K-factors of flamed columns

restrained by tapered girders in

US codes
Won-Sun King
Department of Civil Engineering, Chung-Cheng Institute of Technology, Toayuan,
Taiwan, Republic of China

Lian Duan
Division of Structures, California Department of Transportation, P.O. Box 942874,
Sacramento, CA 94274-0001, USA

Ren-Gen Zhou and Yu-Xiu Hu

Department of Civil Engineering, Taiyuan UniversiO' of Technology, Taiyuan, Shanxi,
030024, China

Wai-Fah Chen
School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
(Received June 1992, revised version accepted September 1992)

The first part of this paper discusses the concept of the effective
length factor K used for the design of framed compression members
in the current US National Codes. A stiffness modification factor,
based on the current alignment charts put forward by the US National
Codes, is then developed for those framed columns restrained by
tapered rectangular girders with different far end conditions to
enhance the versatility of the present charts in computing effective
length factors. Finally, two numerical examples are provided to
illustrate the proposed design procedure. It is concluded that the
modified method is satisfactory for practical use.
Keywords: columns (supports), beams (girders), design, effective
length, frames, slenderness ratio, stiffness, stability

In designing framed columns, the effective length factor, K, has been widely used by practicing engineers for
many years. In the United States, the current National
Codes, such as: AISC-LRFD ~, AISC-ASD 2, ACI (31889) 3 and AASHTO 4 all require the use of effective
length factors in considering the slenderness effect on
column strength. For compression members in unbraced
and braced frames, the alignment charts (Figure 1)
developed previously by Julian and Lawrence 5 are
recommended as the primary design aid for estimating
K-factors for columns in frames in US National Codes.
Due to their efficient utilization of structural
materials, tapered members are extensively used in
continuous-frame construction. Analysis and design
methods of tapered members have been presented by
several authors. Amirikian 6 developed solution pro0141-0296/93/050369-10
1993Butterworth-HeinemannLtd

cedures for a special type of single-storey frame consisting of tapered members. Lee et al. 7 derived the
slope-deflection equations for a linearly tapered Isection beam-column. A rather detailed design information for tapered members has been provided by Lee et
al. 8. A comprehensive state-of-the-art summary of
recent studies on tapered structural members can be
found in the current SSRC-Guide 9.
Since the alignment charts were developed for
members with constant cross-section, the direct use of
the original parameter, G, for the restraining tapered
girders in the current alignment charts may lead to
unreasonable results. The work described in this paper
attempts to develop a modification procedure capable of
dealing with columns restrained by tapered girders in
unbraced and braced frames.

Eng. Struct. 1993, Volume 15, Number 5 369

Framed columns in US codes. W.-S. King et all

A"

as

O~

5o.o_~

-I.0

IO.O~J

5%.0

-- I0.0

5.o~
-0.9

3.0- !
2.0-1

k5.o
- 30
'20

D.09.03.0?'.OS.05.04.0-

0.8
I ,0 --I
0.9-1

0.8--1
0.7--1
0.6--I
0.5-t

0.7

-I.0
-0.9
-0.8
-0.7
-0.6
-0.5

0.4-1

-0.4

0.3-1

-0.3
0.6

0.2-'-I

IO.(

--9.(
--

8.(

--7.(
--

6.

-5.C
2.0

- 4.0
-3.0

2.0-

-2.0

-0.2

0.5

-0

-I.O

O-

IO

-0

A l i g n m e n t charts for effective length factors. (a), braced frames; (b), unbraced frames

Alignment charts for K-factor

The alignment charts (Figure 1) for K-factors of framed
columns are developed on the basis of the following
equations as

For braced frame (sway prevented)

tan(w/K)

(l)

For unbraced frame (sway permitted)

GAGB(TrlK) 2 - 36

zclK

(2)

tan(w/K)

where GA and Gs are the relative stiffness ratios at A

and B ends of column AB (Figure 2), respectively. They
are defined as

EEcLILc

(3)

in which Y indicates a summation of all members rigidly

connected at that joint and lying in the plane in which the
column buckling is being considered. E is the modulus
of elasticity, I the moment of inertia, and L the unsupported length. E1 values used should take concrete
cracking and reinforcement steel content into account
for reinforced concrete structures. The subscripts c and

370

Figure I

G-

3 0

1.5

6(Ga + G~)

I00.
50.
- 30.
20.

