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Copyright eContent Management Pty Ltd. Contemporary Nurse (2008) 29: 100109.

Critical thinking and learning styles of


nursing students at the Baccalaureate
nursing program in Korea
ABSTRACT

Key Words
critical thinking;
learning styles;
nursing;
student; Korea

The purpose of this study is to examine the critical thinking dispositions and
learning styles, as well as the relationships between critical thinking and learning styles of nursing students enrolled in Baccalaureate nursing programs in
Korea.The convenient sample consisted of 724 students from five cities.The
learning style inventory of Kolb (1976) and critical thinking disposition inventory of Rudd et al (2000) were used for collecting data. Learning styles of the
subjects were Diverging 315 (43.5%), Accommodating 223 (30.4%), Assimilating 78 (10.8%), and Converging 65 (9.0%). There were no significant
differences in learning styles among grades (p=.197). The level of critical
thinking significantly differed among learning styles (p=.000), and grades
(p=.043). Critical thinking positively related to learning styles (r=.219) and
grades (r=.097).This study suggested that adopting Abstract Conceptualization
and Active Experimentation modes of pedagogy may promote critical thinking.
Received 27 June 2007

MYUNG SOOK YOO

Assistant Professor
Department of Nursing
Catholic University
of Daegu
Namgu, Daegu, Korea

Assistant Professor
Department of Nursing
Catholic University
of Daegu
Namgu, Daegu, Korea

odays society is in the information age.


How to utilize the vast amount of information that is being generated every day for
problem-solving is important in higher education. The National Education Goals Panel
(1991) advocated critical thinking and effective

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GYEONG JU AN

INTRODUCTION

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Accepted 24 March 2008

Volume 29, Issue 1, May 2008

communication and problem-solving abilities as


indicators of success in higher education. Two
factors identified as playing key roles in the
problem-solving process are learning style and
critical thinking (Banta 1999).
A learning style is the particular way in
which an individual organizes experiences to

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Critical thinking and learning styles of nursing students in Korea


acquire and retain information. Learning style
has been utilized as an indicator of how a learner perceives new information and reacts to the
learning environment (Stradley et al 2002). If
students learning styles are assessed, learning
activities that further reinforce strengths or that
develop weaker phases can be systematically
planned to maximize thinking and problemsolving abilities (Miller & Malcolm 1990). Coker
(2000) examined the learning styles of athletic
training students in the classroom and in the
clinical setting and found that the students
learning styles shifted depending on the learning environment.Therefore, it is important for
educators to consider the learning environment
for influencing learning style to maximize the
educational experience.
Learning style has also been shown to influence educational performance (Haislett, Hughes
& Atkinson 1993; Ridley, Laschinger & Goldenberd 1995). Learning styles could be an important element to improve curricula and the
teaching process in higher education (Claxton &
Murrell 1987). Learning styles are conceptualized in many different ways, however the pre-

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eminent conceptualization, and that which is


adopted in this study, is Kolbs description of
learning styles (Kolb 1976). His work is heavily
influenced by Dewey and Paiget, who advocated
that learning should be grounded in experience
and active in nature and occurs best through
interaction with the environment. Kolb describes learning as a four-step process (Figure 1).
Learners first involve themselves in a concrete
learning experience and then reflect on that
experience from several perspectives. From this
reflection, they develop an abstract conceptualization, creating generalization or principles in
new situations through active experimentation.
Kolb encourages the educator to guide students
through all four of these learning styles in order
to produce a more balanced learner (Figure 1).
The four classifications of learning style represent an ongoing cycle of learning that is continually repeated throughout life. Because learning
is a cycle, the four stages occur time after time.
The effective learner uses each stage and shifts
from becoming involved (CE), to listening (RO),
to creating an idea (AC), to making a decision
(AE) (Stradly et al 2002).

