Pond Ecology

by
Joe Lewis

Contents of Curriculum Unit 92.05.07:

Narrative

I. Introduction

II. The Scientific Method

III. The Hydrologic Cycle

IV. Fundamentals of Pond Ecology

V. Constructing a Pond Community

VI. Listing Factors That Exist In the Pond Habitat

Lesson Plan I: The Scientific Method

Lesson Plan II: Visiting Pond Community

Students Bibliography Page

Teachers Bibliography Page

Possible Field Trips

To Guide Entry
The subject of ecology is particularly important for our students today because we as Americans
have finally realized that in order for our planet to remain alive, we must take preventive
measures to save it. Pond Ecology takes into account one aspect of planetponds. Through
experiments, readings and discussions, the students will learn to look critically at ecosystems,
and ecology especially as they relate to ponds.

Upon completion of the unit, the students will realize that man is highly dependent on the planet
Earth for survival just as Earth depends on man. Therefore, this unit can be used as one of many
activities which focuses on the significance of saving our planet.
This curriculum unit is designed to be used with fifth grade students. It is particularly designed to
provide students with hands-on scientific activities in order to reinforce all the concepts
presented throughout the unit. Secondly, it provides the students with the basic knowledge
needed in order to design their own scientific investigations. Finally, and probably the first
objective, the unit will help students become aware of the importance of keeping ponds safe from
pollutants while witnessing the actual devastation that oil or gas spills cause to our pond
communities.
As a science teacher, and PIMMS fellow, I have focused on making this unit readily accessible
for teacher usage. With the exception of the microscopic activities, all of the experiments
throughout this curriculum can be performed inexpensively. I have also included a list of
possible field trips available within the New Haven area. Clearly stated objectives have been
listed with each lesson plan in order to eliminate some of the burden for teachers using the
curriculum. Therefore, get ready to teach ecology from a hands-on perspective and
watch your students desire for performing science strengthen.
The curriculum, Pond Ecology, will involve the following components:
I. Introduction
The origin of a pond and its characteristics will be discussed in this section of the paper.
II. The Scientific Method
Since one of my goals in this unit is to encourage students to perform and design their own
experiment, I feel that it is necessary to include a summary of the proper method of writing a
scientific investigation. Therefore I will list and briefly explain the five basic steps of the
scientific method.
III. The Water Cycle
Here, I will discuss the water cycle. The students will identify the water cycle as the continuous
movement of water from the atmosphere to the earth and from the earth back to the atmosphere.
IV. Fundamentals of Pond ecology
This section of the paper will concentrate on giving the students background information on
ecology in order for them to understand fully ecosystems. Therefore, the following ecological
concepts will be discussed, including but not limited to: (a) food webs, chains and pyramids; (b)
biotic verses abiotic components of the environment; (c) ecological relationships, communities,
population and organism that are found in ponds; (d) ecological succession of the pond
community.

V. Constructing a Pond Community

The students will set up one or two aquariums in the classroom. Once the aquariums are ready,
the student will take a trip to a nearby pond and collect water, plants, animal life, soil, etc... The
specimen collected will be placed in the aquarium located in your classroom. I will also include a
lesson plan for constructing a pond outside your school if you can receive permission to do so.
VI. Listing Factors Within A Pond Community
This section of the paper will include experimentation relating to the biotic and abiotic
components of the pond community. Students will perform simple experiments to see how water,
temperature, light and minerals affect the biotic community that exist within the pond.

I. Introduction
A pond is characterized as being a small body of water that is shallow enough for sunlight to
reach the bottom, permitting the growth of rooted plants at its deepest point. Seldom do ponds
reach more that 3.6-4.5 meters (12 to 15 feet) in depth.
An undisturbed pond will age. Even though at first a pond will appear to be lifeless, a new pond
will acquire both plants and animals by the different forms of inflowing water. Large deposits of
rootless stoneworts and hornworts become established; microscopic plankton form drifting
masses; water boatmen and winged whirligig beetles alight on the surface to swim. Plants
colonize all of the zones and provide food and shelter to a wide variety of animals. Frogs begin
to visit and lay eggs.
Ponds are considered to be part of the freshwater habitat-which are divided into flowing water
and standing water. The flowing water habitat is divided into rapid and slow streams. The
standing water habitat are divided into lakes, ponds, and swamps. Ponds can be even further
divided into those with bare bottoms and those whose bottom contain vegetation.
Ponds are noted for their abundant and rich varieties of plant and animal life, which all are
maintained in a delicate ecological balance. Life forms range from microscopic bacteria to
insects, fish, small animals, and birds. As ponds age, the number of species living in it steadily
increases until, finally, the growth of larger plants, algae, and the accumulation of wastes convert
it into a marsh or cause it to dry up. This process is known as ecological succession.
The study of the relationships between living things and their environment is known as ecology.
However, the curriculum, The Ecological Relationships That Exist Within A Pond
Community actually covers a smaller division of ecology called limnologythe science that
deals with the interrelationships of plant and animals in aquatic environments. Since the pond

represents a stable environment where living things interact, and materials are used over and
over again, it is considered an ecosystem.
Limnologists have identified five different types of ponds as follows:
(1) Cypress Ponds which are commonly found in the central or lower Mississippi Basin and
along the coastal plain of the Southeastern United States. Their waters are described as being
brownish in color, and many dry out during parts of the year. Willows, bay trees mixed with
cypress trees, grows along the shore and are often found out in the waters.
(2) Bog Ponds are often found in the moist temperature regions of North America. The water is
highly acidic and often muddy. Alders grow profusely on the shore and cedar trees dominate the
high ground. Thick beds of sphagnum extend outward from the shore and floating-leaf plants
usually cover the surface.
(3) Meadow-Stream Ponds form where streams widen and the speeds of its currents slow down
tremendously. The shallow part of the pond usually has an abundance of pondweeds, cattails,
stoneworts and other plants with emergent leaves. They also have plants with floating leaves on
the surface of the water, such as lilies and water shields.
(4) Mountain Ponds, which are often formed by glaciers, are another type of pond. The bottoms
of these ponds range from being rocky, graveled or muddy. Most of the time Mountain Ponds
have ice in them and they usually dry up at some point during the summer. Sedges grow along its
margins. In spite of the ponds short summer season, a variety of animals and plants live in
these icy waters.
(5) Farm Ponds are man-made ponds built to help keep the farmlands fertile. Farm ponds are at
least three feet deep at the shoreline in order to prevent plant growth that would lead to the early
succession of the pond. It should also have a spillway to control the water level. Farm ponds
usually become abundant in fish, and are usually good waters for swimming and boating. They
should also fill from seepage, not from another stream which would fill the basin of the pond
with silt and eventually kill the pond.

II. The Scientific Method

In order to prepare students to eventually design their own experiment, the instructor should
insist on having their students write up their scientific investigations using the proper method.
Since one of my goals is to heighten students interest in science, I feel that it is necessary to
include this small segment explaining the scientific method so that you can show your students
how scientists work.
The first step of the scientific method is to come up with a good title for the experiment. Titles
are often stated in the form of a question. Just from reading the title, anyone should automatically
know the problem that a child is trying to solve in their experiment. For example: What Effect
Does Temperature Have on the Respiration Rate of a Fish. From the title we know that the
student is trying to find out if the temperature of water changes the rate at which a fish breathes.

Thinking scientifically, the student should try to find possible solutions the problem through
researching information about the problem he is trying to solve. The information that he finds
should aid the child in forming an hypothesis during the third stage of the scientific method, and
help the child in writing the introduction.
The second stage of the scientific method should be titled the introduction. The student, in
paragraph format, should briefly write some sort of introductory statement which addresses such
questions as, why he chose to do the particular experiment and why is it worth spending time on.
The child should also include some background information about how the fish breathes or how
they react in warm verses cold water, or how they are cold-blooded animals, etc....
The third step of the scientific method requires the child making an educated guess about what
he is experimenting on. The educated guess is called an hypothesis. Using the previous example,
a typical hypothesis for this experiment would be: As the temperature of the water increases, the
fish respiration rate would increase also.
In the fourth step called the procedure, have the student to list the material that is needed to do
the experiment as well as provide the basic details as to how the experiment will be performed.
This should be a detailed description and a step by step procedure of how the student could test
his problem. Anyone reading the experiment should be able to collect the materials needed to
perform the investigation and duplicate the experiment by reading the procedures.
The fifth step called observations. The student records any pertinent information about their
findings while performing the experiment. Whenever possible the student should use charts,
graphs, tables or pictures to depict information.
The final step of the scientific method is the conclusion. Here the student analyzes the data the he
has placed in his observations and formulates a conclusion. This section is also be done in a
paragraph format. The student should also state whether or not his hypothesis was correct.
Keep in mind that in order for the student to fully understand how this method is employed, the
instructor must walk the child through a sample experiment explaining how each step is done. It
is also important the student realizes that once the hypothesis is made it should not be changed
during the experiment. Remember that it is only a guess as to the outcome of the experiment, the
important thing is that the conclusion at the end is correct. The conclusion either proves or
disproves the hypothesis.
During any experiment or scientific research the teacher should constantly encourage students to
ask questions, reach an educated guess, and to design some type of experiment to figure out if
their hypothesis is correct.

