INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

CONTROL & INSTRUMENTATION

PROJECT ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT
BHEL, NOIDA

Submitted By:
Akhil Singhal
Reg. No.: 08111503012
Bharati Vidyapeeth's College of Engineering, Delhi

Bharati Vidyapeeth's College of

Engineering

1 MONTH INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

SUBMITTED TO:

SUBMITTED BY:

Mrs. Arati Kane

Akhil Singhal

HOD ICE

08111503012

Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to express deep sense of gratitude towards those who were
constantly involved with me during my industrial training period at PEM- (C&I), BHEL.

First of all, my heartfelt thanks to Mr. S. Bhatnagar (GM, C&I) who ensured a healthy
and learning environment for me to work in. Mr. M.A. Mansoori, my section head, devoted a
lot of his valuable time to see that I received a proper modular training in different areas. His
years long experience and learning in this field was very helpful for me.

I express my sincere gratitude to my mentor and guide Ms. Bhoopriya Chaodhary for
devoting his valuable time to make me learn the work completely. She has helped me in
understanding the basic concepts of power plant engineering. She ensured that my learning in
this department is complete and reposed faith in my work by assigning responsibilities and
giving freedom.

I am also thankful to all my team members of section I-03: Mr. M. A. Mansoori, Mr. Shivraj
Singh Bansala, Mr. Ravinder K. Raina, Mrs. Priyanka Soni, Mr. Prag Jain, Ms. Bhoopriya,
Mr. Nitin Jindal, Ms. Swetana, Mr. Gyanendra Awasthi and Ms. Rinky Kumari who were
always cooperative and helpful. Besides, I express my sincere thanks to all the members of
C&I Deptt. for their friendly and helpful attitude.

CERTIFICATE

This is to Certify that this report entitled " OVERVIEW OF CONTROL &
INSTRUMENTATION IN POWER PLANTS by Mr. Akhil Singhal after completion of six
weeks Summer Training (June 16, 2014 to July 24, 2014) is a record of bonafide work carried
out by him under my supervision and guidance.

Ms.BHOOPRIYA CHAODHARY

Mr.NITIN JINDAL

ENGINEER, C&I

SENIOR ENGINEER, C&I

BHEL,Noida

BHEL.Noida

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1
LIST OF FIGURES.....6
2.ABSTRACT....7
3.OVERVIEW OF POWER PLANT........8
4. BHEL OVERVIEW.......9
4.1 VISION, MISSION AND VALUES...11
4.2 BHEL AND ITS UNITS..........12
5.PROJECT ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT DIVISION.......17
6.OVERVIEW OF C&I DEPARTMENT.19
6.1 INTRODUCTION...19
6.2 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE19
6.3 FUNCTIONS OF C&I DEPARTMENT.....20
7.THERMAL POWER PLANT....23
7.1 COMPONENTS OF POWER PLANT....25
8. RANKINE CYCLE..29
8.1 DESCRIPTION..29
8.2 EFFICIENCY.,,,30
8.3 FOUR PROCESS OF RANKINE CYCLE31
9. CYCLES OF POWER PLANT.34
9.1. CCPP34
10. SWAS..39
4

11. STUDY OF DOSING SYSTEM..40

11.1 HYDRAZINE DOSING41
11.2 AMMONIA DOSING...43
11.3 NaOH DOSING44
12. ANALYZERS45
12.1 OXYGEN ANALYZER.46
12.2 DEOXYGEN ANALYZERS.47
12.3 pH ANALYZERS48
13. P & ID.50
14. Control Scheme for Non sequential drives.53
15. CONCLUSION.63

1.LIST OF FIGURES

1
CLASSIFICATION OF POWER PLANTS......8
2.OVERVIEW OF A THERMAL POWER PLANT.......8
3.PEM AND ITS COORDINATION.16
4.THERMAL POWER PLANT.. .......24
5.COAL USING THERMAL POWER PLANT.25
6.STEAM GENERATOR26
7.CONDENSER.......29
8.DEAERATOR..30
9. PHYSICAL LAYOUT OF FOUR MAIN DEVICES IN RANKINE CYCLE31
10.RANKINE CYCLE33
11. CCPP.37
12.SWAS.41
13.AMMONIA DOSING44
14. NaOH DOSING.....45
15. PID SYMBOLS52

2. ABSTRACT

This report summarizes all the activities of which I was a part of during my on the job
learning program. It also facilitates the evaluation process for the purpose of final absorption
in BHEL as Engineer. In broad terms, various activities which made a part of our on the job
learning were PEM familiarization, Power Plant visit, familiarization with work particularly
in C&I and finally the day to day learning of the routine work in the department.

Overview of thermal and combined cycle power plant are given in the first section. In
the next section, a brief description of BHEL and Project Engineering Management Division
is given.

In the third section, Functions of C&I Department in PEM has been described. The
next section enlists the various routine tasks and assignments handled by me during this oneyear period and a brief description of the trainings that we had the opportunity to undergo.

On the whole, this report gives a clear picture about my ten months on the job training
in BHEL during my tenure as Engineer Trainee.

3. OVERVIEW OF POWER PLANT

Power Generation

Hydro

Oil

Thermal

Nuclear

Coal

Non-Conventional

Gas

Open Cycle

Combined Cycle
GT + ST

Figure 1: Classification of power plants

Figure 2: Overview of a thermal power plant

4. BHEL: OVERVIEW

BHEL is the largest engineering and manufacturing enterprise in India in the energy
related/infrastructure sector, today. BHEL was established more than 45 years ago, ushering
in the indigenous Heavy Electrical Equipment industry in India, a dream that has been more
than realized with a well-recognized track record of performance. The company has been
earning profits continuously since 1971-72 and paying dividends since 1976-77. BHEL
manufactures over 180 products under 30 major product groups. BHEL serves the country in
following sectors:

1) Power Generation
2) Transmission
3) Industry
4) Transportation
5) Telecommunication
6) Renewable Energy
7) Overseas Business

The wide network of BHEL's 16 manufacturing divisions, four Power Sector regional
centers, over 150 project sites, eight service centers and 18 regional offices, enables the
Company to promptly serve its customers and provide them with suitable products, systems
and services efficiently and at competitive prices. The high level of quality & reliability of its
products is due to the emphasis on design, engineering and manufacturing to international

standards by acquiring and adapting some of the best technologies from leading companies in
the world, together with technologies developed in its own R&D centers.

BHEL has acquired certifications to Quality Management Systems (ISO 9001),

Environmental Management Systems (ISO 14001) and Occupational Health & Safety
Management Systems (OHSAS 18001) and is also well on its journey towards Total Quality
Management.

The greatest strength of BHEL is its highly skilled & committed 46,000 employees.
Every employee is given an equal opportunity to develop himself/herself & improve his/her
position. Continuous training, career planning, a positive work culture and participative style
of management have engendered development of a committed & motivated work force
leading to enhanced productivity & higher levels of quality.

