering the index values can be identified.
B. National Sanitation Foundation (NSFWQI)
Brown et al. (1970) developed a water quality index paying great rigor in selecting
parameters, developing a common scale, and assigning weights for which elaborate Delphic
exercises were performed. This effort was supported by the National Sanitation Foundation
(NSF) and that is why also referred as NSFWQI. This work seems to be the most
comprehensive and has been discussed in various papers (Brown et al, 1972; Landwehr &
Deininger, 1976). Rating curves were developed by asking the experts to attribute values for
variation in the level of water quality caused by different levels of each of the selected
parameters (Sharifi, 1990).
Having established the rating curves and associated weights, various methods of computing a
water quality index are possible, like
1) Additive index1)
Where,
sub-indices.

, Ii= Sub-index of each parameters, Wi= Weighting factor, n= Number of

C. British Columbia (BCWQI)

British Columbia water quality index was developed by the Canadian Ministry of
Environment in 1995 as increasing index to evaluate water quality. This index is similar to
CCMEWQI where water quality parameters are measured and their violation is determined
by comparison with a predefined limit. It provides possibility to make a classification on the
basis of all existing measurement parameters.
To calculate final index value the following equation is used:
BCWQI =

The number 1.453 was selected to give assurance to the scale index number from zero to 100.
It is important to note that repeated samplings and increasing stations increase the accuracy of
British Columbia index. Disadvantages of this method are that this index does not indicate
the water quality trend until it deviates from the standard limit and due to usage of maximum
percentage of deviation, it cannot determine the number of withdrawals above the maximum
limit of standard (Salim et al,2009).
Bharti N, Katyal.D
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 2 No.1, 2011

159

Water quality indices used for surface water vulnerability assessment

D. Oregon (OWQI)
OWQI expresses water quality by integrating measurements of eight water quality variables.
It provided the ambient water quality of Oregon's streams for general recreational use and its
application to other geographic regions or water body types should be approached with
caution (Cude, 2001). The science of water quality has improved markedly since the
introduction of the OWQI in the 1970s (Dunnette, 1979). Extensive literature review shows
that since 1978, index developers have benefited from increasing understanding of stream
functionality (Dinius, 1987; Stoner, 1978; Yu and Fogel, 1978; Joung et al., 1979; Bhargava,
1983; Smith, 1990; Kung et al., 1992; Dojlido et al., 1994). The original OWQI was modeled
after the NSFWQI (McClelland, 1974) where the Delphi method was used for variable
selection (Dalkey, 1968). Both indices used logarithmic transforms to convert water quality
variable results into subindex values. Logarithmic transforms take advantage of the fact that a
change in magnitude at lower levels of impairment has a greater impact than an equal change
in magnitude at higher levels of impairment.
1. The original OWQI used a weighted arithmetic mean function.
2. The NSF WQI (McClelland, 1974) used a weighted geometric mean function
WQI =
The unweighted harmonic square mean formula, as a method to aggregate sub-index results,
has been suggested as an improvement over both the weighted arithmetic mean geometric
mean formula (Dojlido et al., 1994). This formula allows the most impaired variable to
impart the greatest influence on the water quality index and acknowledges that different
water quality variables will pose differing significance to overall water quality at different
times and locations. The formula is given by:
WQI=

E. Overall Index of Pollution (OIP)

Sargaonkar and Deshpande (2003) developed OIP for Indian rivers based on measurements
and subsequent classification of pH, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, BOD, hardness, total
dissolved solids, total coliforms, arsenic, and fluoride. Each water quality observation was
scored as Excellent, Acceptable, Slightly Polluted, Polluted, and Heavily Polluted, according
to Indian standards and/or other accepted guidelines and standards such as World Health
Organization and European Community Standards. Once categorized, each observation was
assigned a pollution index value and the OIP was calculated as the average of each index
value given by the mathematical expression:
OIP=
th
Where Pi = pollution index for i parameter, n = number of parameters.
F. Bhargava method
To develop this index, Bhargava (1985) identified 4 groups of parameters. Each group
contained sets of one type of parameters. The first group included the concentrations of
coliform organisms to represent the bacterial quality of drinking water. The second group
included toxicants, heavy metals, etc. The third group included parameters that cause
Bharti N, Katyal.D
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 2 No.1, 2011

