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Article history:
Received 27 October 2014
Received in revised form
22 December 2015
Accepted 23 December 2015
This study reviewed VAV systems modeling and simulations, control strategies and optimization tools,
the airow characteristics of VAV systems, some common VAV systems' faults, detection and diagnosis,
energy usage and analysis, and the current applications of variable air volume (VAV) air-conditioning
systems. VAV system modeling is very complex as it involves complex structures and parameters a result
of which has led to lack of models that combine both the AHU and building with all the required
parameters.
The most common controllers used in VAV systems are the PID controllers. We saw that supply air
temperature and the ow rate of supply air are the best parameters that can be optimized in a VAV
system as they greatly minimize energy consumption. Genetic algorithms have good robustness, and can
be easily parallelized. However, they suffer from shortcomings such as slow convergence rates under
some conditions, and have difculty in adjustment of algorithms since there are no rules for determining
the number of individuals in populations. FLCs boost of advantages such as less or minimum overshoot,
oscillation and power consumption compared to conventional PID controllers, can be used in MIMO
systems, and they do not require models as they can control non-linear processes.
Airow control in VAV systems can be achieved through controlling static pressure and position of
the damper. Literature survey shows that balancing and distribution of airow in VAV air-conditioning
systems can be considered to be one of the main challenging areas of research concerning VAV system
control. Most methods used today for detecting and diagnosing faults are hybrid. These are superior to
the conventional methods of FDD.
In conclusion, VAV air-conditioning systems are the most energy efcient systems in use today.
Despite of their current strengths, VAV systems energy saving potential can still be improved.
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Variable air volume (VAV)
Modeling
Optimal control
Control algorithms
INDOOR air quality (IAQ)
Energy efciency
Contents
1.
2.
3.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
Modeling and simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787
2.1.
Model types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787
2.1.1.
Mathematical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787
2.1.2.
Empirical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
2.1.3.
The hybrid models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
2.2.
Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
2.3.
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
Operations and control of VAV systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
3.1.
VAV controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
3.1.1.
Classical controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
3.1.2.
Optimal, predictive, and adaptive controllers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
3.1.3.
A combination of FLC, neural controller, adaptive and PID controller. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.328
1364-0321/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
G.S. Okochi, Y. Yao / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 784817
785
3.2.
1. Introduction
The term variable air volume (VAV) rst came into existence in
the mid to late 1960s after studies by Urban [1]. After the world
energy crisis of 1970s, these systems gained popularity in the
United Kingdom (UK) and other countries across Europe in early
1980s as part of the efforts by engineers to come up with energy
efcient air conditioning systems [2].This was necessary due to the
cost of energy that was increasing at that time and has continued
to increase up to date. VAV systems by denition are simply air
conditioning (AC) systems that are designed to promote existence
of constant temperature in a conditioned space by varying the
volume of air supplied to the conditioned space instead of varying
the temperature of supplied air [3].Therefore, these systems vary
supply air volume at a constant temperature in order to meet the
demand caused by the changing heat load in the conditioned
space [4]. Generally, VAV systems can be broadly classied into
two categories as chilled water VAV air conditioning systems and
direct expansion (DX) cooling coil VAV air conditioning systems.
The basic components of a VAV air-conditioning system are: a
central air handling unit (AHU) with a variable speed supply fan
(can vary volume of air), coils used for heating or cooling, controls,
lters, mixing box, return or relief fan, air supply duct, VAV
terminal unit (device) connected to thermostats and supply diffusers and return duct or plenum.
