The Periodic Table and Chemical Bonding

Unit III
The Periodic Table

and
Chemical Bonding
The Periodic Table of Elements is a work of great scientists with unending curiosity on how
elements in the periodic table should be arranged logically.
Chemical bonding is an important part of everyday life. The things that make life easier are all
products of chemical bonding.
All rights reserved. Copyright 2008 by Allen A. Espinosa.
Chapter 1
Order Among Elements in the

Periodic Table
Have you been to a high school chemistry laboratory? If yes, then you might have noticed a
chart with different colors and symbols hanging on the wall. This is called the Periodic Table of
Elements. The Periodic Table is actually a work of great scientists whose curiosity of arranging the
numerous known elements in a logical manner is never-ending.
The Periodic Table could actually be compared with a library. Books in a library are arranged
logically in such a way that books of the same content are in the same division making it easier for
you to find the book that you are looking for.
Do you wonder why the elements in the Periodic Table are arranged in such way? In this
chapter, we will be discussing the bases of such arrangement and we will find the answer to the
following questions:
Why are the elements in the Periodic Table named and given a symbol in such way?
Who are the great minds behind the Periodic Table?
How can we use the Periodic Table to predict the chemical behavior of an element?
How is the valence electron of elements related to their group number in the Periodic
Table?
What are the trends and periodic variation of the elements in the Periodic Table?
What are the properties and uses of each group of elements in the Periodic Table?
Why is it important for us to know the properties of elements and their application to the
environment and modern technologies? and
What are some elements that are important to the human body?
Lesson 1
Why are the Elements in the Periodic Table

Named and Given a Symbol in Such Way?
Do and Discover
Explore your Periodic Table of Elements! Complete the table below either by
supplying it with the correct name or symbol of the element.
Element
Arsenic
Gallium
Nickel
Tin
Tungsten
Symbol
Element
Symbol
Bk
Fm
N
K
Y
Whiz Quest
Chemical symbols are used by chemists to represent elements in a shorter
manner. Each element has its own unique symbol. Since chemistry is an international
enterprise, chemical symbols are determined by international agreement. Applications
of this chemical symbols is very visible in the preceding chapters of this book.
Even early chemists use chemical symbols to represent elements for these
elements to be easier to work with. Below are some of the symbols that early chemists
used.
Figure 3.1 John Daltons chart of elements

At present, chemists use symbols to represent elements. The name of each
element is derived either from the name of a scientist, the country where it was
discovered, or words from early civilization languages. The table below shows some of
the elements, their symbol and the origin of their name.
Table 3.1 Some elements, their symbol and the origin of their name
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Element
Symbol
Origin
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Argon
Ar
Greek word argos, inactive
Californium
Cf
California
Curium
Cm
Pierre and Marie Curie
Fermium
Fm
Enrico Fermi
Magnesium
Mg
Latin word magnesia
Polonium
Po
Poland
______________________________________________________________________________
As you can observe in the Periodic Table, most of the elements have a single
letter symbol or a double letter symbol where the first letter is always capitalized.
Most of the symbols of elements are derived from their English names but some
others are derived from words from early civilization languages. Below are some
examples of some elements and their corresponding symbols.
Table 3.3 Some elements and their corresponding symbols
____________________________________________________________________________
Element
Symbol
Element
Symbol
____________________________________________________________________________
Boron
B
Antimony
Sb, stibium
Iodine
I
Copper
Cu, cuprum
Potassium
K
Gold
Au, aurum
Radium
Rd
Lead
Pb, plumbum
Selenium
Se
Mercury
Hg, hydrargyrum
Xenon
Xe
Silver
Ag, argentumsi
____________________________________________________________________________
Application
Are you familiar with the game bingo? What if you replace the numbers in the
bingo card with chemical symbols of elements? Then well have a chemical symbol
bingo! Your task now is to create your own symbo-card and choose the chemical
symbol of your choice then your teacher will facilitate the chemical symbol bingo.
Below is a sample symbo-card.
Ag
Mn
Xe
He
Mg
Cl
Ne
Free
Kr
Hg
Li
Cr
Na
Sb
Pd
Si
Cs
Science Link
Most of the elements in the periodic table could either consist of a single letter or
a double letter symbol. But there are also elements that are consist of three letter
symbol, these are the elements Ununbium (Uub), Ununtrium (Uut), Ununquadium
(Uuq), Ununpentium (Uup), Ununhexium (Uuh), Ununseptium (Uus) and Ununoctium
(Uuo). On the other hand, these chemical names and symbols are just temporarily
given by the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) since these
elements are still under study.
Web Trips
Lets see how well you are familiar with the symbols of the elements, do the
chemical symbol quiz at:
http://www.fordhamprep.org/gcurran/sho/sho/students/classof03/mcenc3.htm
Word Pad
Chemical symbol is a shorthand abbreviation of the names of the known elements.
Wrap It Up
At the beginning of the lesson, you have explored your Periodic Table by
focusing on the name and symbol of elements. Now, try completing the table below by
supplying it with either the name or symbol of the element without looking at your
Periodic Table.
Element
Symbol
Os
Kr
Pb
Hg
V
Element
Dysprosium
Rutherfordium
Astatine
Antimony
Lead
Symbol
Photo and content credits, lesson 1

(http://www.meta-synthesis.com/webbook/35_pt/pt.html)
(http://www.elementsdatabase.com/)
Lesson 2
Who are the Great Minds Behind

the Periodic Table?
Do and Discover
While you are reading the Whiz Quest, focus your attention on the name of the
scientist and his contribution to the development of the Periodic Table. Jot down your
notes on the table below.
Scientist
Hennig Brand
Antoine Lavoisier
John Dalton
Johann Dobereiner
Beguyer De Chancourtois
John Newlands
Lothar Meyer
Dmitri Mendeleev
Clemens Winkler
Henry Moseley
Glenn Seaborg
Contribution
Whiz Quest
The Periodic Table you have right now is actually a long time in the making. It
continuously evolves as new ideas arrived. These new ideas arouse from great minds of
scientists.
Before the idea of arranging the elements into a Periodic Table comes up to,
people were aware of some of the elements in the Periodic Table, such as gold, silver,
copper, lead, tin, and mercury. In 1649, Hennig Brand, a German alchemist discovered
the element phosphorus through scientific inquiry. It was the first element ever
discovered. Years past, scientists get interested of discovering more and more elements
and thats why the need to arrange it in a logical manner awakens.
The quest for arranging the elements in a logical manner started with French
chemist-physicist Antoine Lavoisier in 1789 when he arranged the elements into
groups of simple substances which will not decompose by any means. Following
Lavoisiers concept of chemical element, in 1808-1827, John Dalton, an English chemistphysicist, published his New System of Chemical Philosophy wherein he calculated the
first relative masses of atoms and compounds. His idea was disputed, but, in the long
run atomic masses would provide the key means of organizing the elements into the
Periodic Table. Between 1817-1829, a German chemist, Johann Dobereiner, proposes
the Law of Triads in arranging the periodic table. He noticed that the atomic mass of
strontium (87.62) was halfway between the masses of calcium (40.08) and barium
(137.33). These elements possessed similar chemical properties. But his law was not
applicable to other elements. In 1862, a French geologist, Beguyer De Chancourtois
arranged the elements by increasing atomic mass. He placed his arrangement in a
cylinder and divided it into 16 parts, which was based on the atomic mass of oxygen.
He called this as telluric screw. It was the first ever geometric representation of the
periodic law. In 1863, an English chemist, John Newlands proposes the Law of Octaves
in arranging the periodic table. He noticed that when the first 20 elements were
arranged in increasing atomic masses, there will be similarities in the properties of the
first and the eighth element in the period. But this law was no longer applicable after
the element calcium.
In 1869, Lothar Meyer, a German chemist, and Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian
chemist, published their closely identical versions of the Periodic Table independently.
The two chemists are the precursor of the Periodic Table you have right now. They
propose the Periodic Law which states that properties of elements are periodic function
of their atomic masses. The periodic table of Meyer and Mendeleev has vacant elements
which are yet to be discovered but Mendeleev had already predicted some physical
properties of these missing elements. One good example of this is the missing element
between silicon and tin, he predicted that the property of this missing element will be
midway between silicon and tin so he named is as eka-silicon. The element eka-silicon
was then renamed into germanium in 1886 because Clemens Winkler, a German
chemist, discovered an element which actually matches the prediction of Mendeleev. In
1913, an English physicist, Henry Moseley, noticed a connection between the atomic
number of an element and the frequency of X-rays resulting from the bombardment of
an element with a high energy electron. He found out that atomic number increases in
the same manner as the atomic masses with some few exemptions. He revised the
Periodic Law in a new statement saying that properties of elements are periodic function
of their atomic numbers. To date, the Periodic Table that we have is arranged in
increasing atomic number.
In 1951, an American chemist, Glenn Seaborg, discovered the transuranium
elements with atomic numbers 94-102. The completion of the actinide series allows
Seaborg to redesign the periodic table into it current form. Both the lanthanide and
actinide series of elements were placed under the rest of the periodic table. These
elements technically should be placed between the alkaline earth metals and the
transition metals; however, since this would make the periodic table too wide, they
were placed below the rest of the elements.
Hennig Brand
Beguyer De Chancourtois
Antoine Lavoisier
John Newlands
Clemens Winkler
John Dalton
Johann Dobereiner
Lothar Meyer
Henry Moseley
Dmitri Mendeleev
Glenn Seaborg
Figure 3.2 Great minds behind the Periodic Table
Application
Different scientists has hes own model of the Periodic Table. Imagine you are a
scientist and you are part of the great minds behind the Periodic Table. How would you
arrange the elements in the Periodic Table? Draw your skeletal model of the Periodic
Table below and explain.
Science Link
In the history of science, alchemy (from the Arabic al-khmiy' ) refers to
both an early form of the investigation of nature and an early philosophical and
spiritual discipline, both combining elements of chemistry, metallurgy, physics,
medicine, astrology, semiotics, mysticism, spiritualism, and art all as parts of one
greater force. Alchemy has been practiced in Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, Persia,
India, Japan, Korea and China, in Classical Greece and Rome, in the Muslim
civilizations, and then in Europe up to the 19th centuryin a complex network of
schools and philosophical systems spanning at least 2500 years.
In alchemy, there are only four basic elements, namely, earth, water, fire and air
so the idea of arranging the elements doesnt come up to during these times.
Web Trips
How about testing your knowledge on the historical development of the Periodic
Table? Try this site:
http://www.docbrown.info/page03/3_34ptable/PThistoryQ.htm
Word Pad
History refers to a recorded important fact about the past.
10
Wrap It Up
Column A are list of contributions of scientists to the development of the
periodic table while column B are the list of scientists who contributed to the
development of the periodic table. Your task is to match column A with column B.
Write your answer on the space before the number
A
Discovered transuranium elements
Developed telluric screw.
Discovered germanium.
Proposed the law of octaves.
Proposed the law of triads.
Discovered phosphorus.
Published New System of Chemical
Philosophy.
8. Properties of elements are periodic
function of their atomic numbers.
9. Arranged the elements into groups
of simple substances which will not
decompose by any means.
10. Properties of elements are periodic
function of their atomic masses.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
B
A. Glenn Seaborg
B. Henry Moseley
C. Clemens Winkler
D. Dmitri Mendeleev & Lothar Meyer
E. John Newlands
F. Beguyer De Chancourtois
G. Johann Dobereiner
H. John Dalton
I. Antoine Lavoisier
J. Hennig Brand

http://cti.itc.virginia.edu/~meg3c/classes/tcc313/200Rprojs/lavoisier2/home.html
http://www.bpc.edu/mathscience/chemistry/history_of_the_periodic_table.html
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Dalton.html
11
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy
Lesson 3
How Can We Use the Periodic Table to

Predict the Chemical Behavior of an Element?
Do and Discover
Explore your Periodic Table of Elements! Complete the table below by supplying
it with the group number, period and classification (e.g. metal, nonmetal, metalloid) of
the element of the element.
Element
Rb
Kr
B
Br
K
Group
Period
Classification
Whiz Quest
As you look at your Periodic Table, you are actually looking at a lot of
information. We said in lesson 2 that the Periodic Table is arranged in increasing atomic
number. Did you notice that in your Periodic Table? Other than the atomic number,
your Periodic Table also gives you the atomic mass of the element. Of course, the name
and symbol of the elements are incorporated in the Periodic Table also. Some other
Periodic Table provides you with other information such as its physical properties.
Exploring your Periodic Table again, you could actually notice that elements are
arranged vertically and horizontally. The vertical column arrangement of the elements
is called group or family, while the vertical row arrangement of the elements is called
period or series. Each group of elements exhibits similarities in physical and chemical
properties while each period of elements exhibits varying physical and chemical
properties.
Elements in the Periodic Table are also classified into Representative Elements,
Noble Gases, Transition Metals, Lanthanides and Actinides. Representative elements are
elements belonging to groups IA to VIIA. Noble gases are the elements belonging to
group VIIIA. Transition metals are the elements belonging to groups IB to VIIIB.
12
Lanthanides are the elements with atomic numbers 57 to 71. Actinides are the elements
with atomic numbers 89 to 103.
Elements belonging to the A families actually has incompletely filled s or p
subshells in their outermost energy level or highest energy level except for group VIIIA,
in general, which has completely filled p subshells. Elements belonging to B families,
however, have incompletely filled d or f subshells.
Elements in the periodic table could also be classified into metals, nonmetals or
metalloids. Metals dominate the Periodic Table. It is about three-fourths of the total
known elements. You can find them at the left side and at the middle part of the
Periodic Table. Nonmetals on the other hand, are a bit few compared with metals. There
are 22 known nonmetals and 11 of it exist as gases, such as, oxygen (O) and chlorine
(Cl). You can find them at the right side of your periodic table. Metalloids or semimetals
are the smallest group of elements. You can find them at the zigzag border line between
metals and nonmetals. Some examples of metalloids are germanium (Ge) and silicon
(Si).
Figure 3.3 (a) metals, (b)
nonmetals, (1,3) representative elements

(2) transition metals, (4) top-lanthanides, bottom-actinides
metalloids, (c)
Application
Graphic organizers are good aid in memorizing things. Figure 3.3 presents a
sample graphic organizer of the parts of the Periodic Table. Your task now is to make
your own graphic organizer of the parts of the Periodic Table artistically. Present your
work in the class.
Science Link
Just like Group VIIIA is also called Noble Gases or Inert Gases, some groups in the
Periodic Table are given special names due to its physical and or chemical properties.
13
Group IA is also called Alkali Metals. Group IIA is also called Alkaline Earth Metals.
Group VIA is also called Chalcogens. Group VIIA are also called Halogens. Group IB are
also called Coinage Group. Some other groups are named with the top most element in
the group, just like group IIIA is named Boron group, IVA is named Carbon group and
VA is named as Nitrogen group. In the preceding lessons we will be discussing the
properties of each group of elements and why they are named as such.
Web Trips
Try practicing your knowledge about the parts of the Periodic Table on this site:
http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/physical/tillery/tutorialtest/Elements/ElemFra.html
Word Pad
Group or family refers to the vertical column arrangement of the elements.