160

Water quality indices used for surface water vulnerability assessment

physical effects, such as odor, color, and turbidity. The fourth group included the inorganic
and organic nontoxic substances such as chloride, sulfate, etc. The sub-indices were worked
out and the simplified model for WQI for a beneficial use is given by:
WQI
where n is the number of variables considered more relevant to the use and fi(Pi) is the
sensitivity function of the ith variable which includes the effect of weighting of the ith
variable in the use. The index was applied to the raw water quality data at the upstream and
downstream of river Yamuna at Delhi, India.
G. Smiths index
Smith (1987) developed an index for four water uses i.e., contact as well as non-contact. It is
a hybrid of the two common index types and is based on expert opinion as well as water
quality standards. The selection of parameters for each water class, developing sub indices,
and assigning weightages were all done using Delphi. The minimum operator technique was
used to obtain the final index score:
Imin = min (Isub1, Isub2, . Isubn )
Where, Imin equals the lowest sub index value.
H. The River Ganga Index of Ved Prakash et al (1990)
The index was developed to evaluate the water quality profile of river Ganga in its entire
stretch. The index had the weighted multiplication form and was based on the NSFWQI, with
slight modifications in terms of weightages to confirm to the water quality criteria for
different categories of uses as set by Central Water Pollution Board, India.
4. Conclusion
After a thorough study of the above mentioned water quality indices, Table 2 containing
indices, sub-indices, their aggregation formula and flaws has been prepared. It has been
concluded that NSF, Bhargava, OIP, Oregon and Ved prakash indices which uses the
weighted arithmetic average (Stojda & Dojlido, 1983) and the modified weighted sum
(Couillard & Lefebvre, 1985) provided the best results for the indexation of the general water
quality. Similarly, the weighted geometrical average has been widely used, especially where
there is a great variability among samples.
A very general flaw has been noticed in NSFWQI is eclipsing which occurs when at least one
sub-index reflects poor water quality as explained below:
I = w1 I1 + (1 - w1) I2
In situations such as the ones arising when I1 = 50 and I2 = 110 with w1 and both w2 = 0.5,
gives I = 80. In other words the overall score indicates acceptable water quality even though
one of the constituents as reflected in I2 was above the permissible limit of 100. Here, the
index score 'hides' the unacceptable level of one or more constituent parameters.
The minimum operator i.e. the Smiths index appears to be a good candidate for aggregating
decreasing scale sub-indices. Moreover, eclipsing does not occur with this aggregation
method.
When it is important to considerer low values, it is better to use the harmonic mean or its
square (Cude, 2001). The latter which is used in CCME and BCWQI is the most sensible
Bharti N, Katyal.D
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 2 No.1, 2011

161

Water quality indices used for surface water vulnerability assessment

method in a data set with low values, because these take more weight than those with high
values. Both of them are interesting case to be considered, because of the integration of three
factors, these factors are taken in account on the data and their relation to the objectives. With
this concept focusing on the objectives, the agents must worry more in improving the
environmental conditions.
Table 2: An overview of types of indices, their sub-indices, aggregation functions and flaws
Index
CCME
British
Columbia
NSF

Subindices
Formula
Formula

Aggregation function
Harmonic Square sum
Harmonic Square sum

Implicit nonlinear

Weighted sum

OIP

Weighted Average

Smith
Bhargava
Oregon

Segmented
nonlinear
Multiple types
Multiple types
Nonlinear

Ved prakash

Multiple types

Minimum operator
Weighted product
Weighted product (arithmetic /
geometric ),
Unweighted Harmonic Square Mean
Weighted product

Flaws
Eclipsing
region
-

Finally, to recognize a unique water quality index for assessing surface water quality of any
nation or area with a definitive solution is very difficult. However each institution, agency or
researcher should to try to develop a unique method applicable to that particular region and
worldwide also.
5. References
1. Abbasi, S.A., (2002), Water quality indices, state of the art report, National Institute of
Hydrology, scientific contribution no. INCOH/SAR-25/2002, Roorkee: INCOH, pp 73.
2. Ahmed, S., David, K.S. and Gerald, S., (2004), Environmental assessment: An innovation
index for evaluation water quality in streams, Environment Management., 34 pp 406-414.
3. APHA (1989), Standards Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 17th
edition, Washington, D.C.: APHA, AWWA, WPFC.
4. APHA (2005), Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water, 21st
edition, American Public Health Association, Washington, DC., USA.
5. Bagde, U.S, Verma, A.K., (1985), Limnological studies of JNU lake, New Delhi. Proc
National Sump Pure and Applied Limnology,32, pp 16-23.
6. BCWQI (1996), Ministry of Environment, Lands, and Parks: The Water Quality Section,
British Columbia Water Quality Status Report, April, Victoria, BC.

