A

SUMMER TRAINING PROJECT REPORT

ON
INSTRUMENTATION PROCESS
AT
CENTURY PULP & PAPER, LALKUAN

SUBMITTED BY :
AMIT TEWARI
B.TECH (E.C.E )
VII SEM/ 4TH YR
T.H.D.C INSTITUTE, TEHRI

SUBMITTED TO :
MR. SATISH VERMA
(SR. MANAGER HR)
CPP(LALKUA)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to the management of

century pulp & paper at lalkuan (nainital) for providing me an opportunity to
get an exposure of their esteemed unit.

I am sincerely thankful to the HR department for coordination my training &

for their continued help & guidance during my stay there, I wish to express
my sincere gratitude to instrumentation department personnel for their
inspiring guidance & motivation I received during my stay in their respective
sections.

Last but not the least, I express my deep gratitude to my project guide for
sending me to a large integrated pulp & paper industry & giving me a chance
to acquire experience of my lifetime.

I also express thanks to my parents & all friends who directly or indirectly
provided me their moral support.

Amit Tewari
B.Tech(VII sem)
T.H.D.C Institute, Tehri

CONTENT SHEET

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

PAPER INDUSTRY PROFILE

INTRODUCTION TO THE CPP COMPANY

PLANTS IN CENTURY PULP AND PAPER

INSTRUMENTATION PROCESSES

DCS SYSTEM

THERMOCOUPLE

RESISRANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR

PRESSURE TRANSMITTER

LEVEL TRANSMITTER

FLOW TRANSMITTER

PH METER

DENSITY METER

CONDUCTIVITY METER

INDICATOR

CONTROLLER

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The focus of this project is on the study of instrumentation processes at

century pulp and paper industry situated at lalkua,nainital.
The role of instrumentation processes in carrying out the production of paper
manufacturing is immense.the main topics covered during the study of
instrumentation processes are:

1) Study of dcs system

2) Study of the field sensors & their working
3) Study of controlling paper manufacturing through instrumentation
4) Study of the paper manufacturing process
5) Study of open and feedback control sytems
6) To study the automatic controlling of field processes

PAPER INDUSTRY PROFILE

Paper industry is primarily dependent upon forest-based raw materials. The

first paper mill in India was set up at Sree rampur, West Bengal, in the year
1812. Large scale mechanized technology of papermaking was introduced in
India in early 1905. Since then the raw material for the paper industry
underwent a number of changes and over a period of time, besides wood
and bamboo, other non-conventional raw materials have been developed for
use in the papermaking. The Indian pulp and paper industry at present is
very well developed and established. Now, the paper industry is categorized
as

forest-based,

agro-based

and

waste

based.

In 1951, there were 17 paper mills, and today there are about 515 units
engaged in the manufacture of paper and paperboards and newsprint in
India. India is self-sufficient in manufacture of most varieties of paper and
paperboards. Import is confined only to certain specialty papers. Growth of
paper industry in India has been constrained due to high cost of production
caused by inadequate availability and high cost of raw materials, power cost
and concentration of mills in one particular area. Government has taken
several policy measures to remove the bottlenecks of availability of raw
materials and infrastructure development.

COMPANY PROFILE

Century Pulp and Paper, unit of the top Indian Corporate Conglomerate- B.K.
Birla Group of Companies is one of the leading integrated Pulp and Papers
plants. Established in the year 1984 at Lalkuan, a township near the foothills
of Himalayas in Distt. Nainital (Uttarakhand), the company after expansion
and modernization, presently operates four fiber lines at the following
installed capacities:
Rayon Grade Pulp

31320 TPA

Writing & Printing Papers (Wood)

Writing & Printing Papers (Bagasse)
Writing & Printing Papers

:
:
:

37250 TPA
84600 TPA
75960 TPA

People are working as a team to achieve the objective of the organization.

There is an excellent harmony between the employees union and the
management.
The company has established a strong brand image in the domestic and
overseas market with excellent quality of its products and services and

caters to diversified sectors like Note Books & Diaries, Continuous Stationery,
Copier, Envelopes, and Offset printing, Security Papers, Industrial Papers and
Viscose Filament Yarn & Cellophane Paper.
Companys main raw materials are Eucalyptus, Poplar, Bamboo, Bagasse
& Waste Paper.

Companys marketing policy is targeted to meet

customers need and satisfaction. Presently the company is also exporting its
Paper to various countries. The Head Office of the Company is at Kolkata.
RECIPIENT OF AWARDS

1
.

Eco-Mark by BIS for its Bagasse based products.

2 Central Pollution Control Board and National Productivity Council have

. selected the company as a Model unit in the field of Waste
Minimization among pulp and paper industries.

3 CPPs Effluent Treatment Plant has been selected by Central Pollution

. Control Board for carrying out studies and data collection for preparation
of Minimal National Standards (MINAS) for large pulp and paper industry
group.

4 CPPs waste reduction schemes have been included in the World Bank
. Data Base on Waste minimization.

5 Awarded Indo German Green tech Award for Environment Excellence for
. the year 2000-2001.

6 CPP was awarded First Prize at All India Farmers fair for the year 2004. 2005 for its significant efforts towards farm forestry.

7 CPP was adjudged as the Efficient Unit in energy conservation by CII

. for the year 2004-2005

8 CPP was awarded First Prize for energy conservation by Indian Paper
. Makers Association as well as the National Award for Energy
Conservation in Pulp & Paper Sector by the Honble Prime Minister of
India for the year 2004-2005

Energy Management

Century Pulp & Paper takes every effort to reduce its carbon footprint and
impact

to

the

environment.

This is achieved by constantly making improvements to its operations in the

four key areas :

Power Consumption

Waste Management

Usage of Raw Materials and Conservation.

Power Consumption:
The plant consumes approximately 14.0 lacs units per day, of which an
estimated 95% of power is generated internally. Of this, 45% of CPP's power
needs are met through the process of biomass waste in the form of black
liquor, pith and sawdust.
Other Initiatives for conservation of energy include:

Use or RGP hot water in bagasse pulp mill

Elimination of excess bagasse conveyor of a depither plant

Addition of a 2500 KVAR new capacitor in circuit to maintain plant

power factor

Interlocking of deflaker motor with broke tower pump

Installation of DOCC mud filters to increase dryness of lime mud cake

Power saving through the replacement of existing gear boxes of chip

screens, bifer screen and dewatering screw conveyor with helical gear boxes

Interlocking of supply pump and agitator of paper machine

Installation of heat exchanger in WPP pulp mill to recover heat from

ash steam

RPM reduction by introduction of smaller size pulleys

Replacement of inefficient pumps

Replacement of soft water with foul condensate in oxygen bleaching in

RGP

Reduction of film press pit agitator drive motor pulley diameter from
430 mm to 410 mm for power-saving

Commissioning of producer gas plant to save furnace oil in rotary lime

kilns (50% replacement of oil with producer gas)

Commissioning of lime mud CD filter and rotary lime kiln for better fuel
efficiency

Organization Structure of CPP

S P. President (Unit head)

Joint president (works)

SR. vice President

Senior General Manager (s)

General Manager (s)

DY. General Manager (s)

Senior Manager (s)

Manager(s)

DY. Manager (s)

SR. Superintendent

Superintendent

Officer

Asst. officer (Graded Staff)

DIFFERENT UNITS IN C.P.P.

Century's rayon and/or paper grade pulp, and writing and printing paper unit
were established in 1984 at Lalkua, near Nainital in the state of Uttarakhand.
Its second paper unit, based on bagasse manufacturing, is adjacent to the
existing pulp and paper plant at Lalkua. It was established in 1995. The
company also has a prime-grade tissue paper plant at Lalkua.

The company's fiber line (pulp plant), with a capacity of 1.62 lac tonnes per
annum, and multilayer packaging board plant, with a capacity of 1.8 lac
tonnes per annum, are near completion. Production has begun and is
expected to stabilize in due course.

PRODUCTS:
The division's range of products includes a large variety of writing and
printing

paper,

tissue

paper

and

paper

board.