FIGURE 1: KOLBS EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING MODEL (KOLB 1976)

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Gyeong Ju An and Myung Sook Yoo

Learning styles are accentuated through education and experience. Kolb (1976) also believes
learning is influenced by heredity, previous
experiences, and present everyday demand.
People may tend to prefer one learning style to
another, this may limit learning potential.Therefore people should be made aware of the need
to broaden their styles and be encouraged to
utilize learning environments that may not
immediately suit their preferred learning styles.
To assist in enhancing the learning experience,
the predominant learning style of particular student groups must be identified.
Critical thinking has been called one of the
most important attributes for success in the 21st
century and has been defined as the process of
reasonably deciding what to believe and do
(Lauder & James 2001). Critical thinking has
conceptual connections with reflective judgment, problem framing, higher order thinking,
logical thinking, decision-making, problem solving and the scientific method (Giancarlo &
Facione 2001). An ideal critical thinker is habitually inquisitive, well-informed, trustful of
reason, open-minded, flexible, fair-minded in
evaluation, honest in facing personal biases, prudent in making judgments, willing to reconsider, clear about issues, orderly in complex
matters, diligent in seeking relevant information, reasonable in the selection of criteria,
focused in inquiry, and persistent in seeking
results which are as precise as the subject and
the circumstances of inquiry permit (Coker
2000). Critical thinking dispositions, also known
as mental habits, are attitudinal in nature,
developed over time and are influenced by the
environment, social norms, peers and significant
adults, and are difficult to change in the shortterm (Irani et al 2004). Simply put, if there is no
disposition toward critical thinking, then critical
thinking will not take place, regardless of the
presence or absence of the necessary skills.
Critical thinking has been considered as
reflective thinking that is focused upon deciding
what to believe or do (Norris & Ennis 1990).To
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Volume 29, Issue 1, May 2008

be able to think critically, particular abilities and


dispositions are required.These include the use
of the reflection; the ability to judge the soundness of information and inferences drawn from
information. It also includes being open-minded
and able to produce rational information and
inferences; the ability to interact effectively
with other people; to be imaginative; and also
maintain clarity.
Preparing students to think critically is a goal
of many higher education professionals. Critical
thinking has become an increasingly prominent
component of clinical nursing practice and nursing education because it is essential to make professional judgments that have the potential to
affect patients present and future quality of life.
Although nursing professional judgment develops with accumulation of knowledge and the
application of logical as well as scientific methods (Yeh & Chen 2004), the ability to think critically must be explicitly encouraged. Despite the
need to promote critical thinking throughout
educational training, critical thinking is not explicitly promoted in the Korean nursing education
curriculum (Shin, Ha & Kim 2005) and there
have been few studies which document Korean
nursing students ability to think critically.
Instead, learning styles and critical thinking
have been examined individually for their effect
on Korean students learning (An 2007; Shin et
al 2005) but there are no studies investigating
the relationship between learning styles and
critical thinking.The paucity of literature examining the relationship between learning style
and critical thinking is of concern, since it is
possible that critical thinking may differ according to learning style.
Understanding the link between learning
style and critical thinking would enable development of a curriculum that helped all styles of
learners to develop their critical thinking skills.
The purpose of this study was to examine
students critical thinking and learning styles
and to investigate the relationship between
learning styles and critical thinking among stu-

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dents in the Korean baccalaureate nursing program.The study sought to answer the following
questions:
1. Are there differences in learning styles
related to grades?
2. Are there differences in critical thinking
related to grades?
3. Is critical thinking correlated with learning
styles?

METHODS
Design
This study was a descriptive correlational study.