I.O--

0 --d

rlK

5.0
4.0

-0.1

O. I --I

2 tan(r/2K)

oO

5.0-

-t

0.00.0-~
0.0O.O-

Eng. Struct. 1993, V o l u m e 15, N u m b e r 5

g represent columns and restraining girders, respectively.

Equations (1) and (2) are developed upon assumptions
of idealized conditions and the subassemblage models of
frames as shown in Figure 2 and can be derived by
elastic stability functions or a second-order elastic
analysis 1'2'm'l~ The main assumptions used in the
development of equations (1) and (2) are: (i), all
members have constant cross-section and behave
elastically; (ii), all joints are rigid; and (iii), all columns
buckle simultaneously, and at buckling the rotations of
the two ends of the restraining beams are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction for braced frame
and equal in both magnitude and direction for unbraced
frames.
Because of these simplifications, when actual conditions differ from these assumptions, unrealistic designs
may resultl. Methods are available that enable
engineers to make simple modifications in the use of
these charts for the case of unsymmetrical frames,
unsymmetrical loads, column footing effects, flexible
connections, girder far end conditions and tapered columns, see for example the SSRC-Guide ~]. For inelastic
columns, a modified G-value has been recommended by
Yura ~2. To further enhance the versatility of these
charts, simple modifications have been proposed by
Duan and Chen ~3'j4 for a more accurate determination
of K-factors for unbraced and braced columns when the
far ends of columns above and below the columns being
investigated are hinged and/or fixed.

Modification to the alignment charts for

restraining tapered girders
A modification procedure, based on the current alignment charts put forward by US National Codes, is

Framed columns in US codes." W.-S. King et al.

P

P
1

C
CI

g2

g3
ea

B
ea
c3

Figure 2 Subassemblagemodels for K-factor of framed columns. (a), braced frames; (b), unbraced frames

derived and developed which is capable of dealing with

framed columns restrained by tapered rectangular
girders with different far end conditions.

where
1

A = ~

[-2(1

r)21n(1 -

r) -

r(2 -

3r)]

Slope-deflection equations f o r tapered rectangular

girder

(9)

For a girder with variable section (Figure 3), the slopedeflection equations have the general form as, in the
usual notations:

F o r a symmetrically tapered rectangular girder (Figure

3(b)):
4B(1 -

E/

(SNNON q- SNFOF)

(4)

E1
m F = ~-(SFNON -'~ SFFOF)
L

(5)

m N=~

where I is the m o m e n t o f inertia o f the girder at the near

end, SNN, SNF, SFN and SVF are stiffness coefficients.
The subscripts N and F denote the near end and the far
end o f the girder, respectively. Using the conventional
mechanics principle, the stiffness coefficients can be
derived as follows:
For a linearly tapered rectangular girder (Figure 3(a)):

aNN ~- S F F -

4BC-

r) 3
(10)

3C z

(6C - 4B)(1 -

SNF ~ - SFN =

4BC-

r) 3

3C 2

(11)

where

3(1 - r)a [6a2r2 _ 4a2r _ 2ar3

2r 3
- r 4 + 2r 3 - 4aZ(1 - r)21n(1 - r)]
+(1

a) 3 -

a3

(12)

2A(1 - r) 2
SEN =

(2 -

r)A 2(1 -

SNF -~" SFN ~-

SFF ~ -

(2 - r)A -

r) 2

C = 1 - 3ar + ar 2

(13)

in which r and a are tapering factors as shown in Figure

3(b).

r)Z(1 - A)

(2 -- r)A -- 1

2(A - r)(1 -

(6)

(7)

M o m e n t - r o t a t i o n relationships f o r tapered girders

(8)

If the rotation o f the far end o f girder is known, the

m o m e n t - r o t a t i o n relationship can be obtained by the
slope-deflection equations (Figure 3(c)).

Eng. Struct. 1993, V o l u m e 15, Number 5

371

Framed columns in US codes. W.-S. King et al.