Period or series refers to the horizontal row arrangement of the elements.
Metals are the elements in the left and middle part of the Periodic Table.
Nonmetals are the elements in the right side of the Periodic Table.
Metalloids are the elements at the zigzag border line between metals and
nonmetals.
Wrap It Up
Complete the table below by supplying it with the missing information.
Element
Ca
Group
Period
IV A
IA
Classification
Nonmetal
14

http://www.ncusd203.org/central/html/what/science/day/homework/ReviewCh45_files/image0
02.jpg
Lesson 4
How is the Valence Electron of Elements Related to their

Group Number in the Periodic Table?
Do and Discover
Complete the table by supplying it with the atomic number, electron
configuration, valence electron and group number of the element.
Element
Atomic
Number
Electron Configuration
Valence Group
Electron Number
S
Mg
Al
I
Na
Whiz Quest
Elements in the Periodic Table are also arranged according to the type of block
they belong. The blocks in the Periodic Table are classified as s-, p-, d- and f-blocks
respectively. Figure 3.4 shows the locations of the blocks in the Periodic Table.
15
Figure 3.4 The blocks in the Periodic Table

As you can see from figure 3.4, groups IA and IIA belongs to s-block and groups
IIIA to VIIA belongs to p-block. Groups IIIB to IIB belongs to d-block while the
lanthanides and actinides belong to f-block. Recalling our lesson on electron
configuration, we know that the required number of electrons to fill the subshell s is 2, p
is 6, d is 10 and f is 14. Notice that the number of groups occupied by each block in the
Periodic Table also shows the required number of electron to fill that subshell. Did you
notice it?
The table below shows electron configuration of selected elements from the
representative elements. Examine it carefully.
Table 3.4 Electron configuration of selected elements of the representative elements
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Element
Symbol
Atomic
Electron
Valence
Group
Number
Configuration
Electron
Number
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Potassium
K
19
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
1
IA
2
2
Beryllium
Be
4
1s 2s
2
IIA
Aluminum
Al
13
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
3
IIIA
2
2
2
Carbon
C
6
1s 2s 2p
4
IVA
2
2
6
2
3
Phosphorus
P
15
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
5
VA
Oxygen
O
8
1s2 2s2 2p4
6
VIA
2
2
6
2
5
Chlorine
Cl
17
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
7
VIIA
2
2
6
Neon
Ne
10
1s 2s 2p
8
VIIIA
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
16
Notice that the atomic number of an element signifies its electron configuration.
The underlined part in the electron configuration is called the valence electrons or the
outer electrons. The valence electron of any element predicts the group number of that
element. Elements belonging to the same group number also has the same valence
electron. So therefore we can have a general formula for the valence electron of
elements per group. The table below shows the general formula for the valence electron
per group. The n symbolizes the principal quantum number or the energy level. You
could also see that the highest principal quantum number of the element also predicts
the period where it belongs.
Table 3.5 General formula for the valence electron of element per group
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Group Number
Valence Electron
_____________________________________________________________________________
IA
ns1
IIA
ns2
IIIA
ns2np1
IVA
ns2np2
VA
ns2np3
VIA
ns2np4
VIIA
ns2np5
VIIIA
ns2np6
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
We can recall that groups IA and IIA belong to the s-block, where group IA has
incompletely filled s subshells while group IIA has completely filled s subshells. On the
other hand, groups IIIA to VIIIA belong to p-block, where groups IIIA to VIIA have
incompletely filled p subshells while group VIIIA has completely filled p subshells.
below.
Let us now examine some of the elements from the d-block. Look the table
Table 3.6 Electron configuration of selected elements of the transition metals

_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Element
Symbol
Atomic
Electron
Valence
Group
Number
Configuration
Electron
Number
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Scandium
Titanium
Vanadium
Chromium
Sc
Ti
V
Cr
21
22
23
24
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d2
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d3
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5
3
4
5
6
IIIB
IVB
VB
VIB
17
Manganese Mn
25
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5 7
VIIB
2
2
6
2
6
2
6
Iron
Fe
26
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
8
VIIIB
2
2
6
2
6
1
10
Copper
Cu
29
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
1
IB
2
2
6
2
6
2
10
Zinc
Zn
30
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
2
IIB
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
As you would see, d-block elements have different way of identifying their
valence electron and they also follow a different pattern in predicting their group
number but nonetheless, let us examine some of them. For groups IIIB to VIIIB their
group number was predicted through the number of valence electrons on the highest
principal quantum number which is 4 and the valence electron on the highest subshell
which is d. Notice that Chromium and Copper have different electron configuration, it
is because they could have two electron configurations but what is shown in table 3.6 is
the one preferred because of its stability. For groups IB and IIB, their group number was
predicted through the number of valence electrons on the highest quantum number
which is 4.
Let us now examine some of the f-block elements. Cerium, which is an element
belonging to the lanthanide series has an electron configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10
4s2 4p6 4d10 5s25p64f15d16s2. In addition, protactinium, which is an element belonging to
the actinide series has an electron configuration of 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p65s24d105p64f14
5d106s26p67s26d15f2. You would notice that both elements has an incompletely filled f-subshells
therefore showing that they belong to the f-block elements.
Application
Did you see the graphic organizer in figure 3.4? Do you think it will be a great
help if you will be using graphic organizer to memorize the blocks in the periodic table?
Your task now is to cut-out a skeletal framework of the periodic table and indicate the
location of the blocks in the periodic table. You may use figure 3.4 as your guide in
doing your graphic organizer.
Science Link
Web Trips
Lets see how well you are familiar with the blocks in the Periodic Table, take the
quiz at:
http://www.softschools.com/manage/themes/knowledgetest;jsessionid=awOZ4n1CJf
a4 .
Word Pad
18
Valence electron refers to the outer electrons.
Wrap It Up
Given the electron configuration of the element, identify the atomic number,
valence electron, group number and also the symbol of the element.
Element
Atomic
Number
Valence Group
Electron Number
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10
1s2 2s2 2p6
1s2 2s2 2p4
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1

http://www.info-mine.net/images/periodic/structure.jpg
Lesson 5
What are the Trends and Periodic Variation

of the Elements in the Periodic Table?
Do and Discover
Observe your Periodic Table carefully across a period and within a group and fill
up the table below with either increasing or decreasing.
19
From Top to Bottom
From Left to Right
Atomic Number
Atomic Mass
Whiz Quest
We have seen in the previous lessons how the elements in the Periodic Table are
arranged. In this lesson we will be dealing with another set of ideas on how the
elements in the Periodic Table are arranged, that is, with regards to trends and periodic
variation of elements.
Atomic Radius
Atomic Radius is one-half the distance between the two nuclei in two adjacent
identical atoms and is measured in terms of picometer (pm). Atomic radius could either
be metallic radius or covalent radius. Metallic radius is a term used for the atomic
radius of metallic elements while covalent radius is a term used for the atomic radius of
nonmetallic elements. Figure 3.5 illustrates the concept of atomic radius.
Figure 3.5 Atomic radius (r) of
(Cl) atoms
sodium (Na) and chlorine
The atomic radius can be identified by the strength of attraction of the nucleus of
an atom and the outermost or valence electrons. The strength of attraction is what we
called nuclear charge and in general, the larger the value of the nuclear charges of an
atom, the smaller is its atomic radius because larger nuclear charge indicates that the
hold of the nucleus on the outermost or valence electrons is strong. Table 3.7 illustrates
this concept.
Table 3.7 Atomic radius of period 2 elements
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Element
Atomic Radius
Nuclear Charge
(pm)
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
20
Li
Be
B
C
N
O
F
152
112
85
77
75
73
72
+3
+4
+5
+6
+7
+8
+9
1s2 2s1
1s2 2s2
1s2 2s2 2p1
1s2 2s2 2p2
1s2 2s2 2p3
1s2 2s2 2p4
1s2 2s2 2p5
______________________________________________________________________________
As you can see from table, the larger the value of the valence electron (the
underlined part of the electron configuration), the larger is the nuclear charge of the
atom and the smaller is its atomic radius.
In general, atomic radius increases from top to bottom of the Periodic Table or
down a group and decreases from left to right of the Periodic Table or across a period.
Figure 3.6 illustrate this trend.
21
Figure 3.6 Trend in atomic radius

Ionic Radius
Ionic radius is the radius of a cation or an anion in an ionic compound. An atom
tends to change in size as it becomes a cation or anion. Metals normally looses electron
and become positively charged. Positively charged metals are called cations. Nonmetals
on the other hand, normally gain electrons to form a negatively charged atom.
Negatively charged atoms are called anions. An atom looses or gain electrons to be
stable. Figure 3.7 illustrates an ionic radius.
Figure 3.7 Ionic radius

As a metal forms a cation, its radius decreases because of the lesser electronelectron repulsion which is a result of the removal of electron. Therefore, a cation has a
smaller size in comparison with anion.
As nonmetal forms an anion, its radius increases because of the greater electronelectron repulsion which is a result of the addition of electrons. Therefore, an anion has
a bigger size in comparison with a cation.
Figure
3.8
cations and anions
radius.
shows some example

and
their
ionic
22
Figure 3.8 Some cations and anions and their corresponding ionic radius
Ionization Energy
Ionization energy is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from
an isolated atom or ion in its ground state and is usually measured in terms of kilojoules
per mole (kJ/mol). One electron is removed from the atom one at a time. When we
remove the first electron in an atom, the energy needed is called first ionization energy.
Metals have low ionization energies compared with nonmetal that is why metals
readily give up electrons forming a cation.
Table 3.8 shows some elements with their corresponding ionization energies (IE).
Table 3.8 Successive ionization energies for period 3 elements (in kJ/mol)
23
In general, with some few exceptions, ionization energy increases from left to
right of the Periodic Table or across a period. On the other hand, ionization energy
decreases from top to bottom of the Periodic Table or down a group. Figure 3.9
illustrates this idea.
Figure 3.9 Trend in ionization energy
Electron Affinity
Electron Affinity is the energy change when an atom in its ground state gains an
electron forming an anion and is usually measured in terms of kilojoules per mole
(kJ/mol). Nonmetals have high electron affinity that is why nonmetals always form an
anion. Table 3.9 shows the electron affinities of some elements.
Table 3.9 Electron affinities of some elements in kJ/mol
IA
H
-73
Li
-60
Na
-53
K
-48
Rb
-47
Cs
-45
IIA
Be
0
Mg
0
Ca
-2
Sr
-5
Ba
-14
IIIA
B
-27
Al
-44
Ga
-29
In
-29
Tl
-30
IVA
C
-122
Si
-134
Ge
-188
Sn
-121
Pb
-110
VA
N
-7
P
-72
As
-77
Sb
-101
Bi
-110
VIA
O
-141
S
-200
Se
-195
Te
-190
Po
(-)
VIIA
F
-328
Cl
349
Br
-325
I
-295
At
-270
VIIIA
He
<0
Ne
<0
Ar
<0
Kr
<0
Xe
<0
Rn
<0
In general, electron affinity increases from left to right of the Periodic table or
across a period and from bottom to top of a Periodic Table or up a group. Figure 3.10
illustrate this trend.
24
Figure 3.10 Trend in electron affinity

Electronegativity
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom in a chemical bond to attract electrons
toward it and is usually measured in terms of electronvolt (eV). Electronegativity is
related to ionization energy and electron affinity. High electron affinity would mean a
greater ability to pick up electrons easily while high ionization energy would mean a
lesser possibility to loose an electron. Therefore, if an atom has a high ionization energy
and high electron affinity it also has a high electronegativity. Table 3.10 shows some
elements with their corresponding electronegativities.
Table 3.10 Electronegativity of some elements
25
In general, electronegativity increases from left to right of the Periodic Table or

across a period and it decreases from top to bottom of the Periodic Table or down a
group. Figure 3.11 illustrate this trend.
Figure 3.11 Trend in electronegativity