10

4.1 BHEL VISION, MISSION AND VALUES

4.1.1 VISION:
A Global Engineering Enterprise providing solutions for a better tomorrow.
4.1.2 MISSON:
Providing sustainable business solutions in the fields of energy, industry and infrastructure.
4.1.3 VALUES:
GOVERNANCE: We are stewards of our shareholders investments and we take that
responsibility very seriously. We are accountable and responsible for delivering superior
results that make a difference in the lives of the people we touch.
RESPECT: We value the unique contribution of each individual. We believe in respect for
human dignity and we respect the need to preserve the environment around us.
INTELLIGENCE: We are committed to deliver and demonstrate excellence in whatever we
do.
QUALITY: We are loyal to our customers, to our company and to each other.
INTEGRITY: We work with highest ethical standards and demonstrate a behavior that is
honest, decent and fair. We are dedicated to the highest levels of personal and institutional
integrity.
COMMITMENT: We set high performance standards for ourselves as individuals and our
teams. We honour our commitments in a timely manner.
INNOVATION: We constantly support development of newer technologies, products,
improved processes, better services and management practices.
TEAM WORK: We work together as a team to provide best solutions and services to our
customers. Through quality relationships with all stakeholders we deliver value to our
customers.

11

4.2 BHEL AND ITS UNITS

UNIT

PERIOD

1. BHOPAL

ESTABLISHED

(HEP)

1956

PRODUCTS

1. HYDRO

TURBINES

AND

GENERATORS

PRODUCTION

2. NUCLEAR TURBINES (236 MW)

STARTED-1960

3. POWER

TRANSFORMER

UPTO765 KV
4. HT SWITCHGEAR
5. HEAT EXCHANGERS
6. TRACTION SYSTEMS
7. EXCITATION

CONTROL

EQUIPMENT
8. ON-LOAD TAP CHANGER
9. AC

MOTORS

&

INDUCTION

GENERATORS
10. INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
(UPTO 800 KV CLASS)
11. STEAM TURBINES (30,120 & 210
MW) & SPARES
1. STEAM
TURBINES

2. HARDWAR

ESTABLISHED-

(HEEP)

1963

GENERATORS (KWU DESIGN)

PRODUCTION

(210/250/500 MW, 800MW UNDER

STARTED-1967

DEVELOPMENT)
2. GAS

12

TURBINE

AND

(SIEMEN

DESIGN)
3. CONDENSERS
4. HEAT EXCHANGERS

3. HYDERABAD

ESTABLISHED-

(HPEP)

1963

1. GAS

TURBINES

AND

GENERATORS (GE DESIGN)

PRODUCTION

2. STEAM

STARTED-1965

150MW)

TURBINES(UPTO

3. COMPRESSORS
4. PUMPS (BFP, CEP, CWP, etc.)
5. HEAT EXCHANGERS
6. PULVERISERS(BOWL
4. TRICHY

ESTABLISHED-

(HPBP)

1963

MILLS,

TUBE
MILLS)
1. BOILERS(UTILITY,
INDUSTRIAL, AFBD, CFBC)

PRODUCTION

2. PRESSURE VESSELS

STARTED-1965

3. HRSG
4. VALVES

5. HARDWAR

ESTABLISHED-

(CFFP)

1974

1. STEEL CASTINGS

PRODUCTION

2. STEEL FORGINGS

6. JHANSI

STARTED-1976
PRODUCTION

1. POWER

(TP)

STARTED-1976

TRANSFORMERS

(UPTO 400 KV)

2. DRY

TYPE

TRANSFORMERS(UPTO 10 MVA)
3. INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
13

4. LOCOMOTIVES
5. TRACTION TRANSFORMERS

7. TRICHY

ESTABLISHED-

(SSTP)

1976
PRODUCTION

1. SEAMLESS STEEL TUBES

8. BANGALORE

STARTED-1979
ESTABLISHED-

1. UNIFIED

(EDN)

1976

FOR

POWER PLANTS (DDCMIS)

REMCO
(MERGED

AUTOMATION

2. GAS
WITH

TURBINE

CONTROL

SYSTEMS

BHEL) -1980

3. HYDRO

POWER

PLANT

CONTROL SYSTEMS
4. SCADA
5. AC/DC DRIVE SYSTEMS
6. EXCITATION SYSTEMS
7. HVDC

SYSTEMS,

FACTS

SYSTEMS
8. STATIC VAR

COMPENSATION

9. BANGALORE SET UP-1932

SYSTEM
1. DISC INSULATORS

(EPD)

2. LINE HARDWARE

REMCO
(MERGED

WITH

3. BUSHINGS

BHEL) -1980

4. SOLID CORE INSULATORS

14

10. BANGALORE

ESTABLISHED-

1. DIESEL GENERATORS

(ISG)

1977

2. AHP & CHP

3. TO

PROVIDE

SERVICES

INTEGRATED

IN PROJECT ENGG.,

MARKETING,

ERECTION

COMMISSIONING

&
OF

INDUSTRIALDRIVE CONTROL
SYSTEMS

RELATED

TO

INDUSTRIES
11. RANIPET

ESTABLISHED-

(BAP)

1976

1. FANS (FD,ID,PA)
2. ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
3. AIR PREHEATERS
4. DESALINATION PLANTS
5. DM TANKS & RODM PANT

12. GOINDWAL

ESTABLISHED-

(IVP)

1983

1. INDUSTRIAL VALVES

PRODUCTION
13. JAGDISHPUR

STARTED-1984
PRODUCTION

(IP)

STARTED-1984

1. HIGH

TENSION

CERAMIC

INSULATORS

VARANSI

2. CENTRAL STAMPING UNIT

(HERP)

3. REPAIR

SHOP

(CAN

BE

ENGAGED FOR PRODUCTION

15

OF CRITICAL SPARES)

14. RUDRAPUR

PRODUCTION

1. IP & SP BUS DUCTS UP TO 800

STARTED-1984

MW

15. GURGAON
(ASSCP)

1. SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS

Table 1: BHELs MANUFACTURING UNITS

16

5. PROJECT ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT DIVISION

Project Engineering Management (PEM) is a division within the power group of

BHEL to provide total Systems Engineering for BHEL equipment, as well as for
procurement, erection & commissioning of non-BHEL systems & equipment for thermal
power stations, thereby enabling complete Engineering, Procurement & Construction (EPC)
services. It is BHELs power plant System Integrator.
In 1974, BHEL set up its engineering consultancy wing under the name Consultancy
Services Division (CSD) to address the market demand for turnkey services in power and
related areas. In 1977, CSD was re-christened as Projects Engineering Division (PED). Since
1984, it has been known as Project Engineering Management (PEM).