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Nomenclature
Symbols
adp , bdp ,dp Damper coefcients
Adp
Area of the damper (m2 )
Awdn
Area of the nth window (m2 )
Awln
Area of the nth wall (m2 )
Az
Is the area of zone oor (m2 )
Azj
Contact area of thermal transmission of jth zone (m2 )
C ahu
Overall
thermal capacitance of the air handling unit
J=kg
C dp
Thermal capacitance of the damper J=kg
cout
Coil outlet
C pa
Specic heat capacity of air at constant pressure (J/
kg K)
C pw
Specic heat capacity of water (J/kg K)
C ref
Refrigerant mass ow coefcient
C sd
Thermal capacitance of supply duct (J/kg)
Cz
Zone thermal capacitance (J/kg)
D
Diameter of the valve (m)
Dsd
Diameter of supply duct (m)
et
Disturbance
f
Fraction of the fan/pump power converted to
thermal energy
K
Static gain
L
Dead time
_ aex
m
Mass ow rate of external air (kg/s)
_ aj
m
Mass ow rate of air in jth zone (kg/s)
_ amix
m
Mass ow rate of mixed air (kg/s)
_ aout=p Is the amount of outside air required per person (kg/s)
m
_ ra
m
Mass ow rate of re-circulated air (kg/s)
_ ref
m
Refrigerant mass ow rate (kg/s)
_ sa
m
Mass ow-rate of supply air (kg/s)
_ samin
m
The minimum volume of supply air when the zone is
not occupied (kg/s)
M sd
Mass of supply duct (kg)
_w
m
Mass ow rate of water (kg/s)
Npd
Is the designed occupancy
pi
Valve inlet pressure (Pa)
po
Valve outlet pressure (Pa)
Ps
Static pressure (Pa)
PT
Total pressure (Pa)
PV
Velocity pressure (Pa)
q1
Back shift operator
Q exld
External heat gains from solar radiation (W)
Q inld
Internal heat gains from occupants, and light (W)
Internal heat transfer rate of the jth zone (W)
Q_ inldj
Q max
Maximum heat transfer rate (W)
r
Re-circulation percentage
Rra
Return air ratio
T ain
Inlet air temperature (K)
T aout
Outlet air temperature (K)
T ca
Temperature of conditioned air (K)
T cout
Temperature of the outlet of the coil (K)
T ex
External temperature (K)
T mout
Temperature of the air exiting the mixing box (K)
Tr
Temperature of re-circulated (return) air (K)
T aex
Temperature of external air (K)
T amb
Ambient temperature (K)
T amix
Temperature of mixed air (K)
T insd
Temperature of internal supply duct (K)
T sa
Temperature of supply air (K)
T samax
Max possible supply air (K)
T spt
Set-point temperature (K)
T wdn
T win
T wln
T wout
Tz
T zj
UAahu
,; ; ; Polynomials
a
Density of air (kg/m3)
r
Density of refrigerant (kg/m3)
w
Density of water (kg/m3)
Time constant
P dp
Damper pressure change (Pa)
Abbreviations
a
C spt
compr
dp
elec
H spt
mech
Rspt
Air
Cooling set point
Compressor
Damper pressure
Electrical
Heating set point
Mechanical
Re-heating set point
G.S. Okochi, Y. Yao / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 784817
r
rpm
st
Refrigerant
Revolutions per minute
Saturated
sa
w
z
787
Supply air
Water
Zone
carried out by L [22] to determine thermal and humid characteristics of indoor air, he only considered heat and moisture
transmission across the walls, ceilings and roofs [14]. He ignored
heat and moisture transmission through ventilation, ltration via
windows and doors, and the internal load. In addition, the equation of moisture conservation he used assumed uniform temperature across all phases. He applied Fick's law and Darcy's law of
transmission of moisture to address the law of mass conservation.
For energy, the author used Fourier's law.
In another study, Ghiaus and Hazyuk [23] approximated space
load in transient simulation using a mathematical model. To
obtain the model parameters, they applied the theory of superposition for electrical circuits. The authors assumed a linear
building thermal model and used the lumped parameter method
to take care of the indoor air and thermal capacity of the wall. They
also assumed knowledge of series of disturbances which occur at
different times and occupational programs. This clearly shows that
the researchers made many assumptions in order to determine the
heat load which would result in large errors in the nal result.