NeGr end
/V

Fer end
p--

D
[~

/V

1_

oL

_1_

L-ZoL

oL

_lbl_

b
/V

--f

"1

C
Figure 3 Tapered rectangular girder. (a), linearly tapered girder; (b), symmetrically tapered girder; (c) moment-rotation

For braced columns

(ii) when far end is fixed, (O F = O)

(i) when far end is rigid, (ON = - 0v)

=

ME=

2EI [SNN-- SNF]ON

T

6EIL_[ SUN 7

(iii) when far end is hinged, (0e = (ii) when far end is fixed, (0~ = O)

MN = ~ -

ON

(iii) when far end is hinged,

[SFN/SFF]ON)

6EI [SNNS_FF 2 SNFIoN

MN =---L--[
6SFF

(19)

(15)

(OF= -- [SFN/SFF]ON)

M~, - 2EIL L[SNNSFF2sFF--S~F]ON

(16)

For unbraced columns

(i) when far end is rigid, (ON

OF)

6EI [SNN + SNF]oN

MN-- L
6
372

(18)

(14)

Eng. Struct. 1993, Volume 15, Number 5

(17)

Moment-rotation relationshipsfor girder with

constant cross-section in the alignment charts
In the development of the alignment charts for framed
columns, two assumptions were made: first, that the
rotations of the restraining girders at the near end and
the far end are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction for braced columns, equal in both magnitude and
direction for unbraced columns; and secondly, that
girders have a constant cross-section 1'11. The momentrotation relationships of girders have the simple forms:
For braced columns:

2E/
m N --

ON

(20)

Framed columns in US codes. W.-S. King et al.

Modification factor a: closed form solutions

For unbraced columns:

6EI
MN ON
L

(21)

Substituting the stiffness coefficient equations ( 6 ) - ( 1 3 )

into equations ( 2 3 ) - (25), and into equations ( 2 6 ) - (28),
respectively, the closed-form solutions of the or-factor
for tapered rectangular girders are obtained as follows:
For a linearly tapered rectangular girder (Figure
3(a))

Proposed stiffness modification in using the

alignment chart
Upon comparing equations (14)-(16) with equation
(20), and equations (17)-(19) with equation (21),
respectively, we conclude that the effects of the far end
conditions and tapered sections can be taken into account
by introducing a factor a to modify girder stiffness in
computing the relative joint stiffness ratio. To this end,
we introduce the following modified G-factor in connection with the use of the present alignment charts.

For braced columns

(i) when far end is rigid
(1 - r)2(2A - 1)
Ot

(2 - r)A - 1
(ii) when far end is fixed
A(1 - r) 2

G-

r.E,I,/L,.
otE~ I~/L~

(22)

where I x is the moment of inertia of the girder at near

end.

Ot

(iii) when far end is hinged

(1 - r)2(2A - Ar - 1)

-- SNF
aNN

(23)

(ii) when far end is fixed

o~ -

s~

1 [

(24)

SNNSFF -

S 2NF

2sr~

l[(1-r)2(2A-Ar-1)]

(25)

(26)

For braced columns

(i) when far end is rigid

(1

(27)

(iii) when far end is hinged

Or=

SNNSFF -- S2F

6s~

(34)

For a symmetrically tapered rectangular girder

(Figure 3(b))

s~
6

(33)

where A is a function of taper factor r and is defined by

equation (9).

(ii) when far end is fixed

c-

lJ

(iii) when far end is hinged

(i) when far end is rigid

aNN "F SNF

(32)

A(1 - r) 2 ]

a = 3 L(2 Z r ~ -

For unbraced columns

c~ -

1[
(l--r) 2 ]
ot = ~ (2 - r)A - 1

(31)

(ii) when far end is fixed

(iii) when far end is hinged

c =

(A - r)[(2 - r)A - 1]
For unbraced columns
(i) when far end is rigid

(i) when far end is rigid

c -

(30)

(2 - r)A - 1

Ot

For braced columns

(29)

r) 3

(35)

C
(ii) when far end is fixed

(28)

2B(1 - r) 3
Ot

-4BC

--

3C

Eng. Struct. 1993, Volume 15, Number 5

(36)

373

Framed columns in US codes: W.-S. King et al.