Sample
A convenience sample (n=742) of students in
the four-year Baccalaureate nursing program in
five universities was taken.The five universities
were in five metropolitan cities (Seoul, Busan,
Daegu, Daejeon and Gwangju). A total of 768
questionnaires were collected, however 44 questionnaires were excluded from analysis due to
missing data.The final sample consisted of 742
students, all of whom were studying full-time
and of whom 97% were female. Of the sample,
19.4% (n=144) were in 1st grade, 29.6% (n=
220) were in 2nd grade 220(29.6%), 24.7%
(n=183) were in 3rd grade 183(24.7%), and
23.8% (n=177) were in 4th grade.
Instruments
The instruments were translated and retranslated by the two nursing professors involved in
this study. One translated forward and the other
translated back to ensure that the words were as
accurate as possible.

1. Learning style inventory (LSI)


The LSI is a brief, self-descriptive inventory
designed to measure learning style constructs.
There are nine sets of four adjectives that participants are asked to rank from being the
most characteristic (4) to the least characteristic
(1) of their learning style. The scores are tabu-

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lated on the four scales to find the emphasis on


each learning mode. As depicted in Figure 1,
there are four learning modes concrete experience (CE), reflective observation (RO),
abstract conceptualization (AC), and active
experimentation (AE).The four different learning modes are situated at each end of the two
dimensions (ACCE, AERO). The two learning dimensions form four quadrants, each of
which represents an individual learning style.
The four learning style types are: Accommodating, Diverging, Assimilating and Converging.
Learners are further categorized as to their
emphasis of abstractness over concreteness
(ACCE), and the extent that the individual
emphasizes action over reflection (AERO).
The Diverging and Accommodating styles are
described as having a concrete learning mode
while the Assimilating and Converging styles are
described as having an abstract learning mode
(Stutsky & Laschinger 1995). Reliability was
reported using testretest correlation coefficients =0.75.

2. Critical thinking disposition


inventory
This study uses the Critical Thinking Disposition
Inventory (Rudd, Baker & Hoover 2000). The
inventory is composed of 26 items, which represent three constructs of critical thinking disposition. These constructs are Engagement,
Cognitive Maturity, and Innovativeness.
Rudd et al (2000) report Cronbachs alphas
for each subscales as =0.80 for innovativeness; =0.79 for maturity, and =0.91 for
engagement.We found similar Cronbachs alpha
value for each subscale: innovativeness =0.79,
maturity =0.73 and engagement =0.79.

Procedure
The questionnaires were administered to each
student in class.The questionnaire package contained a consent form, a participant information
sheet, learning style inventory and critical thinking disposition inventory. The participant inVolume 29, Issue 1, May 2008

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Gyeong Ju An and Myung Sook Yoo

formation sheet explained the topic of study,


what the study wished to achieve, that voluntary
involvement was assured and whom to contact
for information regarding the study. The students were allowed 20 minutes to complete the
questionnaires. Recognizing the risk of coercion,
the researcher team members did not teach the
students who participated in the study and the
lecture assistant distributed and collected the
questionnaires.The institutional review boards
of all participating schools approved this study.

Statistical analysis
Descriptive statistics including frequency, mean,
and standard deviation were calculated.To identify the differences in learning styles and critical
thinking one-way ANOVA with the Scheffe
post-hoc analysis for assessing group differences
was used.The Spearman rank difference correlation measurement was used to analyze relationships between critical thinking disposition
and learning style.

RESULTS
Differences of learning styles
related to grades
The subjects ranged in age from 17 to 35 years
(mean=20.84, SD=1.76). As shown in Table 1,
learning styles of the subjects were diverging
315 (43.5%), Most of the subjects used a
diverging (43.5%) or accommodating learning
style (30.4%).The diverging style was the most
common learning style for all but the fourth
year students, who mostly commonly used an
TABLE 1: DIFFERENCES

accommodating style.There were no significant


differences in learning style among the grades
(F=12.296, df=3, P=0.197) however.