III. The Hydrologic Cycle

The hydrologic cycle, commonly referred to as the water cycle, is closely related to the
interrelationship of the biotic and physical environment. Man can not survive without water nor
would we have lakes, ponds or streams. The water cycle is continuous movement of water from
the atmosphere to the earth and from the earth back to the atmosphere. The water that moves
from the atmosphere to the earth is called precipitation. However, the water will return to the
atmosphere through evaporation.
During a rain storm, some of the rainwater evaporates as it falls to the ground. But most of the
rainwater runs along the surface of the ground and travels to the rivers, streams and ponds. The
water running along the surface is known as runoff water. Large amounts of precipitation also
enter the soil to become ground water. This water can reach a pond, lake or ocean through
springs or underground streams; or it may move upward through the soil during dry periods and
pass again into the atmosphere as water vapor. The warm air that rises through the atmosphere
contains tiny droplets of water. This water cools as it climbs higher into the atmosphere causing
the water vapor to condense into droplets of water which forms clouds. The droplets collect to
form drops that eventually fall from the clouds as rain. If the water vapor condenses at a
temperature below the freezing point of water, then snow is formed.
Ground water is also a part of the water cycle. The ground holds and receives water from
precipitation. However, some of the water moves downward into subsoil and fills the spaces
around the rock particles. The upper level of the soil where it is saturated with water is known as
the water table. If the soil is over saturated with water, the water will run off the surface instead
of penetrating into the soil. The depth of the water table depends on the amount of precipitation,
the nature of the rock layer under the soil, the proximity of large bodies of water, and the
condition of the soil surface for receiving water.

IV. Fundamentals of Pond Ecology

A. Habitats In the Pond Community
The place where an organisms live is considered its habitat. Four distinctive habitats can be
found within the pond community. These four habitats are the surface film habitat, open water
habitat, bottom habitat and the shore habitat.
The surface film habitat is located on the top (surface) of the pond water. It is the habitat of airbreathing floating animals (insects) such as marsh treaders, broad-shouldered water striders, and
animals that have special devices that allow them to walk on the surface of water without
breaking through such as water striders. Some insects and free-floating animals are adapted to
live only on the upper side of the surface film. The animals that dwells on the surface usually
feed on the floating plans, insects and other animals that may have been killed or drown and
floated to the surface. The surface dwelling animals may even feed on one another. Other

animals, along with the larvae of some beetles and flies spend much of their life on the underside
of the film beneath the floating plants.
The open-water area mainly consist of the water surrounded by plant life. It ends where
vegetation is dense and rooted into the soil. The open water habitat is composed of large, freeswimming organism such as fish, and small microscopic plants and animals called plankton that
drift suspended in the water. Phytoplankton (small suspended plants), mostly consisting of algae,
are the basic food in lakes. Small suspended animals such as tiny crustaceans, insect larvae,
rotifers, and other invertebrates called zooplankton also live in the open-water habitat and are
basic food for pond animals. The availability of plankton vary from season to season, but are
most abundant during the spring.
Other animals such as turtles, birds and larger fish comes to the open-water area for food. Some
insects, insect larvae, and crustaceans migrate from the bottom towards the surface, but return to
the bottom as daylight appears.
Life in the bottom habitat of a pond depends upon the type of bottom a pond may have. For
example, if the pond is shallow and has a sandy bottom it could be inhabited by sponges,
earthworms, snails and insects. The bottom of quiet, standing water ponds are characterized as
muddy or silty, and life represented in these types of ponds are crayfish, and the nymphs of
mayflies, dragonflies, and microorganisms. These animals usually burrow into the bottom muds.
If the water in the pond is turbid, conditions at the bottom of the sea is extremely different from
that in the opened waters because light does not penetrate to the bottom and plants cannot grow.
Due to the lack of vegetation, the availability of shelter for animals is almost null. The amount of
dissolved oxygen will be low, and the concentration of carbon dioxide will be high. Despite all of
the previously mentioned conditions, animals such as earthworms, small clams, and fly larvae
such as bloodworms and phantoms can survive in the deep bottom zone. There is usually a large
amount of bacteria in this zone because they can survive off of dead organic matter.
The littoral habitat extends from the waters edge outward as far as rooted plants grow. This is the
richest area in the pond community because of the plant life that exist in this area. The observer
will find unlimited amounts of biotic life. Typically, there are three distinct borders of flowering
plants that makes up the littoral habitat: the emergent plant zone; floating plant zone; and
submersed plant zone. If the shore is rocky, plants may not grow in this area. Therefore, some
ponds may have two distinct borders of flowering plants.
The emergent plant zone is closest to the shore. The observer will find plants that are rooted to
the bottom. Their stems and leaves appear above the surface. The emergent zone should be
bountiful with grasses, sedges, rushes, and algae. Along with the plant life, the observer will find
animals such as protozoans, worms, insects, snails, and small fishes.
The floating-leaf plant zone is made up of broad, flat-leaved water lilies, water ferns, and
duckweed. If the observer picks up one of the leaves, animals such as snails, bugs, and mayflies,
larvae and eggs may be located underneath them. A variety of algae can be found in this zone.
Most water animals use this area for breeding and nesting.

The submersed plant zone is the area of vegetation that surrounds the center of the pond. The
plants in this area all have leaves that are long and slender, or bushy and branched leaves.
Pondweed, waterweeds, and hornwarts are some of the flowering plants found in this zone. The
flowers of these plants are pollinated above the water surface. The seeds of these plants
germinate and the plants develop underneath the water.
B. Food Webs and Chains
As ecosystems have living and nonliving parts. The living, or biotic part, of an ecosystem is
known as the ecological community. Living things interact with each other by feeding on one
another. Therefore, energy, compounds, and chemical elements are transferred from creature to
creature along the food chains.
Food chains group organisms into trophic levels. A trophic level include all the organisms in a
food chain that are the same number of steps away from the original source of energy. Therefore,
green plants are in the first trophic level and plant eating animals (herbivores) are placed in the
second level. The third trophic level consists of carnivores (meat eating animals) that feed on
herbivores. The fourth trophic level consists of carnivores that feed on the animals from the third
trophic level, etc.
For example, trophic levels that exist within the pond community could be diagrammed as
follows:
(1) First Trophic Levelgreen plants such as phytoplankton, algae, microscopic plants, pond
lilies, etc. which manufactures food through photosynthesis.
(2) Second Trophic Levelherbivores such as mayflies, small crustaceans, nymphs, and certain
types of beetles that feed on the plants in level one.
(3) Third Trophic Levelcarnivores such as fish who consume plants and animals from the first
and second trophic levels.
C. The Ecological Makeup Of A Pond
The components of a pond ecosystems are very diverse, but it can be divided into several basic
units: (1) abiotic substances; (2) producer organisms; (3) macroconsumer organisms; and (4)
saprotrophic organisms.
The abiotic substances that make up the pond includes basic inorganic and organic substances
such as water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, phosphorus salts, amino acids and nitrogen. Small
portions of the necessary nutrients that organisms need in order to survive in the water is always
available. The rate at which these nutrients are released into the water are regulated by the
temperature cycle (seasons), the amount and availability of sunlight, and the climatic regimes.
There are two different kinds of producer organisms that make up a pond: (1) small minute
and/or microscopic floating plants call phytoplankton. The word phytoplankton comes from the
prefix phyto which means plant and the suffix plankton which means floating. If the
pond produces a large amount of algae, the water will have a green coloration. This can be

hazardous to the pond community. Phytoplankton can be found all over the pond, as long as there
is sunlight to sustain its life. Algae are a good example of phytoplankton. The second type of
producer organism are the rooted or large floating plants which are found growing in the shallow
water area.
Fish, crustaceans, and insect larvae is are examples of the macroconsumer organisms that can be
found in a pond. The primary macroconsumers consist of zooplankton and benthos. They are
herbivores that feeds directly on living plants and the remains of those plants. The secondary
consumers consist of carnivores (insects and game fish) which feeds on the primary consumers.
Saprotrophic organisms are the aquatic bacteria, fungi, and flagellates which are widely
distributed throughout the pond. Large numbers of these organisms can be found in the mud at
the bottom of the pond where dead plants and animals accumulate. Under the correct climatic
conditions, decomposition of the dead matter occurs rapidly. Some saprotrophic organisms are
pathogenic because they have the ability to cause diseases in other living organisms. However,
most of these organisms only feed on dead organic matter.