The

company

also

manufactures raw material for viscose filament yarn, staple fiber and paper
grade pulp.
The installed capacities for the various products are:
Item

Metric tonnes per annum

Rayon and/or paper grade pulp

31,320

Writing and printing paper:

A

Wood-based paper

37,250

Bagasse-based paper

84,600

Recycle based paper

75,960

Total (a + b + c)

1,97,810

Prime-grade tissue paper

36,000

Packaging board

500 tons/day

Power plant
Chemical recovery plant

PLANTS WITH IN CPP:

1. W.P.P. PLANT:
Integrated pulp and paper unit based on Eucalyptus and Bamboo
furnish. Two paper machines with 115 T.P.D Capacity. Paper M/c I
equipped with size press. Capable to manufacture 44-210 GSM(gm/
sq.meter). Machine deckle is 2.69 meters. Re-winders are jagenberg
make with 1000m/min speed and cutters are of 1.45m width with
200m/min speed.
2. R.G.P PLANT:
Based on eucalyptus & popular furnish. Bleaching sequence includes
chlorine

dioxide

treatment.

Sheeting

machine

with

100

T.D.P

productions with on machine cutters and bailing press. (Make carcano,

italy make). M/c deckle 2.4 meters.
3. BAGASSE PLANT:
Based on bagasse furnish 84%, eucalyptus and bamboo 10% are
imported pulp 6%. Paper machine equipped with film press for on line
coating with 235 t. d. p production. Capable to manufacture 40-120
GSM including light weight coated varieties. M/c deckle 5.2 meters.
4. RECYCLE FIBRE PLANT:
A second fiber based plant manufacturing writing/printing paper. DIP
plant is equipped with 2 stage floatation and 2 stages bleaching. Latest
technology in corporate in this plant facilitates production of finest
paper quality in this category. The product range includes writing and
printing papers of 52-130 GSM.
5. TISSUE PLANT:
Prime grade tissue plant of 100 TPD with hi-speed machine (2000
MPM) supplied by metso is equipped with latest technology to produce

finest quality in this category. The product range will include facial,
napkin, toilet, C-fold and kitchen towel etc. in the range 13-40 GSM.
6. BOARD PLANT:
Based on wood and waste paper voith machine equipped with latest
technology capable to produce 500 TPD finest quality packaging board
with 600 MPM speed. The product range includes 4 layer board of 170500 GSM, M/c deckle is 3.75 Mtr.

7. POWER BLOCK:

Powerhouse has 9 coals and Pith fired boilers and three turbines. The
turbines are of 6.8 MW BHEL TG set (extraction back pressure),21MW TDK TG
Set and 16 MW BHEL turbine , 43 MW TG (all are double extraction
condensing type)
8 boilers are fluidized bed boilers out of which , 1 F. B. C. Boiler is of 100
T/hour 62 kg/cm2 ,480 degree Celsius each , 1 boiler is spreader stoker coal
fired boiler of 25 T/hr , 47 ata ,420 degree Celsius and 1 boiler is coal cum
pith fired boiler of 60 T/hr , 66 ata , 485 degree Celsius ,1 new coal boiler of
100 T/hr , 65 kg/Cm2 ,480 degree Celsius.
Chemical recovery plant: It recovers cooking chemicals spent during cooking
operation in digesters with the help of latest technology available. These
chemicals are re used in cooking operation in pulp mill. The liquor received
from pulp mill is called black liquor and the liquor supplied back to pulp mill
is called white liquor based on their color appearance. The black liquor
contains substantial quantity of organic matter like lignin which when burnt
in recovery boiler along with the black liquor releases enormous amount of
heat which utilized to generate high pressure steam and is sent to turbines
to generate power. The black liquor is first concentrated in evaporators, then

burn in boilers and their after is reacted with lime (Calcium oxide) in
causticizing section to finally recover the spent chemicals

QUALITY CONTROL

Century Pulp and Paper, Lalkua has well organized laboratory equipped with
modern pulp and paper testing equipments including Auto line from L&W
Sweden, Qualified and experienced staff manage the quality control
department.
For all inputs fibrous/non fibrous, in-process material (digester section,
bleaching section, stock preparation); finished material (Paper/Pulp)at paper
machine re-winders/cutters, finishing house and Go-downs, standards/
specifications are followed as per guidelines of ISO-9001:2000) quality
system (quality Inspection Plant).
Inputs and Finished product is allowed only after conforming to standards.
Testing/analysis is carried out as per TAPPI/ISO standard. A separate
customer cell has been formulated to redress customer grievances and
recourse to quick solutions. This cell understands changing needs of
customers, caries out periodical market research to improve customer-choice
process.

ENVIROMENT MANAGEMENT
Century pulp & paper maintains a perfect harmony with environment
through excellent pollution control measures both for air & water. All
initiatives and efforts are made to curb pollution at the grass-roof level. In
order to meet the measures set by the board for air & water, C.P.P. has
adopted the following control facilities.
Water: Effluent treatment plant having most modern technology, based on
activated sludge process involving primary clarifier, anaerobic treatment,
biological reactor, Secondary clarifier and sludge handling system.
Air : electronics precipitators and bag filter in coal fired boilers: electrostatic
precipitators & ventury scrubber in rotary lime kiln; jet condensers for
digester blow offs.
Green belt developments are an integral part of total environmental
management program. C.P.P. maintains it own plant nurseries and has
planted species in and around premises.
Maintaining a clean and unpolluted environment has been one of the prime
objectives of C.P.P. all endeavors have been made right from the inception to
incorporate device that can take care of pollution-both of water and air.
waste control forms and integral

part of overall waste management

system-systematically planned and adopted by C.P.P.

PROCESS OF PAPER PRODUCTION

Timber
Timber used for papermaking comes from well managed forests where more
trees are planted than harvested to ensure sustainable growth. Papermakers
usually use only the parts of the tree that other commercial industries don't
want - such as saw mill waste and forest thinning. Go to publications for
details of a Trees used for Paper making Poster.
De-Barker
Bark is stripped from the logs by knife, drum, abrasion, or hydraulic barker.
The stripped bark is then used for fuel or as soil enrichment.
Chipping Machine
Stripped logs are chipped into small pieces by knives mounted in massive
steel wheels (used in chemical pulping process). The chips pass through
vibrating screens, where by both undersized chips; dust etc and oversized
chips are rejected. Accepted chips are then stored in huge bins ready for the
next process.
Chemical Pulping Process
Chips from the storage bins are fed into a digester to which chemicals have
been added. The woodchips are then 'cooked' to remove lignin. Lignin is the
binding material which holds the cellulose fibers together. The chips are
'cooked' by heat and pressure in caustic soda and sulphur. The chemical
process is energy self sufficient as nearly all by-products can be used to fire
the pulp mill power plant. The chemical pulping process produces lower fiber
yield than mechanical pulping, typically 50-60%.

Mechanical Pulping Process

Mechanical pulp yields over 90% of the wood as fiber is produced by forcing
debarked logs, about two meters long, and hot water between enormous
rotating steel discs with teeth that literally tear the wood apart. Alternatively,
logs can be pressed against grindstones which is why this process is also
known as ground wood pulp. Trees contain up to 30% lignin, a material which
is sensitive to light and degrades, and turns brown in sunlight, which explains
why papers made from mechanical pulp will discolor. An example of this is
newsprint. Newsprint is designed to have a short life span, and if left for a
long period of time will lose its whiteness and strength. The special
advantages of mechanical pulp are that it makes the paper opaque and
bulky.
Hydrapulper
When the bales of wood pulp or waste paper arrive at the paper mill they are
loaded onto a conveyor and passed into a circular tank containing water. This
has a very powerful agitator at the bottom which breaks up the bales into
small pieces.The pulp mass created begins to look like thick porridge. This
machine is known as a Hydrapulper. It operates automatically and when the
disintegrating process is complete it discharges the pulp into large storage
tanks.Hydrapulpers used mainly for handling waste paper are fitted with
special devices for removing unwanted contraries such as wire, plastic, paper
clips, staples etc
Blend Chest
The stock passes to a blend chest where numerous chemicals can be added
to obtain the required characteristics to the finished paper. Dyes are also
added, as necessary, to color the paper. Dyes fix themselves to the cellulose
fibers and are fast to light and water.Each grade of paper and board requires

a very accurate blend of pulps and additives and the properties of the paper
are continually monitored by computers during manufacture.