(iii) when far end is hinged

1.0
0.9

3(1 - r) 3
O/

(37)

--

2B

0.8
/I/

(1
o/

--

0.6

r) 3

(38)

--

4B - 3C

Rigid for end

0.2
0.1
I

(iii) when far end is hinged

0.1

r) 3
(40)

2B

where B and C are functions of taper factors a and r and

are defined in equations (12) and (13), respectively.
Note that as the tapering factor r approaches zero,
i.e., when the tapered girder approaches a constant
cross-sectional girder, the functions A (equation (9)) and
B (equation (12)) become indefinite. However, by using
the L'Hospital rule, function A is found to approach 2/3
and function B unity, and equations (29) - (40) reduce to
the modification factors for a restraining girder with a
constant section. That is:
For braced columns
1.0
2.0
1.5

~t

(39)

12BC - 9C 2

oz =

Il

0.3

2B(1 - r) 3

(1 -

8rocedfromes

~0.5
0.4

(ii) when far end is fixed

c -

0,7

For unbraced columns

(i) when far end is rigid

rigid far end )

fixed far end ~
hinged far end.)

(41)

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5
f

0.6 0.7 0.8

0.9

1.0

Figure 4 Stiffness modification factor for linearly tapered rectangular girder with rigid far end in braced frames. ( - - ) , closed
form equation (29); ( - - ) , approximate equation (43)

approximate formulae are developed by a curve-fitting

approach.
For tapered rectangular girders as shown in Figure 3,
the closed form modification factor, a, equations
(29)-(40), are plotted in Figures 4-9 for braced columns, and Fiyures 10-15 for unbraced columns. It is
found that the following two-parameter power-function
can describe the closed-form a-r-/3 relations very well.
~x = D(1 - r) ~

(43)

where the parameter D is a constant depending on the far

end conditions, and/3 is a function of far end conditions
and tapering factors a and r (Figure 3).
2.0
N

1.8

For unbraced columns

1.0
c~ = 2/3
(,0.5

1.6
1.4

rigid far end )

fixed far end ~
hinged far end.)

(42)

Equations (41) and (42) are exactly the same as the

modification values proposed in the SSRC-Guide 11 to
consider the effects of far end conditions of restraining
prismatic girders in using the alignment charts.

Modification

factor

approximate

solutions

Although the closed form modification factors o~ have

been obtained in the preceding section, the equations are
not simple to use in a design office. For design purposes, a further simplification of the closed form solutions is desirable. To this end, the following

374

1.2

Eng. Struct. 1993, Volume 15, Number 5

Broced fromes

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
--

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4 0.5
f

0.6 0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Figure 5 Stiffness modification factor for linearly tapered rectangular girder with fixed far end in braced frames. (
), closed
form equation (30); ( - - ) , approximate equation (43)

Framed columns in US codes. W,-S. King et al.

2.0

2.0
N

1.8

h i I__.........--J -frh

1,6

~.6

.Brocedfromes

1.4

~ \

,,

dl.O

tg,,

\\-%

'.2

1.2

.~

.L_ZoL. o I
.ro.0.o

'

Fixedforend I

'

~5 i.O

0.8

0.8

0.6

O.S;

0.4

0.4

0.2

0.2
0.1

0.2

0.5 0.4 0.5

r

0.6

0.7

0.8 0.9

.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Figure 6 Stiffness modification factor for linearly tapered rec-

Figure 8 Stiffness modification factor for symmetrically tapered

tangular girder with hinged far end in braced frames. (

),
closed form equation (31); ( - - ) , approximate equation (43)

rectangular girder with fixed far end in braced frames. (

closed form equation (36); ( - - ) , approximate equation

For braced columns

For braced columns

D =

1.0
2.0
1.5

rigid far end ")

fixed far end
hinged far end.)

rigid far end )

fixed far end 3
hinged far end

),

(46)

For unbraced columns

rigid far end ")

fixed far end
hinged far end.)

I2

0.02 + 0.4r
/3 = ~0.75 - 0.1r
(,0.75
0.1r

(44)

For unbraced columns

.0
D =
/3
(,,0.5

(43)

0.95
/3 = /0.70
{,,0.70

(45)

rigid far end ")

fixed far end
hinged far end.)