Bharti N, Katyal.D
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 2 No.1, 2011

162

Water quality indices used for surface water vulnerability assessment

7. Beldowski, J. and Pempkowiak, J., (2007), Mercury transformations in marine coastal

sediments as derived from mercury concentration and speciation changes along
source/sink transport pathway (Southern Baltic), Estuarine coastal and shelf science, 72,
pp 370-378.
8. Beron P., Valiquette L., Patry G. and Briere F., (1982), Water quality indices, Trib.
Cebedeau, 35, pp 385391.
9. Bhargava, D. S., (1983), Use of a Water Quality Index for River Classification and
Zoning of the Ganga River, Environmental Pollution (Series B), 6, pp 51-67.
10. Bhargava, D.S., (1987), Nature and the Ganga, Environment Conservation, 14, pp 307318.
11. Bhargava, D. S, Saxena, B. S., and Dewakar, (1998), A study of geo-pollutants in the
Godavary river basin in India, Asian Environment, IOS press, pp 3659.
12. Bhujangaiah, N. S. and Nayak, V.P., (2005), Study of ground water quality in and around
Shimoga city, Karnataka, Journal of Indian Council of Chemists, 22(1), pp 4247.
13. Bolton P.W., (1978), An index to improve water quality classification, Water Pollution
Control, pp 271-284.
14. Bordalo, A. A., Teixeira, R., and Wiebe, W. J., (2006), A water quality index applied to
an international shared river basin: The case of the Douro River, Environmental
Management, 38, pp 910920.
15. Brabander, K. de., (1992), Comparing biological and chemical parameters as
complementary tools for the management of river water quality. In: Newman, P.J., et al.
(eds), River Water Quality, ecological assessment and control, EEC-publication EUR
14606 EN-FR.
16. Brown, R. M., McLelland, N.I., Deininger, R. A. and O'Connor, M.F., (1972), A water
quality index - crashing the psychological barrier, Indicators of Environmental Quality.
17. Burden, F. R., Mc Kelvie, I., Forstner, U., and Guenther, A., (2002), Environmental
Monitoring Handbook, Mc graw- Hill handbooks, New York, pp 3.13.21.
18. Buszewski, B. and Kowalkowski, T., (2003), Polands environment past, present and
future state of the environment in the Vistula and Odra river basins, Environmental
Science and Pollution Research, 10, pp 343-349.
19. Buyan, K.C., (2005), Multivariate Analysis and its applications, New Central Book
Agency pvt. Ltd. Publication, pp 1-2.
20. Cash, K. J., Saffran, K. A. and Wright, C. R., (2001), Application of Canadian Water
Quality Index to PPWB Monitoring Program, Technical Report, CCME, March 2001.

Bharti N, Katyal.D
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 2 No.1, 2011

163

Water quality indices used for surface water vulnerability assessment

21. CCME (2001), Canadian environmental quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic
life, CCME water quality index: technical report, 1.0.
22. CCME (2003), Water Quality Index Workshop, November 2425, Halifax, NS, Canada
Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, Winnipeg, MB. Available from:
http://www.ccme.ca/initiatives/water.html.
23. CCME (2005), Canadian Environmental Sustainability Indicators, Freshwater Quality
Indicator: Data Sources and Methods. Catalogue no. 16-256-XIE Available from:
http://www.statcan.ca/bsolc/english/bsolc?catno=16-256-XIE#formatdisp.
24. Chetana, S.A. and Somashekar, R. K., (1997), Evaluation of water quality index of the
river Cauvery and its tributaries, Current science (Current Science Association and Indian
Academy of Science, Bangalore), 72(9), pp 640646.
25. Cooper, J. A. G., Ramm, A. E. L. and Harrison, T. D., (1994), The Estuarine Health
Index: A New Approach to Scientific Information Transfer, Ocean & Coastal
Management, 25, pp 103-141.
26. Couillard, D. and Lefebvre, Y., (1985), Analysis of Water Quality Indices, Journal of
Environmental Management, 21, pp 161-179.
27. CPCB, ADSORBS/3: 19781979, Scheme for Zoning and Classification of Indian
Rivers: Estuaries and Coastal Waters.
28. CPCB, ADSORBS/32: 19992000, Water Quality Status of Yamuna River, Assessment
and Development of River Basin, CPCB Report.
29. Cude, C. G., (1999), The McKenzie Watershed Water Quality Report, June 1999, Oregon
Department of Environmental Quality, Portland, Oregon.
30. Cude, C., (2001), Oregon water quality index: A tool for evaluating water quality
management effectiveness, Journal of the American Water Resources Assessment, 37, pp
125137.
31. Cude, C., (2003), Oregon Department of Environment Quality, Laboratory Division,
Oregon EQ. Available from: http://www.deq.state.or.us/lab/wqi/wqindex.htm.
32. Dalkey, N. C., (1968), DELPHI, The Rand Corporation.
33. Das, J., Das, S.N, Sahoo, R.K., (1997), Semidiurnal variation of some physico-chemical
parameters in the Mahanadi estuary, East Cost of India. Indian Jounal Marine Sciences,
26, pp 323-326.
34. Das, J. and Acharya, B.C., (2003), Hydrology and Assessment of Lotic Water Quality in
Cuttack City, India, Water, Air and Soil Pollution, 150, pp 163-175.
35. De, A. K., (2003), Environmental chemistry, 5th edition, New Age International
Publisher: New Delhi , pp 190, 215, 242244.
Bharti N, Katyal.D
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 2 No.1, 2011