Customer/ Consultants
Project Engg

Contracting
Agencies

National Bodies

Project Engineering
Management

BHEL
Mfg. Units

Project/site Management

Quality/Inspection Agencies
Balance of Plant Vendors

Figure 3: PEM and Its Coordination

17

OVERVIEW OF C&I DEPARTMENT

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Control and Instrumentation in any process industry, can be compared to the nerve
system in the human being. The way the nerve system controls the operation of various limbs
of human being, C&I in the same way controls the various motors, pumps, dampers, valves
etc., which in turn helps us to control the process.
Automation and control being areas with fast changes and rapid progress, this is a very
dynamic and an incessantly growing area. Hence, it becomes very essential for every C&I
engineer to keep abreast of latest technological advancements and developments going on
internationally.
The Control and Instrumentation Department looks after project engineering &
application software for Control & Instrumentation packages for Thermal and Combined
cycle power plants, comprising of the following sub-systems...

Control room engineering

Latest state-of-the-art Distributed Digital Control Monitoring and Information System

(DDCMIS)

Engineering of field instrumentation

Engineering for control elements like control valves, power cylinders, actuators etc.
and flow elements.

Protection and interlocks

Alarm annunciation system

18

Uninterrupted power supply system

Open and close loop controls

Steam and water analysis and pollution monitoring system

Supervisory, analytical, and laboratory instruments

Control and instrumentation for various mechanical auxiliary systems

The Control and Instrumentation is inherent to boiler, turbine and generator. The
manufacturing plants of the individual equipments take care of the boiler integral and TG
integral C&I. PEM-C&I takes care of the regenerative cycle i.e. the system in between the
condenser and the boiler, comprising of various heat exchangers and rotating equipments
(BFP, CEP etc.). Apart from this, the closed loop control of the boiler area and interlock &
protection of the boiler auxiliaries (ID, FD, PA & AH) is also within the purview of PEM
C&I.
The C&I engineering for the balance of plant equipment like- Ash Handling Plant,
DM Plant, Compressed Air System, Water System, AC & Ventilation etc. is also the
responsibility of PEM-C&I. As mentioned above PEM-C&I is a project-engineering agency
that unifies the C&I of an entire power plant.

6.2 ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE

The department is organized in four sections, Section I01, I02, I03 and I04. These
sections are presently responsible for engineering of Thermal, Gas based & Nuclear Projects.
Several projects are handled by each section separately. In addition to functions of
engineering, the above sections also undertake standardization, computerization, and quality
19

systems etc. allotted to teams of engineers as per the Annual Development Plan. Technical
Committees have also been formed to take care of different areas of C&I like
Instrumentation, Analog Controls and Binary Controls etc.
The hierarchy of C&I department is as follows:

6.3 FUNCTIONS OF C&I DEPARTMENT

The major functions of Control and Instrumentation Department are:
Proposal Engineering
Contract Engineering
Provide support services for Auxiliary plants
Standardization

6.3.1

PROPOSAL ENGINEERING

The work on proposal engineering is initiated after receipt of the Assignment Initiation
Order (A.I.O) from proposal coordinator (PC). DH (Department Head) identifies &
nominates PE (Project Engineer) to handle the proposal. SH (Section Head) identifies DEs
(Dealing Engineers) in consultation with PE. PE/DE undertake the proposal engineering and
the activities include1) DRAWINGS/DOCUMENTS GENERATED
Control & Instrumentation design philosophy / features.
Bill of Material for C&I package.
Cost estimates of control valve and flow devices, BOM of root valves, BOM
of branch pipes, BOM of instruments cables (if in scope).
Control Room/Equipment Room Layout.

20

2) INFORAMATION OBTAINED FROM UNITS/OTHER DEPT.

OF PEM
The numbers and sizes of panel and desk in the scope of units.
The heat dissipation for the panels & desk at 1 above.
The power and feeder requirements (AC & DC) for Panels & desk at 1 above.
Instrument Air requirement from Units/Suppliers.
Control Valve and flow element data sheets with process parameters from Mechanical
systems.
3) INFORMATION FORWARDED TO OTHER PEM DEPARTMENTS
Control cable requirements (Screened and Unscreened) to Electrical Dept. for
estimating and including its cost in their prices.
Instrument air requirement to Mechanical Auxiliary Dept. For sizing the
Instrument Air Compressor.
Heat load for control room/equipment room to Mech. Aux. Dept. for designing
air conditioning system.
Space requirement for control room/equipment room and SWAS room to
Mech. Dept. for space allocation.
Root Valve requirement to BHEL-Trichy through Proposal Engineering
Department.
Branch pipe requirement for flow nozzles to Piping Centre.
6.3.2 CONTRACT ENGINEERING
The work on a contract is initiated after receipt of the C.I.O. (Contract Initiation Order) from
PE. The contract engineering covers 1. C&I ENGINEERING OUTPUT
21

 Analog/Binary drive control philosophy.

Marking of Instruments on P&IDs. Instruments are marked
on the Process Diagrams prepared by Mech. System for Steam, Condensate,
Feed Water, Extractions, Drains, ACW/CW System etc.
Instrument Schedule.
Alarm Schedule.
Root Valve Schedule.
Drive List
Binary/Sequence Control Logic Diagrams
Analog Control and Measuring Schemes.
I/O List (Analog and Binary).
Control Valve data sheet & Sizing Calculation.
Flow element data sheet & sizing calculation.
UPS scheme.
SWAS Schemes.
Control Room, Control Equipment Room and SWAS Room Layout.
Unit Control Desks and Panel Layout.
Instrument Installation Drawing.
Sensor/Transmitter Grouping.
Cable Block Diagram
Cable Schedule and Interconnection details.
Plant Schematics
Standard Displays (Group, Bars, Trends and Profile displays etc.)

22

 Characteristic point display

Logs
Long Term Storage(LTS) Points
Performance Calculations
System Integration & Testing

The system integration and testing is carried out at manufacturer works along with their
engineers based on the procedures applicable for the system.
7. THERMAL POWER PLANT
A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven. Water
is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator.
After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser. The condensed
water is then passed by a feed pump through a deaerator , and pre-warmed, first in a feed
heater powered by steam drawn from the high pressure set, and then in the economizer,
before being returned to the boiler drum.

23

Figure 4: Thermal power plant

A thermal power station comprises all of the equipment and systems required to produce
electricity by using a steam generating boiler fired with fossil fuels or biofuels to drive an
electrical generator. Some prefer to use the term energy center because such facilities convert
forms of energy, like nuclear energy, gravitational potential energy or heat energy (derived
from the combustion of fuels) into electrical energy. However, power plant is the most
common term in the United States, while power station prevails in many Commonwealth
countries and especially in the United Kingdom.

24

Such power stations are most usually constructed on a very large scale and designed for
continuous operation

Figure 5: Coal using Thermal Power Plant

7.1 COMPONENTS OF A POWER PLANT

7.1.1 Steam generator- Boiler

The steam generating boiler has to produce steam at the high purity, pressure and temperature
required for the steam turbine that drives the electrical generator. The generator includes the
economizer, the steam drum, the chemical dosing equipment, and the furnace with its steam

25

generating tubes and the superheater coils. Necessary safety valves are located at suitable
points to avoid excessive boiler pressure.