Differences of critical thinking related to grades and learning styles


As shown in Table 2, the level of critical thinking differed significantly among learning styles
and grades.
In post-hoc tests, the Diverging (75.11)
group had significantly lower overall critical
thinking scores (75.11) than the Assimilating
(80.01), Accommodating (77.89), or Converging (82.76) groups (p=0.001, p=0.002, p=
0.001 respectively).The overall critical thinking
scores for the converging learners (82.76)
group were significantly higher than the Accommodating (77.89, p=.001) group. However the
engagement subscale scores of the Diverging
(31.16) group were significantly lower than the
Assimilating (33.62), Accommodating (33.03),
and Converging (35.60) groups (p=0.001, p=
0.002, p=0.001, respectively).The Converging
(35.60) group was significantly higher than the
Accommodating (33.03, p=0.001) group on
the basis of engagement subscale scores.
Critical thinking and engagement among 4th
grade students (78.75, 33.28) was higher than
that of 1st grade students (75.89, 31.65, p=
0.045).
Correlations among critical thinking, grades, and learning styles
A correlation matrix containing critical thinking
disposition, learning styles and grades was gen-

IN LEARNING STYLES RELATED TO GRADES ( N =724)

Learning style (frequency(%)

Grades

1st grade
2nd grade
3rd grade
4th grade

Total

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Diverger

Assimilator

Accommodator

Converger

63(43.7)
108(49.1)
72(39.3)
72(40.7)

16(11.1)
25(11.4)
25(13.7)
12( 6.8)

55(38.2)
66(30.0)
69(37.7)
76(42.9)

10( 7.0)
21( 9.5)
17( 9.3)
17( 9.6)

12.296

.197

315(43.5)

78(10.8)

266(36.7)

65( 9.0)

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Critical thinking and learning styles of nursing students in Korea


TABLE 2: DIFFERENCES

OF CRITICAL THINKING RELATED TO LEARNING STYLES AND GRADES

Engagement
Learning
styles

Grades

abcd

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Maturity

Innovation

Critical thinking

Diverging (N=315)
Assimilating (N=78)
Accommodating (N=266)
Converging (N=65)

31.164.57abc
33.625.43a
33.035.43bd
35.604.77cd

24.492.83
25.512.71
24.632.91
25.363.23

19.452.95abc
20.873.23a
20.222.99bd
21.802.85cd

75.118.06abc
80.019.74a
77.898.94bd
82.768.96cd

F (p)

18.986(.000)*

3.722(.011)*

13.867(.000)*

18.243(.000)*

1st grade (N=144)


2nd grade (N=220)
3rd grade (N=183)
4th grade (N=177)

31.654.78a
32.245.22
32.774.80
33.285.22a

24.572.81
24.703.03
24.592.82
25.052.91

19.663.09
20.343.13
19.842.88
20.413.10

75.898.83a
77.309.30
77.218.24
78.759.24a

F (p)

3.163(.024)*

.984(.400)

2.470(.061)

2.736(.043)*

Scheffe test; *p<.05

erated. As can be seen in Table 3, critical think- observation. Diverging learners are sensitive
ing was weakly and positively related to learning and emotional, with an ability to understand
people and recognise problems. Accommodatstyles (r=0.219) and grades (r=0.097).
ing learners emphasise concrete experience and
TABLE 3: CORRELATIONS AMONG GRADES,
active experimentation; they are involved in
LEARNING STYLES , AND CRITICAL THINKING
new experiences and often carry out plans.
Learning Critical
Grades
styles
thinking They seek opportunities, take risks and often
adapt to changing immediate circumstances.
Grades
1
Accommodating learners also prefer to work
Learning styles
.062(.095)
1
with others, which is especially important for
Critical thinking .097(.009)* .219(.000)*
1
effectively communicating with patients, family,
*p<.05
and medical staff in the profession.
However diverging and accommodating students are called concrete learners. In this study
DISCUSSION
the percentage of concrete learners was 80.2%,
Differences of learning styles
compared to the lower percentage of concrete
related to grades
learners (53.7%) reported by Cavanagh, Hogan
The results of this study have been useful in and Ramgopal (1995). Allowing for the needs of
understanding the range of different learning concrete learners could only lead to enhanced
styles that exist among Korean nursing stu- learning potential from any educational exdents. This study found that the predominant perience. Concrete learners tend to choose
learning styles were accommodating and diverg- people-oriented professions (Laschinger 1992).
ing, with lower numbers of students utilising An individual who displays an orientation
assimilating or converging styles of learning. toward concrete experience emphasises feelings
These findings are similar to those of Lashinger as opposed to thinking, often making for good
(1992), Stutsky and Lashinger (1995), and Rid- intuitive decision-making.Those with an orientation toward reflective observation focus on
ley, Laschinger and Goldenberd (1995).
As depicted in Figure 1, diverging learners understanding the meaning of ideas and situaemphasise concrete experience and reflective tions by carefully observing and impartially