Metallic and Nonmetallic Character
Metallic character is a chemical property associated with those elements classed
as metals. These are elements which have a tendency to loose electrons and form
positive ion. In the Periodic Table, metallic character increases down any group and
across a period from right to left.
Nonmetallic character is a chemical property associated with those elements
classed as nonmetals. These are elements which have a tendency to gain electrons and
form negative ion. In the Periodic Table, nonmetallic character increases up any group
and across a period from left to right.
Figure 3.12 illustrate the trend in metallic character and nonmetallic character.
26
Figure 3.12 Trend in metallic and nonmetallic character
Application
Learning trends and periodic variation in the Periodic Table requires
memorization. On the other hand, graphic organizers are good memory aid. Your task
now is to summarize the lesson by creating your own graphic organizer on the trends
and periodic variation in the Periodic Table. See example below.
Science Link
Physical and chemical properties of elements are related to the trends and
periodic variation discussed in this lesson. For example, the density, melting point and
boiling point is related to the atomic radius. The larger the surface area exposed in an
element, the higher is its density, melting point and boiling point. Could cite other
physical or chemical property that is related to the trends and periodic variation of
elements?
Web Trips
Lets see how well you are familiar with the trends and periodic variation of the
elements in the Periodic Table, do the quiz at:
http://www.sciencegeek.net/Chemistry/taters/Unit2PeriodicTrends.htm
Word Pad
Atomic Radius is one-half the distance between the two nuclei in two adjacent
identical atoms and is measured in terms of picometer (pm).
Ionic radius is the radius of a cation or an anion in an ionic compound. An atom
tends to change in size as it becomes a cation or anion.
27
Ionization energy is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from an

isolated atom or ion in its ground state and is usually measured in terms of
kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol).
Electron Affinity is the energy change when an atom in its ground state gains an
electron forming an anion and is usually measured in terms of kilojoules per mole
(kJ/mol).
toward it.
Metallic character is a chemical property associated with those elements classed as
metals.
Nonmetallic character is a chemical property associated with those elements classed
as nonmetals.
Wrap It Up
Supply the trends and periodic variation in the table below with either increasing
or decreasing.
From Left to Right
From Top to Bottom
Atomic Radius
Ionic Radius
Ionization Energy
Electron Affinity
Electronegativity
Metallic Character
Nonmetallic Character

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28
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t=32&sig2=2ruLP3y8L1HN8Rkangklg&um=1&usg=__9qRJHDJcatfcCJmaiu6LBls54Dc=&tbnid=xAye
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1/ea.jpg&imgrefurl=http://nanotech.sc.mahidol.ac.th/genchem/bonding1/index.htm&h=401&w=5
12&sz=56&hl=tl&start=5&sig2=Pj2RNXVo8nV9fEms45UgZw&um=1&usg=___vDcERTqxlzTjGlS4m
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5.gif
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Lesson 6
What are the Properties and Uses of Each

Group of Elements in the Periodic Table?
Do and Discover
Each element in the Periodic Table has its own properties and uses. Could you
identify some elements that you use in daily life? Write it down on the table below.
Describe it physically and give its uses.
Element
Description
Uses
Whiz Quest
29
We have been discussing much about the elements in the Periodic Table but have
you ever wonder if these elements have uses to mankind? In this lesson, you will find
out what are the importances of these elements to mankind.
Metals: Properties and Uses
Much of the elements in the Periodic Table are metals. We can see metals
anywhere, everywhere. We use it in buildings, appliances, jewelries, and a lot more.
Metals therefore are essential component of modernization and progress. Table 3.11
shows some properties of metals that determine their uses and some example metals.
Table 3.11 Physical properties of metals
Property
Meaning
Conductivity
enables a metal to carry heat or electricity
Density
mass per unit volume
Ductility
ability to be permanently drawn, bent, or
twisted into various shapes without
breaking
Durability
ability of metal to resist corrosion
Hardness
the ability of a metal to resist abrasion,
penetration, cutting action, or permanent
distortion
Luster
the way light interacts with the surface of
the metal; shiny
Malleability
ability of a metal to exhibit large
deformation
Melting Point
temperature at which it changes state from
solid to liquid
Example Metals
Cu, Ag, Au
Pb, Ce, Hg
Cu, Mg, Au
Zn, Al, Sb
Mg, Fe, Zn
Cu, Au, Ag
Cu, Au, Ag
Hg, W, Ba
Properties of metals actually determine their uses. Metals such as copper are
used in electrical wirings because of its high conductivity. Mercury, on the other hand
are used in thermometers because of its expandability when heated and because of its
high melting point. Copper is used is in electrical wirings not only because of its
conductivity but because it is ductile or can be made into wires. Our kitchen utensils
such as the fork and the spoon are usually made up steel alloy (a combination of metals
such as iron, manganese, chromium, vanadium and tungsten) because of its durability
or ability to resist corrosion. Foot bridges nowadays are made up of metals because of
its hardness. Silver and gold, however, are used as jewelries because of its luster. Most
of our cooking pans and other kitchen utensils are made up of metals because metals
are malleable or can be shaped in different forms. Table 3.12 shows some elements and
their corresponding property that is responsible for their uses.
Table 3.12 Some metals and their uses in technology
Metal
Property
Uses
light weight, resist corrosion, aluminum foil, door knobs,
Aluminum
and strong
kitchen utensils and air planes
30
malleable and ductile and has

high electrical conductivity
luster and resist corrosion
(Gold is the most ductile and
Gold &
Silver
malleable while silver has the
highest electrical conductivity
of all metals.)
low density, high strength and
Magnesium
resist corrosion
expands
significantly
and
Mercury
regularly when heated and it
has high density
resist corrosion,
malleable,
Tin
ductile
resist corrosion, ductile and
Zinc
malleable
Copper
electrical wiring
were used before in the
manufacturing of coins and in
jewelry
used for structural purposes in

the transportation industry
used in thermometers and
barometers
used for packaging food, oil
and other substances
used in making galvanized
sheets of iron and steel making
Group IA: Alkali Metals

The most familiar element in this group is sodium. Sodium has many uses, it
combines with chlorine to form sodium chloride, NaCl, or salt, which is an essential
component of foods. Moreover, salt is mixed with crushed ice to maintain the cold
temperature for dirty ice cream or sorbets. Salt is also combined with 0.01%
potassium iodide, KI, to manufacture iodized salt which is a common treatment for
people suffering from iodine deficiency or commonly known as goiter. Other than that,
it is used in the manufacture of sodium vapor lamps or commonly known as street
lamps. Table 3.13 shows some properties of the alkali metals which is responsible for
their uses.
Table 3.13 General properties of alkali metals
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
They are shiny, good conductors of heat and electricity, ductile and malleable.
They are soft and can be cut by a knife.
They have low density.
They have relatively low melting points and boiling points compared to other metals in
the Periodic Table.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Group IIA: Alkaline Earth Metals
Alkaline earth metals are very useful to mankind. It is usually combined with
other metals to produce alloys or a combination of two or more metals. Alloys such as
magnesium alloy are used in the manufacture of parts of airplanes and cars. Other than
that, magnesium plays a vital role in the formation of chlorophyll, the green pigment in
31
plants that captures the energy from the sun to facilitate photosynthesis. In the absence
of magnesium in the leaves of plants, the leaves turn yellow. On the other hand,
compounds of barium, strontium and calcium are used extensively in fireworks because
when heated, it turns the flame into different colors such as pale green, crimson red and
brick red. Oxide of calcium is used in tiles and as a lining in high temperature furnace
because of its capability to withstand high temperature. Aside from that, calcium oxide,
CaO, is used to counteract highly acidic soils so that it can be used for gardening.
Calcium in its cationic form, Ca2+, is very essential to bone health of animals as well.
Table 3.14 shows some properties of alkaline earth metals which is responsible for their
uses.
Table 3.14 General properties of alkaline earth metals
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
They are shiny, good conductors of heat and electricity, ductile and malleable.
They are relatively hard.
They have high density.
They have relatively high melting points and boiling points.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Transition Metals
The most common metals in this group are what we called the coinage family,
these are the elements copper, Cu, silver, Ag, and gold, Au. They are called coinage
family because they are once used as a material for coins in the United States. But
because silver and gold are way too expensive, at present it is only used as jewelries.
Other transition metal which has importance in industry is nickel, Ni, which is
responsible for the hardening of vegetable oil in the manufacture of margarine.
Titanium, Ti, in the form of titanium chloride, TiCl3, is used as catalyst in the
manufacture of plastics. Steel alloy (a combination of metals such as iron, manganese,
chromium, vanadium and tungsten) are commonly used as stainless material. Aside
from the industrial uses of transition metals, it also has biological importance such as
the copper ion, Cu2+, in the blood, it interact with pain relievers such aspirin to relieve
pain and fever. Cobalt, Co, is part of vitamin B 12 which cures Pernicious anemia because
this vitamin has the ability to increase the number of hemoglobin molecules in the
blood. Further discussions on the biological importance of some other elements will be
dealt with in the next lessons in this chapter. Table 3.15 shows some properties of
transition metals which are responsible for their uses.
Table 3.15 General properties of alkaline earth metals
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
They are good conductors of heat and electricity, ductile and malleable.
They have high tensile strength.
They have high density.
They have relatively high melting points and boiling points.
32
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Nonmetals: Properties and Uses
Nonmetals are significantly different from metals in terms of properties.
Nonmetals are usually gaseous in form and are brittle if solid. They do not exhibit
properties such as luster and conductivity. Nevertheless, these properties dictate the
numerous uses of nonmetals.
Group IVA: Carbon Family
Members of the carbon family are carbon, C, a nonmetal, silicon, Si, a metalloid,
germanium, Ge, a metalloid, tin, Sn, a metal, and lead, Pb, a metal. This shows that the
carbon family is far different from each other in nature.
Carbon exists in two allotropes, namely, diamond and graphite. Diamond is the
hardest material known on earth which is used as abrasive, drilling and cutting out
other hard materials. Other than that, its most common use is as jewelry. Graphite, in
contrast, can conduct electricity that is why it is used as electrodes in batteries or dry
cells.
Silicon, the second most abundant element on earth, and germanium are widely
used as semiconductors in electronic devices such as computer chips. Additionally,
silicon is now being utilized in cosmetic medicine as body part enhancer.
Tin and lead metals are rare elements. Tin are used in the manufacture of tin cans
which are used in the packaging of canned foods. Lead, alternatively, is commonly used
as the marking material in pencils.
Group VIIA: Halogens
Members of the halogen family are fluorine, F, chlorine, Cl, bromine, Br, and
iodine, I. Halogens are all nonmetal and they exists as diatomic molecules in gaseous
state. Halogens can be branded as counterpart of alkali metals and alkaline earth
metals. If those two groups of metals are said to be reactive metals, halogens, on the
other hand, are reactive nonmetals. These three groups commonly combine to form
salts.
Fluorine, in the form of fluoride, F-, is utilized extensively in the toothpaste
industry. It is used to prevent tooth decay and gingivitis. Other use of fluorine is that it
is utilized to make polytetrafluoroethylene, commonly known as Teflon, which is
usually used as a cooking utensil.
Chlorine is commonly used as a disinfectant for swimming pools. However, it is
also used in industry as a bleaching agent for paper and textiles. It is also an ingredient
33
in pesticides and insecticides. Chlorine is also a component of polyvinyl chloride or

PVC which is used for pipes and ducts.
Iodine in alcoholic solution or commonly known as tincture of iodine is widely
used as antiseptic for wounds. Moreover, iodine is also being utilized in the production
of photographic films such as silver iodide, AgI.
Halides such as bromide, iodide, fluoride and chloride are also used in cloud
seeding to catalyze the condensation of water vapor in the atmosphere.
Application
No one in this world can say that he has never used technology in his lifetime.
Technology is a part of our daily routine, from the time we woke up until the time we
fall asleep we, in one way or another, uses technology. During school days, we are
awaken by the buzzing of our alarm clocks, our parents prepare our breakfast using gas
stoves and oven toaster. To get to school, we ride in buses, jeepneys, tricycles or cars.
Inside the classroom, we use electric fans or air conditioners to keep us cool all day
long. Other than that, in schools, we also use lots of other technologies such as
computers, overhead projector, LCD projector, and a lot more. When we get home we
usually turn on the television to watch our favorite show and before we sleep we turn
on the electric fans or air conditioners again to keep us comfortable all night long. You
see, we just cannot escape from using technology. Why do you think it is important for
us to know the properties of elements and their application to the environment and
modern technologies? Report your answer to the class.
Science Link
Web Trips
Lets see how well you are familiar with the properties and uses of some
elements, do the quiz at:
http://www.funtrivia.com/flashquiz/index.cfm?qid=135193
Word Pad
Conductivity enables a metal to carry heat or electricity.
Density is mass per unit volume.
34
Ductility is the ability to be permanently drawn, bent, or twisted into various

shapes without breaking.
Durability is the ability of metal to resist corrosion.
Hardness is the ability of a metal to resist abrasion, penetration, cutting action, or
permanent distortion.
Luster is the way light interacts with the surface of the metal; shiny.
Malleability is the ability of a metal to exhibit large deformation.
Melting Point is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid.
Wrap It Up
Enumerate five (5) properties of metals and nonmetals and describe or define
them. Give (5) example of metals and nonmetals together with their uses.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________
content credits, lesson 6
http://www.freewebs.com/sed4c/hoqlen.doc
Lesson 7
What are Some Elements that are