V. Constructing a Pond Community

One of the major advantages of studying the ecosystems within a pond community is that you
can capture different life forms and keep them in your classroom by setting up a pond
community aquarium. An aquarium is one of the most fascinating nature projects because a large
variety of pond animals can be maintained in captivity with a minimum amount of care and
equipment. Keeping these animals in your classroom, under conditions approximating their
natural habitat, will give students the opportunity of studying them at close range and in detail.
However, the main problem with an aquarium is to see that it is balanced. This means that the
animals, which give off carbon dioxide into the water, must be balanced with the plant life,
which produce the oxygen in the tank for the animals to survive.
Before your trip to an actual pond, there are several things that must be done to the aquarium in
order for it to be ready for the specimen that your class collects. The aquarium should be washed
out thoroughly with clean, clear water. The gravel should be rinsed several times with clear water
in a colander, this is to assure that the small rocks are free of any debris. If you choose to use the
underwater filtration system (highly recommended), this should be rinsed and place in the
bottom of the cleaned aquarium. Then the tubing should be placed in the aquarium along with the
diffuser or airstone. Place the aquarium where you plan to keep it upon your return from the
pond because once the water is added it will be too heavy to move. Direct sunlight is not
necessary for the aquarium; the light from a north window is ideal. If the aquarium water
becomes green from algae growth, cut down on the amount of light entering the aquarium by
masking the sides towards the window with paper or paint. Since ponds are relatively cool
anyway, a minimal amount of sunlight is needed. Now you are ready to take your trip to the

pond. (See lesson plans at the end of the unit titledVisiting A Pond Communityfor
preparatory notes for the trip.
Once you return to your classroom with the specimen collected from the pond, there are several
steps that you should follow in placing the specimen in the aquarium. Fill about two-thirds of the
aquarium with the pond water you collected. Then place the plants in the water. If some of the
plants collected contain roots, advise the students to make sure they place the roots under the
gravel. Other plants can be allowed to float or can be anchored underneath a rock. If the pond
you visited was too deep for the children to get to the underwater plants, they can be purchased
from a pet shop. Some of the possible plants that you can purchase to put in your pond aquarium
areCabomba, Vallisneria, Anacharis, Nitella, Lemna, or Elodea.
The animals that your class collected should be added to the aquarium next. Some of the animal
life collected should include-pond snails, crayfish, newts, tadpoles, water insects. Small fishes
should also be included, but you must be careful not to overcrowd the fish. One inch of fish (not
including the tail) per gallon of water is a good rule to follow. If the students collected some of
the smaller animals such as daphnias or water fleas, they should be added to the tank also
because they provide food for the larger animals. As the tadpoles develop into frogs, make sure
they have some type of floating platform in the aquarium so that they may come out of the water.
Once the tadpole has become a frog you may want to let it go, or place it into a second aquarium.
In the introductory notes, I suggested setting up two aquariums because if your class collects
turtles, frogs or salamanders because they should not be totally submerged underwater. If reptiles
are collected, your class should set up the second aquarium like a terrarium. Make sure that there
is a small area set aside in the aquarium like a pond so that the reptiles can keep their body moist.
Rocks should be used to provide an area assimilating land for the animals. Also make sure that
there is a variety of plant life in the terrarium for the animals as to provide some type of shelter
or privacy for the reptiles.
Plant-eating animals (herbivores) such as fish, snails and tadpoles will nibble on the plants
growing in the tank, but you may add a few pieces of spinach or lettuce to supplement their diets.
Animal-eaters can feed on daphnias, small worms and insects, or in the case of fishes, prepared
fish foods purchased from a pet shop.

VI. Listing Factors That Exist In the Pond Habitat

In order for an organism to live in any given habitat, it must have the necessary materials that it
needs for growth and reproduction. Anything that is essential for an organisms survival, and
for which there is competition, is called a limiting factor. A deficiency or an over-abundance of
any kind can limit the survival of an organisms in a particular habitat. For example, cattails
growing along the shore of a lake requires a marshy condition where the water is not too deep. In

a pond where the bottom is soft and the water is shallow, cattails cannot survive. However, they
can survive at the ponds edge.
Some limiting factors have to do with living things. These limiting factors are called biotic
factors. Food is a good example of biotic factors because animals can live only where the kinds
of food they eat are available. If limiting factors have to do with nonliving things such as air,
temperature, sunlight and water, it is called an abiotic factor. At this time we will examine
several biotic and abiotic limiting factors and discuss their affect on the habitats of plants and
animals that exist within the pond ecosystem.
A. Temperature
Most aquatic organisms have a narrow tolerance to change in temperature and therefore cannot
live where drastic temperature changes occur. However some animals are equipped with special
mechanisms that helps them to adjust to temperature change. A primary example being cold
blooded animals because they can adjust by temporarily reducing their metabolism which results
in a suspended state of animation. Once normal temperatures reoccur the animal returns to its
normal activity.
Some plants and animals adjust by developing special hibernation phases or forms. Some aquatic
plants produce winter buds which breaks off and drop to the bottom of ponds. These winter buds
realistically are terminal shoots in which leaves are very close together which acts as a stored
food supply. Among animals, various devices are common in order for them to survive the
wintry cold waters. Some examples include: winter eggs of certain microscopic animals such as
rotifers, cladocerans and rhabdocoels and the cysts of many protists, copeds and annelids.
Other animals may adapt by moving into a different environment. Fishes and snails move away
from the from the shore into the deeper water. Most insects go to the bottom of the pond and
burrow into the substratum to hibernate. Reptiles and amphibians do the same, but some dig
holes in the mud, trash and debris. The majority of freshwater fishes and some amphibians, can
withstand fluctuations in temperature and survive temperatures well below freezing in winter and
fairly high temperatures in the summer.
B. Light
The amounts of light that is able to penetrate water is restricted by the amount of suspended
material in the water and the color of the water. Light is essential to all green plants in order for
them to make food. Likewise, green plants and their stored energy are needed by animals in
order to survive.
Excessive algae growth and turbid waters can have a devastating affect on a pond because it
hinders the amount of light that can pass through the water. Since the green plants can not
receive the necessary amount of sunlight, they will die off, thus causing a decrease of available
oxygen and food in the water which will kill animal life in the water.
C. Carbon Dioxide

Most of the carbon dioxide in water comes from the decay of organic materials and from
respiration that occurs in both plants and animals. Carbon dioxide is also supplied to ponds
dissolved in groundwater and rain. The amount of dissolved carbon dioxide is usually higher at
the bottom of ponds. Carbon dioxide is used by plants during photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is
the process in which organisms containing chlorophyll are able to use the energy from the
sunlight to unite carbon dioxide and water to form the sugar glucose, and other compounds that
derived from it, and a source of energy. In doing this they use oxygen and release carbon dioxide
in respiration. It is the source of carbon found in proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, the basic food
substances of animals.
Carbon dioxide plays an important role in determining the pH, the degree of alkalininty or
acidity, of water. It combines with water forming weak carbonic acid which reacts with limestone
or dissolved lime to form carbonates and bicarbonates. These compounds serve as buffers that
regulate pH. The pH of water often determines what types of aquatic life are found in ponds.
D. Oxygen
There are two ways in which oxygen enters the water. One method is through photosynthesis of
green plants in the water. The second method is by diffusion of oxygen from the atmosphere. The
amount of oxygen that the waters retain is dependent upon the temperature, pressure,
decomposition and pollution. Clean shallow surface water averages an oxygen content of five to
ten cubic centimeters per liter. Cold water will hold more oxygen than warm water; rapid moving
waters contain more oxygen than stagnant waters. Water containing decaying organic matter will
show a drop in oxygen content because the aerobic bacteria involved in decomposition uses the
oxygen.
As the sunlight penetrates the water during the daylight, plants give off oxygen as a by-product
of photosynthesis more rapidly than it is used in respiration by living things. Therefore there is a
reserve of oxygen built up. At night when photosynthesis ceases, both plants and animals use the
reserved oxygen. The oxygen content in ponds fluctuates greatly within a twenty-four hour
period. If the oxygen content of water is suddenly reduced, fish will tend to come to the surface
in order to gulp air.
E. Nutritional Relationships
Most of the biotic limiting factors involve food. The autotrophs require inorganic nutrients from
the environment to synthesis organic compounds. These autotrophs are called food producers.
There are three different types of food producers found in the pond: (l) the emergent, rooted
plants like water lilies, and cattails found near the shore; (2) the submerged plants like hornworts
and eelgrass; and (3) the suspended algae which form the phytoplankton. Microscopic
examination of a few drops of pond water usually reveals hundreds of one-celled algae.
Phytoplankton may increase so much that lake water turns to a dark green color. Small
crustaceans such as ostracods and copepods feed well on the algae blooms. Since these animals
feed on plants, they are called herbivores and are first food consumers of an ecosystem. The
energy synthesized and stored by phytoplankton is transferred to the protoplasm of the