Waste Paper
Waste paper is collected from Waste Paper Banks and Commercial
collections. When you deposit your used papers into a waste paper bank, you
are sorting the paper into grades before the merchant collects it. This is why
you can only put certain papers into a particular bank.Many offices have in
place an office recycling scheme. Again the waste paper is usually
segregated ready to be collected.Waste paper currently represents 67% of
the raw material used in the UK to make paper and board.The waste paper
merchant collects the used paper which is then sorted by hand into different
grades. Paper not suitable for recycling is removed.The waste paper
merchant will then bale the waste paper ready to be taken to the paper mill.
De-inking
Before printed paper, such as office waste and newspapers, can be recycled
the ink needs to be removed, otherwise it will be dispersed into the pulp and
a dull grey paper would result.There are two main processes for de-inking
waste paper - these are known as washing and flotation.
Washing
The waste paper is placed into a pulper with large quantities of water and
broken down into slurry. Contraries -such as staples - are removed using
centrifugal screens. Most of the water containing the dispersed ink is drained
through slots or screens that allow the dispersed ink particles through,
without taking the pulp. Adhesive particles, known as 'stickies' are removed
by fine screening.

Flotation
Again the waste is made into slurry and contaminants removed. Special
surfactant chemicals are added which makes a sticky froth on the top of the
pulp.Air bubbles are blown through the pulp and these carry the inks to the
surface. As the bubbles reach the top foam layer is formed that traps the ink.
The foam must be removed before the bubbles break or the ink will go back
into the pulp. Because the ink is removed from the flotation machine in a
concentrated form, the flotation system does not require a large water
treatment plant
Refining
This is where the cellulose fibers pass through a refining process which is
vital in the art of papermaking. Before refining, the fibers are stiff, inflexible
and form few bonds. The stock is pumped through a conical machine which
consists of a series of revolving discs. The violent abrasive and bruising
action has the effect of cutting, opening up and de-clustering the fibers and
making the ends divide. This is called fibrillation. In this state, the fibers are
pliable and have greater surface area, which significantly improves the fiber
bonding. The properties of the paper are directly related to the refining
process. Refining used to be called beating.
Screening and Cleaning
Pulps contain undesirable fibrous and non-fibrous materials, which should be
removed before the pulp is made into paper or board.Cleaning involves
removing small particles of dirt and grit using rotating screens and
centrifugal cleaners.
Paper making machine
The Paper Machine is a very large piece of machinery. A typical machine is
about the length of two football pitches and around 4 meters wide. It can run

up to speeds of 2000 m per minute - or 60 miles per hour! The machine itself
consists of 7 distinct sections. The flow box, wire, press section, drier section,
size press, calendar and reeling up.The first section of the machine is called
the 'Wet End'. This is where the diluted stock first comes into contact with
the paper machine. It is poured onto the machine by the flow box which is a
collecting box for the dilute paper stock. A narrow aperture running across
the width of the box allows the stock to flow onto the wire with the fibers
distributed evenly over the whole width of the paper machine.The machine is
operated by computer control. The computer will monitor the paper for
moisture content, weight etc and computer screens will show pictures of the
process and should any adjustments need to be made, an alarm will sound.

Conversion and Printing

Once the paper is made, a great deal of it is converted into a product.
Converters specialize in transforming reels and sheets of paper and board
into a vast array of finished products for distribution such as boxes, cartons
and stationery. Converters sell their products to the public or to other
manufacturers.Not all paper and board is processed by converters. Some
papermakers do their own converting, for example, the manufacturers of soft
tissues market their own products and sell directly to the public.
The printing industry converts large quantities of paper and board, much of
which reaches the customer as newspapers, magazines or books.

Instrumentation processes:

Instrumentation is defined as the art and science of measurement and

control of process variables within a production or manufacturing area. The
process variables used in industries are Level, Pressure, Temperature,
Humidity, Flow, pH, Force, Speed etc.Different elements of instrumentation
processes are:

Distributed control system

A distributed control system (DCS) is a control system for a process or

plant, wherein control elements are distributed throughout the system. This
is in contrast to non-distributed systems, which use a single controller at a
central location. In a DCS, a hierarchy of controllers is connected by
communications networks for command and monitoring.
Example scenarios where a DCS might be used include:

Chemical plants

Petrochemical (oil) and refineries

Pulp and Paper Mills

Boiler controls and power plant systems

Nuclear power plants

Environmental control systems

Water management systems

Water treatment plants

A DCS typically uses custom designed processors as controllers and

uses both proprietary interconnections or standard communications
protocol

for

communication.

Input

and

output

modules

form

component parts of the DCS. The processor receives information from

input modules , processing the information and decides actions to be
performed by the output modules. The input modules receive
information from input instruments in the process (or field) mainly via
sensors

and

the

output

modules

transmit

instructions

to

the

instruments in the field for initiating actions mainly via final control
elements . The inputs and outputs can be either analog signal which
are continuously changing or discrete signals which are 2 state either
on or off .

The elements of a DCS may connect directly to physical equipment

such as switches, pumps and valves and to Human Machine Interface
(HMI).

Applications

Distributed control systems (DCSs) are dedicated systems used to control

manufacturing processes that are continuous or batch-oriented, such as oil
refining,

petrochemicals,

central

station

power

generation,

fertilizers,

pharmaceuticals, food and beverage manufacturing, cement production,

steelmaking, and papermaking. DCSs are connected to sensors and
actuators and use setpoint control to control the flow of material through the
plant. The most common example is a setpoint control loop consisting of a
pressure

sensor,

controller,

and control

valve.

Pressure

or

flow

measurements are transmitted to the controller, usually through the aid of a

signal conditioning input/output (I/O) device. When the measured variable
reaches a certain point, the controller instructs a valve or actuation device to
open or close until the fluidic flow process reaches the desired setpoint.
Large oil refineries have many thousands of I/O points and employ very large
DCSs.

Modern system
The latest developments in DCS include the following new technologies:
1. Wireless systems and protocols
2. Remote transmission, logging and data historian
3. Mobile interfaces and controls
4. Embedded web-servers
Increasingly, and ironically, DCS are becoming centralised at plant level, with
the ability to log in to the remote equipment. This enables operator to control
both at enterprise level ( macro ) and at the equipment level (micro) both
within and outside the plant as physical location due to interconnectivity
primarily due to wireless and remote access has shrunk.
As wireless protocols are developed and refined, DCS increasingly includes
wireless communication. DCS controllers are now often equipped with
embedded servers and provide on-the-go web access. Whether DCS will lead
IIOT or borrow key elements from remains to be established.

INSTRUMENTS LIST

TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER
RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DTECTOR
THERMOCOUPLE
PRESSURE TRANSMITTER
LEVEL TRANSMITTER
PH METER
CONDUCTIVITY METER
DENSITY METER
FLOW METER
CONSISTENCY METER
INDICATORS
CONTROLLER

Temperature Sensors and transmitters:Temperature Sensor Types

The most commonly used type of all the sensors are those which
detectTemperature or heat. These types of temperature sensor vary from
simple ON/OFF thermostatic devices which control a domestic hot water
heating system to highly sensitive semiconductor types that can control
complex process control furnace plants.

The Thermocouple
Thermocouples are thermoelectric sensors that basically consists of two
junctions of dissimilar metals, such as copper and constantan that are
welded or crimped together. One junction is kept at a constant temperature

called the reference (Cold) junction, while the other the measuring (Hot)
junction. When the two junctions are at different temperatures, a voltage is
developed across the junction which is used to measure the temperature
sensor as shown below.

Thermocouple Construction

When fused together the junction of the two dissimilar metals such as
copper and constantan produces a thermo-electric effect which gives a
constant potential difference of only a few millivolts (mV) between them.
Thermocouples can be made from a variety of different materials enabling
extreme temperatures of between -200oC to over +2000oC to be measured.