Important to the Human Body?
Do and Discover
Could you give five (5) elements which are essential to humans? Write it down
on the table below.
Element
Function
35
Whiz Quest
In the previous lesson, we have tackled the importance of these elements to our
daily living. Do you think these elements have any importance to our health? Lets find
out!
The human body is actually composed of essential elements. Table 3.16 shows
the list of these essential elements in the human body. Interesting in the essential
elements is what we called trace elements; these are the elements cobalt, copper, iodine,
iron and zinc. They actually comprises about 0.1 percent of the mass of a human body.
The trace elements are actually necessary for biological functions like defense against
sickness, transport of oxygen for metabolism and growth. The balance of the trace
elements are actually delicate since too much or too little of those trace elements for a
period of time could lead to serious illness, retardation, and it can even result to death.
Table 3.16 Essential elements in the human body
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Element
Percent by Mass*
Element
Percent by Mass*
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Oxygen
65
Sodium
0.1
Carbon
18
Magnesium
0.05
Hydrogen
10
Iron
<0.05
Nitrogen
3
Cobalt
<0.05
Calcium
1.6
Copper
<0.05
Phosphorus
1.2
Zinc
<0.05
Potassium
0.2
Iodine
<0.05
Sulfur
0.2
Selenium
<0.01
Chlorine
0.2
Fluorine
<0.01
_____________________________________________________________________________
* Percent by mass gives the mass of the element in grams present in a 100-g sample.
Transition metal ions such as cobalt, copper, iron, manganese and nickel are also
present in the human body. These metals aids in the catalytic activity of a variety of
enzymes in the human body. Example enzyme is the cytochrome oxidase, which is
responsible for the burning of foods that we eat. Cytochrome oxidase contains copper.
Another example is the nonprotein molecule associated with insulin, which is
responsible for the regulation of blood sugar contain the metal chromium. Iron, on the
other hand, is essential to hemoglobin which carries the oxygen and dissolved foods to
all parts of our body.
36
Application
When buying canned goods or other ready-to-eat foods, do you actually check
the labels or the nutrition facts of the food that you are buying? The next time you go to
the supermarket, try checking the nutrition facts of the canned goods or ready-to-eat
foods before buying it. Its time to be conscious with your health. Report your
observation to the class.
Science Link
Health is wealth, a common notation that we always hear. This is actually true
being healthy is being wealthy because you can do more things when you are healthy,
things that will result to progress of your career. But where do good health starts? It
starts within oneself, health consciousness, as they call it. Being health conscious is
putting everything into balance - getting enough rest, exercise, and proper diet. Live
longer, better, start being health conscious.
Web Trips
Enhance your knowledge about the essential elements in the human body. Try
answering the quiz at
http://www.health24.com/dietnfood/Whats_in_food/15-47-108.asp
Word Pad
Trace elements are elements present in minute or small amount.
Essential elements are elements vital or important to human body.
Wrap It Up
At the beginning of the lesson, you have given five essential elements and their
functions. These essential elements are familiar to you. Your task now is to complete the
table below by supplying it with the essential elements you have learned on this lesson
and their function to the human body.
37
Element
Function
content credits, lesson 7

http://users.netconnect.com.au/~astronet/elements/body.htm
All in All
1. Chemical symbols are used by chemists to represent elements in a shorter manner. Each
element has its own unique symbol. The name of each element is derived either from the name
of a scientist, the country where it was discovered, or words from early civilization languages.
2. The most significant scientists behind the periodic table are actually Lothar Meyer (1869),
Dmitri Mendeleev (1869) and Henry Moseley (1913). Meyer and Mendeleev formulated the
periodic law which says that properties of elements are periodic function of their atomic masses.
This law was revised by Moseley by proposing that properties of elements are periodic
function of their atomic numbers. To date, the Periodic Table that we have is arranged in
increasing atomic number.
38
3. Elements in the Periodic Table are actually arranged in a logical manner where elements with
similar physical and chemical properties can be found in the same group or family. Another
basis of classification is if it is a metal, a nonmetal or a metalloid. Other than that, elements in
the Periodic Table can still be classified as to representative elements, transition metals,
actinides and lanthanides. With respect to the electron configuration of each element, metals
belong to the s-block and d-block elements except for hydrogen and helium which are
nonmetals. Nonmetals and metalloids, on the other hand, belong to the p-block elements.
4. Other than the blocks in the Periodic Table, the electron configuration also gives us the group
number, period and family of the element. The group number is actually determined by the
valence or outermost electrons. The period is determined by the highest energy level where
the valence or outermost electrons are residing. The family of the element could either be A or
B. It is family A if the last added electrons fall at s- or p- subshells while if it falls at d- or fsubshells it is now considered as family B. Moreover, the subshell where the last added
electron is residing determines the block where the element belongs.
5. Atomic Radius is one-half the distance between the two nuclei in two adjacent identical atoms
and is measured in terms of picometer (pm). Atomic radius increases from top to bottom of the
Periodic Table or down a group and decreases from left to right of the Periodic Table or across
a period. Ionic radius is the radius of a cation or an anion in an ionic compound. Ionization
energy is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from an isolated atom or ion in
its ground state and is usually measured in terms of kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol). Ionization
energy increases from left to right of the Periodic Table or across a period and decreases from
top to bottom of the Periodic Table or down a group. Electron Affinity is the energy change
when an atom in its ground state gains an electron forming an anion and is usually measured
in terms of kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol). Electron affinity increases from left to right of the
Periodic table or across a period and from bottom to top of a Periodic Table or up a group.
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom in a chemical bond to attract electrons toward it.
Electronegativity increases from left to right of the Periodic Table or across a period and it
decreases from top to bottom of the Periodic Table or down a group. Metallic character is a
chemical property associated with those elements classed as metals. Metallic character
increases down any group and across a period from right to left. Nonmetallic character is a
chemical property associated with those elements classed as nonmetals. Nonmetallic character
increases up any group and across a period from left to right.
6. Uses of metals and nonmetals are actually determined by their physical and chemical
properties.
7. Some elements are vital to human body. Transition metal ions such as cobalt, copper, iron,
manganese and nickel are present in the human body. These metals aids in the catalytic
activity of a variety of enzymes in the human body.
39
Chapter Test
I.
Modified True or False

Directions: On the space before the number, write T if the statement is true and F it is false. If the
statement is false, underline the word or phrase that makes it incorrect.
1. As a metal forms a cation, its radius decreases because of the lesser electron-electron repulsion
which is a result of the removal of electron.
2. Members of the carbon family are carbon, C, a nonmetal, silicon, Si, a metalloid, germanium,
Ge, a metal, tin, Sn, a metal, and lead, Pb, a metal.
3. Each group of elements exhibits similarities in physical and chemical properties while each
period of elements exhibits varying physical and chemical properties.
4. Nonmetals have low electron affinity that is why nonmetals form an anion.
5. The telluric screw was the first ever geometric representation of the periodic law.
40
II.
Multiple Choice
Directions: Choose the letter of the choice that answers the question or completes the statement.
Write your answer on the space before each item.
Use the hypothetical Periodic Table below in answering item numbers 1 to 3.
IA
VIIIA
IIA
A
D
IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB

G
J
VIIB
H
IB
IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA

B
C
IIB E
F
I
K
1. Which element is the most nonmetallic?

A. J
C. F
B. G
D. C
2. Which of the following element would you expect to form cation?
A. F
C. C
B. D
D. B
3. Which element has the largest atomic radius?
A. J
C. K
B. A
D. H
Use the information given in the table in answering item numbers 4 and 5.
Metal
Aluminum
Density
g/mL
2.7
Copper
Gold
Mercury
8.9
19.2
13.6
Silver
10.5
Properties
light weight, resist corrosion, and
strong
malleable and ductile
expands significantly and regularly
when heated
Electrical
Conductivity
0.382
0.593
0.420
0.010
0.620
4. Which metal will be best in making electrical wirings?

A. Aluminum
C. Copper
B. Gold
D. Silver
5. Which metal will be material for airplanes?
A. Aluminum
B. Gold
III.
C. Copper
D. Silver
Structured Questions
Directions: Answer the question below.
Determine the following information given this electronic configuration:
41
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6

No. of Valence Electrons: ____________
Group: ______________
Highest Energy Level: _____________
Period: ______________
Subshell where the last added electron is residing: ______________
IV.
Block: _______________
Family: ______________
Symbol of Element: ______________
Name of Element: ______________
Free Response
Directions: Answer the following questions briefly but completely.
1. The element bromine (Br) belongs to group VIIA of the periodic table. Would you expect it to
form an anion? Why or why not?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
__
2. Zinc and iron are placed in the same period. Why do you think so?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
__
Chapter 2
The Chemical Bond
42
Look around you. Have you ever asked yourself how do those things exist? Life is full of
mysteries you might say. But did you know that there is actually an explanation for this? That is
chemical bonding. Everything that you see is actually a product of chemical bonding. The things that
make your life easier are all products of chemical bonding.
The things that you can see were made possible because atoms combine. Because scientists
now understand how atoms combine, numerous useful products had been produced. The force that
holds them together is what we called chemical bond. But you may ask why do atoms combine? In
this chapter you will understand the reason why atoms combine and other occurrences
accompanying it. We will find the answer to the following questions:
How are ionic, covalent and metallic bonds formed?

How is the location of the element in the Periodic Table related to the type of bond that
they will form?
How is the electronegativity values of the element related to the type of bond that they will
produce?
How do we write and name chemical formulas of ionic and covalent compounds?
How do we distinguish between molecular and empirical formula?
What is the difference between polar and nonpolar covalent bond?
What are the forces of attraction that exist between molecules?
What are the shapes of molecules?
What are the types of solids?
What are the properties and uses of some ionic and covalent compounds?
Lesson 1
How is Ionic Bond Formed?
Do and Discover
Could you give five (5) ionic compounds that are familiar to you? Write it on the
table below.
43
Chemical Formula
Chemical Name
Whiz Quest
We are familiar that metals tend to loose electron to form cation while nonmetal
tends to gain electron to form an anion. The following sections will explain why metals
and nonmetals behave as such.
The Octet Rule
Group VIIIA elements are the most stable atoms in periodic table because it
complies with the octet rule. Examine the electron configuration of the group VIIIA
elements in Table 4.1 below.
Table 4.1 The group VIIIA elements
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Element
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
He
1s2
Ne
1s2 2s22p6
Ar
1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6
Kr
1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d10 4s24p6
Xe
1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d10 4s24p64d104f14 5s25p6
Rn
1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d10 4s24p64d104f14 5s25p65d10 6s26p6
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
As you would notice, except for helium (which follows the duet rule that needs
only two electrons to be stable), all the elements in the group VIIIA has eight electrons
in their valence shells (underlined portion of the electron configuration). Meaning, their
s and p subshells are fully filled. This electron configuration makes the atoms in the
group VIIIA very stable. They do not form ions and generally they are unreactive under
normal conditions. These gases have very high ionization energies, meaning, much
energy is required to remove an electron from it. The observation that an atom tends to
gain or loose electron until they are surrounded by eight valance electrons is actually
explained by the octet rule, which was proposed by Gilbert Lewis. The octet rule says
that atoms tend to combine in such a way that they each have eight electrons in their valence
shells, giving them the same electronic configuration as a noble gas. Metals have low
44
ionization energy that is why it easily lose electron while nonmetals has high electron
affinity that is why it easily gain electron. The reason behind the losing or gaining of
electron is to attain the electron configuration of the noble gas which is stable. Refer to
figure 4.1 for examples.
Na = 1s2 2s22p6 3s1
+
2
2
6
11Na = 1s 2s 2p (like Ne)
11
Cl = 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p5

2
2
6
2
6
17Cl = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p (like Ar)
17
Figure 4.1 Electron configuration of sodium and chlorine and their ions
Figure 4.1 show that sodium atom loses one electron to achieve the electron
configuration of neon while chlorine gains an extra electron to achieve the electron
configuration of argon.
The Lewis Electron Dot Symbol
The Lewis electron dot symbol is a useful way to illustrate the octet rule. Lewis
electron dot symbol represents the number of electrons in the outermost shell of the
atom using dots. Figure 4.2 shows example of the Lewis electron dot symbols of some
elements.
45
Figure 4.2 Lewis electron dot symbols of the representative elements

Ionic Bonding
When sodium loses an electron because of its low ionization energy, it then
becomes positively charged ion (cation). On the other hand, when chlorine gains an
electron because of its high electron affinity, it then becomes negatively charged ion
(anion). When these two particles come closer with one another, there will be an
electrostatic attraction between the positive and the negative charges and will form an
ionic bond or electrovalent bond. The compound formed by ionic or electrovalent
bonding is called ionic compound. See figures 4.3 and 4.4 for the illustration.
Formation of sodium ion and chloride ion
Ionic bonding between sodium ion and chloride ion

Figure 4.3 Formation of an ionic bond in sodium chloride, NaCl
The formation of an ionic bond in sodium chloride, NaCl, can also be illustrated
using the Lewis electron dot symbol.
46
Figure 4.4 Formation of an ionic bond in sodium chloride, NaCl
Application
Shown in figures 4.3 and 4.4 is the formation of an ionic bond in sodium chloride.
Sodium loses only one electron and chlorine gains only one electron. As a research
work, find out how ionic bonding occurs if a metal loses two or three electrons and if a
nonmetal gains two or three electrons. Report your research work in class.
Science Link
Two of the most important elements in the human body are sodium and
potassium. They are the key elements in the sodium-potassium pump, an enzymebased mechanism that maintains correct cellular concentrations of sodium and
potassium ions by removing excess ions from inside a cell and replacing them with ions
from outside the cell. The sodium-potassium pump is the key to functions such as
cardiac and renal activity, as well as all general transport processes into and out of the
cell. The pump thus forms the basis for our ability to absorb a considerable number of
nutrients, excrete waste products from the kidneys and regulate the water balance in
the cells. If this little pump stopped pumping sodium ions out of the cells, the latter
would rapidly swell up because of the infiltration of water and finally burst.
Web Trips
Test your knowledge on ionic bond. Try answering the quiz at
http://www.quia.com/quiz/258607.html
Word Pad
Anion is negatively charged ion.
Cation is a positively charged ion.
Ionic Bond or Electrovalent Bond is the electrostatic attraction between positive and
negative particles.
Ionic Compound is the compound formed ionic or electrovalent bonding is called
Octet Rule says that atoms tend to combine in such a way that they each have eight
electrons in their valence shells, giving them the same electronic configuration as a
noble gas.
47
Wrap It Up
Illustrate the ionic bonding for the formation of the following ionic compounds
using the Lewis electron dot symbol. Use dot notation () for metal and cross notation
(x) for nonmetal.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Magnesium oxide, MgO