herbivores. The carnivores, flesh-eating animals are divided into two groups: (l) the first-level
carnivores, which eat and use the energy of the herbivores; and (2) the second-level carnivores,
which prey on the first-level carnivores
The scavengers feed on dead organisms. They are important in the cycling of chemicals and the
transfer of energy to the animals in the ecosystem that feed on them. Crayfish, some snails and
fish are some examples of scavengers. The bacteria and yeast are representatives of decomposers
in the pond. They break the excretions and tissues of organisms into simpler substances through
the process of decay.
Other bacteria present in the mud bottom of the pond and in the soil convert the simpler
substances left by the decomposers in to nitrogen compounds, which are used by plants. The
bacteria that do this are called transformers. Both decomposers and transformers return nitrogen,
phosphates, and other substances to the soil or water so that the plants can begin the cycle again.
Matter would not be available for recycling, or reuse, in an ecosystem if decomposers did not
exist.
F. Pollution
Small amounts of organic pollution may increase the fertility of a body of water if it can be
decomposed without seriously reducing the oxygen content. However, if the oxygen content is
seriously reduced, anaerobic decomposition will be initiated and undesirable gases will form.
Even though ponds may be able to survive some forms of organic pollutions, it is practically
impossible for a pond to survive inorganic pollutants such as those from chemical, radioactive
wastes, etc... because of their potency.
Sticklebacks, carps, eels, stoneworts and duckweed can survive in polluted waters. Other animals
show a wide range of tolerance to organic pollution. Most animals that can survive in highly
polluted waters have a high tolerance level in the presence of waters with a reduced oxygen
supply. Many of the protists can live in these type of conditions. Many of the bivalves and snails
have a high tolerance level for pollution. However, the absence of these and other mollusks from
ponds is often a warning of pollution.
People are often misled when they use certain physical conditions of ponds as indicators for
pollution. Foamy area in ponds, fluorescence or distinctive odors may be good evidence that a
pond may be polluted. However, foam may be due to certain harmless inorganic salts or some
species of phytoplankton; the odors and fluorescence may be due to the presence of certain
protozoans.

LESSON PLAN I: THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

OBJECTIVES The student will:

(1) List the five steps of the scientific method.

(2) Perform an experiment incorporating each of the steps of the scientific method.
(3) Write a scientific report of the following experiment.
(4) Use a thermometer to record temperature.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
In order for the student to fully understand how to use the scientific method when writing
reports, I feel that they should be walked through an experiment to be performed during class.
Therefore, the class will test how temperature affects the respiration rate of fish. If the reader
follows the procedure listed below, this simple lesson should get your students excited and
should set the pace for the remainder of this unit. Fish can be brought from any pet store at a
relatively inexpensive price. Glass jars can be used for this experiment, and the children can take
the fish home at the end of the experiment.
As the temperature of the water increases, so will the respiration rate of the fish. The respiration
rate is check by counting the movement of the fishs gills for a certain amount of time (one
minute intervals).
PROCEDURES
(1) Have the students list the steps of the scientific method orally as you write them on the board
in the following format:
Title for the experiment
I. Introduction
II. Hypothesis
III. Procedure
____(A) Materials Used:
____(B) Procedure
IV. Observations
V. Conclusion
(2) Tell the students that they will perform an experiment to see if temperature affects the
respiration rate of fish. Then ask the students for a possible title for the experiment. Write the
best response on the board.
(3) Moving to the actual first step, give the students a library assignment, or duplicate the
information for the children to speed up the process, and have the children read about how
temperature affects the fish respiration rate. Then have them write a paragraph about fish and
respiration rate. Explain to them that this is how the introductory part of any experiment is done.
(4) Have the students give you several hypothesis about the outcome of the experiment, and list
them on the board.
(5) Explain to the students that the next step of the scientific method called the procedure
requires them to list the materials used and the steps that they followed to complete the
experiment.
(6) Since you have already explained the experiment to the students, place the letter A just
like above on the board and write materials used. Have the students list all the materials they

would need to use in order to successfully complete the experiment. Then have them list the
procedures that they would follow in order to test their hypothesis. NOTE: let the students
suggest ways to heat the water without harming the fish. Then have them to suggest ways to cool
the water. The best possible solution is to place the individual jars with fish in them in the
window to capture sunlight in order to warm the water, and to place ice cubes in the water order
to cool the water.
(7) Inform the students that they are moving to the next step of the scientific method which
requires them to record their observations. Then have them make a chart labeled temperature in
one column, respiration rate in the next column, and behavior in the next. (Let the student know
that it is best to use a chart or graph to record their observation whenever possible.) The chart
should be as follows:
TEMPERATURE RESPIRATION RATE BEHAVIOR OF FISH
(8) As the students record the temperature and respiration rate on the chart, instruct them to
record how the fish reacts to its environment as the temperature becomes colder.
(9) Have the student record about five to ten different temperatures. Allow the water to fall
between three to five degrees between each reading.
(10) After the students complete the experiment, allow them to make several conclusions orally.
Then let them know that they have just completed a scientific experiment.
(11) Instruct the students to write up a final draft of the experiment using the format in step one
of the above for homework.
(12) You can also instruct the students to make an attractive title page for their experiment, which
most students take pride in doing. Display the better experimental reports on a bulletin board.
EVALUATION The students final written report should be used as a evaluative tool. If the
students placed the correct information in each section, you should conclude that they have a
good understanding of the scientific method. NOTE: some students may have problems
reaching an adequate conclusion. If so you may want to make up some charts or tables, and
have students interpret the information being presented.

LESSON PLAN II: VISITING POND COMMUNITY

OBJECTIVES The student will:
(1) Collect a variety of living things found in and around the pond.
(2) Using textbook and field manuals, identify the animal and plant life discovered at the pond.
(3) With the assistance of the instructor, set up an aquarium in the classroom in order to observe
a pond community in captivity.
(4) Keep a journal noting any changes that occurs in the aquarium.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
A wide variety of pond animals can be maintained in captivity with a minimum amount of care
and equipment. Keeping samples of plants and animals collected from a pond community in the

classroom, under conditions approximating their habitat, will give students the opportunity of
studying them at close range and in detail. Given adequate care and feeding, many of the animals
collected will carry out their complete life cycles in captivity.
All the information needed to set up the aquarium can be found in the sectioned titled,
Constructing A Pond Community.
PROCEDURES
(1) Find a pond located near your school. If a pond is not within walking distance arrange a bus
to take you to a nearby pond. Some parks have park rangers working in them. Most of the time
they will be happy to assist you if you contact them in advance.
(2) Tell your student to bring jars, gallon jugs, small plastic bags, etc... Let your students know
that they will be going on a field trip to a pond so that they will dress appropriately.
(3) Set up the aquarium in class as mentioned previously. Bring back enough water from the
pond to fill the aquarium.
(4) Have the students collect a variety of plants and animals from the ponds edge.
(5) Upon your return to school, place the water and living organisms in the aquarium.
(6) Instruct students on how to keep a journal of observations made after viewing the aquarium
each day.
(7) Also have students use field guides to identify as many of the plants and animals as possible.
LESSON PLAN III: Food Webs In The Pond Community
OBJECTIVES The student will:
(1) Explain that a community is a large group of diverse organisms that live together in an
orderly interrelated fashion.
(2) Differentiate between food chains, pyramids and webs.
(3) Design a typical food web that could exist within a pond community using magazine pictures,
or figures that they draw themselves.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
The community of plants and animals that live in a pond make up a network of interconnected
food chains called food webs. All of the food in the web eventually comes from photosynthesis
of green plants using sunlight, water, carbon dioxide. Use the diagram at the end of this unit
titled, Food Web In A Freshwater Pond as an example to show students what their food web
should look like.
PROCEDURES
(1) Write the terms and definition for the following words on the board: (a) community (b) food
chain, (c) food pyramid; and (d) food web.
(2) Have the student define the term community. Then have them to describe what a pond
community would look like.
(3) Have the students explain the differences and similarities between the three concepts.