Thermocouple Colour Codes

Thermocouple

Sensor

Extension and Compensating Leads

Colour

Codes

Code
Type

Conductors (+/-)

Nickel

Chromium

Constantan

Iron / Constantan

Nickel

Chromium

British

Sensitivity

BS 1843:1952

-200 to 900oC

0 to 750oC

/ -200

Nickel Aluminium

1250oC

Nicrosil / Nisil

0 to 1250oC

to

Resistance Temperature Detector or RTD

A Resistance Thermometer or Resistance Temperature Detector is a

device which used to determine the temperature by measuring the
resistance of pure electrical wire. This wire is referred to as a temperature
sensor. If we want to measure temperature with high accuracy, RTD is the

only one solution in industries. It has good linear characteristics over a wide
range of temperature. The variation of resistance of the metal with the
variation of the temperature is given as,

Where, Rt and R0 are the resistance values at tC and t0C temperatures.

and are the constants depends on the metals.
This expression is for huge range of temperature. For small range of
temperature, the expression can be,

In RTD devices; Copper, Nickel and Platinum are widely used metals. These
three metals are having different resistance variations with respective to the
temperature variations. That is called resistance-temperature characteristics.
Platinum has the temperature range of 650C, and then the Copper and
Nickel have 120C and 300C respectively.

Signal Conditioning of RTD

In this RTD, the change in resistance value is very small with respect to the
temperature. So, the RTD value is measured by using a bridge circuit. By
supplying the constant electric current to the bridge circuit and measuring
the resulting voltage drop across the resistor, the RTD resistance can be
calculated. Thereby, the temperature can be also determined. This
temperature is determined by converting the RTD resistance value using a
calibration expression. The different modules of RTD are shown in below

figures.

Pressure Sensor and Pressure Transmitter

A pressure

transducer, often called a pressure

transmitter, is a

transducer that converts pressure into an analog electrical signal. Although

there are various types of pressure transducers, one of the most common is
the strain-gage base transducer.

The Electrical Output of Pressure Transducers

Pressure transducers are generally available with three types of electrical
output; millivolt, amplified voltage and 4-20mA. Below is a summary of the
outputs and when they are best used.
Types:Millivolt Output Pressure Transducers
The output of the millivolt transducer is nominally around 30mV. The actual
output is directly proportional to the pressure transducer input power or
excitation. If the excitation fluctuates, the output will change also. Because
of this dependence on the excitation level, regulated power supplies are
suggested for use with millivolt transducers. Because the output signal is so
low, the transducer should not be located in an electrically noisy
environment.
Voltage Output Pressure Transducers
Voltage output transducers include integral signal conditioning which provide
a much higher output than a millivolt transducer. The output is normally 05Vdc or 0-10Vdc. This means unregulated power supplies are often sufficient
as long as they fall within a specified power range. Because they have a
higher level output these transducers are not as susceptible to electrical
noise as millivolt transducers and can therefore be used in much more

industrial

environments.

4-20 mA Output Pressure Transducers

These types of transducers are also known as pressure transmitters. Since a
4-20mA signal is least affected by electrical noise and resistance in the
signal wires, these transducers are best used when the signal must be
transmitted long distances. It is not uncommon to use these transducers in
applications where the lead wire must be 1000 feet or more.
Pressure sensors can be classified in terms of pressure ranges they
measure, temperature ranges of operation, and most importantly
the type of pressure they measure.
Absolute pressure sensor
This sensor measures the pressure relative to perfect vacuum.

Gauge pressure sensor

This sensor measures the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure.
Vacuum pressure sensor
It may be used to describe a sensor that measures pressures below
atmospheric pressure, showing the difference between that low pressure and
atmospheric pressure (i.e. negative gauge pressure), but it may also be used
to describe a sensor that measures low pressure relative to perfect vacuum
(i.e. absolute pressure).

Differential pressure sensor

This sensor measures the difference between two pressures, one connected
to each side of the sensor. Differential pressure sensors are used to measure
many properties.

Pressure-sensing technology
Piezoresistive strain gauge

Uses the piezoresistive effect of bonded or formed strain gauges to detect

strain due to applied pressure, resistance increasing as pressure deforms the
material.

The sensing material in a piezoresistive pressure sensor is a diaphragm

formed on a silicon substrate, which bends with applied pressure. A
deformation occurs in the crystal lattice of the diaphragm because of that
bending. This deformation causes a change in the band structure of the
piezoresistors that are placed on the diaphragm, leading to a change in the
resistivity of the material.

APPLICATION AREAS

Household Appliances

Washing machines, dishwashers,

vacuum cleaners;

Automotive Applications : Oil level, gas level, air pressure detection;

BiomedicalApplications

Blood pressure measurement, etc...

Capacitive
Uses a diaphragm and pressure cavity to create a variable capacitor to
detect strain due to applied pressure, capacitance decreasing as pressure
deforms the diaphragm. Common technologies use metal, ceramic, and
silicon diaphragms.
Sensors based upon the capacitive sensing technique are strain-based
sensors. The typical configuration is shown below where the sensor
capacitances are arranged in a push-pull, half-bridge configuration where
both capacitors are parameter modulated. Simple media isolation is achieved
when one capacitance is parameter-modulated and the other capacitance
within the half-bridge circuit is an unmodulated reference capacitance.
Capacitive sensors require a dynamic excitation and all capacitive designs
contain an internal oscillator and signal demodulator to provide static
capable outputs. In most cases these components will limit the useful
operating temperature range from -40C to +120C.

Electromagnetic

Measures

the

displacement

of

diaphragm

by

means

of

changes

in inductance (reluctance), LVDT, Hall Effect, or by eddy current principle.

Piezoelectric
Uses the piezoelectric effect in certain materials such as quartz to measure
the strain upon the sensing mechanism due to pressure. This technology is
commonly employed for the measurement of highly dynamic pressures.

Electrical
A piezoelectric transducer has very high DC output impedance and can be
modeled as a proportional voltage source and filter network. The voltage V at
the source is directly proportional to the applied force, pressure, or
strain. The output signal is then related to this mechanical force as if it had
passed through the equivalent circuit.

A detailed model includes the effects of the sensor's mechanical construction

and

other

non-idealities. The

inductance Lm is

due

to

the

seismic mass and inertia of the sensor itself. Ce is inversely proportional to

the mechanical elasticity of the sensor. C0 represents the static capacitance
of the transducer, resulting from an inertial mass of infinite size. Ri is the

insulation leakage resistance of the transducer element. If the sensor is

connected to a load resistance, this also acts in parallel with the insulation
resistance, both increasing the high-pass cutoff frequency.

Optical
Techniques include the use of the physical change of an optical fiber to
detect strain due to applied pressure. A common example of this type
utilizes Fiber Bragg Gratings. This technology is employed in challenging
applications where the measurement may be highly remote, under high
temperature, or may benefit from technologies inherently immune to
electromagnetic interference.

Potentiometric

Uses the motion of a wiper along a resistive mechanism to detect the strain
caused by applied pressure.

Other types
These types of electronic pressure sensors use other properties (such as
density) to infer pressure of a gas, or liquid.
Resonant
Uses the changes in resonant frequency in a sensing mechanism to measure
stress, or changes in gas density, caused by applied pressure. This
technology may be used in conjunction with a force collector, such as those
in the category above.
Thermal
Uses the changes in thermal conductivity of a gas due to density changes to
measure pressure. A common example of this type is the Pirani gauge.

Ionization
Measures the flow of charged gas particles (ions) which varies due to density
changes to measure pressure. Common examples are the Hot and Cold
Cathode gauges.

Applications
There are many applications for pressure sensors:
Pressure sensing
This is where the measurement of interest is pressure, expressed as
a force per unit area. This is useful in weather instrumentation, aircraft,
automobiles, and any other machinery that has pressure functionality
implemented.
Altitude sensing
This is useful in aircraft, rockets, satellites, weather balloons, and many other
applications. All these applications make use of the relationship between
changes in pressure relative to the altitude. This relationship is governed by
the following equation:

Flow sensing
This is the use of pressure sensors in conjunction with the venturi effect to measure
flow. Differential pressure is measured between two segments of a venturi tube that
have a different aperture.

Level sensor
Level sensors detect the level of liquids and other fluids and fluidized
solids, including slurries, granular materials, and powders that exhibit an
upper free surface. Substances that flow become essentially horizontal in
their containers (or other physical boundaries) because of gravity whereas
most bulk solids pile at an angle of repose to a peak. The substance to be

measured can be inside a container or can be in its natural form (e.g., a river
or a lake). The level measurement can be either continuous or point values.
Continuous level sensors measure level within a specified range and
determine the exact amount of substance in a certain place, while point-level
sensors only indicate whether the substance is above or below the sensing
point. Generally the latter detect levels that are excessively high or low.