(47)

For a symmetrically tapered rectangular girder

For a linearly tapered rectangular girder

1.0

2.0
N

Brocedfromes

0.9

1.8

0.8

1.6

0.7

1.4

0.6

1.2

Hinged for end

~50.5

N
J

h']~- L , ~ - .

di.0

0.4

,~~

0,8

=0.5

0.5

0.6

0.2

0.4

Rigidforend i~~~~i~
i ~ ~"~,~. ,

0.1
i

0.1

0.2

0.2

0.5 0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Figure 7 Stiffness modification factor for symmetrically tapered

rectangular girder with rigid far end in braced frames. (
),
closed form equation (35); ( - - ) , approximate equation (43)

0.1

0.2

0.5

0.4

0.5 0.6
r

0.7 0.8

0.9 1.0

Figure 9 Stiffness modification factor for symmetrically tapered

rectangular girder with hinged far end in braced frames. (
),
closed form equation (37); ( - - ) , approximate equation (43)

Eng. Struct. 1993, V o l u m e 15, N u m b e r 5

375

Framed columns in US codes. W.-S. King et al.

For braced columns

Ii/3 =

1.0

1.Ta2-2a
+ 2:5a 2 - 5.55a
a" - 2.7a

r i g i d f a r e n d ")
fixed far end ~ ( 4 8 )
hinged far end.)

0.9
0.8
U n b r a c e d

frames

0.7

For unbraced columns

0.6

~o.5

Ii
/3 =

+ 3"8a2 -- 6.5a
+ 2.3a 2
5.45a
- 0.3a

rigid far end )

fixed far end ~ (49)
hinged far e n d )

0.4
0.3
0.2

The accuracy of the above approximation for c~, equation (43), is demonstrated in Figures 6 9 for braced
columns, and Figures 10-15 for unbraced columns by
comparing with the closed form solutions, equations
(29)-(40). Figures 4 - 6 , and 1 0 - 1 2 are for girders
with a linearly tapered rectangular section. Figures
7 - 9, and 1 3 - 1 5 are for restraining girders with a symmetrically tapered rectangular section. In these figures,
the solid lines represent the results obtained by Equations ( 2 9 ) - (40), while the dashed lines are based on the
approximate equation (43) together with equations
(44)-(49). Excellent agreement is observed.

Illustrative examples

0.1

A one-storey unbraced frame with a symmetrically

tapered girder is shown in Figure 16(a). Assume r = 0.5,
a = 0.2 and I u = 2 I, = 2 I and determine the effective
length factor K for column AB.

Proposed solution."
For joint A, since the far end of the girder is rigid, using
equations (43) and (49), yields:

0.7

0.8

0,9

1.0

G B =0

0.6

EI/L
0.277E(21)/2L

F"

0.9

"

Unbraced frames

0.5
=

3.61
0.4

Using the alignment chart, K = 1.42 is obtained.

0.3

Original alignment chart solution."

0.2

A direct use of equation (3) with an average section

(0.75 h) results in:

0.1

It, = (0.75)3(2 /) = 0.844 I

376

0.6

A simple supported frame with linearly tapered girder is

shown in Figure 16(b). Assume r = 0 . 5 , I c = 0 . 5 1 2
/~, = 0.512 I, Ec = Eg = E, and determine the effective
length factor K for column AB.

0.7

GA -

0.5
r

Using the alignment chart, we obtain K = 1.32, or

(1.32 - 1.42)/1.42 = - 7% in error on the less conservative side.

c~ = (1 - 0.5) 1852 --- 0.277

--

0.4

tangular girder with rigid far end in unbraced frames. (

),
closed form equation (32); ( - - ) , approximate equation (43)

0.8

~E,.I,./L,
~c~E~IJL~

0.3

Figure 10 Stiffness modification factor for linearly tapered rec-

[3 = 3 + 3.8(0.2) z - 6.5(0.2) = 1.852

--

0.2

Example 2

Example 1

Gm

0.1

EI/L
- 2.37
0.844EI/2L

Eng. Struct. 1993, V o l u m e 15, Number 5

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

/-

.0

Figure 11 Stiffness modification factor for linearly tapered rectangular girder with fixed far end in unbraced frames. (
),
closed form equation (33); ( - - ) , approximate equation (43)

Framed columns in US codes: W.-S. King et al.