(4) Have the students orally state some examples of typical food chains that may occur in a pond
community.
(5) Give each student a duplicate copy of handout, Food Web In A Freshwater Pond and
have them add onto their previously mentioned responses.
(6) As a small scaled science project, have the students collect or draw pictures of a pond
community on a poster board. You may want to give the students a few days to complete the
assignment.
EVALUATION
The students finished project should be used as an evaluative tool. If the students food chain was
done correctly, then they should have grasped the concepts of webbing.
LESSON PLAN IV: Exploring The Microscopic Pond World
OBJECTIVES The students will:
(1) Prepare a wet mount slide from a drop of pond water.
(2) Draw and identify any animals seen underneath the microscope.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
A microscope will literally open up an entire new world for your students when exploring a
pond. Each time a child place a drop of pond water on a slide and bring it into focus they venture
into an world unknown to them. The movement and the animals themselves are amazing. NOTE:
you may need to review the parts of the microscope and remind the children how to handle the
microscope.
PROCEDURE:
(1) The teacher may want to collect water from a pond for this experiment or the water from their
aquarium may be used. However, if you collect new pond water near an algae bloom the variety
of microscopic life will be numerous.
(2) Review with the students how to properly prepare a wet mount slide.
(3) Have the students take a sample of pond water from the sample that you have prepared.
(4) Tell the students to draw the animals that they see in the microscope.
(5) Have the students look through library books, and identify the animals that they drew.
SPECIAL NOTE: The Regional Water Center will perform this activity with your students in
their laboratory.
LESSON PLAN V: Science Projects
OBJECTIVE The students will either
(1) Design and implement an experiment relating to pond ecology.
(2) Design a poster relating to pond ecology.
(3) Write a research paper relating to pond ecology.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
This science project can be used as an evaluative tool at the end of the unit. Students will turn in
a science project using any one of the previously mentioned projects. As the teacher, you have
the choice of letting students work in groups or individually on their science projects. I allow
students to design experiments together, especially if they are using live animals. However,
research papers and posters are to be done individually.
Notice how I give students the choice of doing an experiment, designing a poster or writing a
research paper. This allow students to work from their strongest standpoint. Of course some
students draw better than others, some perform scientific investigations better than other and
some students enjoy writing. Giving students a choice usually motivate them to turn in award
winning projects.
PROCEDURES
(1) Explain to the students that they will be doing a science project. Let them know that they
have a choice of doing an experiment, designing a poster, or writing a research paper.
(2) Give the students a list of possible topics. Also brain storm with the class about other possible
topics. Let the students know that the topic that they choose must be approved by the instructor.
(3) Place the following list of possible topics on the board, along with any others the students
suggest:
Experiments
(1) What would happen if you place five fish, three snails, and four plants in a gallon jar?
Explain what happened and why?
(2) How would a drop of gasoline or oil affect an ecosystem in a jar?
(3) What would happen if you placed three to five snails in a jar? Why did this occur?
(4) Make a terrarium using reptiles, plants, etc... Explain why this represents an ecosystem.
(5) Get samples of two different forms of pond water, draw and identify the microscopic life
found? Do all ponds have the same kind of pond life?
(6) How long does it takes for a tadpole to turn into a frog?
(7) Can a fish survive frigid water temperatures?
(8) How can too much light or any other limiting factor discussed in class affect a pond
community?
POSTERS
(1) Food chains in a pond
(2) Ecological succession in a pond community
(3) How an aquarium works
(4) The life cycle of a frog
(5)The hydrologic cycle
(6) Different types of plants found in the pond community
(7) Food pyramids within the pond community
(8) The ecological makeup of pond

RESEARCH PAPER TOPICS

(1) What is a pond?
(2) Different types of ponds
(3) Limiting factors in a pond community
(4) Food webs that exist within a pond community
(5) Ecological succession of a pond
(6) Different habitats found in the pond community
(7) The ecological makeup of a pond

Pond Ecosystem

Introduction to Pond Ecosystem:

Ecosystem is the basic functional unit with which ecology deals since it includes both the organisms
and non living environment, each influencing the properties of the other and both necessary for the
maintenance of life on earth.
A pond ecosystem refers to fresh water ecosystem where there are communities of organism
dependent on each other with the prevailing water environment for their nutrients and survival.
Usually ponds are shallow water bodies with a depth of 12-15 feet in which the sun rays can
penetrate to the bottom permitting the growth of plants there. The functional components of a Pond
ecosystem are-

Pond Ecosystem :abiotic Components

The abiotic substances of Pond ecosystem are formed as a result of the mixture of some organic
and inorganic materials.The basic components are water,oxygen,carbon dioxide ,salts of calcium
and nitrogen etc.Only a small amount of these elements are present in soluble state in pond
water,but a large amount is held in reserve solid form in the bottom sediments as well as within the
organisms.Various organisms get their nourishment from these abiotic substances.The rate of
release of reserve nutrients ,the solar input and the cycle of temperature ,day length and other
climatic conditions regulate the function of the Pond ecosystem.

Pond Ecosystem: Biotic Components

The biotic components of Pond ecosystem consists of

Producers:-The producres are of two types-larger rooted and floating vegetations together
termed macrophytes and phytoplanktons-which are microscopic floating
algae.Phytoplanktons are available upto the depth of water where light penetrates.The
phytoplanktons are filamentous alga like
Ulothrix,Oedogonium,Spirogyra,Anabena,Oscillatoria and minute floating plants like
Microcystis,Gloeotrichina volvox etc.The macrophytes include marginal emergent plants like
Typha , Acerus, Ipomea ,submerged plants like Hydrilla, Utricularia, Trapa, Nymphrea etc ;
surface floating plants like Pistea ,Lemna, Wolffia,Eichhornia,Salvinia etc.

Consumers:-Consumers of Pond ecosystem are heterotrophs which depend for their

nutrition on other organisms.Zooplanktons form primary consumers ,include Brachionus
,Asplanchna ,Lechane ,(all rotofers) Colops, Dilepteus,Cyclops ,Stenocypris (crustacean)
,who feed on phytoplankton.Nectic animals like insects,beetles,fishes form secondary
consumers as they feed on zooplanktons.Benthic animals like snakes ,big fishes live on
nectic animals and are termed tertiary consumers.

Decomposers:- Most of the decomposers of Pond ecosystem are saprophytes but some
parasites are also found .Bacteria,fungi like Aspergillus Cladosporium
Rhizopus,Alternaria,Fusarium,Saprolegnia etc are decomposers.Generally the decomposers
either live in the soil layer beneath water or in the mud.They act on dead and decayed
organic matter of plants and animals and supply raw materials to the producers.

Energy Flow in Pond Ecosystem

Phytoplanktons are the producers of pond ecosystem along with other floating plants.The energy
produced by the autotrophs are passed through "eat and being eaten chain".In pond the larvae of
insects consume autotrophs as food.So according to law of energy flow the larvae assimilate
energy from autotrophs .So larvae are primary consumers.These primary consumers are taken as
food by prawns ,small carnivorous fishes etc and so they collect energy from larvae.They are
,therefore secondary consumers.Large fishes consume secondary consumers,and are tertiary
consumers.

Life In A Pond - Under Water

Ecosystem
A pond, a large earth depression where water collects, often has a serene,
shallow depth composition to it. The ponds shallowness allows sunlight to
penetrate to the bottom, which allows plants to grow. Pond plants either
grow entirely underwater or partially on the surface. A minority of plants will
also grow along the pond's edge. Ponds eventually turn into a large plot of
soil if left untreated by intervention. Ponds will support a large variety of
animal and plant life, such as birds, crayfish, small fish, frogs, insects, turtles,
protozoa, algae, and lily pads. Ponds usually regulate the same water
temperature ranging from the water's surface to the bottom. Ponds may
freeze solid in colder climates.
A pond ecosystem, a basic unit in ecology formed from the cohabitation of
plants, animals, microorganisms, and a surrounding environment, refers to a
community of freshwater organisms largely dependent on each of the
surviving species to maintain a life cycle. Ponds shallow water bodies barely
reach 12 to 15 feet in-depth and allow the sun to penetrate to its bottom,
allowing freshwater plants to grow. A pond ecosystem consists of algae,
fungi, microorganisms, plants, and various fish, which may fall into three
distinct classifications: producer, consumer, and decomposer. The pond's
natural cycle begins with the producers and then to the consumers before
ending with the decomposers.
A pond's ecosystem consists of abiotic environmental factors and biotic
communities of organisms. Abiotic environmental factors of a pond's
ecosystem include temperature, flow, and salinity. The percentage of
dissolved oxygen levels in a water body determines what kind of organisms
will grow there. After all, fish need dissolved oxygen in order to survive;
however, anaerobic bacteria will not thrive in an ecosystem pumped with
dissolved oxygen. A water body's salinity may also determine the different
species present. For instance, marine organisms tolerate salinity, while
freshwater organisms will not thrive when exposed to salt. In fact, freshwater
ecosystems often have plant species present which will absorb salts that are
dangerous for freshwater organisms.

A pond ecosystem consists of four habitats, including the shore, surface film,
open water, and bottom water. The shore, depending on its rocky, sandy, or
muddy composition, lures in various organisms. For instance, rocky shores
may now allow plants to grow, while muddy or sandy shores attract grasses,
algae, earthworms, snails, protozoa, insects, small fish, and microorganisms.
The pond's surface breeds excellent ground for water striders, marsh traders,
free-floating organisms, and organisms that can walk on the surface of water.
An open-water habitat permits sizable fish, plankton, phytoplankton, and
zooplankton to grow. Phytoplankton includes a large variety of algae, while
zooplankton refers to insect larvae, rotifers, small crustaceans and
invertebrates. Fish feed on plankton, or tiny organisms. The bottom-water
habitat varies depending upon the pond's depth. Shallow ponds with sandy
bottoms provide a nesting environment for earthworms, snails, and insects.
Deep-ended ponds have muddy bottoms, which allow various
microorganisms, such as flatworms, rat-tailed maggots, and dragonfly
nymphs to reproduce and survive.
A pond's ecosystem food chain has three basic trophic levels. The first
trophic level represents the producer and autotrophs, such as phytoplankton
and plants. Producers prepare their own food with the energy emitted from
the sun through a process known as photosynthesis. The second trophic level
consists of herbivores, such as insects, crustaceans, and invertebrates that
inhabit the pond and consume the plants. The third trophic level comprises
of carnivores, such as various sizes of fish, which feed on both the plants and
herbivores atop the first and second trophic levels. Saprotrophic organisms,
also known as decomposers located on the bottom of the food chain, help
decompose dead organic matter, which further breaks down into carbon
dioxide and essential nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and
magnesium. These nutrients supply the necessary life force for the first
trophic level organisms to produce food for the second trophic organisms,
which results in the perpetual flow of energy in the pond's ecosystem.
Aquatic Ecosystems
Destruction of Aquatic Ecosystems
As aquatic habitats are destroyed bit by bit, countless creatures and plants disappear.
Crystalline bodies of water that furnished ample water to wildlife and people alike only a few
centuries ago have become polluted or dried up. Growing human populations and
development consume millions of acres of ecologically important coastal marshes and
mangrove swamps to make way for airports, urban development, seaports, shrimp farms

and resorts. More subtle changes are occurring from ozone depletion, acid rain and global
warming caused by chemical pollutants in the atmosphere. These may end in far-reaching
ecological changes and extinctions that are only beginning to be chronicled.