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Gyeong Ju An and Myung Sook Yoo

describing them.These learners exhibit characteristics of concreteness, for example, these


people perceive things to be either right or
wrong, good or bad, black or white. By contrast, abstract learners focus on using logic,
ideas, and concepts and emphasize thinking as
opposed to feelings (Gregorc 1982). Abstract
learners tend to see varying degrees of right or
wrong, good or bad, and only in shades of gray.
The educator and student must understand that
each of the four stages of the learning cycle
must be experienced in order to become a
balanced and effective learner (Kolb 1976).
Garcia-Otero and Teddlie (1992) found that students who knew their learning styles and how
they processed information had more confidence transferring their knowledge into clinical
practice.This requires students to become flexible learners and to strengthen the learning skills
that are weak. In view of diversity Korean nursing teachers need to facilitate abstract learning
for developing balanced learning among Korean
nursing students. Therefore Korean nursing
students need to obtain AC and AE mode, so
strategies should be developed to promote the
AC and AE mode.
The educator and student must understand
that each of the four stages of the learning cycle
must be experienced in order to become a
balanced and effective learner (Kolb 1976).
Garcia-Otero and Teddlie (1992) found that students who knew their learning styles and how
they processed information had more confidence transferring their knowledge into clinical
practice.This requires students to become flexible learners and to strengthen the learning skills
that are weak. In view of diversity Korean nursing teachers need to facilitate abstract learning
for developing balanced learning among Korean
nursing students.

converging, followed by the assimilating, then


accommodating and diverging. These findings
are consistent with Jenkins (1998) study in
which critical thinking was high among converging style learners, who rely primarily on
the abilities of abstract conceptualization and
active experimentation. This finding did not
support the view made earlier that the traits of
Kolbs diverging were representative of a good
critical thinker (1976). Diverging learning
style was lower critical thinking than the other
learning styles. This finding concurs with Sulimans (2006) study. Since diverging learning
styles rely on watching and feeling, they will
prefer to obtain the answer from educators as
passive learners. This spoon feeding approach
may discourage development of critical thinking
among the students.The greatest strength of the
converging style lies in problem-solving, decision-making and practical application of ideas.
Due to the similarities between the characteristics of converging and critical thinking, it could
be inferred that nurses with a converging style
of learning would also be proficient in critical
thinking.
Critical thinking and engagement of 4th
grade were significantly higher than that of 1st
grade. Engagement is developed according to
accumulation of opportunity and experience for
exercising thinking skills. Freshmen are lack
experience and competency in independent
learning. Therefore, nursing students were in
contact with the situation using critical thinking
skill more according to the grades.