Sodium oxide, Na2O
Silver chloride, AlCl3
Silver oxide, Al2O3
Calcium chloride, CaCl2

http://nanotech.sc.mahidol.ac.th/genchem/bonding1/lewis.jpg
http://www.yenka.com/freecontent/item.action?quick=sn#
http://pages.prodigy.net/sullydog/archives/qm/image6.gif
48
Lesson 2
How is Covalent Bond Formed?
Do and Discover
Could you give five (5) covalent compounds that are familiar to you? Write it on
the table below.
Chemical Formula
Chemical Name
Whiz Quest
Ionic bond is a bond occurring between ion of metal and nonmetal. If we have
two nonmetals, would they also form a bond? The answer is yes, and the bond is called
covalent bond. Covalent bond is formed by the sharing of electrons between
nonmetals. One pair of shared electrons, or that is two electrons, is equivalent to one
covalent bond. Covalent bonding also follows the octet rule with an exemption with the
hydrogen atom which follows the duet rule, just like helium. The compound formed by
covalent bond is called covalent compound.
Let us take for example the formation of the gaseous hydrogen chloride, HCl.
Hydrogen chloride is composed of two nonmetals which are hydrogen and chlorine.
Hydrogen has an electron configuration of 1s1 and because it only has one subshell,
therefore it follows the duet rule. However, chlorine has an electron configuration of 1s2
2s22p6 3s23p5 and because it has more than one subshell, therefore it follows the octet
rule. During the formation of covalent bond between hydrogen and chlorine, the two
nonmetals tend to share one pair of electron to become stable, forming a single bond.
You would notice that hydrogen now has two valence electrons just like helium,
therefore it is now stable. Chlorine, on the other hand, now has eight valence electrons
just like argon, therefore it is now stable. The pair of electron that is shared is what we
called bonding electrons. Bonding electrons are the electrons that actually participated in
the formation of covalent bond. In this case one of the bonding electrons came from
49
hydrogen and the other one came from chlorine. As you would notice, some of the
valence electrons of chlorine did not participate in the formation of covalent bond; these
electrons are what we called nonbonding electrons or lone pairs. See figures 4.5 and
4.6 for the illustration.
Figure 4.5 Covalent bonding in hydrogen chloride, HCl

Covalent bonding in hydrogen chloride can also be illustrated using the Lewis
electron dot symbol. As you would see, one pair of electron shared is equivalent to one
covalent bond.
Figure 4.6 Covalent bonding in hydrogen chloride, HCl

One pair of electron is shared in the covalent bonding of hydrogen chloride; we
call this bond as single bond. Another example of a molecule that forms a single bond
is the diatomic hydrogen molecule, H2. See figure 4.7 for the illustration.
Figure 4.7 Single bond exhibited by hydrogen molecule, H2

When two pairs of electrons or that is a total of four electrons shared in a
covalent bond, just like the diatomic oxygen molecule, O2, the bond formed is a double
bond. See figure 4.8 for the illustration.
Figure 4.8 Double bond exhibited by oxygen molecule, O2

When three pairs of electrons or that is a total of six electrons shared in a
covalent bond, just like in diatomic nitrogen molecule, N 2, the bond formed is a triple
bond. See figure 4.9 for the illustration.
50
Figure 4.9 Triple bond exhibited by nitrogen molecule, N2

During bond formation, certain amount of energy is given off or released to the
environment. Amazingly, it requires the same amount of energy to break the bond
apart. The energy required to break a bond is called bond energy. Bond energy is
usually expressed in unit of kilocalories per mole (kcal/mol). Table 4.2 shows the bond
energies diatomic molecules hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
Table 4.2 Bond energies of diatomic molecules hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Molecule
Energy (kcal/mol)
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
104
119
227
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
From the table above we see that hydrogen molecule has the lowest bond energy
while nitrogen molecule has the highest bond energy. We can conclude that, the more
electron pairs shared in a covalent bond, the higher the bond energy and the lesser the
electron pair shared in a covalent bond, the lower the bond energy. This means that, the
higher the bond energy, the more difficult to break the bond and the lower the bond
energy, the easier it is to break the bond. In this case, hydrogen molecule is the easiest
bond to break since it has the low bond energy. Bonds in nitrogen molecule, however, is
the most difficult to break since it has a high bond energy. This explains why hydrogen
molecule is more reactive than nitrogen molecule.
Looking back at our examples again, hydrogen molecule, H2, oxygen molecule,
O2, and nitrogen molecule, N2, are all made up of the same atom in a covalent in a
covalent bond. Recalling our lesson on electronegativity, each atom has its own
electronegativity value. The higher the electronegativity, the higher is the power of the
atom to attract electrons toward it. In the case of hydrogen molecule, oxygen molecule
and nitrogen molecule, there is equal sharing of electrons in a covalent bond since the
bonded atoms are of the same kind and therefore have the same electronegativity value.
The bond that exists between these atoms is what we called nonpolar covalent bond
and the molecule they formed is what we call nonpolar molecule.
On the other hand, hydrogen chloride, HCl, have different atoms in a covalent
bond. It is composed of hydrogen atom and chlorine atom. Hydrogen has an
51
electronegativity value of 2.1 eV while chlorine has an electronegativity value of 3.0 eV.
Therefore chlorine has more power to attract the shared electrons toward it forming
now a polar covalent bond due to the unequal sharing of electrons in a covalent bond.
The molecule that is formed by this kind of bond is called polar molecule. See figure
Figure 4.10 Unequal sharing of electrons in hydrogen chloride molecule

Due to the unequal sharing of electrons, the electron cloud is also unequal. Since
the electrons are residing more on the chlorine atom, therefore, the electron cloud in
chlorine is larger than the electron cloud of hydrogen. The unequal sharing of electrons
also forms a partial positive (+) and a partial negative (-). In this case the partial positive
is the hydrogen atom since the shared electrons are pulled away from it due to its low
electronegativity. On the other hand, chlorine atom is the partial negative since the
shared electrons are residing more on its side due to its high electronegativity.
Therefore, the dipole moment (symbolized by a crossed arrow) is going toward the
chlorine. See figure 4.11 for the illustration.
Figure 4.11 Dipole moment in hydrogen chloride
Application
In this lesson we have just discussed few examples of polar and nonpolar
covalent molecules. Your task now is to research more on polar and nonpolar covalent
molecules and their importance to daily living. Report your work to the class.
Science Link
52
Most of the molecules essential to human body are linked together by covalent
bond. Examples are water and oxygen gas. Water is very much needed by our body to
catalyze biological reactions that are essential in keeping our metabolism in normal rate.
Oxygen, on the other hand, is essential in maintaining the oxyhemoglobin in the blood
which delivers dissolved foods and minerals all over the body. Can you think of other
covalent molecules that are essential to the human body?
Web Trips
Find out if youve already mastered the concepts on covalent bond. Try
answering the quiz at
http://chemistry.about.com/library/weekly/blbondsquiz.htm
Word Pad
Covalent Bond is formed by the sharing of electrons between nonmetals.
Covalent Compound The compound formed by covalent bond is called.
Bonding electrons are the electrons that actually participated in the formation of
covalent bond.
Nonbonding Electrons or Lone pairs are valence electrons that did not participate
in the formation of covalent bond.
Single Bond is formed when one pair of electron is shared in the covalent bond.
Double Bond is formed when two pairs of electrons are shared in a covalent bond.
Triple Bond is formed when three pairs of electrons are shared in a covalent bond.
Bond Energy is the energy required to break a covalent bond.
Nonpolar Covalent Bond is formed when there is equal sharing of electrons in a
covalent bond.
Nonpolar Molecule is the molecule formed by nonpolar covalent bonding.
Polar Covalent Bond is formed due to the unequal sharing of electrons in a
covalent bond.
Polar Molecule is the molecule formed by polar covalent bonding.
Wrap It Up
Illustrate the covalent bonding for the following molecules using the Lewis
electron dot symbol. Indicate whether the molecule is polar or nonpolar. Draw partial
positive (+), partial negative (-) and dipole moment (
) if applicable.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Water, H2O
Hydrogen fluoride, HF
Chlorine molecule, Cl2
Carbon dioxide, CO2
53
5. Methane, CH4

http://www.yenka.com/freecontent/item.action?quick=tl
http://dkreutz.basd.k12.wi.us/O2.jpg
http://www.chem.uiuc.edu/clcwebsite/jpeg/N2.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/HCl_molecule_modelVdW_surface.svg/150px-HCl_molecule_model-VdW_surface.svg.png
Lesson 3
How is Metallic Bond Formed?
Do and Discover
Could you give five (5) examples of metal that are familiar to you? Write it down
below. Give the name and symbol of the metal and where do we usually use it.
Example: Gold (Au) used as jewelry.
1. __________________________________________________________________________
_
2. __________________________________________________________________________
_
3. __________________________________________________________________________
_
4. __________________________________________________________________________
_
5. __________________________________________________________________________
_
Whiz Quest
We understand that that a metal and a nonmetal form an ionic bond while two or
more nonmetals bonded together forms a covalent bond. Would there also be bonding
if the given atoms are both metal? That is what we are going to find out in this lesson.
54
Metals, such as sodium, copper and aluminum, actually exhibit a special kind of
bonding called metallic bond. Metallic bond occurs when the valence electrons of
individual metal atoms are bonded loosely to the positive kernels of the atom rather than
to the individual atoms themselves. This occurs because metals have low ionization
energies and there are empty spaces in the last shell of the atom. Kernel refers to the
nucleus of the atom and the inner electron shells surrounding the nucleus.
This special bonding occurring in metals give them stability by attaining a closed
configuration or a complete octet due to the delocalization or hopping of electrons from
one metal atom to another forming a sea of electrons. Consider the metallic bonding
occurring in sodium atom in figure 4.12 for the illustration.
Figure 4.12 Metallic bonding in sodium atoms

The delocalization of electrons in metallic bond gives metal atoms its metallic
properties such as hardness, malleability, ductility and conductivity.
Metals are hard because of the close packing structure of metal atoms. Figure
4.13 illustrate this property.
Figure 4.13 Close packing structure in metal atoms

Metals are malleable and ductile because when hammered into sheets, the
loosely bound electrons permit the sliding past of the layers of atomic kernels with one
55
another and at the same time holding the layers of together as negative electrons attract
the positive kernels. Malleable means can be shaped into different shapes while ductile
means can be drawn into wires without breaking. Figure 4.14 illustrates these two
properties of metals.
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.14 Metals are malleable (a) and ductile (b)
Metals are also good conductors of heat and electricity. Applying heat to the
metal would result to acquisition of high vibrational energy by the kernels of the metal
which in turn will be transferred to the delocalized electrons. By the collision of kernels
and electrons, kinetic energy is transferred rapidly. On the other hand, when you apply
electricity on a piece of wire, electrons coming from the electricity will promote the
shifting of delocalized electrons toward the empty spaces in the valence shell from atom
to atom. Electrons are free to move in that certain metal unless otherwise a new
conductor is present.
Application
In this lesson, we have discussed metallic properties in relation to metallic
bonding. As a follow up activity, cut out pictures that illustrates metallic property.
Present your work artistically and impart it to the class.
Science Link
Aluminum is a metal used in making aircrafts such as air planes, rocket ships
and helicopter. Its unique physical property that makes it suitable for aircrafts is being
light weight and since it is light weight, lesser energy is needed for aircrafts to float on
air. Other than that aluminum metals are strong and it resists corrosion. Aluminun
metal is also used in the production and manufacture of aluminum foil, door knobs and
kitchen utensils
Web Trips
Want to try your knowledge on metallic bond and metallic properties? Answer
the quiz at
56
http://www.docbrown.info/page04/4_72bond5.htm#METALLIC
Word Pad
Metallic bond occurs when the valence electrons of individual metal atoms are
bonded loosely to the positive kernels of the atom rather than to the individual atoms
themselves.
Kernel refers to the nucleus of the atom and the inner electron shells surrounding
the nucleus.
Wrap It Up
Identify the property of metal being described by matching column A with
column B.
A
1. Malleable
2. Conductors of Heat
3. Ductile
4. Hard
5. Conductor of Electricity
B
A. can be drawn into wires without breaking
B due to the close packing structure
C. can be shaped into different shapes
D. will promote the shifting of delocalized
electrons toward the empty spaces in the
valence shell
E. result to acquisition of high vibrational
energy by the kernels

http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/bonding/metallic.html
http://discover.edventures.com/images/termlib/m/metallic_bond/support.gif
http://www.whimsie.com/14%20gauge%20copper%20wire.jpg
http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0030538.html
57
Lesson 4
How are the Electronegativity Values of the