164

Water quality indices used for surface water vulnerability assessment

36. Debels, P., Figueroa, R., Urrutia, R., Barra, R., and Niell, X., (2005), Evaluation of water
quality in the Chillan River (Central Chile) using physicochemical parameters and a
modified water quality index, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 110, pp 301
322.
37. Deepa, V. J., (2004), A study of water quality and dissolved trace metal variations in river
Godavari at Rajahmundury, Thesis (M. Tech), Dept. of Chemical Engineering, NITK,
Surathkal, Deemed University, India, pp 4, 5, 8, 9, 15 18.
38. DEQ (2003), The Oregon Department of Environmental Quality. Available from: http://
www.deq.state.or .us/ lab/ WQM/ WQI/ Wqi main.htm.
39. Dice, L. R., (1945), Measures of the amount of Ecological Association between Species,
Ecology, 26, pp 297-302.
40. Dinius, S. H., (1987), Design of an Index of Water Quality, Water Resources Bulletin,
23(5), pp 833-843.
41. Dojlido, J. R, Raniszewski J. and Woyciechowska J., (1994), Water Quality Index
Applied to Rivers in the Vistula River Basin in Poland, Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment, 33, pp 33-42.
42. Dunn, G. W., (1995), Trends in Water Quality Variables at the Alberta/Saskatchewan
Boundary, Prepared for the Committee on Water Quality.
43. Dunnette, D. A., (1979), A Geographically Variable Water Quality Index Used in Oregon,
Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation, 51(1), pp 53-61.
44. Dwivedi, S., Tiwari, I. C., and Bhargava, D. S., (1997), Water quality of the river Ganga
at Varanasi, Institute of Engineers, Kolkota, 78, pp 14.
45. Esty D. C., Levy M.A., Srebotnjak T., de Sherbinin A., Kim C.H. and Anderson B.,
(2006), Pilot 2006 Environmental Performance Index, New Haven: Yale Center for
Environmental Law & Policy.
46. European Council (1991), Consolidated text produced by the CONSLEG system of the
office for official publications of the European Communities. Council Directive of 16
June 1975 concerning the quality required of surface water intended for the abstraction of
drinking water in the Member States (75/440/EEC), Office for Official Publications of the
European Communities.
47. Faisal, K., Tahir, H. and Ashok, L., (2003), Water quality evaluation and trend analysis in
selected watersheds of the Atlantic region of Canada, Environment Monitoring
Assessment, 88, pp 221-248.
48. Fintajsl, C. J., (1970), Water Quality (Notes on Lectures), International Standards for
Drinking Water in Tehran, Institute of Hydrosciences and Water Resources Technology
(WQIHSR), 53, pp 45.
Bharti N, Katyal.D
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 2 No.1, 2011

165

Water quality indices used for surface water vulnerability assessment

49. Gangadhara Bhat, H., (1992), Geology, Geomorphology and Littoral processes of a part
of Dakshina Kannada coast through remote sensing A study, Thesis (Ph.D.) Mangalore
University, India, pp 610, 7780.
50. Girija TR, Mahanta C, and Chandramouli V., (2007), Water quality assessment of an
untreated effluent impacted urban stream: the Bharalu Tributary of the Brahmaputra
River, India, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 130, pp 221236.
51. Govindraj S, Selvaraj D, Kuppuraj RM, and Rangaswamy M., (2009), Water quality in
select regions of Cauvery Delta River basin, Southern India, with emphasis on monsoonal
variation, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment.
52. Guidelines for Protection of Aquatic Life Guidance for SiteSpecific Application of
Water Quality Guidelines in Canada and Procedures for Deriving Numerical Water
Quality Objectives.
53. Hallock, D., (1990), Results of the 1990 water Quality Index Analysis, Washington
Department of Ecology, Washington.
54. Harkins, R. D., (1974), An objective water quality index, Journal of Water Pollution
Control Federation, 46(7), pp 588.
55. Harkins, R. D., (1977), Discussion of a comparison of several water quality indices,
Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation, 47, pp 337.
56. Harrison, T.D., Cooper, J.A.G. and Ramm, A.E.L., (2000), Water quality and aesthetics
of South African estuaries, Department of Environment Affairs and Tourism, South
Africa, Available from: www.environment.gov.za/soer/reports/ehi/ehi_ch4.pdf.
57. Hayal B, and Hiilya B., (2009), Detection of Seasonal variations in surface water quality
using Discriminant analysis. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment.
58. Hirsch, R. M, Slack J. R. and Smith R. A., (1982), Techniques of Trend Analysis for
Monthly Water Quality Data, Water Resources Research, 18 pp 107-121.
59. Horton, R. K., (1965), An index number system for rating water quality, Journal of Water
Pollution Control Federation, 37(3), pp 300306.
60. House, M. A., (1989), A water quality index for river management, Journal of the
Institute of Water & Environmental Management, 3, pp 336-344.
61. Husain, T., (2001), Canadian Water Quality Index Determination for Three EMAN Sites,
Ecological Monitoring and Assessment Network, EC, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington,
Canada, L7R 4A6.
62. Indian Standard Specification for Drinking Water (1983), IS-10500-1983, Indian
Standards Institution, New Delhi, Gr. 6.
63. Inhaber, H., (1975), An approach to a water quality index for Canada, Journal of Water
Resources, 5, pp 821.
Bharti N, Katyal.D
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 2 No.1, 2011