Correlations among critical thinking, grades, and learning styles


This study attempted to examine the relationship between critical thinking disposition and
learning styles. There was a significant result
pertaining to the negative relationship between
Differences of critical thinking rela- age and critical thinking (Jenkin 1998). In the
study of Rudd et al (2000), the relationship
ted to learning styles and grade
In this study, the learning style with the highest between critical thinking disposition and learncritical thinking and engagement were that of ing styles was not significant. However, a posi106

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tive relationship between critical thinking disposition and learning styles was found in
this study. These results support the view that
converging is the predominant critical thinking
disposition, followed by assimilating, and then
accommodating and diverging in this study.
Dominant characteristics of converging involve
problem-solving, decision-making and practical
utilization of ideas, which is required in critical
thinking. Colucciello (1999) found a positive
relationship between critical thinking and the
learning mode of reflective observation.
Kolbs work provides a holistic perspective of
the assimilation, adaptation, and transformation
of knowledge required in higher-order thinking
and learning (Colucciello 1999). Learning style
is indeed a significant variable that educators
need to be familiar with to use in promoting
and developing critical thinking abilities in students.
In this study, critical thinking disposition was
positively correlated with year of study. This
finding is not consistent with Colucciellos
(1999) report which found increases in CCTDI
scores from the second and third year of
Baccalaureate nursing programs, but significant
decreases between the third and fourth year of
the programs. Differences in nursing curriculum may account for these incongruent findings, but further research is needed to define
the difference of nursing curriculum among
Koreans and other nationalities.
In our study, although the association between
learning styles and program years were statistically significant, the strength of the relationship
is weak. More research is needed to further
investigate the relationship between critical
thinking and learning style, and to determine
whether the association is the same for nursing
students in Korea and other countries.
Further research is also necessary to develop
the strategies for increasing critical thinking. If
critical thinking is adequately nurtured within
the Baccalaureate program, once the graduate
enters the clinical setting they are already capa-

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ble of thinking critically. The findings of this


research imply that the nursing faculty should
adopt learning strategies that will help to
activate their engagement in exploring thinking
(AC) and doing (AE).
The nursing faculty who are consciously
aware of their students learning styles to make
more informed choices in course material,
course design, and learning processes to broaden the opportunities for effective thinking (AC)
and doing (AE).

CONCLUSION
The learning styles of undergraduate nursing
students in Korea were mainly diverging and
accommodating. Baccalaureate programs should
be structured to enhance learning by assisting
and motivating learners to understand, and
solve problems appropriate to their own learning styles.These results suggest that transferring
to AC and AE modes can change learning style
and then promote critical thinking. It is important that nursing educators develop a curriculum and classroom techniques that foster
critical thinking and enable graduates to meet
the complicated needs of patients and establish a
scientific nursing process.

LIMITATIONS
In this study although all five schools were fouryear Baccalaureate nursing program, these
schools each have different curriculums and
learning environments.Therefore nursing educational curriculums and learning environments
may exert an influence on the students.

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C A L L F O R PA P E R S
USING VIDEO

IN

SOCIAL SCIENCES

AND

H E A LT H R E S E A R C H

Special issue of International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches, volume 3 issue 2, June 2009
Advisory editors: Rick Iedema, University of Technology, Sydney; Christian Heath, Kings College, London;
and Alexandra Juhasz, Pitzer College, Claremont CA, USA
Guest editors: Rowena Forsyth, University of New South Wales; Katherine Carroll, University of Technology,
Sydney; and Paul Reitano, University of New England, Australia
This special issue draws together researchers from a range of health (including medicine, nursing, psychology
and counselling) and social science (including management, education, legal and social work) disciplines to
present a range of methodological and ethical issues that influence the way video is utilised as an innovative
methodology, and the data and research outcomes that result from it.

DEADLINE FOR MANUSCRIPTS: 15 September 2008


Information: http://mra.e-contentmanagement.com/archives/vol/3/issue/2/call/
Submissions following Author Guidelines on the journal website may be addressed to:
MRAeditorial@e-contentmanagement.com
eContent Management Pty Ltd, PO Box 1027, Maleny QLD 4552, Australia
Tel.: +61-7-5435-2900; Fax. +61-7-5435-2911;
subscriptions@e-contentmanagement.com www.e-contentmanagement.com

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Volume 29, Issue 1, May 2008

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