Figure 6: Steam Generator

The air and flue gas path equipment include: forced draft (FD) fan, air preheater (APH),
boiler furnace, induced draft (ID) fan, fly ash collectors (electric precipitator or baghouse)
and the flue gas stack.
For units over about 200 MW capacity, redundancy of key components is provided by
installing duplicates of the FD fan, APH, fly ash collectors and ID fan with isolating dampers.
On some units of about 60 MW, two boilers per unit may instead be provided.

7.1.2 Boiler furnace and Boiler drum

The boiler furnace auxiliary equipment includes coal feed nozzles and igniter guns, soot
blowers, water lancing and observation ports (in the furnace walls) for observation of the
furnace interior. Furnace explosions due to any accumulation of combustible gases after a

26

trip-out are avoided by flushing out such gases from the combustion zone before igniting the
coal.

The steam drum (as well as the superheater coils and headers) have air vents and drains
needed for initial startup. The steam drum has internal devices that removes moisture from
the wet steam entering the drum from the steam generating tubes. The dry steam then flows
into the superheater coils.

7.1.3 Fuel preparation system

In coal-fired power stations, the raw feed coal from the coal storage area is first crushed into
small pieces and then conveyed to the coal feed hoppers at the boilers. The coal is next
pulverized into a very fine powder. The pulverize may be ball mills, rotating drum grinders,
or other types of grinders.
Some power stations burn fuel oil rather than coal. The oil must kept warm (above its pour
point) in the fuel oil storage tanks to prevent the oil from congealing and becoming
unpumpable. The oil is usually heated to about 100C before being pumped through the
furnace fuel oil spray nozzles.
Boilers in some power stations use processed natural gas as their main fuel. Other power
stations may use processed natural gas as auxiliary fuel in the event that their main fuel
supply (coal or oil) is interrupted. In such cases, separate gas burners are provided on the
boiler furnaces.

7.1.4 Fuel firing system and igniter system

From the pulverized coal bin, coal is blown by hot air through the furnace coal burners at an
angle which imparts a swirling motion to the powdered coal to enhance mixing of the coal
powder with the incoming preheated combustion air and thus to enhance the combustion.
To provide sufficient combustion temperature in the furnace before igniting the powdered
coal, the furnace temperature is raised by first burning some light fuel oil or processed natural
gas (by using auxiliary burners and igniters provide for that purpose).

27

7.1.5 Air path

External fans are provided to give sufficient air for combustion. The forced draft fan takes air
from the atmosphere and, first warming it in the air preheater for better combustion, injects it
via the air nozzles on the furnace wall.

The induced draft fan assists the FD fan by drawing out combustible gases from the furnace,
maintaining a slightly negative pressure in the furnace to avoid backfiring through any
opening. At the furnace outlet, and before the furnace gases are handled by the ID fan, fine
dust carried by the outlet gases is removed to avoid atmospheric pollution. This is an
environmental limitation prescribed by law, and additionally minimizes erosion of the ID fan.

7.1.6 Auxiliary systems Fly ash collection

Fly ash is captured and removed from the flue gas by electrostatic precipitators or fabric bag
filters (or sometimes both) located at the outlet of the furnace and before the induced draft
fan. The fly ash is periodically removed from the collection hoppers below the precipitators
or bag filters. Generally, the fly ash is pneumatically transported to storage silos for
subsequent transport by trucks or railroad cars.

7.1.7 Steam turbine-driven electric generator

The steam turbine-driven generators have auxiliary systems enabling them to work
satisfactorily and safely. The steam turbine generator being rotating equipment generally has
a heavy, large diameter shaft. The shaft therefore requires not only supports but also has to be
kept in position while running. To minimize the frictional resistance to the rotation, the shaft
has a number of bearings. Oil lubrication is provided to further reduce the friction between
shaft and bearing surface and to limit the heat generated.

28

7.1.8 Condenser

Figure 7: Condenser

The surface condenser is a shell and tube heat exchanger in which cooling water is circulated
through the tubes. The exhaust steam from the low pressure turbine enters the shell where it is
cooled and converted to condensate (water) by flowing over the tubes as shown in the
adjacent diagram.
Such condensers use steam ejectors or rotary motor-driven exhausters for continuous removal
of air and gases from the steam side to maintain vacuum.
The condenser generally uses either circulating cooling water from a cooling tower or oncethrough water from a river, lake or ocean.

7.1.9 Deaerator
Diagram of boiler feed water deaerator (with vertical, domed aeration
section and horizontal water storage section
A steam generating boiler requires that the boiler feed water should be devoid of air and other
dissolved gases, particularly corrosive ones, in order to avoid corrosion of the metal.

29

Figure 8: Deaerator

Generally, power stations use a deaerator to provide for the removal of air and other dissoved
gases from the boiler feedwater. A deaerator typically includes a vertical, domed deaeration
section mounted on top of a horizontal cylindrical vessel which serves as the deaerated boiler
feedwater storage tank.

30

8. Rankine cycle
The Rankine cycle is a cycle that converts heat into work. The heat is supplied externally
to a closed loop, which usually uses water. This cycle generates about 90% of all electric
power used throughout the world, including virtually all solar thermal, biomass, coal and
nuclear power plants. It is named after William John Macquorn Rankine, a Scottish
polymath and Glasgow University professor. The Rankine cycle is the fundamental
thermodynamic underpinning of the steam engine.

8.1 Description
The Rankine cycle most closely describes the process by which steam-operated heat engines
most commonly found in power generation plants generate power. The two most common
heating processes used in these power plants are nuclear fission and the combustion of fossil
fuels such as coal, natural gas, and oil.

Figure 9: Physical layout of the four main devices used in the Rankine cycle

31

The Rankine cycle is sometimes referred to as a practical Carnot cycle because, when an
efficient turbine is used, the TS diagram begins to resemble the Carnot cycle. The main
difference is that heat addition (in the boiler) and rejection (in the condenser) are isobaric in
the Rankine cycle and isothermal in the theoretical Carnot cycle. A pump is used to pressurize
the working fluid received from the condenser as a liquid instead of as a gas. All of the
energy in pumping the working fluid through the complete cycle is lost, as is most of the
energy of vaporization of the working fluid in the boiler. This energy is lost to the cycle
because the condensation that can take place in the turbine is limited to about 10% in order to
minimize blade erosion; the vaporization energy is rejected from the cycle through the
condenser. But pumping the working fluid through the cycle as a liquid requires a very small
fraction of the energy needed to transport it as compared to compressing the working fluid as
a gas in a compressor (as in the Carnot cycle).
8.2 EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of a Rankine cycle is usually limited by the working fluid. Without the
pressure reaching super critical levels for the working fluid, the temperature range the cycle
can operate over is quite small: turbine entry temperatures are typically 565C (the creep
limit of stainless steel) and condenser temperatures are around 30C. This gives a theoretical
Carnot efficiency of about 63% compared with an actual efficiency of 42% for a modern
coal-fired power station. This low turbine entry temperature (compared with a gas turbine) is
why the Rankine cycle is often used as a bottoming cycle in combined-cycle gas turbine
power stations.
The working fluid in a Rankine cycle follows a closed loop and is reused constantly. The
water vapor with entrained droplets often seen billowing from power stations is generated by
the cooling systems (not from the closed-loop Rankine power cycle) and represents the waste
32