Point level detection of liquids

Pneumatic
Pneumatic level sensors are used where hazardous conditions exist, where
there is no electric power or its use is restricted, and in applications involving
heavy sludge or slurry. As the compression of a column of air against a
diaphragm is used to actuate a switch, no process liquid contacts the
sensor's moving parts. These sensors are suitable for use with highly viscous
liquids such as grease, as well as water-based and corrosive liquids. This has
the additional benefit of being a relatively low cost technique for point level
monitoring.

Conductive
Conductive level sensors are ideal for the point level detection of a wide
range of conductive liquids such as water, and is especially well suited for
highly corrosive liquids such as caustic soda, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid,
ferric chloride, and similar liquids. For those conductive liquids that are
corrosive, the sensors electrodes need to be constructed from titanium,
Hastelloy B or C, or 316 stainless steel and insulated with spacers,
separators or holders of ceramic, polyethylene and Teflon-based materials.
Depending on their design, multiple electrodes of differing lengths can be
used with one holder. Since corrosive liquids become more aggressive as
temperature and pressure increase, these extreme conditions need to be
considered when specifying these sensors.

Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic level sensors are used for non-contact level sensing of highly
viscous liquids, as well as bulk solids. They are also widely used in water
treatment

applications

for

pump

control

and

open

channel

flow

measurement. The sensors emit high frequency (20 kHz to 200 kHz) acoustic
waves that are reflected back to and detected by the emitting transducer.

Ultrasonic level sensors are also affected by the changing speed of

sound due to moisture, temperature, and pressures. Correction factors can
be applied to the level measurement to improve the accuracy of
measurement.

Capacitance

Capacitance level sensors excel in sensing the presence of a wide variety of

solids, aqueous and organic liquids, and slurries. The technique is frequently
referred to as RF for the radio frequency signals applied to the capacitance
circuit. The sensors can be designed to sense material with dielectric
constants as low as 1.1 (coke and fly ash) and as high as 88 (water) or more.
Sludges and slurries such as dehydrated cake and sewage slurry (dielectric
constant approx. 50) and liquid chemicals such as quicklime (dielectric
constant approx. 90) can also be sensed.

Since capacitance level sensors are electronic devices, phase modulation

and the use of higher frequencies makes the sensor suitable for applications
in which dielectric constants are similar. The sensor contains no moving
parts, is rugged, simple to use, and easy to clean, and can be designed for
high temperature and pressure applications. A danger exists from build-up
and discharge of a high-voltage static charge that results from the rubbing
and movement of low dielectric materials, but this danger can be eliminated
with proper design and grounding.

Optical interface

Optical sensors are used for point level sensing of sediments, liquids with
suspended solids, and liquid-liquid interfaces. These sensors sense the

decrease or change in transmission of infrared light emitted from an infrared

diode (LED). With the proper choice of construction materials and mounting
location, these sensors can be used with aqueous, organic, and corrosive
liquids.
A common application of economical infrared-based optical interface point
level sensors is detecting the sludge/water interface in settling ponds. By
using pulse modulation techniques and a high power infrared diode, one can
eliminate interference from ambient light, operate the LED at a higher gain,
and lessen the effects of build-up on the probe.

Microwave
Microwave sensors are ideal for use in moist, vaporous, and dusty
environments as well as in applications in which temperatures and pressures
vary. Microwaves (also frequently described as RADAR), will penetrate
temperature and vapor layers that may cause problems for other techniques,
such as ultrasonic. Microwaves are electromagnetic energy and therefore do
not require air molecules to transmit the energy making them useful in
vacuums. Microwaves, as electromagnetic energy, are reflected by objects
with high conductive properties, like metal and conductive water. Alternately,
they are absorbed in various degrees by 'low dielectric' or insulating

mediums such as plastics, glass, paper, many powders and food stuffs and
other solids.

Continuous level measurement of liquids

Magnetostrictive
Magnetostrictive level sensors are similar to float type sensors in that a
permanent magnet sealed inside a float travels up and down a stem in which
a magnetostrictive wire is sealed. Ideal for high-accuracy, continuous level
measurement of a wide variety of liquids in storage and shipping containers,
these sensors require the proper choice of float based on the specific gravity
of the liquid. Inside the probe tube there is a rigid wire made of
magnetostrictive material. The sensor circuitry emits pulses of current
through the wire, generating a circular magnetic field. The level transmitter
is a magnet, which is integrated into the float. Its magnetic field magnetizes
the wire axially. Since the two magnetic fields are superimposed, around the
float magnet a torsion wave is generated which runs in both directions along
the wire. One wave runs directly to the probe head while the other is
reflected at the bottom of the probe tube. The time is measured between

emission of the current pulse and arrival of the wave at the probe head. The
position of the float is determined on the basis of the transit times.

Resistive chain:
Resistive chain level sensors are similar to magnetic float level sensors in
that a permanent magnet sealed inside a float moves up and down a stem in
which closely spaced switches and resistors are sealed. When the switches
are closed, the resistance is summed and converted to current or voltage
signals that are proportional to the level of the liquid.

Hydrostatic pressure
Hydrostatic pressure level sensors are submersible or externally mounted
pressure sensors suitable for measuring the level of corrosive liquids in deep
tanks or water in reservoirs. For these sensors, using chemically compatible
materials

is

important

to

assure

proper

performance.

Sensors

are

commercially available from 10mbar to 1000bar.

Since these sensors sense increasing pressure with depth and because the
specific gravities of liquids are different, the sensor must be properly
calibrated for each application. In addition, large variations in temperature
cause changes in specific gravity that should be accounted for when the
pressure is converted to level.

Air bubbler
An air bubbler system uses a tube with an opening below the surface of the
liquid level. A fixed flow of air is passed through the tube. Pressure in the
tube is proportional to the depth (and density) of the liquid over the outlet of
the tube.

Gamma ray
A nuclear level gauge or gamma ray gauge measures level by the
attenuation of gamma rays passing through a process vessel. The technique
is used to regulate the level of molten steel in a continuous casting process
of steelmaking. The water-cooled mold is arranged with a source of radiation,
such as cobalt-60 or caesium-137, on one side and a sensitive detector such
as a scintillation counter on the other. As the level of molten steel rises in the
mold, less of the gamma radiation is detected by the sensor. The technique
allows non-contact measurement where the heat of the molten metal makes
contact techniques and even many non-contact techniques impractical.

pH meter

A pH Meter is a scientific instrument that measures the hydrogen-ion

concentration (or pH) in a solution, indicating its acidity oralkalinity. The pH
meter measures the difference in electrical potential between a pH electrode
and

reference

electrode.

It

usually

has

a glass

electrode plus

a calomel reference electrode, or a combination electrode. In addition to

measuring the pH of liquids, a special probe is sometimes used to measure
the pH of semi-solid substances.
USES:
Knowledge of pH to greater or lesser accuracy is useful or critical in a great
many situations, including of course chemical laboratory work. pH meters of
various

types

and

quality

can

be

used

for soil measurements

in agriculture; water quality for water supply systems, swimming pools,

etc.; brewing, industrially or domestically; healthcare, to ensure that

solutions

are

safe

when

applied

to

patients

or

lethal

as sterilants and disinfectants; and many other applications.

Circuit and operation

Basic potentiometric pH meters simply measure the voltage between two
electrodes and display the result converted into the corresponding pH value.
They comprise a simple electronic amplifier and a pair of probes, or a
combination probe, and some form of display calibrated in pH. The probe is
the key part: it is a rod-like structure usually made of glass, with a bulb
containing the sensor at the bottom. Frequent calibration with solutions of
known pH, perhaps before each use, ensures the best accuracy. [3] To measure
the pH of a solution, the probe is dipped into it.

Density meter
A density meter, also known as a densometer, is a device that measures
the density.
Typically, density either has the units of kilogram/cubic meters

. The most basic principle of how density is calculated is by the formula:

Density= mass/volume

Many density meters can measure both the wet portion and the dry portion
of a sample. The wet portion comprises the density from all liquids present in
the sample. The dry solids comprise solely of the density of the solids
present in the sample.
A density meter does not measure the specific gravity of a sample directly.
However, the specific gravity can be inferred from a density meter. The
specific gravity is defined as the density of a sample compared to the density
of a reference. The reference density is typically of that of water. The specific
gravity is found by the following equation:

Density

meters

come

in

many

varieties.