166

Water quality indices used for surface water vulnerability assessment

64. ISI (1983), Indian Standard: Specification for Drinking Water. Indian Standards
Institution, New Delhi: India.
65. ISI (1991), Drinking Water Specifications, Indian Standard Institute, New Delhi.
66. Jayaprakash, R. I., (1988), A study of the environmental biology of Netravathi river
system, Thesis (Ph.D.) Mangalore University, pp 17, 914, 1620, 2527, 3032, 106
107,113114.
67. Joung, H. M, Miller W. W, Mahannah C. N. and Guitjens J. C., (1979), A Generalized
Water Quality Index Based on Multivariate Factor Analysis, Journal of Environmental
Quality, 8(1), pp 95-100.
68. Kannel, P. R., Lee, S., Lee, Y. S., Kanel, S. R., and Khan, S. P., (2007), Application of
water quality indices and dissolved oxygen as indicators for river water classification and
urban impact assessment, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 132, pp 93110.
69. Kazi T.G., Arain M.B., Jamali M.K., Jalbani N., Afridi H.I., Sarfraz R.A., Baig J.A., and
Shah A.Q., (2009), Assessment of water quality of polluted lake using multivariate
statistical techniques: A case study, Ecotox. Environmental Safety, 72(20), pp 301-309.
70. Khan, A. A., Paterson, R. & Khan, H., (2003), Modification and Application of the
CCME WQI for the Communication of Drinking Water Quality Data in Newfoundland
and Labrador, Presented at 38th, Central Symposium on Water Quality Research,
Canadian Association on Water Quality 1011 February 2003, Burlington, Canada.
71. Khan, A.A., Paterson, R., and Khan, H., (2004), Modification and application of the
Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment water quality index (CCMEWQI) for
the communication of drinking water quality data in Newfoundland and Labrador, Water
Quality Research Journal of Canada, 39, pp 285293.
72. Khan, A. A., Tobin, A., Paterson, R., Khan, H., and Warren, R., (2005), Application of
CCME procedures for deriving site-specific water quality guidelines for the CCME Water
Quality Index, Water Quality Research Journal of Canada, 40(4), pp 448456.
73. Khan, F., Husain, T. and Lumb, A., (2003), Water quality evaluation and trend analysis in
selected watersheds of the Atlantic region of Canada, Environmental Monitoring &
Assessment, 88, pp 221242.
74. Kim, A.G. and Cardone, C.R., (2005), Scatterscore: a reconnaissance method to evaluate
changes in water quality, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 111, pp 277-295.
75. Kowalkowski T, Gaszala-kopciuch M, Kosobucki P, Krupczynska K, Ligor T. and
Buszewski B., (2007), Organic and inorganic pollution of the Vistula River basin. Journal
of Environmental Science and Health Part A, 42, pp 421-426.
76. Kung, H, Ying L. and Liu Y., (1992), A Complementary Tool to Water Quality Indices:
Fuzzy Clustering Analysis, Water Resources Bulletin, 28(3), pp 525-533.
Bharti N, Katyal.D
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 2 No.1, 2011