Less than 3 percent of the Earth's water is fresh, and two-thirds of it is frozen in
glaciers and ice caps. The remaining 0.5 percent is contained in aquifers, rivers,
marshes, other wetlands and in the atmosphere (Barlow 1999). Global population
growth is expected to outpace freshwater supplies by 56 percent by 2025 unless
patterns of use change radically (Barlow 1999). Water use has grown at more than
twice the rate of population increase in the 20th century, according to the United
Nations (Barlow 1999). Almost 70 percent of the world's population lives in areas
bordering bodies of water such as rivers, coastlines and lakes, where civilizations
have traditionally arisen (Dugan 1993). The United Nations reports some 80
countries, 40 percent of the world's population, are already facing water shortages
(Lewis 1996). At least 20 percent of the world's peoples do not have clean water for
drinking, according to a 1997 conference of Earth Summit Plus (Grossfeld 1997).
Cities have been increasing in size, and the United Nations predicts that within a
decade, most of the world's peoples will live in cities for the first time in the human
history. Currently, 2.6 billion people live in urban areas; this total is expected to rise
to 3.3 billion by 2005 (Lynch 1996). By 2025, 5 billion people, or almost all people
now living on Earth, are expected to be city-dwellers, the vast majority in poor
countries without effective pollution control or sufficient water supply, by UN
estimates.

The United Nations believes that by 2025, the world's population will number 8.3
billion, with two-thirds living in conditions of serious water shortage and one-third
suffering from severe water scarcity (Barlow 1999). Growing urban populations
require more and more fresh water. Rivers and lakes have been dammed, diverted
and channeled to supply these cities, often with disastrous consequences for
wildlife. Since all portions of a river are part of the same ecosystem, when it is
dammed or altered, the river and its wildlife and plants are affected throughout its
length, which may extend over 1,000 miles. Wetlands at the mouth of a river can
be drained by the construction of a dam hundreds of miles inland. Likewise,
channeling at the mouth of a river, increasing flow for ship navigation, can drain
wetlands and alter flow for the entire length of the river, eliminating native wildlife
and plants. The Missouri River, for example, was once a shallow, sandy-bottomed
river lined with trees and swamps. When Lewis and Clark explored the region in the
early 19th century, they saw great numbers of sturgeon, trout and other fish,
aquatic mammals, and vast flocks of cranes, waterfowl and shorebirds. During the
20th century, multiple dams were built, and the river was channeled to
accommodate ship traffic, radically altering the Missouri's ecosystem. The shallow-

water feeding grounds for birds were drowned, and migratory sturgeon and trout
found their routes blocked, endangering many species. After much opposition from
barge operators and farmers, Congress funded a program in October 2000 to
partially restore the flow to accommodate the needs of native wildlife by altering
water releases from dams for a few months each year. Many conservationists are
working to save even more of this original ecosystem.

Underground aquifers contain water that has been accumulating for thousands
of years. Only in recent decades have they been exploited, and many are being
over-pumped for city water supplies or agriculture. The High Plains Ogallala aquifer
in the Great Plains of the United States stretches from South Dakota to Texas;
pumping is depleting it eight times faster than it can be replenished naturally
(Barlow 1999). This story is being repeated around the world, especially in desert
regions such as North Africa, northern China and the Saudi Arabian peninsula,
where fossil aquifers are being over-pumped for agriculture, industry and household
use (Barlow 1999). This is resulting in their gradual depletion, contributing to a
future "water bankruptcy" (Barlow 1999). Countries in arid regions are already
competing for scarce water supplies. The Euphrates River has been dammed by
Turkey, turning its flow to a trickle by the time it reaches Iraq. The latter country
has become increasingly arid over the past few thousand years as grassland and
bountiful water supplies deteriorated to desert as a result of over-use of water and
drainage of wetlands.

Trade treaties, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) signed
between the United States, Canada and Mexico and the World Trade Organization
(WTO), whose members include the majority of countries, override national water
rights, assigning them to corporations and other commercial interests. Water is now
being bought and sold as a commodity. One large company, the US Global Water
Corporation, has signed an agreement with Sitka, Alaska, to transport 18 billion
gallons of glacier water per year to China, where it will be bottled and sold (Barlow
1999). A California company was denied the ability to purchase water from British
Columbia and, under the principles of NAFTA, sued the government of Canada for
$220 million (Barlow 1999). Environmental and species preservation are not
considered in these global transactions. By treating water as a commodity to be
traded to the highest bidder, ecosystems will be devastated. The International
Forum on Globalization of San Francisco outlines many of these issues that point
toward future catastrophes for the environment and human society alike in its
report, Blue Gold. It concludes that only if water is considered to be commonly
shared by humans and all species, and water diversion, damming, pollution, sale
and bartering are halted, can there be hope for the future (Barlow 1999).

In the United States, only the onset of droughts brings about restrictions on
water usage. Agriculture and livestock use an estimated 65 percent of the country's
water supplies, households 10 percent and industry 25 percent. Much of the water
used for agriculture comes from diverted rivers in irrigation programs which return it
to water tables contaminated with large amounts of pesticides, herbicides and
artificial fertilizers. An American family of four uses 300 gallons a day, far more
than the average in most of the rest of the world. This profligacy has been at the
expense of natural ecosystems. As human populations grow, water use will result in
ever more strain on water supplies. Cities have sprung up in near-desert regions in
the United States, requiring water diversion from other areas. One of the most
dramatic examples of this is Los Angeles. The major flows from several rivers and
lakes have been diverted to supply the needs of Los Angeles (Reisner 1986). Only
with artificial water supplies has this city been able to grow to metropolis size. Its
denizens waste their water supply to grow green lawns, and an enormous amount is
used by local industry and agriculture. Los Angeles' water has been supplied at the
expense of wildlife and plant species native to the diverted and drained water
bodies, many of which are now endangered (Reisner 1986). Salmon and other fish
have become endangered in the source rivers and lakes used to supply Los
Angeles. Las Vegas, Phoenix and other western cities also tap the scarce water
resources of the West. The diversion of water from natural rivers and lakes for large
cities and massive agriculture projects is destroying aquatic oases in dry areas and
drying up entire rivers in deserts, endangering species as diverse as tortoises, Bald
Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and songbirds.

Half of the people in developing countries suffer from illnesses associated with
contaminated water, such as chronic diarrhea (Grossfeld 1997), and more than 5
million people, most of them children, die every year from these illnesses (Barlow
1999). Conflicts over water resources between countries and states are increasing,
and in the future, wars may be fought over dwindling water supplies.

Although marshes are able to filter limited amounts of nutrient-laden water, raw,
untreated sewage dumped into waterways can turn them into fetid, oxygenless
mires. Ninety percent of the sewage in the swelling cities of poor countries is
untreated, having had none of the solid matter removed, according to the World
Resources Institute in Washington, DC. Some rivers, such as the Ganges and
Brahmaputra River systems, are so polluted that the native dolphin, the endangered
Ganges River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica), struggles to survive in the
contaminated water. Fish are killed by the pollution, leaving the dolphins without
food, and the high bacteria counts may be killing these dolphins directly. The

Ganges has become so sewage-laden that it presents major health risks to the
people who drink from and bathe in its water. This is especially ironic because this
river is a holy river to the millions of Hindus who come to anoint themselves in its
water. India has more than 3,000 towns and cities, but only eight of these have
sewage treatment plants (Crossette 1996). Even sewage treatment systems can
overflow during heavy rains, spilling toxic chemicals and oily runoff from roads, as
well as untreated sewage. Since almost half of the world's population lives in cities,
this is one of the world's most serious environmental problems.

The failure to conserve forests and vegetation has become a major factor in
destroying natural aquatic ecosystems around the world. Besides causing mud
slides and floods, the cutting of trees bordering rivers and streams also results in a
rise in water temperature that affects the local climate and kills fish eggs and other
wildlife. Clear-cut logging also causes siltation of rivers and lakes, smothering fish
and wildlife. Salamanders, who require damp, undisturbed forest floors, are often
eliminated by clear-cut logging. James Petranka of the University of North Carolina
estimates that in the national forests of North Carolina, 14 million salamanders are
wiped out every year by clear-cutting (Stolzenburg 1997). Extreme deforestation
causes streams, springs, ponds and rivers to dry up and the regional climate to
become more arid.