Furthermore, the authors used a single-input single-output (SISO)
model that ignores moisture transmission. Moisture transmission
is an important factor in determining moisture comfort.
Concerning the air-handling unit (AHU) model, Wang et al.
[2427] used the law of conservation of energy and equation of
thermal balance on control volume to build models of heat
exchanger for air handling unit. The supply air and surface of heat
exchanger were also assumed to be at same temperature. They
went further to ignore the humidity of moist supply air since they
wanted to avoid consideration of the effect varying humidity on
thermal comfort.
Badescu and Sicre [28] developed a mathematical model to
compute the heating demand for a three-zone passive house (PH).
They used a 1D time-dependent conduction heat transfer equation
to analyze heat transfer through the high thermal inertia elements. They solved the heat transfer equation using a standard
Netlib solver (PDECHEEB). The authors used appropriate models
for conduction through low thermal inertia elements as well as a
simple approach for solar radiation transmission through windows. Finally, they considered how internal heat sources affected
the model. The above work was later improved by introducing two
new equations in the solar collector model. The two elements
added included useful heat ux and the mean temperature inside
collector area [29].
In another work by Badescu et al. [30], they developed a time
dependent model for a passive building in which they noted that
for proper evaluation of space cooling/heating demand we must
account for heat ux entering into the building by conduction,
passive solar heating as a result of light penetrating via the windows as well as internal heat sources and sinks. They also reported
that the thermal load changes continuously as a result of variations in both ambient temperature and solar irradiance.
In a later work by Badescu et al. [31], they developed a timedependent model to evaluate the thermal load of the AMVIC
building. They coupled the model with other the modules modeling the ventilation-heating system. The ensemble constituted
time-dependent Passive House Thermal Transients (PHTT) model.
During comparison of results, the authors found out that the PHTT
could estimate an annual relative total thermal load value which is
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Under these assumptions, we can apply several energy governing equations to estimate the dynamics of air temperature of a
single zone as given in Eq. (2.1) below [36].
dT z
_ sa C pa T sa T z U wln Awln T wln T z
m
a V z C z
dt
2:1
U wdn Awdn T wdn T z Q inld Q exld
Eq. (2.1) above suggests that the change rate of zone energy is
equivalent to the deviation between the gained and lost energy
inside the zone through heat transfer processes [36].
For a multi-zone model, air temperature of each jth zone is
given by Eq. (2.2) below:
dT zj
_ aj C pa T sa T zj U zj Azj T ex T zj Q_ inldj
a V zj C pa
m
2:2
dt
Note: In Eq. (2.2) above, the inuence of wall capacitance is
neglected.
2.1.1.2. The heating and cooling coil model. In a VAV air conditioning system, the cooling or heating coil conditions the
supply air [13]. This facilitates maintenance of the conditioned
space within the desired temperature. In VAV systems, a reheat
coil that is usually located in inside the mixing box is used to
control temperature of supply air. The dynamic temperature
model of the heating/cooling coil can be derived from the
energy balance in the airwater heat exchanger [18,33,37,38].
During modeling, it is assumed that:
2:4
T aout T ain
Q_ max
_ w C pw
m
Q_ max
_ a C pa
m
2:5
2:6
2:7
T mix rT r 1 rT ex ;
2:8
In which:
r
_ a2 T z2
_ ra
_ a1 T z1 m
m
m
;T
_ a2
_ amix r
_ a1 m
m
m
T amix
_ aex T aex m
_ sa m
_ aex T z
m
_ sa
m
2:9
2:10
The above equation can also be used to calculate CO2 concentration [43] and the humidity ratio [41] of mixed air by simply
replacing the temperature variables with their corresponding CO2
and humidity ratio variables respectively.