Different

types

include: nuclear, coriolis, ultrasound, microwave, and gravitic. Each type

measures the density differently. Each type has its advantages and
drawbacks.
Density meters have many applications in various parts of various industries.
Density meters are used to measure slurries, sludges, and other liquids that
flow through the pipeline. Industries such as mining, dredging, wastewater

treatment, paper, oil, and gas all have uses for density meters at various
points during their respective processes.

Different types of Density Meter

Coriolis
Coriolis density meters, also known as mass flow meters or inertial flow
meters, work on the principle of vibration to measure phase shifts in the
vibration of a bent thin walled tube. The bent thin walled tube is rotated
around a central axis. When there is no mass in the bent section, the tube
remains untwisted. However, when the density inside the bent section
increases, the inbound flow portion of the bent pipe drags behind the out
flow portion. This twisting causes phase shifts which result in changes in the
resonant frequency of the thin walled tube.

Nuclear
Nuclear density meters work on the principle of measuring gamma radiation.
Gamma radiation is emitted from a source. This source is typically Cesium137 (half-life: ~30 years). The radiation is seen by a scintillator device. The
radiation is converted into flashes of light. The number of flashes of light is
counted. Radiation that is absorbed by the mass is not seen by the
scintillator device. Therefore, the density of the media is inversely
proportional to the radiation captured and seen by the scintillator.

Microwave
Microwave density meters have various ways to measure what solids are in
the sample. All microwave meters measure microwaves but some use
different methods such as measuring the microwave propagation speed
change, amplitude reduction, time of flight, single phase difference, or dual
phase shift. Each technique has certain accuracies.
Some microwave meters use a ceramic probe that is directly inserted into
the sample. This allows the meter to have direct contact to the sample in
question. However, this limits the types of slurries and sludges that can flow
through the pipe line. Abrasive slurries with particulates can damage the
sensor probe.

Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic density meters work on various principles to calculate the density.
One of the methods is transit-time principle (also known as the time of flight
principle). In this technique, two transducers are mounted to the sides of the
pipe walls. The transducers alternate between sending and receiving
ultrasonic signals. From this transit time measurement, the flow velocity and
volume flow based on the diameter of the pipe are calculated.

Gravitic
Gravitic density meters work on the principle of gravity to calculate the
density of a sample. A flexible hose is used to determine the change in
weight. Using the principle of beam deflection of two fixed ends, the weight
can be calculated. Increases in weight result in a larger deflection. Decreases
in weight result in a smaller deflection. The volume inside of the hose never

changes. Since the volume is constant and the weight is known, the density
is easily calculated from this information.
Displacement is measured with a high precision displacement laser. Micron
scale deflections can be read by the density meter. Minute changes in weight
are seen at this scale.

Flow measurement

Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid movement. Flow can

be measured in a variety of ways. Positive-displacement flow meters
accumulate a fixed volume of fluid and then count the number of times the
volume is filled to measure flow. Other flow measurement methods rely on
forces produced by the flowing stream as it overcomes a known constriction,
to indirectly calculate flow. Flow may be measured by measuring the velocity
of fluid over a known area

Units of measurement

Both gas and liquid flow can be measured in volumetric or mass flow rates,
such as liters per second or kilograms per second, respectively. These
measurements are related by the material's density. The density of a liquid is
almost independent of conditions. This is not the case for gases, the
densities of which depend greatly upon pressure, temperature and to a
lesser extent, composition.

Mechanical flow meters

A positive displacement meter may be compared to a bucket and a
stopwatch. The stopwatch is started when the flow starts, and stopped when
the bucket reaches its limit. The volume divided by the time gives the flow
rate. For continuous measurements, we need a system of continually filling
and emptying buckets to divide the flow without letting it out of the pipe.
These continuously forming and collapsing volumetric displacements may
take the form of pistons reciprocating in cylinders, gear teeth mating against
the internal wall of a meter or through a progressive cavity created by
rotating oval gears or a helical screw.

Piston meter/rotary piston

Because they are used for domestic water measurement, piston meters, also
known as rotary piston or semi-positive displacement meters, are the most
common flow measurement devices in the UK and are used for almost all
meter sizes up to and including 40 mm (1 12 in). The piston meter operates
on the principle of a piston rotating within a chamber of known volume. For
each rotation, an amount of water passes through the piston chamber.
Through a gear mechanism and, sometimes, a magnetic drive, a needle dial
and odometer type display are advanced.

Oval gear meter

An oval gear meter is a positive displacement meter that uses two or more
oblong gears configured to rotate at right angles to one another, forming a T
shape. Such a meter has two sides, which can be called A and B. No fluid
passes through the center of the meter, where the teeth of the two gears

always mesh. On one side of the meter (A), the teeth of the gears close off
the fluid flow because the elongated gear on side A is protruding into the
measurement chamber, while on the other side of the meter (B), a cavity
holds a fixed volume of fluid in a measurement chamber. As the fluid pushes
the gears, it rotates them, allowing the fluid in the measurement chamber on
side B to be released into the outlet port. Meanwhile, fluid entering the inlet
port will be driven into the measurement chamber of side A, which is now
open. The teeth on side B will now close off the fluid from entering side B.
This cycle continues as the gears rotate and fluid is metered through
alternating measurement chambers. Permanent magnets in the rotating
gears can transmit a signal to an electric reed switch or current transducer
for flow measurement. Though claims for high performance are made, they
are generally not as precise as the sliding vane design.

Gear meter
Gear meters differ from Oval Gear meters in that the measurement
chambers are made up of the gaps between the teeth of the gears. These
openings divide up the fluid stream and as the gears rotate away from the
inlet port, the meter's inner wall closes off the chamber to hold the fixed
amount of fluid. The outlet port is located in the area where the gears are
coming back together. The fluid is forced out of the meter as the gear teeth
mesh and reduce the available pockets to nearly zero volume.

Helical gear
Helical gear flow meters get their name from the shape of their gears or
rotors. These rotors resemble the shape of a helix, which is a spiral-shaped
structure. As the fluid flows through the meter, it enters the compartments in

the rotors, causing the rotors to rotate. The length of the rotor is sufficient
that the inlet and outlet are always separated from each other thus blocking
a free flow of liquid. The mating helical rotors create a progressive cavity
which opens to admit fluid, seals itself off and then opens up to the
downstream side to release the fluid.
This is the most commonly used measurement system for measuring water
supply in houses. The fluid, most commonly water, enters in one side of the
meter and strikes thenutating disk, which is eccentrically mounted. The disk
must then "wobble" or nutate about the vertical axis, since the bottom and
the top of the disk remain in contact with the mounting chamber. A partition
separates the inlet and outlet chambers. As the disk nutates, it gives direct
indication of the volume of the liquid that has passed through the meter as
volumetric flow is indicated by a gearing and register arrangement, which is
connected to the disk. It is reliable for flow measurements within 1 percent.

Variable area meter

The variable area (VA) meter, also commonly called a rotameter, consists of
a tapered tube, typically made of glass, with a float inside that is pushed up
by fluid flow and pulled down by gravity. As flow rate increases, greater
viscous and pressure forces on the float cause it to rise until it becomes
stationary at a location in the tube that is wide enough for the forces to
balance. Floats are made in many different shapes, with spheres and
spherical ellipses being the most common. Some are designed to spin visibly
in the fluid stream to aid the user in determining whether the float is stuck or
not. Rotameters are available for a wide range of liquids but are most
commonly used with water or air. They can be made to reliably measure flow
down to 1% accuracy.

Turbine flow meter

The turbine flow meter (better described as an axial turbine) translates the
mechanical action of the turbine rotating in the liquid flow around an axis
into a user-readable rate of flow (gpm, lpm, etc.). The turbine tends to have
all the flow traveling around it.
The turbine wheel is set in the path of a fluid stream. The flowing fluid
impinges on the turbine blades, imparting a force to the blade surface and
setting the rotor in motion. When a steady rotation speed has been reached,
the speed is proportional to fluid velocity.
Turbine flow meters are used for the measurement of natural gas and liquid
flow.[3] Turbine meters are less accurate than displacement and jet meters at
low flow rates, but the measuring element does not occupy or severely
restrict the entire path of flow. The flow direction is generally straight
through the meter, allowing for higher flow rates and less pressure loss than
displacement-type meters. They are the meter of choice for large
commercial users, fire protection, and as master meters for the water
distribution system. Strainers are generally required to be installed in front of
the meter to protect the measuring element from gravel or other debris that
could enter the water distribution system. Turbine meters are generally
available for 4 to 30 cm (1 1212 in) or higher pipe sizes. Turbine meter
bodies are commonly made of bronze, cast Iron, or ductile iron.