Oceans were once thought resilient to heavy pollution and the dumping of all
types of debris. We are learning, however, that the combined effects of overfishing,
killing of coral reefs and toxic contamination are turning them into aquatic deserts,
according to Dr. Sylvia Earle, an eminent oceanographic scientist, and
conservationist-author, Carl Safina (Earle and Henry 1999, Safina 1997). The
oceans have also become crowded with commercial ships, fishing boats and
pleasure craft, all of which are causing problems for wildlife. These ships discard
plastics and other material and pose a threat of collision. Several cruise lines have
been indicted and fined in recent years for dumping illegal materials overboard,
including plastics, large amounts of waste oil and other toxic substances.

Coral reefs have proven very delicate and vulnerable to die-offs. Pollution,
overfishing, cyanide poisoning and dynamiting to obtain tropical fish for the
aquarium and Asian restaurant trades, or corals for the curio trade have all
contributed to severe losses in the 70 million square miles of coral reef around the
world.

Natural, unpolluted aquatic environments are fast disappearing around the

world. Approximately 50 percent of the world's wetlands have been lost in historic
times, according to Wetlands in Danger: A World Conservation Atlas (Dugan 1993).
In the past, wetlands were destroyed primarily for agricultural development.
Although this remains a major threat, programs such as dam construction and
irrigation projects financed by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund
are becoming the major threat to pristine aquatic environments around the world.
Unfortunately, the effects of these losses are usually appreciated too late, when
species disappear and water ecologies are damaged.

Soils in many dryland areas have become polluted by salinization caused by

irrigation schemes. Irrigation water flowing onto drylands brings to the surface
substratum minerals and salts, which render the soil unfit for agriculture or almost
any natural vegetation. Regions covering at least 150,000 square miles worldwide
have become too saline to farm after irrigation programs (Dugan 1993).

Study the effect of pollution

on an ecosystem
21 25 28.1K

An ecosystem is a self-contained, dynamic system made of a population of

species in its physical environment. This concept is used to study the complex
interactions between the organisms - plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi that make up the community. There are many different ways in which the
community of organisms interacts.
There is the food chain where each organism is in a producer, consumer, predator, and prey
relationship; there is the oxygen cycle and the water cycle that sustains the organisms.
When an ecosystem gets polluted, the natural balance in the system is disturbed and this
affects the organisms in different ways. It is important to know how a simple act like
introducing sewage water or toxic waste into a lake can threaten several life species and

plants in the area.

Pollution and the ecosystem
Pollutants like oil, detergents, nitrogen and phosphate from fertilizers and lead can have a
tremendous impact on the ecosystem, especially if the water gets polluted. In a lake, for
example, it can wreak havoc on the ecological balance by stimulating plant growth and
causing the death of fish due to suffocation resulting from lack of oxygen. The oxygen cycle
will stop, and the polluted water will also affect the animals dependant on the lake water.
How to study the effect of pollution on an ecosystem
To understand how pollution impacts an ecosystem, select an ecosystem in your
neighbourhood. It could be a lake, a river or a sea shoreline. You will need to understand
what are the different organisms in the ecosystem and how each organism is related to the
other; which level are they in the food chain; how do they adapt to their environment.
Make your project more focused by choosing one or two major organisms in the
ecosystems. You will need to track their behaviour, food habits, life cycle, breeding habits
and how they are coping with the changes in the ecosystem. Though these changes are
usually slow, you can track them over a period of time, say 6 months or one year. Note all
your observations and findings, taking care to note down specific details of each species
that you are studying.
For the display of the results you can create presentation slides on chart paper or on the
computer. Use pictures of the ecosystem and the species you have studied when you
discuss each point. You should be able to draw a comparison of the status of the ecosystem
before such pollution and its status after the study. You can collect facts about the
population of species and migration of other species etc. from your local authorities. The
main features that you should cover in your presentation are:

Name of the pollutants

Possible source of the pollutants
Level of pollution
Effects on the species being studied- food habits, health
Effects on food chain
Effects on oxygen cycle

Effects on water cycle

PROBLEMS RELATED TO ECOSYSTEM DEGRADATION

Introduction | Centers of Pollution and Sensitive Areas | Perceived Major Problems and their Root Causes | Analysis
of the Problems and their Root Causes | Relevant Information and Detailed Analysis of the Problems | Location
Map | Figures | Tables
The degradation of ecosystems is an environmental problem that diminishes the capacity of species to survive. This
degradation occurs in different ways and is manifested in a reduction in the richness of the ecosystems as well as
their biological diversity, and in the goods and services they can offer, thereby affecting indigenous and/or migratory
species. The degradation of ecosystems due to overexploitation of their resources, though serving a short-term
economic goal, has had direct negative effects on social welfare in the medium and long terms. As long as the
ecosystem is not degraded, it represents a source of wealth for society, hence the importance of keeping it in good
condition.
One of the main causes that contributes to the degradation of ecosystems is the deforestation due to the advance of
the agriculture frontier and inappropriate forest exploitation. More lands are deforested for commercial agriculture and
live-stock rearing, and due to overexploitation of forest for wood and energy. In Nicaragua deforestation rates reach
over 150,000 hectares per year and in Costa Rica over 18,500 hectares per year.
At a lower scale, another problem is the uncontrolled fires used to prepare land for agricultural activities or to remove
forest for the development of stock rearing areas. This practice eliminates the organic covering of the land, making it
more susceptible to erosion by both wind and water. In addition, the fires cause health problems and detract from the
aesthetic value of the landscape.
Accidental or natural fires are another case in point. They affect areas of natural forest. In the Upala and Los Chiles
cantons, in Costa Rica, some 10,000 hectares were burned between 1998 and 1999. This problem is even more
serious in the Nicaraguan territory of the basin.
Equipment is lacking and communities need to be organized to control these fires as one of the main barriers to the
burning of large areas.
The construction of roads without proper drainage measures or in territories subject to penetration and settlement are
high-stress factors for ecosystems, especially those which are highly fragile as a result of their weather conditions and
the nature of their soil and water.

Mining and the extraction of construction materials without taking measures to cushion the impact cause drastic
changes in the natural landscape while degrading its valuable ecosystems.
Wetlands are very fragile ecosystems that are being severely affected, causing a reduction in the number and
diversity of the species of terrestrial flora, birds, reptiles, mammals, fish, and crustaceans. This problem results from
excessive exploitation of wildlife species either to feed the population, to trade their furs, or to trade live species, and
from sedimentation, which causes changes in water quality, thereby significantly affecting the reproduction of aquatic
species that live and/or reproduce in the wetlands.
The SJRB wetlands are very valuable ecosystems, which regulate the hydrological cycle and provide food and shelter
for hundreds of species, including large quantities of migratory birds. One major cause of the deterioration of this
ecosystem is the draining of wide areas of wetlands to give access to agricultural zones or human settlements. Aerial
photographs of the Cao Negro sector show how the pools of water have diminished over time, due in part to the
drainage of wetlands for agricultural purposes and to the sedimentation occurring in recent years in the basin. Owing
to the deterioration of these areas and the pressure of the neighboring communities on the use of the natural
resources of the wetlands, it is necessary to draw up management plans to outline the socioeconomic characteristics
of users and guidelines for usage, since people are highly dependent on these resources for their survival. A large
portion of the ecological problems of the wetlands is due to ignorance of their benefits.
The use of inappropriate fishing techniques endangers the existence of certain species, altering the food chain of
aquatic fauna and consequently deteriorating the aquatic ecosystems. This is the case of the bull shark that is now
hard to find in Lake Nicaragua or in the San Juan River. In some cases, the introduction of exotic species endangers
the existence of indigenous species with a high cultural value. Such is the case of the guapote, whose numbers are
being reduced by the introduction of tilapias. The deterioration of ecosystems is exacerbated by the lack of an
institutional presence in the territory, be it for technical or economic reasons, or a combination of both. As a result,
laws on the regulation and control of natural resource use are not enforced. The participation of civil society in
controlling the use and exploitation of natural resources is limited and, in many cases, very timid or markedly
apathetic.
One aspect that has not been evaluated in the degradation of the ecosystems is the incidence of different phenomena
on these systems. The geographic location of the SJRB and the various geographic accidents encountered there
render it susceptible to the impact of various events of this kind. In the SJRB there are a number of active volcanoes,
which spew gas and ash causing damage to the plant life, the soil, polluting water bodies, and causing severe
damage to entire populations. These volcanoes include the Masaya, the Maderas, and the Iraz. Another natural
phenomenon in the SJRB is landslides which, though located in specific areas, cause damage to the ecosystems, the
soil, pollute water bodies, damage infrastructure and entire settlements. The Maderas volcano on the island Ometepe
is a case in point.
Similarly, during the last century, the SJRB has suffered the destructive effects of at least three hurricanes which, with
their heavy rainfall, cause flooding damaging ecosystems, eroding soil, diverting river courses, causing severe
damage to infrastructure and entire populations, resulting in the loss of human lives. Other natural phenomena that
have caused damage to the ecosystems of the SJRB are the droughts that have occurred as a result of the El Nio
and seismic activity, which have changed river courses, particularly in the case of the Tipitapa River that provided a