heat energy (pumping and condensing) that could not be converted to useful work in the
turbine. Note that cooling towers operate using the latent heat of vaporization of the cooling
fluid. While many substances could be used in the Rankine cycle, water is usually the fluid of
choice due to its favorable properties, such as nontoxic and nonreactive chemistry,
abundance, and low cost, as well as its thermodynamic properties.
One of the principal advantages the Rankine cycle holds over others is that during the
compression stage relatively little work is required to drive the pump, the working fluid being
in its liquid phase at this point. By condensing the fluid, the work required by the pump
consumes only 1% to 3% of the turbine power and contributes to a much higher efficiency for
a real cycle. The benefit of this is lost somewhat due to the lower heat addition temperature.
Gas turbines, for instance, have turbine entry temperatures approaching 1500C. Nonetheless,
the efficiencies of actual large steam cycles and large modern gas turbines are fairly well
matched.
8.3 The four processes in the Rankine cycle
There are four processes in the Rankine cycle. These states are identified by numbers (in
brown) in the above Ts diagram.

Process 1-2: The working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure. As the fluid is a
liquid at this stage the pump requires little input energy.

33

Figure 10: Rankine Cycle graph

Ts diagram of a typical Rankine cycle operating between pressures of 0.06bar and 50bar

Process 2-3: The high pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at constant
pressure by an external heat source to become a dry saturated vapor. The input energy
required can be easily calculated using mollier diagram or h-s chart or enthalpyentropy chart also known as steam tables.

Process 3-4: The dry saturated vapor expands through a turbine, generating power.
This decreases the temperature and pressure of the vapor, and some condensation may
occur. The output in this process can be easily calculated using the Enthalpy-entropy
chart or the steam tables.

Process 4-1: The wet vapor then enters a condenser where it is condensed at a
constant temperature to become a saturated liquid.

In an ideal Rankine cycle the pump and turbine would be isentropic, i.e., the pump and
turbine would generate no entropy and hence maximize the net work output.

34

Processes 1-2 and 3-4 would be represented by vertical lines on the T-S diagram and more
closely resemble that of the Carnot cycle. The Rankine cycle shown here prevents the vapor
ending up in the superheat region after the expansion in the turbine, which reduces the energy
removed by the condensers.
Variables
Heat flow rate to or from the system (energy per unit time)
Mass flow rate (mass per unit time)
Mechanical power consumed by or provided to the system (energy per unit
time)
Thermodynamic efficiency of the process (net power output per heat input,
dimensionless)
Isentropic efficiency of the compression (feed pump) and expansion
(turbine) processes, dimensionless
The "specific enthalpies" at indicated points on the T-S diagram
The final "specific enthalpy" of the fluid if the turbine were isentropic
The pressures before and after the compression process
In general, the efficiency of a simple Rankine cycle can be defined as:

35

9. GAS BASED POWER PLANT

9.1 COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANT:
A combined cycle power plant is characteristic of power producing plant that employs more
than one thermodynamic cycle. Heat engines are only able to use a portion of the energy their
fuel generates (usually less than 50%). The remaining heat (e.g. hot exhaust fumes) from
combustion is generally wasted. Combining two or more "cycles" such as the Brayton Cycle
and Rankine Cycle results in improved overall efficiency.
In a combined cycle power plant (CCPP), or combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT)
plant, a gas turbine generator generates electricity and the waste heat is used to make steam to
generate additional electricity via a steam turbine; this last step enhances the efficiency of
electricity generation. In a thermal power plant, high-temperature heat as input to the power
plant, usually from burning of fuel, is converted to electricity as one of the outputs and lowtemperature heat as another output. As a rule, in order to achieve high efficiency, the
temperature difference between the input and output heat levels should be as high as possible
as per Carnot efficiency. This is achieved by combining the Rankine (steam) and Brayton
(gas) thermodynamic cycles.
In electric power generation a combined cycle is an assembly of heat engines that work in
tandem off the same source of heat, converting it into mechanical energy, which in turn
usually drives electrical generators. The principle is that the exhaust of one heat engine is
used as the heat source for another, thus extracting more useful energy from the heat,
increasing the system's overall efficiency. This works because heat engines are only able to
use a portion of the energy their fuel generates (usually less than 50%). In an ordinary (non
combined cycle) heat engine the remaining heat (e.g., hot exhaust fumes) from combustion is
generally wasted.

36

Combining two or more thermodynamic cycles results in improved overall efficiency,

reducing fuel costs. In stationary power plants, a widely used combination is a gas turbine
(operating by the Brayton cycle) burning natural gas or synthesis gas from coal, whose hot
exhaust powers a steam power plant (operating by the Rankine cycle). This is called a
Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) plant, and can achieve a thermal efficiency of around
60%, in contrast to a single cycle steam power plant which is limited to efficiencies of around
35-42%. Many new gas power plants in North America and Europe are of this type. Such an
arrangement is also used for marine propulsion, and is called a combined gas and steam
(COGAS) plant. Multiple stage turbine or steam cycles are also common.
Other historically successful combined cycles have used hot cycles with mercury vapor
turbines, magneto hydrodynamic generators or molten carbonate fuel cells, with steam plants
for the low temperature "bottoming" cycle. Bottoming cycles operating from a steam
condenser's heat exhaust are theoretically possible, but uneconomical because of the very
large, expensive equipment needed to extract energy from the small temperature differences
between condensing steam and outside air or water. However, it is common in cold climates
(such as Finland) to drive community heating systems from a power plant's condenser heat.
Such cogeneration systems can yield theoretical efficiencies above 95%.
In automotive and aeronautical engines, turbines have been driven from the exhausts of Otto
and Diesel cycles. These are called turbo-compound engines (not to be confused with
turbochargers). They have failed commercially because their mechanical complexity and
weight are less economical than multistage turbine engines. Stirling engines are also a good
theoretical fit for this application. A turbocharged car is also a combined cycle.