Element Related to the Type of Bond that they will Produce?
Do and Discover
By just looking at the combination of elements, predict whether the bond that
exists between them is ionic, covalent or metallic.
Chemical Formula
HI
Li2O
Fe
NH3
CaBr2
Type of Bond
Whiz Quest
By just looking at the elements that combine together and their location in the
periodic table we can now predict whether the bond that exists between them is ionic,
covalent or metallic. When atoms from Group IA or Group IIA combines with atoms
from Group VIA or Group VIIA, we are certain that the bond that exists between them
is ionic. This is because metals have low ionization energies and they easily give up
electrons. Nonmetals, on the other hand, have high electron affinity and they easily
accept electrons. In an ionic bond, there is a complete transfer of electrons from a metal
58
to a nonmetal. The same nonmetal can also form bond called covalent bond. In a
covalent bond, there is sharing of electrons between nonmetals. When there is equal
sharing of electrons, we cal this bond as nonpolar covalent and when there is unequal
sharing of electrons, we call this bond as polar covalent. Moreover, the same metal can
also form a special kind of bonding called metallic bond. It occurs because the positive
kernel of the metal atom is attracted to the valence electrons of the neighboring metal
atom and vice versa therefore resulting to the delocalization of electrons forming a sea
of electrons.
There is actually another way of predicting the type of bond that exists between
atoms that combine together. This is by getting the difference in the electronegativity
values of the atoms that combine together. Electronegativity is the ability of an atom in
a chemical bond to attract electrons toward it and is usually measured in terms of
electronvolt (eV). Go back to table 3.10 for the electronegativity values of some elements
or you may refer to your Periodic Table.
When the difference in electronegativity values (EN) of the element is equal to
or greater than 2.0 eV, the bond formed is ionic. When the difference in
electronegativity values is equal to 0 eV, the bond formed is nonpolar covalent.
However, when the difference in electronegativity values is greater than 0 eV but is less
than 2.0 eV, the bond formed id polar covalent. See table 4.3 for the summary.
Table 4.3 Electronegativity difference and type of bond
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Electronegativity Difference (eV)
Type of Bond
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
EN 2.0
Ionic
0 < EN 1.9
Polar Covalent
EN = 0
Nonpolar Covalent
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Let us look at some examples below.
NaCl
Cl
3.0 eV
Na
0.9 eV
EN 2.1 eV - Ionic
HCl
Cl
3.0 eV
H
2.1 eV
EN 0.9 eV Polar
Covalent
H2
H
2.1 eV
H
2.1 eV
EN 0 eV Nonpolar
Covalent
Application
As a way of memorizing the electronegativity difference and the type of bond
that exist among bonded atoms, make a chart that contains the concepts in table 4.3.
Share your work to the class.
59
Science Link
Just like using the electronegativity difference in predicting the type of bond,
there are also a lot of instruments for predicting different phenomenon. An example is
on the prediction of weather disturbance like typhoons is predicted by weather
instruments used by scientists. Another example is on the prediction of the gender of
the baby inside the mothers womb using ultrasound technology. Could you give more
examples?
Web Trips
Enhance your knowledge on predicting the type of bond using electronegativity
difference. Try answering the quiz at
http://cnx.org/content/m15205/latest/ (Report 5: Bonding 07)
Word Pad
toward it and is usually measured in terms of electronvolt (eV).
Wrap It Up
Determine whether the bond that exists among the following compounds and
molecules is ionic, polar covalent or nonpolar covalent by computing their
electronegativity difference (EN).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
H2O
LiF
Cl2
CO2
CaO
60
Lesson 5
How Do We Write and Name Chemical Formulas

of Ionic and Covalent Compounds?
Do and Discover
In our discussion of ionic and covalent bonding, you have met some chemical
formulas and their corresponding chemical names. Do you recall some of them? Write it
down on the table below.
Ionic Compounds
Chemical Formula Chemical Name
Covalent Compounds
Chemical Formula Chemical Name
Whiz Quest
You are familiar with some ionic and covalent compounds with their
corresponding chemical names and chemical formulas, but, do you actually know how
to write chemical formulas of compounds or why they are named as such? This will be
our concern in this lesson.
61
Chemical formula is shorthand in chemistry to represent chemical compounds.

It actually shows the kinds and numbers of atoms in the smallest representative unit of
the substance. Examples of chemical formulas are H2O, LiF, Cl2, CO2 and CaO. Chemical
formulas of ionic compounds are called formula units. Formula unit represents the
smallest whole number ratio of ions in an ionic compound. From our examples, LiF and
CaO are formula units since they are composed of cations and anions. Chemical
formulas of covalent compounds, on the other hand, are called molecular formulas.
Molecular formula shows the kinds and numbers of atoms present in a molecule of a
compound. From our examples, H2O, Cl2 and CO2 are molecular formulas since they are
covalent compounds. Molecular formulas are sometimes represented in terms of
empirical formulas. Empirical formula gives the lowest whole number ratio of the
atoms of the elements in a compound. Take for example hydrogen peroxide which as a
molecular formula of H2O2, its empirical formula would be HO since if we divide all the
subscripts, which represent ratios, with the smallest whole number subscript, the
answer will be equal to 1. Another example is glucose. Its molecular formula is C 6H12O6.
If we get its empirical formula then it will be CH 2O since the smallest whole number
subscript is 6 so if we divide all the subscripts with 6, then we will be arriving at that
answer. Could you think of some other covalent compounds which have an empirical
formula?
Writing and Naming Chemical Formulas of Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds are made up of ions. So we will begin our discussion with
naming ions. Ions can be classified further as monoatomic and polyatomic.
Monoatomic ions contain only a single atom which could either have a positive or a
negative charge. Polyatomic ions, on the other hand, contains two or more atoms that
behave as a single unit which could be positively or negatively charged.
Cations are normally named with the name of the element as the root name and
by adding the word ion. Example is Na+. Na+ is named as sodium ion. This rule in
naming is applicable only to the representative elements but for the transition elements
which has a varying or different oxidation numbers, which actually represents the total
number of electrons that were lost in the formation of the atoms. Table 4.4 shows some
common transition metals with varying oxidation numbers.
Table 4.4 Common transition metals with varying oxidation numbers
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Element
Cation
Stock Name
Classical Name
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Copper
Cu+
Copper (I) ion
Cuprous ion
2+
Cu
Copper (II) ion
Cupric ion
2+
Iron
Fe
Iron (II) ion
Ferrous ion
3+
Fe
Iron (III) ion
Ferric ion
Mercury
*Hg22+
Mercury (I) ion
Mercurous ion
62
Hg2+
Mercury (II) ion
Mercuric ion
2+
Lead
Pb
Lead (II) ion
Plumbous ion
4+
Pb
Lead (IV) ion
Plumbic ion
2+
Tin
Sn
Tin (II) ion
Stannous ion
Sn4+
Tin (IV) ion
Stannic ion
2+
Chromium
Cr
Chromium (II) ion
Chromous ion
3+
Cr
Chromium (III) ion
Chromic ion
Manganese
Mn2+
Manganese (II) ion
Manganous ion
3+
Mn
Manganese (III) ion
Manganic ion
2+
Cobalt
Co
Cobalt (II) ion
Cobaltous ion
3+
Co
Cobalt (III) ion
Cobaltic ion
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
*A diatomic elemental ion
Anions, on the other hand, are named by getting the root name from the name of
the element and replacing the ending with the suffix ide. For example we are given the
anion N3- . The neutral form of this ion is nitrogen, so we could name this anion by
replacing the ending with ide. Therefore, the name of this ion is nitride. Another
example is O2-, its name would be oxide. Could you give some more examples?
We are done discussing monoatomic ions; let us now proceed with polyatomic
ions. You can recall that polyatomic ions are tightly bound group of atoms that behave
as a unit and carry a charge. You may notice from table 4.5 that polyatomic ions are
named differently from monoatomic ions but you may also observe that most of them
ends with the suffix ite or ate. Some of the exceptions to this suffix are the ammonium
ion (NH4+), the cyanide ion (CN-) and hydroxide ion (OH-). If the polyatomic ion contains
hydrogen ion (H+), the name of the polyatomic ion will have a hydrogen name then the
name of the remaining polyatomic ion. Example is the polyatomic ion HCO 3-. Its name
will be hydrogen carbonate.
Table 4.5 Common polyatomic ions
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
1 charge
2 charge
3 charge
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
H2PO4HPO42PO33(dihydrogen phosphate)
(hydrogen phosphate)
(phosphite)
2C2H3O2
C2O4
PO43(acetate)
(oxalate)
(phosphate)
2HSO3
SO3
(hydrogen sulfite)
(sulfite)
________________________
HSO4
SO421+ charge
(hydrogen sulfate)
(sulfate)
________________________
63
HCO3CO32NH4+
(hydrogen carbonate)
(carbonate)
(ammonium)
2NO2
CrO4
(nitrite)
(chromate)
NO3Cr2O72(nitrate)
(dichromate)
CN
SiO32(cyanide)
(silicate)
OH
(hydroxide)
MnO4(permanganate)
ClO(hypochlorite)
ClO2(chlorite)
ClO3(chlorate)
ClO4(perchlorate)
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Ionic compounds can be further classified as to binary or ternary compounds.
Binary ionic compounds are compounds composed of two elements only while ternary
ionic compounds are compounds composed of three different elements.
In writing chemical formula of binary ionic compounds, we just have to write the
formula of the cation first then the anion. After that, crisscross the charges of the ions
wherein the charge of the cation will be the subscript of the anion and the charge of the
anion will be the subscript of the cation. The net charge should be equal to zero since
compounds are neutral. We could verify this by multiplying the subscript with the
charge of the ion and getting the sum of the two ions. See figure 4.15 for the examples.
K+
S2-
(2)(+1) + (1)(-2)
K2S
Fe3+
O2-
(2)(+3) + (3)(-2)
Fe2O3
=
Figure 4.15 Writing chemical formulas of binary ionic compounds

In naming chemical formula of binary ionic compounds, write the name of the
cation first followed by the name of the anion. In our examples at figure 4.15, we have
formed two ionic compounds, these are K2S and Fe2O3. K2S is named as potassium sulfide
while Fe2O3 is named as iron (III) oxide or ferric oxide.
The same rule is applied in writing and naming chemical formulas of ternary
ionic compounds. See figure 4.16 for the examples.
64
Al3+
SO42-
(2)(+3) + (3)(-2)
Al2(SO4)3
Sn2+
CO32-
(2)(+2) + (2)(-2)
SnCO3
=
Figure 4.16 Writing chemical formulas of ternary ionic compounds

From our examples in figure 4.16, we have formed two ionic compounds, these
are Al2(SO4)3 and SnCO3. Al2(SO4)3 is named as aluminum sulfate while SnCO3 is named
as tin (II) carbonate or stannous carbonate. Take note that when the charges or oxidation
numbers of both cation and anion are the same, they could cancel, just like in the case of
SnCO3.
Writing and Naming Chemical Formulas of Covalent Compounds
Covalent compounds can be classified as to binary covalent compounds and
acids. Binary covalent compounds are compounds composing of two nonmetals while
acids are special group of covalent compounds that produce hydrogen ion (H +) when
dissolved in water.
In writing and naming binary covalent compounds, we should take note of the
prefixes shown in table 4.6.
Table 4.6 Greek prefixes used in naming binary covalent compounds

_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Prefix
Meaning
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
mono1
di2
tri3
tetra4
penta5
hexa6
hepta7
octa8
nona9
deca10
_____________________________________________________________________________
In naming binary covalent compounds, write the name of the leftmost element in
the chemical formula first then the name of the second element. Replace the ending of
the second element with the suffix ide. Use the Greek prefixes to indicate the number of
65
atoms of each element. Take note that the prefix mono- is not used in naming the first
element. Moreover, if the prefix ends in a or o, these letters are dropped if the second
element begins with a vowel. For example, when there is only one oxide ion, we name it
as monoxide instead of monooxide. See other examples below.
CO
CO2
N2O
PCl3
SF6
carbon monoxide
carbon dioxide
dinitrogen monoxide
phosphorus trichloride
sulfur hexafluoride
Acids can be classified as to hydroacids and oxoacids. Hydroacids are acids formed
by halogens. Hydroacids are named by adding the prefix hydro- plus the name of the
halogen wherein its ending is replaced with the suffix ic. See examples below.
HF
HCl
hydrofluoric acid
hydrochloric acid
Oxoacids, on the other hand, is recognized as a polyatomic ion with a hydrogen

at the beginning of the chemical formula. It is commonly named with ous and ic
suffix. The suffix ous is used for acids with more oxygen atoms while ic is used for
acids with less oxygen atoms. Furthermore, the suffix ous is used to replace the name
of the polyatomic ion ending in ite while the suffix ic is used to replace the name of
the polyatomic ion ending inate. See examples below.
HNO2 is nitrous acid from base polyatomic ion NO2-, nitrite
HNO3 is nitric acid from base polyatomic ion NO3-, nitrate
Application
Shown in tables 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6 are important facts in naming ionic and covalent
compounds. Your task now is to make a separate chart for each table. This will be will
be helpful reference sheets in naming ionic and covalent compounds. Share your work
with the class.
Science Link
The binary covalent molecule carbon monoxide, CO, is an ordorless, colorless,
flammable gas used in the manufacture of numerous organic and inorganic chemical is
also very harmful to humans. Carbon monoxide is usually produced by automobiles.
When inhaled by humans, carbon monoxide binds with hemoglobin molecules
replacing oxygen. Carbon monoxide is more effective in binding with hemoglobin in
comparison with oxygen. When this happen, oxygen supply of the body will be
lessened and could result to serious illness or even death.
66
Web Trips
Test your knowledge in naming ionic and covalent compounds, try answering
Cation
Anion
Formula
Name
Magnesium bicarbonate
Fe3+
NO2Manganese (II) chlorate
SnBr4
Co2+
PO43CuCO3
Lithium nitride
the quiz at
http://www.mpdocker.demon.co.uk/as_a2/topics/ionic_and_covalent_bonding/quiz_2.html
Word Pad
Binary compounds are compounds composed of two elements only.
Chemical formula is shorthand in chemistry to represent chemical compounds. It
actually shows the kinds and numbers of atoms in the smallest representative unit of
the substance.
Empirical formula gives the lowest whole number ratio of the atoms of the elements
in a compound.
Formula unit represents the smallest whole number ratio of ions in an ionic
compound.
Molecular formula shows the kinds and numbers of atoms present in a molecule of
a compound.
Monoatomic ions contain only a single atom which could either have a positive or a
negative charge.
Polyatomic ions contains two or more atoms that behave as a single unit which
could be positively or negatively charged.
Ternary compounds are compounds composed of three different elements.
Wrap It Up
1. Fill in the blanks in the following table:
67
2. Fill in the blanks in the following table:

Formula
Name
Sulfuric acid
H3PO4
Carbonic acid
HNO3
Nitrogen monoxide
NCl3
Dinitrogen tetroxide
P4O6
Lesson 6
What are the Forces of Attraction that

Exist Between Molecules?
68
Do and Discover
You are already familiar with the three types of chemical bond that we have
discussed. On the space below, describe briefly each type of chemical bond.
1. __________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__
2. __________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__
3. __________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__
Whiz Quest
We know that a chemical bond or intramolecular force is a force that holds
together two atoms in a molecule. Do you think there will also be attraction among
molecules as they come closer with each other? The answer is yes, and these forces of
attraction among molecules are what we called intermolecular forces. Intermolecular
forces are forces that hold molecules together which can be attractive or repulsive.
Table 4.7 shows the intermolecular and interionic forces. These intermolecular forces
are accountable for the properties of substances. Moreover, intermolecular forces also
explain why substances exist as solid, liquid or gas at room temperature.
Table 4.7 Intermolecular and interionic forces of attraction
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Type of Interaction
Interacting Particles
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Dispersion
Polar and nonpolar molecules
Dipole-dipole
Polar molecules
Ion-Dipole
Ions and polar molecules
Ion-Ion
Ions (cations and anions)
Hydrogen bond
N, O or F bonded with H atom
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Dipole-dipole, dipole-induced dipole and dispersion forces are collectively
known as van der Waals forces, after the Dutch physicist Johannes van der Waals. IonAll rights reserved. Copyright 2008 by Allen A. Espinosa.
69
dipole forces are not a van der Waals force. Hydrogen bonding is a special type of
dipole-dipole interaction.
Dipole Dipole Forces
Dipole-dipole forces are attractive forces existing between polar molecules, that
is, molecules that exhibit dipole moment, such as hydrogen chloride, HCl. Since there is
unequal sharing of electron between H and Cl atoms, there exists a partial positive and
partial negative particles or referred to as dipole. The more electronegative atom
becomes partially negative and has the most electron density while the least
electronegative atom becomes partially positive and has a lesser electron density. See
figure 4.17 for the illustration.
Figure 4.17 Dipole-dipole interactions in hydrogen chloride, HCl

Ion-Dipole Forces
Ion-dipole forces are the attraction between an ion, which can be cation or anion,
and a polar molecule. A very good example of this is hydration, or the interaction of
water molecules with the cations and anions of an ionic compound dissolved in water.
For example, we dissolve sodium chloride, NaCl, in water, H2O, the NaCl will
dissociate into Na+ and Cl- in the process of hydration. Since water is a polar molecule
and has a partial negative and a partial positive poles, the Na+ will form an ion-dipole
interaction with the partial negative part of the water molecule while the Cl- will from
an ion-dipole interaction with the partial positive part of the water molecule. See figure
Figure 4.18 Ion-dipole interaction between sodium chloride, NaCl, and water, H2O
Dispersion Forces or London Forces
Dispersion forces or London forces are attractive forces that are formed due to
the temporary dipoles induced in atoms or molecules. Dispersion of London forces is
known to exist among nonpolar molecules.
70
Let us take for example an ion or a polar molecule near an atom or a nonpolar
molecule. There will be distortion in the electron clouds of the atom or the nonpolar
molecule due to the force exerted by the ion or the polar molecule. This distortion will
result to temporary dipoles in the nonpolar molecule called induced dipole. Induced
dipole is the separation of the positive and negative charges in a nonpolar molecule due
to the nearness of an ion or a polar molecule. When the induced dipole is due to the
interaction between an ion and a nonpolar molecule, the interaction is called ioninduced dipole interaction and when the induced dipole is due to the interaction
between a polar and a nonpolar molecule, the interaction is called dipole-induced
dipole interaction. See figure 4.19 for the illustration.
Figure 4.19 Formation of (a) ion-induced dipole interaction and (b) dipole-induced
dipole interaction
Hydrogen Bond
Hydrogen bond is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction between the
hydrogen atom in a polar molecule and the highly electronegative atoms nitrogen, N,
oxygen, O, and fluorine, F. Water molecule is a very good example of substance that
exhibits hydrogen bonding. See figure 4.20 for the illustration.
Figure 4.20 Hydrogen bonding in water, H2O
71
Application
As a group project, make molecular models for each type of interaction using any
material which you think will better represent each type of interaction. Present your
work to the class.
Science Link
Knowledge on the intermolecular forces of attraction is essential in the
pharmaceutical industry for designing drugs. Pharmaceutical chemists must take into
consideration the type of interaction that will exists between the drug and the human
body or the targeted area in the human body. Solubility or dissolution of drugs is also
an important factor which can be explained by the type of interaction existing between
the drug and the targeted area in the human body.
Web Trips
Test your knowledge on intermolecular forces of attraction. Try answering the
quiz at
http://wps.prenhall.com/esm_tro_chemistry_1/77/19899/5094337.cw/index.html
Word Pad
Dipole-dipole forces are attractive forces existing between polar molecules, that is,
molecules that exhibit dipole moment.
Dipole-induced dipole interaction term used when the induced dipole is due to the
interaction between a polar and a nonpolar molecule.
Dispersion forces or London forces are attractive forces that are formed due to the
temporary dipoles induced in atoms or molecules.Intermolecular forces are forces
that hold molecules together which can be attractive or repulsive.
Hydrogen bond is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction between the hydrogen
atom in a polar molecule and the highly electronegative atoms nitrogen, N, oxygen,
O, and fluorine, F.
Induced dipole is the separation of the positive and negative charges in a nonpolar
molecule due to the nearness of an ion or a polar molecule.
Ion-dipole forces are the attraction between an ion, which can be cation or anion,
and a polar molecule.
Ion-induced dipole interaction term used when the induced dipole is due to the
interaction between an ion and a nonpolar molecule.
van der Waals forces is the collective name of Dipole-dipole, dipole-induced dipole
and dispersion forces.
72
Wrap It Up
Predict the type of interaction that may be existing in the following compounds
and molecules.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
HF
Cl2 and HBr
HI
MgCl2 and H2O
H2 and KCl
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________

http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/dissolNACL.gif
http://www.cofc.edu/~martine/111Lectweek14_files/image002.jpg
http://www.daviddarling.info/images/hydrogen_bonding_in_water.gif
73
Lesson 7
What are the Shapes of Molecules?
Do and Discover
Bonding electrons are the electrons that actually participated in the formation of
covalent bond. Identify the number of bonding electron pairs in the following
molecules.
Example: SnCl2 has two bonding electrons
1. CH4
_______________________________
2. NH3
_______________________________
3. BeCl2
_______________________________
4. H2O
_______________________________
5. SF6
_______________________________
Whiz Quest
The shape and the arrangement of atoms in a compound affect the physical and
chemical properties of molecules. This arrangement of atoms in a molecule is
collectively known as molecular geometry.
The geometry of molecules can be simply predicted by identifying how many
electron pairs in the central atom and in the bonded atoms actually participated in the
formation of the covalent bond and how many electron pairs in the central atom did not
participate in the formation of the covalent bond. As we can recall, electrons that
participated in the formation of the covalent bond is called bonding electrons and the
ones that did not participate is called nonbonding electrons.
Predicting the geometry of molecules using the idea that electron pairs in a
molecule undergone electrostatic repulsion can be clearly be illustrated using the
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory. Study table 4.8 for the list of
shapes of simple molecules with their corresponding description. Note that the symbol
A represents the central atom, B represents the attached atoms and E represents
nonbonding electrons or lone pairs.
74
Table 4.8 VSEPR models

_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Number of Electron Pairs
Type
Bonding
Nonbonding
Shape
Example
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
Molecules in Which the Central Atom has No Nonbonding Electrons / Lone Pairs
AB2
Linear
BeCl2
AB3
AB4
Trigonal
Planar
Tetrahedral
BF3
CH4
AB5
Trigonal
Bipyramidal
PCl5
AB6
Octahedral
75
SF6
Molecules in Which the Central Atom has Nonbonding Electrons / Lone Pairs
AB2E
Bent
SO2
AB3E
Trigonal
Pyramidal
NH3
AB2E2
Bent
H2O
AB4E
Distorted
Tetrahedron
(Seesaw)
AB3E2
T-shaped
SF4
76
ClF3
AB2E3
Linear
XeF2
AB5E
Square
Pyramidal
Square
Planar
BrF5
AB4E2
XeF4
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
The shapes of molecules can be predicted by the following steps.
Step 1. Draw the Lewis Electron Dot Symbol for each atom in the molecule.
Step 2. Identify the total number of electron pairs in the central atom and
determine which electron pairs are the bonding electrons and which are
the nonbonding electrons or lone pairs.
Step 3. Refer to table 4.8 for the geometry of the molecule.
77
Example: Predict the molecular geometry of PF3.

Step 1. Lewis Electron Dot Symbol of PF3
Step 2. Bonding and Nonbonding Electrons in PF3

Shown in
central
electrons.
electron
the red box are the nonbonding electrons in the

atom while shown in the blue box are the bonding
Therefore we can say that there is one nonbonding
pair and there are three bonding electron pairs.
Step 3. The general form would be AB3E and the molecular geometry is trigonal
pyramidal
Application
There are actually a lot of computer applications involving the shape or
geometry of molecules. One of the free computer applications on the geometry of
molecules is the ChemSketch. Download your free ChemSketch at
http://www.acdlabs.com by clicking the button Download Free ACD/ChemSketch 11
at the bottom part of the website. The application is user-friendly. Explore it and share
it to the class.
Science Link
78
Molecular geometries of molecules are essential for pharmaceutical chemists in

the design and development of drugs. Because of the widespread technology of
molecular modeling on computer programs, pharmaceutical chemists were now able to
see the three-dimensional structures of complex molecules in the computer monitor.
Chemists can also control the molecular structure, that is, they can rotate it in any angle
they wish to, they can see the backside of the molecule and they can shrink or cut it.
This is possible because of the computer technology called virtual reality.
There are also technologies in determining molecular geometries experimentally
such as X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectrometer,
combination of gas chromatograph and mass spectrometer (GC-MS) and the Fourier
transform infrared and Roman (FTIR) spectrometer.
Web Trips
Try answering the quiz on the geometry of molecules at
http://www.chem.ox.ac.uk/vrchemistry/vsepr/intro/vsepr_splash.html
Word Pad
Molecular Geometry is the arrangement of atoms in a molecule.
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory is a theory in predicting
the geometry of molecules using the idea that electron pairs in a molecule
undergone electrostatic repulsion.
Wrap It Up
Predict and draw the shape or molecular geometry of the following molecules.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
SH2
CO2
SnCl2
ClF5
SBr4

http://www.chemvc.com
Lesson 8
What are the Types of Solids?

79
Do and Discover
The type of atoms or elements bonded together predicts the type of chemical
bond that they will form. Identify the chemical bond existing in the following bonded
atoms or elements.
1. LiF
________________________________
2. CO2
________________________________
3. Mg
________________________________
4. CaCO3-
________________________________
5. SO2
________________________________
Whiz Quest
Structure and properties of solids such as melting point, density and hardness
are dependent on the forces of attraction acting on them. Could you recall these forces
of attraction that we have discussed in lesson 6?
Solids can actually be divided into two categories; these are crystalline and
amorphous solids. Crystalline solids are solids that have orderly arrangement of
particles such as atoms, molecules or ions. It also has a unit cell which is a basic
repeating structural unit. Crystalline solids can be further classified into ionic, covalent,
molecular or metallic. We will be discussing each type as we move further in the lesson.
Amorphous solids, in comparison, lacks a three-dimensional structure of particles. An
example of this is the glass, which is a fusion product of inorganic materials such as
silicon dioxide (SiO2), sodium oxide (NaO) and boron oxide (B2O3) that has been cooled
to a rigid state without crystallizing.
Ionic compounds such as sodium chloride (NaCl) have an ionic crystal structure.
Ionic crystals have two important properties; it is composed of anions and cations and
the size of these charged particles differ from one another. The ions form threedimensional structure or repeating unit cells called crystal lattice. This explains why
sodium chloride and ionic compounds, in general, have relatively high melting point.
Figure 4.21 illustrates the crystal lattice of sodium chloride.
80
Figure 4.21 Crystal lattice of sodium chloride (NaCl)

A covalent crystal has true covalent bonds between all of the atoms in the
crystal. You can think of a covalent crystal as one big molecule. Many covalent crystals
have extremely high melting points. Examples of covalent crystals include diamond
and silicon dioxide (SiO2).
Diamond is made up of carbon atoms only and is bonded by covalent bond. Four
covalent bonds are formed in diamond crystals forming a tetrahedron or tetrahedral
arrangement of atoms. This repeating tetrahedron unit cell forms a covalent network
structure, this account for the hardness of diamond, making it suitable in cutting
glasses. See figure 4.22 for the illustration of the covalent network in diamond.
Figure 4.22 Covalent networks in diamond

Molecular crystals contain recognizable molecules within their structures. A
molecular crystal is held together by non-covalent interactions, like van der Waals
forces or hydrogen bonding. Molecular crystals tend to be soft with relatively low
melting points. Rock candy, the crystalline form of table sugar or sucrose, is an example
81
of a molecular crystal. Figure 4.23 illustrates the crystal structure of table sugar or
sucrose.
Figure 4.23 Crystal structure of table sugar or sucrose