167

Water quality indices used for surface water vulnerability assessment

77. Landwehr, J. M., (1974), Water Quality Indices Construction and Analysis, Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.
78. Landwehr, J. M. & Deininger, R. A., (1976), A comparison of several water quality
indexes, Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation, 48(5), pp 954.
79. Laws, E.A., Ziemann, D. and Schulamn, D., (1998), Coastal water quality in Hawaii: the
importance of buffer zones and dilution. Marine Environment Resources, 48, pp 1-21.
80. Lee, J.Y., Cheon, J.Y., Lee, K.K., Lee, S.Y., Lee, M.H., (2001), Statistical evaluation of
geochemical parameter distribution in a ground water system contaminated with
petroleum hydrocarbons. Journal of Environment Quality, 30, pp 1548-1563.
81. Leo, M. L. and Dekkar, M., (2000), Hand book of water analysis, New York: Marcel
Dekker, pp 125,115117, 143, 175, 223226, 261, 273, 767.
82. Liou, S.M, Lo S.L. and Wang S.H., (2004), A generalized water quality index for Taiwan,
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 96, pp 35-32.
83. Liu C.W., Lin K.H., and Kuo Y.M., (2003), Application of factor analysis in the
assessment of ground water quality in a Back foot disease area in Taiwan. ScienceTotal
Envionment, 313(1-3), pp 77-89.
84. Lumb, A., Halliwell, D. and Sharma, T., (2002), Canadian Water Quality Index to
Monitor the Changes in Water Quality in the Mackenzie RiverGreat Bear. In:
Proceedings of the 29th Annual Aquatic Toxicity Workshop, (Oct. 2123), Whistler, B.C.,
Canada.
85. Madhyastha, M. N., Rekha, P. D. and Shashikumar, K. C., (1999), Impact of
anthropogenic activitieson the river water quality along pilgrimage centres at Dakshina
Kannada, Journal of Human Ecology, KamlaRaj Enterprises Publishers, 10(1), pp 2934.
86. McClelland, N. I., (1974), Water Quality Index Application in the Kansas River Basin,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Region 7, Kansas City, Missouri.
87. McKee, J. E. and Wolf, H. W., (1963), Water Quality Criteria, State Water Quality
Control Board, Sacramento, Calif. Publication, No. 3-A, 93.
88. Mercier, V. and Leger, D., (2003), An assessment of the application of the CCME water
quality index in the Atlantic provinces, Environ. Monitor. Assess. McGraw Hill, New
York, pp 740.
89. Nayak, B.B., Sahoo, B.N, Acharya, B.C and Sahoo, R.K., (1997), Studies on water and
sediment qualities around Dhamara Estury, Orissa, Vistas goel Res Utkal Univ Spl Publ
Goel, 2, pp 243-250.
90. Nikbakht, M., (2004), The Effect Assessment of Ahvaz No.1,2 Water Treatment Plant on
Karoon Water Quality. Thesis (M.Sc), Ahvaz: IA University.

Bharti N, Katyal.D
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 2 No.1, 2011

168

Water quality indices used for surface water vulnerability assessment

91. Nives, S.G., (1999), Water quality evaluation by index in Dalmatia, Water Resources, 33,
pp 3423-3440.
92. Norouzian, K., (1998), River Pollution Zoning by Fuzzy Classification Technique, Thesis
(MSc) Environment department, Sharif University.
93. NRA (1994), The quality of rivers and canals in England and Wales (1990 to 1992),
Report of the National Rivers Authority, Water Quality Series no. 19.
94. NSF (2003), National Sanitation Foundation, Available from: http:// Nsfconsumer.rg/
environment/ Wqi.asp.
95. Official Gazette (2004), Turkish Water Pollution Control Regulation, No. 25687, Date.
31.12.2004, Ankara.
96. Oregon Secretary of State (1998), Oregon Administrative Rules, 1998 Compilation, State
of Oregon, Oregon: Salem, OAR, 9, pp 340-41-470.
97. Oregon Progress Board (1999), Achieving the Oregon Shines Vision: The 1999
Benchmark Performance Report, Oregon: Salem.
98. Oregon Progress Board (2000), Oregon State of the Environment Report, Oregon: Salem.
99. Ott, W. R., (1978a), Water Quality Indices: A Survey of Indices Used in the United States.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development,
Washington, D.C.
100. Ott, W. R., (1978b), Environmental Indices Theory and Practice, Ann Arbor
Science, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
101. Palharya, J.P. and Malvia, S., (1998), Pollution of Narmada river at Hoshangabad in
Madhya Pradesh and Suggested Measure for Control, In: RK Trivedy (Ed.): Ecology and
Pollution of Indian Rivers, New Delhi: Ashish Publishing House, pp 55-85.
102. Panda, U.C., Sundaray, S.K., Ratha, P., Nayak, B.B. and Bhatta, D., (2006),
Application of factor and cluster analysis for characterization of river and estuarine water
systems A case study: Mahanadi River, India, Journal of Hydrology, 331, pp 434-445.
103. Pandey, M. and Sundaram, S. M., (2002), Trend of water quality of river Ganga at
Varanasi using WQI approach, International Journal of Ecology and Environmental
Science. New Delhi: International Scientific Publication, 28, pp 139142.
104. Parvizi, N., Ardalannejad S. and Jahangiri S., (2004), The Research of Gheshlagh and
Saghez Chai Water Quality Rivers and Calculation of Inflow Carbonous Organic Load.
Kurdistan: Kurdistan Province Environmental Department.
105. Paterson, R., Khan, A. Ali. and Khan, H., (2003), Proceedings of the 30th Annual
Aquatic Toxicity Workshop, Sept. 28Oct. 1, Ottawa, ON, Canada.