37

9.1.1 Design principle

FIG .11: Design of CCPP

1-Electric generators, 2-Steam turbine, 3-Condenser, 4-Pump, 5-Boiler/heat exchanger, 6-Gas
turbine.
Working principle of a combined cycle power plant:
The efficiency of a heat engine, the fraction of input heat energy that can be converted to
useful work, is limited by the temperature difference between the heat entering the engine and
the exhaust heat leaving the engine.
In a thermal power station, water is the working medium. High pressure steam requires
strong, bulky components. High temperatures require expensive alloys made from nickel or
cobalt, rather than inexpensive steel. These alloys limit practical steam temperatures to
655 C while the lower temperature of a steam plant is fixed by the boiling point of water.
With these limits, a steam plant has a fixed upper efficiency of 35 to 42%.
An open circuit gas turbine cycle has a compressor, a combustor and a turbine. For gas
turbines the amount of metal that must withstand the high temperatures and pressures is
small, and lower quantities of expensive materials can be used. In this type of cycle, the input

38

temperature to the turbine (the firing temperature), is relatively high (900 to 1,400 C). The
output temperature of the flue gas is also high (450 to 650 C). This is therefore high enough
to provide heat for a second cycle which uses steam as the working fluid (a Rankine cycle).
In a combined cycle power plant, the heat of the gas turbine's exhaust is used to generate
steam by passing it through a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) with a live steam
temperature between 420 and 580 C. The condenser of the Rankine cycle is usually cooled
by water from a lake, river, sea or cooling towers. This temperature can be as low as 15 C.
9.1.3 Efficiency of CCPP plants
To avoid confusion, the efficiency of heat engines and power stations should be stated HHV
(aka Gross Heating Value) or LCV (aka Net Heating value), and whether Gross output at the
generator terminals or Net Output at the power station fence are being considered.
In general in service Combined Cycle efficiencies are over 50 percent on a lower heating
value and Gross Output basis. Most combined cycle units, especially the larger units, have
peak, steady state efficiencies of 55 to 59%. Research aimed at 1370C (2500F) turbine inlet
temperature has led to even more efficient combined cycles and 60 percent efficiency has
been reached in the combined cycle unit of Baglan Bay, a GE H-technology gas turbine with
a NEM 3 pressure reheat boiler, utilizing steam from the HRSG to cool the turbine blades.
Siemens AG announced in May 2011 to have achieved a 60.75% net efficiency with a 578
megawatts SGT5-8000H gas turbine at the Irsching Power Station.
By combining both gas and steam cycles, high input temperatures and low output
temperatures can be achieved. The efficiency of the cycles add, because they are powered by
the same fuel source. So, a combined cycle plant has a thermodynamic cycle that operates
between the gas-turbine's high firing temperature and the waste heat temperature from the
39

condensers of the steam cycle. This large range means that the Carnot efficiency of the cycle
is high. The actual efficiency, while lower than this, is still higher than that of either plant on
its own. The actual efficiency achievable is a complex area.
The electric efficiency of a combined cycle power station, calculated as electric energy
produced as a percent of the lower heating value of the fuel consumed, may be as high as 58
percent when operating new, i.e. unaged, and at continuous output which are ideal conditions.
As with single cycle thermal units, combined cycle units may also deliver low temperature
heat energy for industrial processes, district heating and other uses. This is called
cogeneration and such power plants are often referred to as a Combined Heat and Power
(CHP) plant.
9.1.4 Boosting Efficiency
The efficiency of CCGT and GT can be boosted by pre-cooling combustion air. This is
practiced in hot climates and also has the effect of increasing power output. This is achieved
by evaporative cooling of water using a moist matrix placed in front of the turbine, or by
using Ice storage air conditioning. The latter has the advantage of greater improvements due
to the lower temperatures available. Furthermore, ice storage can be used as a means of load
control or load shifting since ice can be made during periods of low power demand and,
potentially in the future the anticipated high availability of other resources such as
renewables during certain periods.

40

10. SWAS

Figure 12: SWAS

SWAS: Steam & Water Analysis System.
This system is useful for Power Plants that run on steam. The quality of steam that is used by
these power plants is of utmost importance it is like monitoring cholesterol in human body.
Various contaminants that might exist in steam can prove very harmful to the turbine, to the
boiler, to the piping etc. SWAS effectively monitors these parameters (such as pH,
Conductivity, Silica, Sodium, Phosphates, Dissolved Oxygen etc.) and thus helps in
maintaining healthy operation of a power plant. In all power plants in India that work with
more than 90% efficiency there is a well-engineered, well maintained SWAS. A typical
SWAS comprises of (A) a Sample Conditioning System where the Temperature, Pressure &
Flow of sample if conditioned and regulated and (B) an analyzer panel where all the on-line
analyzers are located. The sensors of these analyzers receive the sample conditioned by the
sample conditioning system and send signals to analyzers. The analyzers in turn send these
signals to respective parameters in 4 to 20mA signal which is finally delivered to the plant
DCS or PLC.

41

11. DOSING SYSTEM

About dosing:
This is the chemical conditioning done to the feed water to prevent corrosion or scale
formation. This is usually done by feeding alkalies to the feed water like sodium hydroxide
(caustic soda) or volatile ammonia. The feed water has to be alkalized to a PH of 9 or higher
to reduce oxidation and to support the forming of a stable layer of magnetite on the waterside surface of the boiler, protecting the material underneath from further corrosion.
Remnants can be removed by using oxygen scavenger and corrosion components like oxygen
and carbon dioxide can be removed by deaerator. Water treatment for thermal power plants is
conducted to prevent problems such as carryover to the turbine components, as well as
corrosion and scale formation/deposition in the boiler and turbine systems. Since 1959, water
treatment methods have been improved to deal with equipment nonconformities.
Need for dosing:
Dosing is practiced in power plant for water treatment supplied to the boiler. This plays a
major role in increasing the life of metal pipes, boilers and pumps. If the water is not treated
properly, corrosion or scaling may occur at the inner surface of pipes & boiler, which results
in wear and tear of the material.
Dosing process:
The process involves mixing of liquid components like hydrazine, oxygen, sodium hydroxide
to water at a particular point in the power plant where the required chemical reaction has to
be conducted. The results thus obtained helps to maintain the required chemical properties of
the water.

42

Types of dosing:
Dosing can be of two types; they are high pressure dosing and low pressure dosing.
1. low pressure dosing: NH3, NaOH, Hydrazine/oxygen
2. high pressure dosing: Phosphate dosing in boiler drum
Dosing applications in power plant:
1. Hydrazine dosing: deaerator outlet or BFP suction, CEP discharge
and Boiler filling line.
2. Sodium Hydroxide dosing: ECW overhead tank during fill and for
compensation of the cooling water for any leakage during normal
run.
3. NH3 dosing: At CEP discharge header after CPU outlet, deaerator
outlet, boiler filling pump line.
11.1 Hydrazine Dosing System
The removal of oxygen from the feed waters can be done with the addition of hydrazine into
the feed waters. Hydrazine is a colorless liquid which is highly soluble in water. It is a
powerful reducing agent and will reduce oxygen to form nitrogen and water, with no resulting
dissolved solids. At high temperatures and pressures, the reaction between hydrazine and
dissolved oxygen also forms very small quantities of ammonia. This ammonia carries over
into the steam and helps to reduce the acidity of the resulting condensate as it is returned to
the feedwater system.