2.1.1.4. Duct and pipe model. Ducts aid in supplying of conditioned
air to the zone and extracting exhaust air from the zone [13]. There
G.S. Okochi, Y. Yao / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 784817
C sd Dsd a
dt
2:11
where T amb is the ambient temperature (K), T insd is the temperature of the internal supply duct (K), C sd is the thermal capacitance
of supply duct (J/K), Dsd is the diameter of supply duct (M), and
U sd is the conduction heat transfer coefcient of supply duct
(W/m2 K).
The model of supply air duct by Tashtoush et al. describes the
relationship between exit air temperature and the inlet air temperature [18]. This is shown below;
dT aout U insd U exsd ma C pa
T ain T aout
dt
U insd M sd C sd
2:12
Y s
1
e Ls ;
U s as2 bs c
2:13
where
"
j L !#
e c
a c real
=2c ;
Gjc
b imag
e jc L
Gjc
1
c ;
K
K
y1
;
u1
2:14
;
2:15
2:16
2:17
789
Y s
K
e Ls
U s s 1
2:18
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The approach suffers from the fact that a large amount of data
is required in order to generate an accurate shape of the probability distribution function (PDF) of a random variable.
The most common VAV components which adapt empirical
modeling approach include dampers, expansion valves, fans, and
pumps. These can be modeled as shown below:(1) Damper model
The main function of a damper is to control airow rate in ducts
of a VAV AC system. It accomplishes control of ow rate by
varying resistance to air ow in the supply duct leading to a given
conditioned space. When the damper rotates in an air stream, it
regulates air passage to the space. According to Huang [69], the
signal ut 0; 1 controls damper opening, where 0 indicates
fully closed and 1 indicates fully opened. Thus, the signal
determines the rate of mass ow of air through the damper.
ma adp edp ut bdp
2:20
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loads are dynamic throughout the system operation. Thus, deviations from the design set point result in drastic oscillations or
imbalances which cannot be ignored. Therefore, this gives us a
reason for implementing VAV system control which helps to eliminate zone overcool or overheat due to instability of the system.
Basically, a VAV control system has four basic elements namely;
sensor, controller, controlled device, and the source of energy. The
VAV system components which are in most cases under control
include, air handling unit (AHU), terminal unit, and Chiller plant
[88]. Basically, we have open loop (feed-forward) control as well as
closed loop (feedback) control. In feed-forward control, we cannot
monitor the accuracy of the control system whereas in feedback
control, we can compare measured parameters with set parameters and the corresponding signals are accordingly generated.
Thus, we are able to measure the effectiveness of the control
scheme. The feedback control scheme is the most widely used
control method in most VAV systems [89].
3:1
system. During their study, they modeled the building using statespace approach and implemented the simulation code using
MATLABTM. They concluded that proportional control is superior
to the two-position control for thermal comfort. But, the two
control schemes portrayed almost similar characteristics in terms
of energy consumption. The authors proposed that in proportional
control, and integral control element should be added in order to
do away with the steady-state error and improve the performance
of thermal comfort.
3.1.1.2. Proportional Integral (PI) Control. In PI controller, reset of
control mode is automatic [92]. In this system, deviation of the
controlled variable from the set point leads to an offset. This then
leads to a gradually and automatic shift of position of the proportional band thus restoring the variable to the set-point [92].
According to Haines [94] PI controllers are preferred in the
control of VAV systems compared to proportional controllers.
Therefore, PI controller adds a component proportional to the
control algorithm. Thus, can be mathematically expressed as:
Z
u K p E K i E:dT u0
3:2
where K i is the integral parameter, and dT is the time change.