Bharti N, Katyal.D
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 2 No.1, 2011

169

Water quality indices used for surface water vulnerability assessment

106. Patnaik, K.N., (2005), Studies on Environmental Pollution of Major Industries in

Paradip Area. PhD Thesis (Unpublished), Bhubneshwar: Utkal University.
107. Pejman, A.H., Bidhendi, N.G.R., Karbassi, A.R., Mehrdadi, N., Bidhendi, E.M.,
(2009), Evaluation of spatial and seasonal variations in surface water quality using
multivariate statistical techniques. Journal Environment Science & Technology, 6(3), pp
467-476.
108. Pempkowiak J, Walkusz-Miotik J, Beldowski J, and Walkusz W., (2006), Heavy
metals in zooplankton from the Southern Baltic, Chemosphere, 62, pp 1697-1708.
109. Pesce S. F. and Wunderlin D. A., (2000), Use of water quality indices to verify the
impact of Cordoba City (Argentina) on Suquia River, Water Research, 34, pp 2915-2926.
110. Power ministry (2005), The Studies Guidance of self-purification Capacity for rivers,
Iran Water resource management Organization, 292 (A), pp 15-19.
111. Pradhan, S.K, Patnaik, D., Rout, S.P., (1998), Ground water quality an assessment
around a phosphatic fertilizer plant at paradip, Indian Journal Environment Protection,
18(10), pp 769-772.
112. Prati, L., Pavanello, R. & Pesarin, F., (1971), Assessment of surface water quality by
a single index of pollution, Journal of Water Resources, 5, pp 74.
113. Raczynska, M., Zurawska, J. Chojnacki, C., (2000), The Problem of Quality
Assessment of Surface Lotic Waters as Exemplified by Rivers Tywa and Rurzyca,
Electronic Journal of Polish Agricultural Universities, 3(1), Series Fisheries.
114. Ram, R. S. and Anandh, H., (1996), Water quality index of some Indian rivers, Indian
Journal of Environmental Health, NEERI, Nagpur, 38(1), pp 2134.
115. Ramirez, N.F. and Solano A. F., (2004), Physico-Chemical Water Quality Indices A
Comparative Review, J. Revista BIFTUA, 2(1), pp 19-30.
116. Reghunath, R., Murthy, T.R.S., Raghavan, B.R., (2002), The utility of multivariate
statistical techniques in hydro geochemical studies: An example from Karnataka, India.
Water Resources, 36(10), pp 2437-2442.
117. Richardson, A. M., (1997), Development of an Estuarine Water Quality Index (eWQI)
for New South Wales. Dissertation B.Sc. (Honours), University of Sydney, pp148.
118. Rocchini, R. and Swain, L. G., (1995), The British Columbia Water Quality Index,
Water Quality Branch, EP Department, B.C., Ministry of Environment, Land and Park,
Victoria, B.C., Canada, pp13.
119. Ross, S. L., (1977), An index system for classifying river water quality, Water
Pollution Control, 76, pp 113.

Bharti N, Katyal.D
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 2 No.1, 2011

170

Water quality indices used for surface water vulnerability assessment

120. Royer, K., Chantill., (1999), A Water Quality Index Devised for the Des Moines
River in Central Iowa, Thesis (M.Sc.), Civil Engineering (Environmental Engineering):
Iowa State University Ames, Iowa.
121. Said, A., Stevens, D., Sehlkel, G., (2002), Water Quality Relationships and
Evaluation Using a New Water Quality Index. Paper submitted to: UCOWR Annual
Conference "Integrated Transboundary Water Management" Tranverse City. Michigan.
122. Sargaonkar, A. and Deshpande V., (2003), Development of an overall index of
pollution for surface water based on a general classification scheme in Indian context,
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 89, pp 43-67.
123. Sawyer, C. N., Mc Carthy, P. L. and Parkin, G. F., (1994), Chemistry for
environmental engineering, 4th Ed, New York: Mc GrawHill International Edition, pp
365577.
124. Sharma, T. C., (2002), Canadian Water Quality Index Determination for Four Sites in
the Mackenzie River Basin, Ecological Monitoring and Assessment Network, Burlington,
ON, Canada, pp 58.
125. Shiow-Mey,L., Shang-Lien and Shan-Hsien, W., (2004), A generalized water quality
index for Taiwan, Environment Monitoring & Assessment, 96, pp 35-52.
126. Shrestha S, and Kazama F., (2007), Assessment of water quality using multivariate
statistical techniques: A case study of Fuji river basin, Japan. Environmental Modeling
and Software, 22, pp 464-475.
127. Singh K.P., Malik A, and Singh V.K., (2006), Chemometric analysis of
hydrochemical data of an alluvial river-A case study, Water, Air and Soil Pollution, 170,
pp 383-404.
128. Smith, D. G., (1990), A Better Water Quality Indexing System for Rivers and Streams,
Water Research, 24(10), pp 1237-1244.
129. Smith, D.G., Davies-Colley R.J., (1992), Perception of Water Clarity and Color in
Terms of Suitability for Recreational Use, Journal of Environmental Management, 36, pp
225-235.
130. Sobhani, N., (2003), The Review on Water Quality Index Methods and Their
applications on Zoning of Karoon River, Thesis (M.Sc), Environmental faculty, Science
and Industry University.
131. Sorensen, T., (1948), A Method for Establishing Groups of Equal Amplitude in Plant
Sociology Based on Similarity of Species Content. Biol. Skr., K. Danske Vidensk.
Pollution. Vol. 1. R. A. Geyer (Eds), pp 797-529. Elsevier. Amsterdam
132. Stambuk -Giljanovc., (1999), Water Quality Evaluation by Index in Dalmatia, Water
Resources, Elsevier Science Ltd., 33(16), pp 3423-3440.