43

Hydrazine also reacts with soft haematite layers on the boiler tubes, forming a hard magnetite
layer which then protects the tubes from further corrosion. Normally used as an oxygen
scavenger in boilers operating at pressures of 40 bar and over, hydrazine can also be used for
lower pressure boilers suffering from oxygen corrosion.
The challenge in this process is:
It is important to accurately control the dosing process. Too little hydrazine will be ineffective
in reducing dissolved oxygen levels. Administering too much on the other hand will not only
lead to unnecessary and costly wastage but can also lead to copper contamination in the
boiler. This is particularly a problem in high-pressure boilers. It can typically be traced back
to excessive use of hydrazine, which results in alkaline boiler water entering the desuperheater system and corroding copper and copper alloys. This copper enters the boiler,
where it then starts to react with the boilers steel tubes, causing corrosion.
The solution to the above problem is:
Typically, dosing in a ratio of three parts hydrazine to the expected level of dissolved oxygen
will enable operators to achieve an acceptable concentration of below five parts per
billion. To help ensure the right level of hydrazine is present in the boiler feedwater, operators
should measure both at the point of dosing and at the economizer feedwater inlet. This will
ensure that the correct amount of hydrazine is being added and that any fluctuations in
dissolved oxygen levels are being correctly treated.
Residual oxygen present in feed water can be detrimental to feed cycle equipments. De
aerator is a tank where treated water from Demineralised water tank. Here condensate from
all plant collected after treatment and a low power steam Ex-3.5 Kg/cm2 along with this to
remove Dissolved Oxygen. The presence of dissolved oxygen will accelerate Corrosion.
N2H4+O2 = 2H20 +N2 (venting)
This tri-sodium phosphate is added to high pressure region Ex about 60 Kg/cm2. Pumping

44

pressure should be greater than the drum pressure (ex. about 70 Kg/cm2). Phosphate is
pumped when the value in drum is low. This will remove rusting inside boiler and tubes. Also
value should not exceed the permissible limit. If so happened may be removed by opening
CBD (Continuous Blow Down.)
11.2 Ammonia Dosing System

Figure 13: Block diagram explaining ammonia dosing

Boiler feed water/Condensate water should have proper pH in order to protect the system
from corrosion. In order to control the same dosing of dilute solution of Ammonia is done
at CEP discharge header after CPU outlet. Though provision has been kept to dose
ammonia at deaerator outlet and boiler fill pump also, but dosing shall be done at one
place at a time only. For this purpose one (1) no. skid mounted ammonia dosing system
for each unit shall be provided. Each dosing skid shall consist of the following:
Two nos (1W + 1S) Ammonia solution preparation cum metering tank for metering,
preparing, and storing Ammonia solution shall be provided. Two nos (2 X 100%) Positive
displacement plunger type Dosing pumps (electrically operated, auto adjusted) with relief
valves shall be provided.

45

11.3 NaOH dosing

Figure 14: NaOH dosing system

Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) dosing system is provided to dose NaOH solution in
equipment cooling water line to increase pH upto 9.5. The sodium hydroxide dosing is
done in the ECW cycle during the initial fill and for the compensation of the cooling water
for any leakage during the normal run. The dilute solution of NaOH is prepared manually
by opening the inlet valve of DM water and adding NaOH lye in the basket. The NaOH is
being dissolved locally starting the motorized stirrer. The dosing is done manually as per
requirements of desired pH in ECW line judged by trial basis. Normally the leakage is
occasionally and of small quantity. Each dosing skid shall consist of the following:
One (1) no NaOH Preparation & storage Tank per unit complete with motorized stirrer,CO2
absorber level gauge, level transmitter ,vent & drain shall be provided.

46

12. ANALYZERS:
Need for Analyzers in Power plant:
Analyzers are placed in power plants in order to analyze the amount of chemical components
present in water at particular point.
It is a measure to note the concentration of oxygen, dissolve oxygen (DO), pH value, cation,
etc. in water. These measurements are analysed to check the quantum of imputrity in water.
Subsequent actions are taken to balance the water quality throughout the process.
Types of Analyzers:
There are several types of analyzers that can be used according to the requirement. Some of
the common analyzers are listed below:
1. Oxygen Analyzers
2. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Analyzers
3. pH Analyzers
4. Cation analyzers
5. Sodium Analyzers
6. Chlorine Analyzers
7. Conductivity Analyzers
8. Silica Analyzers
9. Hydrazine Analyzers
Applications of analyzers in a power plants : Various analyzers are used in power plants in
following services:
1. Feed water to Economizer pipe line
2. DMCW to TG Auxiliaries (after PHE) line
3. DMCW to SG (boiler) Auxiliaries (before PHE) line
4. DMCW to SG Auxiliaries (after PHE) line
47

5. Deaerator outlet to BFP (boiler feed pump) line

6. Condensor cooling water line
7. Hot well
8. ACW (auxiliary cooling water) pump discharge line
9. Super heater (main) steam line
10. Condensate at CPU outlet line
11. Condensate at CEP (condensate extraction pump) discharge line
12. DM make up water line
13. Reheater steam line

There are a number of possible methods to measure the concentration of oxygen in a gas
sample. By far the most common is the electrochemical sensor to measure the concentration
directly.
12.1 Oxygen Analyzers
Principle:
The change in oxygen percentage is proportional to the change in excess air. The
oxygen analyzer employs the paramagnetic property of oxygen and dependence of this
property
on temperature.
Working:
When combustion occurs, resulting in flue gas, it is crucial that you have equipment that can
extract accurate oxygen level measurements. While a number of analyzers on the market are
designed to measure multiple substances in flue gas applications, true oxygen analyzers will
provide you with more broad-based, accurate measurements. They are also easier to
calibrate, and they have faster response times than many of the general flue gas analyzers on

48

the market.
The working element of the gas sensor is a closed-end tube made of a ceramic oxide,
Zirconium Oxide (Zirconia). When it is hot (temperatures that exceed 600 C) it becomes a
conductor of electricity because of the mobility of the Oxygen ions in its crystal structure.
Electrodes of porous platinum are coated onto the inside and outside of the cell and
connected to the measurement circuitry.
When the sensing cell is hot, a voltage is produced that is logarithmically proportional to the
ratio of the oxygen concentration of the gas on the reference side of the cell (usually ambient
air) and the oxygen concentration of the sample. If the oxygen in one gas is known (the
reference gas is normally air 20.9 % O2), the oxygen of the other gas is indicated directly
by
the voltage from the cell. The sensing cell does not produce a signal when air is on both
sides, and the voltage increases as the oxygen concentration in the sample diminishes,
relative to air. Because of the high operating temperature of the cell, combustible gases that
are present may burn, when this occurs, the cell will generate a higher than expected
millivolts and cause the display to indicate less oxygen than is actually in the gas.