According to Bai and Zhang [95], the transfer function of a PI
controller can be expressed as shown below:
Gc s
U s
K
Kp i
Es
s
3:3
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dE
dT
3:4
where
K d differential parameter
T d action time in relation to proportional action
K d T d rate gain value
dE
rate of change error signal
dT
Generally, components under control in HVAC systems follow a
PID-type control schematic that adjusts equipment settings based
on prevailing conditions. For instance in VAV systems control, the
damper opening is modulated based on the deviation between the
zone and set-point temperatures [101]. Therefore, the complete
PID controller can be mathematically expressed by Eq. (3.5) as
shown below;
Z
dE
u K p :E K i E:dT K d T d u0
3:5
dT
793
Eq. (3.5) above can generate a curve similar the one shown in
Fig. 3.3 below.
There has been intensive research work done in the eld of
applications of Proportional Integrate Derivative (PID) controllers
in VAV systems. Here, we will briey review some techniques
proposed for tuning and designing PID based control structures as
well as methods for assessing their performance in VAV systems.
Despite the advancement in control methods, PID controller
design and ZieglerNichols (ZN) [102] techniques are still being
used in VAV air-conditioning systems industry. However, the
ZieglerNichols technique suffers from prolonged time of testing
and limited performance; thus, it is used as a rst cut for tuning
PID controllers [95]. Use of control methods such as PID controllers suffers from poor tuning of K p ; K i ; and K d parameters.
These methods are also unable to take into account the interactions between various loops [103,104].
Dexter [105] studied a four-level HVAC control scheme. The
author assigned the fourth order or supervisory level to focus on
maintaining the desired indoor temperature and relative humidity; the third order level was for temperature and relative
humidity control for supply air; the second order level maintained
the performance of plant actuators and local control loops; and,
nally, the rst order level was to maintain the desired controller
setting based on system model.
Later on, Geng and Geary [106] studied how the overshoot and
settling time are affected by the disturbances in PID controllers.
Their study revealed that the tuning rules based on the Ziegler
Nichols method can only be applied where we have small normalized delay time and that when this is coupled with normalized
gain, they can tune PID controllers.
Lin et al. [107] used the theory of adaptive interaction to
design a new adaptation algorithm for PID controllers. The
algorithm achieves auto-tuning objective by minimizing the error
function. The PID auto-tuning algorithm proposed in their study
has advantages such as simplicity and independent of system
model. Results from simulations showed that the algorithm can
perform well under linear and non-linear systems; with or
without noise; stable or unstable systems; and with or without
time delay.
Bi et al. [48] developed an advanced PID auto-tuner for both
single and multi-variable processes in HVAC systems. The autotuner incorporates recent PID design rules to achieve high control
performances with dynamic characteristics. Decoupling control is
used for multi-variable processes. Results from experiments
showed effective and superior performance of the proposed autotuner over the manually tuned PID controller and the standard
relay auto-tuner. Wang et al. [108] developed an advanced autotuner and its applications in HVAC systems. The auto-tuner rst
identies a second order plus dead-time model based on two
continuous relay feedback experiments. Then, the PID controller is
designed on the basis of gain and phase-margin specications.
Results from experiments showed that the studied auto-tuner was
effective and had superior performance compared with the standard relay auto-tuner.
Kasahara et al. [109] investigated stability limit analysis and
tuning of PID controllers in bi-linear systems with time-delay
feedback. The results showed that instabilities are not produced by
the non-linearity of VAV systems. However, PID parameters for
linear systems must be slightly modied by nding the gain
reduction factors to suit real VAV systems.
During their study on development of PID tuning algorithm
using optimization subject to applying constraints on control input
parameters for a single-zone cooling system, Ozawa et al. [110]
achieved an over damped response with zero overshoot, which
prevented long oscillations during the utilization of integral
squared time error criterion in the performance index.
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Fig. 3.5. Resetting static pressure using terminal box feedback techniques.
30% to 70%. Pang et al. [148] polled each terminal box at intervals
of twenty minutes and used the maximum damper position using
a dead band from 85% to 95% as the basis for adjusting the set
point value.
Fig. 3.5 below depicts resetting static pressure using terminal
box feedback techniques.