1.0

1.0
0.9

0.9
N

0.8

0.8

0.7

0.7

0.6

Unbraced f romes

F"e_2'en_____d
fr 1

0.6
Unbraced frames

~0.5

~o.5

0.4

0.4

0.5

o.5

0.2

0.2

0.1

o.i

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5
f

0.6 0.7

~"~

0.8

0.9

1.0

Figure 12 Stiffness modification factor for linearly tapered rectangular girder with hinged far end in unbraced frames. (
),
closed form equation (34); ( - - ) , approximate equation (43)
I.C

0.1

0.2

0.5

0.4

0.5
f

0.6

0.7

0.8 0.9

1.0

Figure 14 Stiffness modification factor for symmetrically

tapered rectangular girder with fixed far end in unbraced frames.
(
), closed form equation (39); ( - - ) , approximate equation
(43)

1.0

0.3

o,

0.8

0.8

0.7

0.7

0.6

0.6
Unbraced frames

c~o.5

I n0,,or,

0.4

o131

0.3

0.2
o.i
0.1
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5
F

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Figure 13 Stiffness modification factor for symmetrically

tapered rectangular girder with rigid far end in unbraced frames.
(
), closed form equation (38); ( - - ) , approximate equation
(43)

0.1

0.2

0.5

0.4

0.5
r

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Figure 15 Stiffness modification factor for symmetrically

tapered rectangular girder with hinged far end in unbraced frames.
(
), closed form equation (40); ( - - ) , approximate equation
(43)

Proposed solution:
F o r j o i n t A, since the far end of the girder is hinged,
using equations (43) and (46), yields:

Original alignment chart solution:

~=0.75--0.1

r=0.7

(i) A direct use of equation (3) with an average section

(0.75 h) results in:

cX = (1.5)(1 -- 0.5) 7 = 0.923

G B ~ oo

GA -

U s i n g the a l i g n m e n t chart, K = 0.89 is obtained.

~Ecl,/L,
~.aEj,/L,

I g = (0.75)3 = 0.422 I

0.512EI/L
0.923EI/2L

1.11

GA --

O.512EI/L
0.422EI/2L

-- 2.43

Eng. Struct. 1 9 9 3 , V o l u m e 15, N u m b e r 5

377

Framed columns in US codes. W.-S. King et al.

1.2L

0.4L i,4

_1 0.4L I

-I-

-F

-I

(iii) A direct use of equation (3) with larger section (h)

results in:

lg=I

0.512EI/L
G~

EI/2L

EIc

1.02

Using the alignment chart, we obtain K = 0.86, or

(0.86 - 0.89)/0.89 --- - 2 % in error on the less conservative side.

//

2L

II

Conclusions
C

XI

- 57
~EIc

In this paper, the effective length factors for braced and

unbraced columns in the current US National Codes,
such as AISC-LRFD ~, AISC-ASD 2, ACI (318-89) 3,
A A S H T O 4, have been discussed. A simple modification to the stiffness parameter, G, for its use in the alignment charts for both unbraced and braced columns
restrained by tapered rectangular girders with different
far end conditions has been described. Both closed form
and approximate solutions for the stiffness modification
factors, c~, are derived. Two numerical examples are
given at the end to illustrate the use of the proposed
modification procedure in the current alignment charts.

6'
2L

b
Figure 16 Simpleframes.

Using the alignment chart, we obtain K = 0.93, or

( 0 . 9 3 - 0.89)/0.89 = 6% in error on the conservative
side.
(ii) A direct use of equation (3) with the smaller section
(0.5 h) results in:

IX = 0 . 1 2 5 I

GA --

O.512EI/L
O. 125EI/2L

-- 8.19

Using the alignment chart, we obtain K = 0.97, or

(0.97 - 0.89)/0.89 = 11% in error on the conservative
side.

378

Eng. Struct. 1993, Volume 15, Number 5

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