Metals can also form crystals called metallic crystals. Individual metal atoms of
metallic crystals sit on lattice sites. This leaves the outer electrons of these atoms free to
float around the lattice. Metallic crystals tend to be very dense and have high melting
points.
Application
As a class activity, make ball-and-stick models for sodium chloride crystal lattice,
diamond covalent networks and sucrose crystal structure. Present your work to the class.
Science Link
The difference between an amorphous and crystalline solid is very important in
drug making. When making a drug in solution, the drug is added to the other chemicals
to prolong the shelf life. When the drug is crystallizing, if it forms a crystalline solid,
there is space in the crystal for the ice to come out leaving the drug and the
components. This process only takes about two or three days. If the drug forms an
amorphous solid during the crystallizing phase then it takes about seven days. This is
because amorphous solids do not have space for the ice to come out during the freezing
therefore the ice must diffuse out. Therefore it is preferable to have crystalline solids in
drug making. See illustration below.
82
Web Trips
There are a lot of practice exercises regarding types of solids in the internet. Try
answering one of the quizzes at
http://www.chemistry.nmsu.edu/studntres/chem115/resources/quiz_phasedi
agram.html
Word Pad
Crystalline solids are solids that have orderly arrangement of particles such as
atoms, molecules or ions.
Unit cell is a basic repeating structural unit.
Amorphous solids are solids that lack a three-dimensional structure of particles.
Ionic crystals have two important properties; it is composed of anions and cations
and the size of these charged particles differ from one another.
Covalent crystal has true covalent bonds between all of the atoms in the crystal.
Molecular crystals contain recognizable molecules within their structures and are
held together by non-covalent interactions.
Metallic crystals are crystals formed by metals.
Wrap It Up
83
Complete the table by supplying it with the needed information.
Type of Crystal
Force(s) Holding
the Units
Together
General
Properties
Examples
Ionic
Covalent
Molecular
Metallic

http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/sciences/physics/SolidStatePhysics/AtomicBonding/Cryst
alStructure/StructuresSolids/nacl.gif
http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/15/7515-004-B7F0EB3B.gif
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Sucrose-rodmodel.png
84
Lesson 9
What are the Properties and Uses of

Some Ionic and Covalent Compounds?
Do and Discover
Surely there are ionic and covalent compounds that you are familiar with. Give
at least five (5) ionic compounds and their uses and five (5) covalent compounds and
their uses.
Chemical Formula
Ionic Compounds
Uses
Chemical Formula
Covalent Compounds
Uses
Whiz Quest
Ionic compounds are formed by a chemical reaction between the neutral forms of
the elements that make it up, in which one or two electrons jump from the nonmetallic
to the metallic element. After the reaction, the two elements attract one another because
of their difference in charge. Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points and
good electrical conductivity when they are melted or in solution. Most ionic compounds
85
dissolve
readily
in
water.
When
solid,
they
typically
form
into
crystals.
Ionic compounds have hundreds of different uses. All salts are ionic compounds,
as are many substances that promote life processes. Sodium chloride is the most
common ionic compound. It is very important to diets of human beings since it aids in
the absorption of dissolved foods in blood. Other than that, it is also used in
preservation and flavoring of foods.
Other familiar ionic compounds are magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) and
sodium bicarbonate or sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3), which is used as antacid
or for the relieve of acid indigestion. Potassium bromide (KBr) is used in medicine and
in photography, potassium chlorate (KClO3) is used in fireworks and explosives,
potassium hydroxide (KOH) is used in making soft soap and potassium nitrate (KNO 3)
is used in meat preservation and as an ingredient in gunpowder. Ammonium
hydroxide (NH4OH) is used as a cleaning agent, calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) is a
component of cement and copper (II) sulfate pentahydate (CuSO4 5H2O) is used in
making certain pesticides and in copper plating. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is used for
cleaning clogged drains, sodium nitrate (NaNO3) is used in fertilizers and sodium
carbonate (Na2CO3) is used as a water softener for hard water.
A covalent compound is a compound in which the atoms that are bonded share
electrons rather than transfer electrons from one to the other. Covalent compounds
generally have low melting and boiling points, are soft and squishy, are flammable
compared with ionic compounds, dont conduct electricity in water and arent usually
very soluble in water.
Water is a very familiar covalent molecule; it is very important to biological
processes as a catalytic agent. It is also used by mankind in his daily life and in the
industry.
Other familiar covalent compounds and molecules are carbon in the form of
diamond and carbon in the form of graphite. The former is used as jewelry and in
cutting glasses while the latter is used as lead for pencils. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an
ingredient is fire extinguishers, carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) is used for dry cleaning,
molecular chlorine (Cl2) is used as disinfectant in pools and as a bleaching agent and
molecular iodine (I2) is used as an antiseptic and in making iodized salt. Molecular
nitrogen (N2) is used in explosives and in fertilizers, nitrous oxide (N2O) is used as an
anesthetic in dentistry and molecular oxygen (O2) is used in welding torches and
oxygen tents and as a rocket fuel in its liquid form.
Application
Mentioned in this lesson are just few applications of ionic and covalent compounds. As a
research work, find as many as you can ionic and covalent compounds and their uses. Report
your research work to the class.
86
Science Link
Web Trips
Find out how well you are familiar with the uses and properties of ionic and
covalent compounds, try the quiz at
http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/145Areview.html
Word Pad
Properties are a characteristic trait or peculiarity.
Uses refer to purposes.
Type of
Compound
Ionic
Covalent
General
Properties
Example
Use(s)
Wrap It Up
Complete the table by supplying it with the needed information.
87
All in All
1. When these two particles come closer with one another, there will be an electrostatic attraction
between the positive and the negative charges and will form an ionic bond or electrovalent bond.
2. Covalent bond is formed by the sharing of electrons between nonmetals.
3. Metallic bond occurs when the valence electrons of individual metal atoms are bonded loosely to
the positive kernels of the atom rather than to the individual atoms themselves.
4. By getting the difference in the electronegativity values of the atoms that combine together, you
can predict the type of bond that formed.
5. In naming chemical formula of binary and ternary ionic compounds, write the name of the cation
first followed by the name of the anion. In naming binary covalent compounds, write the name of
the leftmost element in the chemical formula first then the name of the second element. Replace
the ending of the second element with the suffix ide.
6. Intermolecular forces are forces that hold molecules together which can be attractive or repulsive.
7. Predicting the geometry of molecules using the idea that electron pairs in a molecule undergone
electrostatic repulsion can be clearly be illustrated using the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
(VSEPR) Theory.
8. Solids can actually be divided into two categories; these are crystalline and amorphous solids.
Crystalline solids have three-dimensional structure while amorphous solids dont have.
9. Ionic and covalent compounds has many application and uses to the industry and to daily living
as well.
88
Chapter Test
I. Modified True or False
Directions: On the space before the number, write T if the statement is true and F it is false. If the
statement is false, underline the word or phrase that makes it incorrect.
1. A molecular crystal is held together by non-covalent interactions, like van der Waals forces or
hydrogen bonding.
2. The octet rule says that atoms tend to combine in such a way that they each have eight
electrons in their valence shells, giving them the same electronic configuration as a noble gas.
3. This special bonding occurring in metals give them stability by attaining an open
configuration or a complete octet due to the delocalization or hopping of electrons from one
metal atom to another forming a sea of electrons.
4. When the difference in electronegativity values (EN) of the element is equal to or greater
than 2.0 eV, the bond formed is polar covalent.
5. Empirical formula gives the lowest whole number ratio of the atoms of the elements in a
compound.
II. Multiple Choice
Directions: Choose the letter of the choice that answers the question or completes the statement.
Write your answer on the space before each item.
1. Refer to the figure below.
Mg
II
III
IV
Which pair will form an ionic bond?

A. I and IV
B. II and III
C. III and IV
D. I and II
2. Refer to the table below.

VSEPR
Notation
AB2
AB3
AB4
AB5
Number of Electrons Pairs

Bonding
Nonbonding
2
0
3
0
4
5
0
0
Predicted
Shape
Example
Linear
HgCl2
Trigonal
BF3
planar
Tetrahedral
CH4, NH4
Trigonal
PCl5
bipyramidal
89
AB6
Octahedral
SF6
What is the predicted shape of Beryllium chloride?

A. Linear
C. Trigonal planar
B. Tetrahedral
D. Octahedral
3. Which of the following molecules will have a dipole-dipole interaction and at the same time
would exhibit hydrogen bonding?
A. Cl2
C. CO2
B. HCl
D. CF4
4. Some of the molecules found in the human body are NH2CH2COOH (glycine), C6H12O6
(glucose), and CH3(CH2)16COOH (stearic acid). The bonds they form are
A. Nuclear
C. Ionic
B. Metallic
D. Covalent
5. Which element is capable of forming stable, extended chains of atoms through single, double,
or triple bonds with itself?
A. Carbon
C. Nitrogen
B. Oxygen
D. Hydrogen
III. Structured Questions
Directions: Answer the following questions.
An atom of the element X has an electronic configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3.
1. Would element X be a metal or a nonmetal? Explain your answer.
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
__
2.
How many hydrogen atoms would combine with one atom of an element X?
___________________________________________________________________________________
_
3. What type of bond is formed between hydrogen and element X?

___________________________________________________________________________________
_
4. Suggest the chemical formula of the molecule formed between hydrogen and element X.
___________________________________________________________________________________
_
IV. Free Response
Directions: Answer the following questions briefly but completely.
90
1. The melting points of magnesium oxide (MgO) and sodium chloride (NaCl) are 2800C and
801C respectively. Explain why MgO has higher melting point compared with NaCl.
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
__
2. Given the species SF4 and NH4+, which interaction will have greater electron-electron
repulsion? Explain your answer.
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
__
REFERENCES
_________________ (2007). Chemistry Conceptual Learning Level 0. Singapore: GLM Pte Ltd.
Chang, Raymond (2005). Chemistry 8th Edition. Singapore: McGraw Hill.
Deauna, Melecio C., et. al. (2003) The World of Chemistry Laboratory Manual.
Quezon City: SIBS Publishing House.
Mapa, Amelia P. and Trinidad B. Fidelino (1999). Science and Technology III: Chemistry.
Quezon City: SD Publications.
Mapa, Amelia P. and Trinidad B. Fidelino (1999). Science and Technology III: Chemistry
(Teachers Manual). Quezon City: SD Publications.
Mendoza, Estrella E. (2003) Chemistry. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.
Mendoza, Estrella E. (2003) Chemistry Laboratory Manual. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing
House, Inc.
Nueva Espaa, Rebecca C. and Joy A. Apostol (2008). Science and Technology III: Chemistry.
Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House, Inc.
Nueva Espaa, Rebecca C. and Joy A. Apostol (2004). Science and Technology III: Chemistry
(Teachers Guide). Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House, Inc.
Padolina, Ma. Cristina D., et. al. (2006) Conceptual and Functional Chemistry Modular
Approach. Metro Manila: Vibal Publishing House, Inc.
Wilbraham, Antony C., et. al. (2000). Chemistry 5th Edition. Singapore: Pearson Education
(Asia) Pte Ltd.
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The Periodic Table and Chemical Bonding

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Unit III

The Periodic Table

All rights reserved. Copyright 2008 by Allen A. Espinosa.

Order Among Elements in the

Why are the Elements in the Periodic Table

All rights reserved. Copyright 2008 by Allen A. Espinosa.

Figure 3.1 John Daltons chart of elements

All rights reserved. Copyright 2008 by Allen A. Espinosa.

Photo and content credits, lesson 1

All rights reserved. Copyright 2008 by Allen A. Espinosa.

Who are the Great Minds Behind

All rights reserved. Copyright 2008 by Allen A. Espinosa.

Figure 3.2 Great minds behind the Periodic Table

All rights reserved. Copyright 2008 by Allen A. Espinosa.

All rights reserved. Copyright 2008 by Allen A. Espinosa.

Photo and content credits, lesson 2

How Can We Use the Periodic Table to

Figure 3.3 (a) metals, (b)

nonmetals, (1,3) representative elements

Group or family refers to the vertical column arrangement of the elements.

All rights reserved. Copyright 2008 by Allen A. Espinosa.

Photo and content credits, lesson 3

How is the Valence Electron of Elements Related to their

All rights reserved. Copyright 2008 by Allen A. Espinosa.

Figure 3.4 The blocks in the Periodic Table

Table 3.6 Electron configuration of selected elements of the transition metals

All rights reserved. Copyright 2008 by Allen A. Espinosa.

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1

Valence electron refers to the outer electrons.

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1

Photo and content credits, lesson 4

What are the Trends and Periodic Variation

From Top to Bottom

From Left to Right

Figure 3.5 Atomic radius (r) of

sodium (Na) and chlorine

All rights reserved. Copyright 2008 by Allen A. Espinosa.

Figure 3.6 Trend in atomic radius

Figure 3.7 Ionic radius

All rights reserved. Copyright 2008 by Allen A. Espinosa.

shows some example

All rights reserved. Copyright 2008 by Allen A. Espinosa.

Figure 3.9 Trend in ionization energy

Figure 3.10 Trend in electron affinity

All rights reserved. Copyright 2008 by Allen A. Espinosa.

In general, electronegativity increases from left to right of the Periodic Table or

Figure 3.11 Trend in electronegativity

All rights reserved. Copyright 2008 by Allen A. Espinosa.

Figure 3.12 Trend in metallic and nonmetallic character

Ionization energy is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from an

From Top to Bottom

Photo and content credits, lesson 5

All rights reserved. Copyright 2008 by Allen A. Espinosa.

What are the Properties and Uses of Each

malleable and ductile and has

used for structural purposes in

Group IA: Alkali Metals

in pesticides and insecticides. Chlorine is also a component of polyvinyl chloride or

Ductility is the ability to be permanently drawn, bent, or twisted into various

What are Some Elements that are

All rights reserved. Copyright 2008 by Allen A. Espinosa.

content credits, lesson 7

All rights reserved. Copyright 2008 by Allen A. Espinosa.

Modified True or False