3.2.2.2. Resetting static pressure without using terminal box feedback
techniques. Liu developed an airow control for VAV AC systems
[149]. The author created a fan airow station (FAS) whose role
was to calculate airow using measured fan speed and fan head.
This was done in order to avoid inaccurate airow measurements.
Liu and Liu [150] as well as Wu et al. [151] modied the previous
strategy developed by Liu [149] in their efforts to address system
stability. Their modications accounted for the system load distribution prole using a load factor that increases with zone
load ratio.
Liu et al. suggested that the set point of static pressure should
be linearly reset as a function of system airow [152]. They proposed the use of VFD speed in the absence of measured total airow. In their case study, they demonstrated that annual fan power
could be saved by between 68% and 75% through the application of
static pressure set-point reset based on VFD speed.
Zheng et al. [153] suggested that an effective control strategy
for envelop dominated buildings was linearly resetting the static
pressure set-point with reference to outdoor air temperature. In
such a strategy, energy savings are heavily dependent on the
minimum airow setting and the OA temperature range.
3.2.3. Air temperature reset control strategy
3.2.3.1. Supply air temperature reset control strategy (SAT). This
control strategy resets supply air temperature (SAT) in warm and
cool weather conditions. This is implemented to cut down the
energy associated with cooling systems in VAV systems conguration when zones may require reheating of central supply air for
maintenance of desired temperature [154]. Raising SAT during part
load conditions result into saving reheat energy in a VAV system
[135]. At any time when temperature of outdoor air is lower than
the set-point value of SAT, compressors are shut down and returnair (RA) and the outdoor air dampers adjust to provide the desired
SAT. Raising SAT whenever the supply airow is decreased to a
minimum setting of a VAV terminal unit can also decrease reheat
at zone level for zones with low cooling loads [135]. However,
since the supply air is at a slightly higher temperature, we need
more air to satisfy the cooling load and that will result into
increasing fan energy [11]. Therefore, SAT reset strategy should be
able to minimize overall VAV system energy use. To achieve
simultaneous minimization of compressor energy, reheat energy,
as well as fan energy several researchers [155157] have agreed on
general principles for balancing the competing issues as
outlined below:
When the outside air is warm keep the supply air cold so as to
benet from energy savings due to fan unloading. During mild
weather, raise the SAT set point in order to enhance the benets of
the economizer and reduce reheat energy [135]. For instance in
Fig. 3.6 below, the SAT set point is reset depending on the degree
by which outdoor dry-bulb temperature changes. Whenever the
dry-bulb temperature of outdoor air is warm or higher than 18 C
the set point value of SAT remains constant at 13 C (i.e. design
value). At this moment there is little or literary no cooling benet
from outdoor air, and no reheat is needed since the cooling load in
most zones is high enough. The absence of reheat at this point
eliminates chances of over-cooling. The air is kept cold due to
reduced airow emerging from the fan which is turned down at
this point. The turning down of the fan saves energy. The process
can be shown in Fig. 3.6.
When the outside air is cooler, the controls start to increase the
SAT set point value (i.e. upward reset). Under cooler conditions,
resetting enhances the benets of the economizer. Also, in case of
any zone level reheat it is minimized or in some cases eliminated.
In addition, there is a likelihood of signicant unloading of the
supply fan such that the extra energy used to deliver more air is
reduced. Finally, the maximum reset value is limited to 16 C. This
allows the systems to meet cooling load demands in interior zones
without the need to oversize VAV ductwork and terminals.
Literature survey on this control strategy shows that indeed the
method contributes to substantial energy saving. Norford et al.
studied SAT and outdoor airow control as well as its resulting
effects on energy consumption trend in a variable air volume
system [11]. They found out that varying the SAT led to a 10%
decrease in used energy during winter and between 11% and 21%
during summer.