permanent connection between the Managua and Nicaragua lakes. As a result of an earthquake during the last
century, the riverbed rose in a certain sector cutting off the existing connection between the two lakes.
The degradation of the ecosystems makes the economic and social infrastructure of the SJRB more vulnerable and
increases the potential impact on the population. This vulnerability is reflected in shorter periods between the
occurrence of floods or droughts and the soil becomes more unstable. Possible solutions to the problem of
deterioration of the ecosystems include developing formal and informal environmental education programs to make
farmers more aware of their actions; increasing enforcement of the existing legislation; promoting proper natural
resource management; and promoting the organization of grassroots groups to control burning from the outset. To
prevent or mitigate the damage caused by extreme conditions, such as flooding and droughts and other effects of
natural phenomena, it is necessary to set up and early warning system about possible swelling of water bodies and to
monitor hydrometeorological behavior. It is also necessary to set up a seismographic network to monitor the behavior
of volcanoes and tectonic faults. Similarly, social organization is necessary to design and test emergency plans for
natural phenomena, to reduce the damage they cause.
Institutions responsible for the control and regulation of natural resource use must be strengthened, both technically
and economically, and be given the means for their mobilization. This would enable them to have a real presence in
the territory. It is also necessary to create mechanisms for enforcing the current legislation.

conclusion
Everyone in the world depends completely on Earths ecosystems and the services they provide, such as
food, water, disease management, climate regulation, spiritual fulfillment, and aesthetic enjoyment. Over
the past 50 years, humans have changed these ecosystems more rapidly and extensively than in any
comparable period of time in human history, largely to meet rapidly growing demands for food, fresh
water, timber, fiber, and fuel. This transformation of the planet has contributed to substantial net gains in
humanwell-being and economic development. But not all regions and groups of people have benefited
from this processin fact, many have been harmed. Moreover, the full costs associated with these gains
are only now becoming apparent.
Three major problems associated with our management of the worlds ecosystems are already causing
significant harm to some people, particularly the poor, and unless addressed will substantially diminish the
long-term benefits we obtain from ecosystems:

First, approximately 60% (15 out of 24) of the ecosystem services examined during the

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment are being degraded or usedunsustainably, including fresh water,
capture fisheries, air and water purification, and the regulation of regional and local climate, natural
hazards, and pests. The full costs of the loss and degradation of these ecosystem services are difficult
to measure, but the available evidence demonstrates that they are substantial and growing. Many
ecosystem services have been degraded as a consequence of actions taken to increase the supply of
other services, such as food. Thesetrade-offs often shift the costs of degradation from one group of
people to another or defer costs to future generations.
Second, there is established but incomplete evidence that changes being made

in ecosystems are increasing the likelihood of nonlinear changes in ecosystems(including accelerating,

abrupt, and potentially irreversible changes) that have important consequences for human well-being.
Examples of such changes include disease emergence, abrupt alterations in water quality, the creation
of dead zones in coastal waters, the collapse of fisheries, and shifts in regional climate.
Third, the harmful effects of the degradation of ecosystem services (the persistent decrease in
the capacity of an ecosystem to deliver services) are being borne disproportionately by the poor, are
contributing to growing inequities and disparities across groups of people, and are sometimes the
principal factor causing poverty and social conflict. This is not to say that ecosystem changessuch as
increased food production have not also helped to lift many people out of poverty or hunger, but these
changes have harmed other individuals andcommunities, and their plight has been largely overlooked.
In all regions, and particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, the condition and management of ecosystem
services is a dominant factor influencing prospects for reducing poverty.
The degradation of ecosystem services is already a significant barrier to achieving the Millennium
Development Goals agreed to by the international community in September 2000 and the harmful
consequences of this degradation could grow significantly worse in the next 50 years. The consumption of
ecosystem services, which is unsustainable in many cases, will continue to grow as a consequence of a
likely three- to sixfold increase in global GDP by 2050 even while global population growth is expected to
slow and level off in mid-century. Most of the important direct drivers of ecosystem change are unlikely to
diminish in the first half of the century and two driversclimate change and excessive nutrient loading
will become more severe.
Already, many of the regions facing the greatest challenges in achieving the MDGscoincide with those
facing significant problems of ecosystem degradation. Rural poor people, a primary target of the MDGs,
tend to be most directly reliant on ecosystem services and most vulnerable to changes in those services.
More generally, any progress achieved in addressing the MDGs of poverty and hunger eradication,
improved health, and environmental sustainability is unlikely to be sustained if most of the ecosystem
services on which humanity relies continue to be degraded. In contrast, the sound management of
ecosystem services provides cost-effective opportunities for addressing multiple development goals in a
synergistic manner.
There is no simple fix to these problems since they arise from the interaction of many recognized
challenges, including climate change, biodiversity loss, and land degradation, each of which is complex to
address in its own right. Past actions to slow or reverse the degradation of ecosystems have yielded

significant benefits, but these improvements have generally not kept pace with growing pressures and
demands. Nevertheless, there is tremendous scope for action to reduce the severity of these problems in
the coming decades. Indeed, three of four detailed scenarios examined by the MA suggest that significant
changes in policies, institutions, and practices can mitigate some but not all of the negative consequences
of growing pressures on ecosystems. But the changes required are substantial and are not currently
under way.
An effective set of responses to ensure the sustainable management of ecosystemsrequires substantial
changes in institutions and governance, economic policies and incentives, social and behavior factors,
technology, and knowledge. Actions such as the integration of ecosystem management goals in various
sectors (such as agriculture, forestry, finance, trade, and health), increased transparency and
accountability of government and private-sector performance in ecosystem management, elimination of
perverse subsidies, greater use of economic instruments and market-based approaches, empowerment
of groups dependent on ecosystem services or affected by their degradation, promotion of technologies
enabling increased crop yields without harmful environmental impacts, ecosystem restoration, and the
incorporation of nonmarket values of ecosystems and their services in management decisions all could
substantially lessen the severity of these problems in the next several decades.
The remainder of this Summary for Decision-makers presents the four major findings of the
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment on the problems to be addressed and the actions needed to enhance
the conservation and sustainable use of ecosystems.
Source & : MA

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Synthesis Report (2005),

Summary for Decision Makers, pp.1-4

Level 1: Summary
Level 2: Details
Level 3: Source

Legislative Measure:
Various laws has been framed in India for the protection of environment and some of these are cited
belowi) Section 268 to 290 of Indian Penal Code deals with public nuisances. Public nuisance means pollution
of air, water, blasting, excessive smoke, filth and other polluting activities.
ii) Section 133 and 143 of Code of Criminal Procedure Code and Section 91 of Code of Civil Procedure
envisages that a person may approach a Magistrate and District Judge respectively by filing a complain or
petition about the public nuisance.
iii) Under Law of Torts , special damage can be claimed from nuisance maker/violator of environment.
iv) The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act1974,

v) The Environment Protection Act1986,

vi) Wildlife (Protection) Act1972,
vii) The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act1981,
viii) The Prevention of Cruelty of Animals Act1960,
ix) The National Environment Tribunal Act1995.

An Introduction should contain the following three parts:

1. Background.
In this part you have to make clear what the context is. Ideally, you should give
an idea of the state-of-the art of the field the report is about. But keep it short: in
my opinion this part should be less than a page long. Half a page should suffice
in case of a normal 15-pages article.
2. The Problem.
If there was no problem, there would be no reason for writing a report, and
definitely no reason for reading it. So, please tell the reviewer why she should
proceed reading. A simple sentence like "So far no-one has investigated the
link..." or "The above-mentioned solutions don't apply to the case ...", can
sometimes be enough to clarify the point you want to get at. Experience shows
that for this part a few lines are often sufficient.
3. The Proposed Solution.
Now - and only now! - you may outline the contribution of the report. Here you
have to make sure you point out what are the novel aspects of your work. There
are probably a zillion articles out there on that very subject: you can't expect the
reviewer to know them all; so make his life easier and clearly highlight what is the
difference between your method and the others. You can take your time here, but
I suggest to avoid getting into too much detail.

Introduction A

Introduction
The purpose of this project is to introduce our group's two conceptual designs. We have included the following
sketches for each car: 3 dimensional view, elevation, plan, front, rear and interior view. Also, we have included
a discussion of how the designs meet the criteria given in the project outline. The cars could be suitable for
short trips in busy areas.

Introduction B
1.0 Introduction
With the rise in global warming and increasing pollution levels, it is becoming essential to find a viable
alternative to the internal combustion engine petrol powered car.
The aim of this project was to create two designs for a fuel cell powered car, the main criteria being
environmental friendliness in terms of both emissions and materials.
This report presents the designs for two such cars, each of which includes the following components: engine,
fuel, wheels, accessories, safety features and materials. Car A is aimed at the upper end of the market, while
Car B is a mid-range vehicle suitable for family use.
A description of the design and an analysis of operational efficiency for each car are followed by a comparison
of the two designs. Finally, the most cost efficient design is recommended.