Woltman meter
The Woltman meter (invented by Reinhard Woltman in the 19th century)
comprises a rotor with helical blades inserted axially in the flow, much like a

ducted fan; it can be considered a type of turbine flow meter. They are
commonly referred to as helix meters, and are popular at larger sizes.

Single jet meter

A single jet meter consists of a simple impeller with radial vanes, impinged
upon by a single jet. They are increasing in popularity in the UK at larger
sizes and are commonplace in the EU.

Paddle wheel meter

This is similar to the single jet meter, except that the impeller is small with
respect to the width of the pipe, and projects only partially into the flow, like
the paddle wheel on a Mississippi riverboat.

Multiple jet meter

A multiple jet or multijet meter is a velocity type meter which has an impeller
which rotates horizontally on a vertical shaft. The impeller element is in a
housing in which multiple inlet ports direct the fluid flow at the impeller
causing it to rotate in a specific direction in proportion to the flow velocity.
This meter works mechanically much like a single jet meter except that the
ports direct the flow at the impeller equally from several points around the
circumference of the element, not just one point; this minimizes uneven wear
on the impeller and its shaft. Thus these types of meters are recommended
to be installed horizontally with its roller index pointing skywards.

Pelton wheel
The Pelton wheel turbine (better described as a radial turbine) translates the
mechanical action of the Pelton wheel rotating in the liquid flow around an
axis into a user-readable rate of flow (gpm, lpm, etc.). The Pelton wheel
tends to have all the flow traveling around it with the inlet flow focused on
the blades by a jet. The original Pelton wheels were used for the generation
of power and consisted of a radial flow turbine with "reaction cups" which not
only move with the force of the water on the face but return the flow in
opposite direction using this change of fluid direction to further increase
the efficiency of the turbine.

Current meter

A propeller-type current meter as used for hydroelectric turbine testing.

Flow through a large penstock such as used at a hydroelectric power plant
can be measured by averaging the flow velocity over the entire area.
Propeller-type current meters (similar to the purely mechanical Ekman
current meter, but now with electronic data acquisition) can be traversed
over the area of the penstock and velocities averaged to calculate total flow.
This may be on the order of hundreds of cubic meters per second. The flow
must be kept steady during the traverse of the current meters. Methods for
testing hydroelectric turbines are given in IEC standard 41. Such flow

measurements are often commercially important when testing the efficiency

of large turbines.

Pressure-based meters
There are several types of flow meter that rely on Bernoulli's principle, either
by measuring

the differential pressure within a

constriction, or by

measuring static and stagnation pressures to derive the dynamic pressure.

Venturi meter
A Venturi meter

constricts

the

flow

in

some

fashion,

and pressure

sensors measure the differential pressure before and within the constriction.
This method is widely used to measure flow rate in the transmission of gas
through pipelines,

and

has

been

used

since Roman

Empire times.

The coefficient of discharge of Venturi meter ranges from 0.93 to 0.97. The
first large-scale Venturi meters to measure liquid flows were developed
by Clemens Herschel who used them to measure small and large flows of
water and wastewater beginning at the end of the 19th century.

Orifice plate
An orifice plate is a plate with a hole through it, placed in the flow; it
constricts the flow, and measuring the pressure differential across the
constriction gives the flow rate. It is basically a crude form of Venturi meter,
but with higher energy losses. There are three type of orifice: concentric,
eccentric, and segmental.

Dall tube
The Dall tube is a shortened version of a Venturi meter, with a lower pressure
drop than an orifice plate. As with these flow meters the flow rate in a Dall
tube is determined by measuring the pressure drop caused by restriction in
the conduit. The pressure differential is typically measured using diaphragm
pressure transducers with digital readout. Since these meters have
significantly lower permanent pressure losses than orifice meters, Dall tubes
are widely used for measuring the flow rate of large pipeworks. Differential
pressure produced by a dall tube higher than venturi tube and nozzle, all of
them having same throat diameters.

Pitot-static tube
A Pitot-static tube is a pressure measuring instrument used to measure fluid
flow

velocity

by

determining

the stagnation

pressure and static

pressure. Bernoulli's equation used to calculate the dynamic pressure and

hence fluid velocity. Also see Air flow meter.

Multi-hole pressure probe

Multi-hole pressure probes (also called impact probes) extend the theory of
pitot tube to more than one dimension. A typical impact probe consists of
three or more holes (depending on the type of probe) on the measuring tip
arranged in a specific pattern. More holes allow the instrument to measure
the direction of the flow velocity in addition to its magnitude (after
appropriate calibration). Three holes arranged in a line allow the pressure
probes to measure the velocity vector in two dimensions. Introduction of
more

holes,

e.g.

five

holes

arranged

in

"plus"

formation,

allow

measurement of the three-dimensional velocity vector.

Cone meters

Cone meters are a newer differential pressure metering device first launched
in 1985 by McCrometer in Hemet, CA. While working with the same basic
principles as Venturi and Orifice type DP meters, cone meters dont require
the same upstream and downstream piping. The cone acts as a conditioning
device as well as a differential pressure producer. Upstream requirements are
between 0-5 diameters compared to up to 44 diameters for an orifice plate
or 22 diameters for a Venturi. Because cone meters are generally of welded
construction, it is recommended they are always calibrated prior to service.

Linear resistance meters

Linear resistance meters, also called laminar flow meters, measure very low
flows at which the measured differential pressure is linearly proportional to
the flow and to the fluid viscosity. Such flow is called viscous drag flow or
laminar flow, as opposed to the turbulent flow measured by orifice plates,
venturis and other meters mentioned in this section, and is characterized by
Reynolds numbers below 2000. The primary flow element may consist of a
single long capillary tube, a bundle of such tubes, or a long porous plug; such
low flows create small pressure differentials but longer flow elements create
higher,

more

easily

measured

differentials.

These

flow

meters

are

particularly sensitive to temperature changes affecting the fluid viscosity and

the diameter of the flow element, as can be seen in the governing HagenPoiseuille equation.

Optical flow meters

Optical flow meters use light to determine flow rate. Small particles which
accompany natural and industrial gases pass through two laser beams
focused a short distance apart in the flow path in a pipe by illuminating
optics. Laser light is scattered when a particle crosses the first beam. The
detecting optics collects scattered light on a photodetector, which then
generates a pulse signal. As the same particle crosses the second beam, the
detecting optics collect scattered light on a second photodetector, which
converts the incoming light into a second electrical pulse. By measuring the
time interval between these pulses.

Laser-based optical flow meters measure the actual speed of particles, a

property which is not dependent on thermal conductivity of gases, variations
in gas flow or composition of gases.

Open-channel flow measurement

Open channel flow describes cases where flowing liquid has a top surface
open to the air; the cross-section of the flow is only determined by the shape
of the channel on the lower side, and is variable depending on the depth of
liquid in the channel. Techniques appropriate for a fixed cross-section of flow
in a pipe are not useful in open channels.

Level to flow
The level of the water is measured at a designated point behind weir or
in flume a hydraulic structure using various secondary devices (bubblers,
ultrasonic, float, and differential pressure are common methods). The flow
rate can then be integrated over time into volumetric flow. Level to flow
devices are commonly used to measure the flow of surface waters (springs,
stream, and rivers), industrial discharges, and sewage. Of these, weirs are
used on flow streams with low solids (typically surface waters), while flumes
are used on flows containing low or high solids contents.

Area/velocity
The cross-sectional area of the flow is calculated from a depth measurement
and the average velocity of the flow is measured directly (Doppler and

propeller methods are common). Velocity times the cross-sectional area

yields a flow rate which can be integrated into volumetric flow. There are two
types of area velocity flow meter: (1) wetted; and (2) non contact. Wetted
area velocity sensors have to be typically mounted on the bottom of a
channel or river and use doppler to measure the velocity of the entrained
particles. With depth and a programmed cross-section this can then provide
discharge flow measurement. Non contact devices that use laser or radar are
mounted above the channel and measure the velocity from above and then
use ultrasound to measure the depth of the water from above.