Bharti N, Katyal.D
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 2 No.1, 2011

171

Water quality indices used for surface water vulnerability assessment

133. Stambuk-Giljanovik, N., (2003), Comparison of Dalmation water evaluation indices,

Water Environment Research, 75(5), pp 388-405.
134. Steinhart, C., Schierow, I. and Chesters, G., (1981), A Review of Water Quality and
Related Indices, Great Lakes Environmental Planning Study Contribution No. 38,Water
Resources Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
135. Steinhart, C. E., Schierow, L. J. and Sonzogni, W. C., (1982), Environmental Quality
Index for the Great Lakes, Water Resources Bull., 18(6), pp 10251031.
136. Stojda A., Dojlido J., Woyciechowska J., (1985), Water Quality Assessment with
Water Quality Index, Gospod. Wod., 12, pp 281-284.
137. Stoner, J. D., (1978), Water Quality Indices for Specific Water Uses, U.S. Geological
Survey Circular 770.
138. Swamee,P.K and Tyagi, A., (2000), Describing water quality with aggregate index,
J.Environ Engg ASCE, 126, pp 451-455.
139. Tebbutt, T. H. Y., (1992), Principles of Water Quality Control, 4th ed., Pergamon
Press, pp 2024, 56, 84.
140. Train, R. E., (1979), Quality Criteria for Water, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington D.C., pp 16, 17, 109.
141. Tsegaye, T., Sheppard, D., Islam, K.R., Johnson, A., Tadesse, W., Atalay, A., and
Marzen, L., (2006), Development of chemical index as a measure of in-stream water
quality in response to land-use and land cover changes, Water, Air, and Soil Pollution,
174, pp 161-179.
142. TURKSTAT (2002), Results of population census 2000, Turkish Institute of Statistics,
Ankara.
143. U.S.E.P.A. (1998), Consumer Confidence Reports, Final Rule. Federal Register,
63:160:44512.
144. UNEP GEMS/Water Programme (2005), Workshop report: Development and use of
global water quality indicators and indices, Vienna, Austria 4-6th May. Available from:
http://www.gemswater.org/publications/pdfs/indicators_workshop_report.pdf.
145. USEPA (2002), List of drinking water contaminations and MCLs. EPA 816-F 02-013,
Available from: http://www.epa.gov/safewater/mcl.html.
146. Van Helmond, C.A.M., and Breukel, R.M.A., (1997), Physico- Chemical Water
Quality Indices. In: J.J. Ottens, F.A.M. Claessen, P.G. Stoks, J.G. Timmerman and R.C.
Ward (eds) - Monitoring, tailor-made II, Proceedings of an International workshop on
information strategies in water management, The Netherlands: Nunspeet, pp 475- 479.

Bharti N, Katyal.D
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 2 No.1, 2011

172

Water quality indices used for surface water vulnerability assessment

147. Walley, W.J. and Judd, S., (1993), River water quality monitoring and control,
current practices and future directions, Proceedings of the freshwater Europe symposium,
22-23 February, Birmingham, GB.
148. Walski, T.M and Parker, F.L., (1974), Consumers water quality index, Journal
Environment Engineering ASCE, 100, pp 593-611.
149. WEP (1996), Lower Great Miami Watershed Enhancement Program (WEP), Miami
Valley River Index.
150. WHO (2004), Guidelines
Recommendations, Geneva.

for

drinking

water

quality,

3rd.edition

(1),

151. World Health Organization (1984), Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, Health
Criteria and Other Supporting Information (1), Geneva: WHO.
152. Yu, J. K. and Fogel, M. M., (1978), The Development of a Combined Water Quality
Index, Water Resources Bulletin, 14(5), pp 1239-1250.
153. Zandbergen, P. A. and Hall K. I., (1988), Analysis of the British Colombia Water
quality Index for Watershed Managers: a case study of two small watersheds, Water
Qual .Res. Canada, 33(a), pp 510-525.
154. Zwart, D. De and Trivedi, R.C., (1995), Manual on Water Quality Evaluation, RIMV,
Netherlands.

Bharti N, Katyal.D
International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 2 No.1, 2011

173