12.2 Dissolve Oxygen Analyzers

The measure of the amount of gaseous oxygen dissolved in a solution.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) is a measure of the amount of dissolved gaseous oxygen in a
solution. Some gases, such as ammonia, carbon dioxide and hydrogen chloride, react
chemically with water to form new compounds. However, gases such as nitrogen and oxygen
merely dissolve in water without chemically reacting with it, and exist as microscopic
bubbles between water molecules. There are two main ways in which dissolved oxygen

49

occurs naturally in water: From the surrounding atmosphere, where oxygen in the
surrounding air dissolves readily when
mixed into water, up to saturation, during water movements; Via photosynthesis when oxygen
is produced by aquatic plants and algae as a by-product of photosynthesis. The amount of
oxygen dissolved in water is usually measured in percent saturation, or expressed as a
concentration in milligrams per liter water. Accurate measurement of dissolved oxygen is
essential in processes where oxygen content affects reaction rates, process efficiency or
environmental conditions, such as biological wastewater treatment, wine production, bioreactions, environmental water testing.
The Polarographic Cell consists of two electrodes placed in the electrolyte: One with fixed
potential called the reference electrode, and the other with a variable potential called the
polarizable electrode. As voltage is applied to the polarizable electrode, a redox reaction
occurs, where electrons break away from the electrode to bond with oxygen in the electrolyte.
The rate at which the electrons break away from the polarizable electrode is linearly
proportionate to the amount of oxygen available in the electrolyte, hence this movement of
electrons is representative of the amount of dissolved oxygen left in the electrolyte. The
advantage of a polarographic cell is that the cathode remains intact. The current flow of the
polarographic cell is also linearly proportional to the amount of oxygen present in the
electrolyte, enabling the cell to provide highly accurate measurements at low oxygen levels.

12.3 pH Analyzers
pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Solutions with a pH less
than
7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline. Pure water
has a pH very close to 7.

50

A pH meter is an electronic device used for measuring the pH (acidity or alkalinity) of a

liquid
(though special probes are sometimes used to measure the pH of semi-solid substances). A
typical pH meter consists of a special measuring probe (a glass electrode) connected to an
electronic meter that measures and displays the pH reading. The purity of make-up water is
critical in maintaining steam quality and in limiting boiler blowdown. Raw water contains
organic matter, inorganic salts, bacteria which need to be removed before being purified.
Accurate measurement of steam purity is essential to identifying the cause of potential or
existing steam purity problems in modern boiler plants. One reason for this is that
superheated
steam turbines have an extremely low tolerance for solids contamination in the steam.
Fortunately, techniques are available to determine steam contamination in the parts per billion
range to satisfy the demands of most systems. The test results make it possible to determine
the
effect of changing boiler operation on steam purity.

51

13. PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM (P&ID)

Study of P&ID: A piping and instrumentation diagram/drawing (P&ID) is a diagram in

the process industry which shows the piping of the process flow together with the installed
equipment and instrumentation. A piping and instrumentation diagram/drawing (P&ID) is
defined as follows:
1. A diagram which shows the interconnection of process equipment and the
instrumentation used to control the process. In the process industry, a standard set of
symbols is used to prepare drawings of processes. The instrument symbols used in
these drawings are generally based on International Society of Automation (ISA)
Standard S5. 1.
2. The primary schematic drawing used for laying out a process control installation.
P&IDs play a significant role in the maintenance and modification of the process that it
describes. It is critical to demonstrate the physical sequence of equipment and systems, as
well as how these systems connect. During the design stage, the diagram also provides the
basis for the development of system control schemes, allowing for further safety and
operational investigations, such as a Hazard and operability study commonly pronounced as
HAZOP. For processing facilities, it is a pictorial representation of

Key piping and instrument details

Control and shutdown requirements

Safety and regulatory requirements

52

Basic operational information

Figure 15: Symbols of chemical apparatus and equipment

Pipe

Thermally
insulated pipe

Jacketed
pipe

Cooled or
heated pipe

Jacketed
mixing
vessel
(autoclave)

Half pipe
mixing vessel

Pressurized
horizontal
vessel

Pressurized
vertical
vessel

Pump

Vacuum
pump or
compressor

Bag

Gas bottle

Fan

Axial fan

Radial fan

Dryer

Packed
column

Tray column

Furnace

Cooling
tower

Heat
exchanger

Heat
exchanger

Cooler

Plate &
frame heat
exchanger

Double pipe
heat
exchanger

Fixed straight
tubes heat
exchanger

U shaped
tubes heat
exchanger

Spiral heat
exchanger

53

Covered gas
vent

Curved gas
vent

(Air) filter

Funnel

Steam trap

Viewing
glass

Pressure
reducing
valve

Flexible pipe

Valve

Control valve

Manual
valve

Back draft
damper

Needle valve

Butterfly
valve

Diaphragm
valve

Ball valve

54

14. Control Scheme for Non sequential drives

14.1. Types of drives used in Power Plants:
1. LT Bi-directional Drives(LTBD).
2. LT Uni-directional Drives(LTUD).
3. Solenoid Operated Drives.
4. HT Uni-directional Drives(HTUD).
5. VFD Operated Drives.
6. Analog Drives.

14.2. Drive Control Philosophy

55

14.2.1. LT Bi-Directional Without Integral Starter

Fig: Line Diagram of BID without integral starter

Fig: Signal exchange between MCC/ACTUATOR & DCS

56

Fig: Signal exchange between MCC & ACTUATOR

Fig: DCS Interface for B-ID Drive with MCC

57

14.2.2. LT Bi-Directional With Integral Starter

Fig: Line Diagram of BID With integral starter

Fig: Signal exchange between Integral Starter & DCS

58

Fig: DCS Interface for B-ID Drive with MCC

14.2.3 LT Uni-Directional Drive

Fig: Line Diagram of Uni Direction Drives

59

Fig: Signal exchange between MCC & DCS

Fig: DCS Interface for Uni-Direction LT Drives

60

14.2.4 SOLENOID OPERATED DRIVES

Fig: Signal exchange between Solenoid Operated Valve (SOV) & DCS

Fig: DCS Interface for Solenoid Drives

61

14.2.5 HT/LT UNIDIRECTIONAL DRIVES (Breaker Operated)

Fig: Signal exchange between SWGR and DCS

Fig: DCS Interface for HT/LT Uni-Directional Drives (Breaker Operated)

62

14.2.6 HTUD Variable Frequency Drive Operated

Fig: DCS Interface for VFD control drive

63

14.2.7 Analog Drives

Fig: DCS Interface for Analog Drive

Fig: DCS Interface for Analog Drive (with Smart Positioner)

64

15. CONCLUSION

Power plant control system is the nucleus of a power plant operation. The reduction of
operating time through the management of daily and periodic operation, improvement and
ease of maintenance, and improved efficiency while reassuring reliability and safety are all
merits of power plant control systems.
Project Engineering Management, being the core engineering division for design of
power plant is a great platform to start the process of learning about the power industry and
the technical aspect of power plants. This division is a hub of learning and engineering
activity, which enables overall understanding and provides a consolidated view of a power
plant process.
Being part of Control & Instrumentation has enabled me to get an overall picture of
the power plant functioning and management. C&I engineering touches almost all parts of a
power plant and this makes the area of work very vast and interesting. Power plant
automation has become a very challenging and dynamic field.
Training was an amalgamation of different work areas in C&I. Day-to-day
assignments formed a routine part of on the training. While working on various documents.
Advanced communication networks have helped the growth of power plant
automation in a phenomenal manner. The speed with which signals flow between processors
in control room and various distributed control locations in power plant has made it possible
to automate almost the entire power plant. Exposure to industry environment was a drastic
change from normal training procedures and On the job learning programme has provided a
platform for learning and expanding my horizon.

65