Dye testing
A known amount of dye (or salt) per unit time is added to a flow stream.
After complete mixing, the concentration is measured. The dilution rate
equals the flow rates.

Acoustic Doppler velocimetry

Acoustic Doppler velocimetry (ADV) is designed to record instantaneous
velocity components at a single point with a relatively high frequency.
Measurements are performed by measuring the velocity of particles in a
remote sampling volume based upon the Doppler shift effect.

Thermal mass flow meters

Temperature at the sensors varies depending upon the mass flow

Thermal mass flow meters generally use combinations of heated elements
and temperature sensors to measure the difference between static and
flowing heat transfer to a fluid and infer its flow with a knowledge of the
fluid's specific

heat and

density.

If

the

density

and specific

heat characteristics of the fluid are constant, the meter can provide a direct
mass flow readout, and does not need any additional pressure temperature
compensation over their specified range.
Thermal mass flow meter (also called thermal dispersion or thermal
displacement flowmeter) technology is used for compressed air, nitrogen,
helium, argon, oxygen, and natural gas. In fact, most gases can be measured
as long as they are fairly clean and non-corrosive. For more aggressive
gases, the meter may be made out of special alloys (e.g. Hastelloy), and predrying the gas also helps to minimize corrosion.

The MAF sensor

In many late model automobiles, a mass airflow sensor (MAF sensor) is used
to accurately determine the mass flowrate of intake air used in the internal
combustion engine. Many such mass flow sensors use a heated element and

a downstream temperature sensor to indicate the air flowrate. Other sensors

use a spring-loaded vane. In either case, the vehicle's electronic control
unit interprets the sensor signals as a real time indication of an engine's fuel
requirement.

Vortex flow meters

Another method of flow measurement involves placing a bluff body (called a

shedder bar) in the path of the fluid. As the fluid passes this bar,
disturbances in the flow calledvortices are created. The vortices trail behind
the cylinder, alternatively from each side of the bluff body. This vortex trail is
called the Von Krmn vortex street after von Krmn's 1912 mathematical
description of the phenomenon. The frequency at which these vortices
alternate sides is essentially proportional to the flow rate of the fluid. Inside,
atop, or downstream of the shedder bar is a sensor for measuring the
frequency of the vortex shedding. This sensor is often a piezoelectric crystal,
which produces a small, but measurable, voltage pulse every time a vortex is
created. Since the frequency of such a voltage pulse is also proportional to
the fluid velocity, a volumetric flow rate is calculated using the cross
sectional area of the flow meter.

Electromagnetic, ultrasonic and coriolis flow metres

Modern innovations in the measurement of flow rate incorporate electronic

devices that can correct for varying pressure and temperature (i.e. density)
conditions, non-linearities, and for the characteristics of the fluid.

Magnetic flow meters

Magnetic flow meters, often called "mag meter"s or "electromag"s, use
a magnetic field applied to the metering tube, which results in a potential
difference proportional to the flow velocity perpendicular to the flux lines.
The potential difference is sensed by electrodes aligned perpendicular to the
flow and the applied magnetic field. The physical principle at work
is Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. The magnetic flow meter
requires a conducting fluid and a nonconducting pipe liner. The electrodes
must not corrode in contact with the process fluid; some magnetic
flowmeters have auxiliary transducers installed to clean the electrodes in
place. The applied magnetic field is pulsed, which allows the flowmeter to
cancel out the effect of stray voltage in the piping system.
Non-contact electromagnetic flow meters
A Lorentz force velocimetry system is called Lorentz force flowmeter (LFF). A
LFF measures the integrated or bulk Lorentz force resulting from the
interaction between a liquid metal in motion and an applied magnetic field.

In this case the characteristic length of the magnetic field is of the same
order of magnitude as the dimensions of the channel. It must be addressed
that in the case where localized magnetic fields are used, it is possible to
perform local velocity measurements and thus the term Lorentz force
velocimeter is used.

Ultrasonic flow meters (Doppler, transit time)

There are two main types of Ultrasonic flow meters: Doppler and transit time.
While they both utilize ultrasound to make measurements and can be noninvasive (measure flow from outside the tube, pipe or vessel), they measure
flow by very different methods.

Ultrasonic transit time flow meters measure the difference of the transit
time of ultrasonic pulses propagating in and against the direction of flow.
This time difference is a measure for the average velocity of the fluid along
the path of the ultrasonic beam.
Ultrasonic Doppler flow meters measure the Doppler shift resulting from
reflecting an ultrasonic beam off the particulates in flowing fluid. The
frequency of the transmitted beam is affected by the movement of the
particles; this frequency shift can be used to calculate the fluid velocity. For

the Doppler principle to work there must be a high enough density of

sonically reflective materials such as solid particles or air bubbles suspended
in the fluid. This is in direct contrast to an ultrasonic transit time flow meter,
where bubbles and solid particles reduce the accuracy of the measurement.
Due to the dependency on these particles there are limited applications for
Doppler flow meters. This technology is also known as acoustic Doppler
velocimetry.

Coriolis flow meters

Using the Coriolis effect that causes a laterally vibrating tube to distort, a
direct measurement of mass flow can be obtained in a coriolis flow meter.
Furthermore, a direct measure of the density of the fluid is obtained. Coriolis
measurement can be very accurate irrespective of the type of gas or liquid
that is measured; the same measurement tube can be used for hydrogen gas
and bitumen without recalibration.

Laser Doppler flow measurement

A beam of laser light impinging on a moving particle will be partially
scattered with a change in wavelength proportional to the particle's speed
(the Doppler effect). A laser Doppler velocimeter (LDV), also called a laser
Doppler anemometer (LDA), focuses a laser beam into a small volume in a
flowing fluid containing small particles (naturally occurring or induced). The
particles scatter the light with a Doppler shift. Analysis of this shifted
wavelength can be used to directly, and with great precision, determine the
speed of the particle and thus a close approximation of the fluid velocity.
A number of different techniques and device configurations are available for
determining

the

Doppler

shift.

All

use

a photodetector (typically

an avalanche photodiode) to convert the light into an electrical waveform for

analysis. In most devices, the original laser light is divided into two beams.

Electrical conductivity meter

An electrical conductivity meter (EC meter) measures the electrical

conductivity in

a solution.

It

is

commonly

used

in hydroponics,aquaculture and freshwater systems to monitor the amount of

nutrients, salts or impurities in the water
Principle
The common laboratory conductivity meters employ a potentiometric
method and four electrodes. Often, the electrodes are cylindrical and
arranged concentrically. The electrodes are usually made of platinum metal.
An alternating current is applied to the outer pair of the electrodes. The
potential between the inner pair is measured. Conductivity could in principle
be determined using the distance between the electrodes and their surface
area using the Ohm's law but generally, for accuracy, a calibration is
employed using electrolytes of well-known conductivity.

Industrial conductivity probes often employ an inductive method, which has

the advantage that the fluid does not wet the electrical parts of the sensor.
Here, two inductively-coupled coils are used. One is the driving coil
producing a magnetic field and it is supplied with accurately-known voltage.
The other forms a secondary coil of a transformer. The liquid passing through
a channel in the sensor forms one turn in the secondary winding of the
transformer. The induced current is the output of the sensor.
Temperature dependence
where,
T is the temperature of the sample,
Tcal is the calibration temperature,
T is the electrical conductivity at the temperature T,
Tcal is the electrical conductivity at the calibration temperature Tcal,
is the temperature compensation slope of the solution.

Aqueous solution at

Concentration (mass

25 C

percentage)

(%/C)

HCl

10

1.56

KCl

10

1.88

H2SO4

50

1.93

NaCl

10

2.14

HF

1.5

7.20

HNO3

31

31

BIBILIOGRAPHY

Books Reffered: Handbook of modern sensor :- Jacob Fraden

Instrument Tranducers :- HKP Neubert
Modern Control Engineering :- K.Ogata
Micro Controllers :- Hintz

Websites Reffered : Centurypulp&paper.com

wikepedia

THANK YOU