Zaheer-Uddin and Zheng showed that there is an optimal SAT
in a climate. At this point, the supply air contains high relative
humidity and return air is used [158]. Zheng and Zaheer-Uddin
G.S. Okochi, Y. Yao / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 784817
carried out a case study and reported 20% energy saving as a result
of increasing outdoor air under certain conditions in a system that
used return air [159].
Ke et al. [160] simulated eight control strategies for ventilation
in VAV systems. Among the eight strategies three included varying
supply air temperature. They concluded that supply air temperature as well as supply airow rate were the best parameters that
can be optimized in a VAV system. Ke and Mumma [161] presented
a method for determining the SAT set point in VAV systems. They
reported that the optimization concept simultaneously reduced
energy consumption and met ventilation requirements.
Engdahl and Johansson [6] investigated the inuence of optimal SAT on energy use in a VAV system. Their analyses showed
that optimal control of SAT is superior to xed supply air temperature as it results into signicantly lower VAV system energy
use. Engdahl and Svensson [162] presented a theory for optimal
SAT with regard to energy use and analyzed its ability to save
energy when optimal temperature is applied to a complete outdoor air VAV system in northern Europe climatic conditions. Liu
et al. [152] published a guideline for SAT reset schedule in a continuous Commissioning Guidebook and provided some case studies to support the need for SAT reset schedule.
Advantages of SAT reset control strategy include:(1) Decreasing compressor energy;
(2) more compressor or chiller shut off hours when economizer
provides all necessary cooling, and
(3) signicantly decreases reheat energy.
However, the SAT reset control strategy may increase fan
energy and cause increased levels of humidity in zones.
3.2.3.2. Discharge air temperature reset control strategy (DAT). In
this approach reset is realized through lowering or rising temperature at which air is discharged from the air handling unit. The raising
and lowering is carried out based on the corresponding fall or rise of
the temperature of return air. The objective of doing this is to ensure
that all conditioned space load demands are effectively met as well
as minimizing the total energy used in the entire process. Much of
the energy saving is realized when the actual load conditions are
less than design operating conditions. Such a scenario calls for
minimizing pumping, cooling and heating which are the major
points of energy consumption in the system. However, when damper opening degree of the VAV terminal unit increases in response to
load demand, energy consumed by the supply fan will increase. VAV
terminal unit damper position reset is discussed here.
Reset of discharge air temperature is carried out on the basis of
damper position in VAV terminal units. Modulating actuators give
the signal of the actual damper position whereas uctuating
actuators give the signal of an approximate damper position [163].
Whenever there is a decrease of heat load, air dampers start to
gradually close to reduce the supply air volume. This causes the
DAT to gradually increase until one or more dampers attain a
desired position. On the other hand, whenever there is an increase
of heat load, air dampers start to gradually open to increase the
supply air volume. This causes the DAT to gradually decrease until
one or more dampers attain a desired position [135]. Here, the set
point value of DAT is continually adjusted according to the prevailing load demands.
3.2.4. Demand controlled ventilation (DCV) control strategy
Demand controlled ventilation is dened as automatic ventilation that uses occupancy to make adjustments. This strategy
reduces outdoor air intake rates below design rates when the
actual occupancy of zones served by the system goes below the
designed value [164]. The approach comprises of hardware,
797
798
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up to 31% for the VAV system with CO2 based DCV compared to the
CAV system without DCV for cold ambient conditions.
A CO2 based DCV control strategy (S-CO2-DCV) to maintain a
low supply air CO2 concentration set-point enough to dilute CO2
produced in critical zone so as to meet occupant needs was proposed by Nassif et al. [177] and Nassif and Zaheer-Uddin [178]. In
this strategy, the set-point of supply air CO2 concentration is
reached at on the assumption that critical zone is fully occupied
[177,178]. This strategy has the shortcoming such that it can lead
to over-ventilation of zones, when it is not fully occupied. Overventilation will lead to low CO2 concentrations in both return and
supply air. In response to this, the system closes the air-handler OA
damper until supply air CO2 concentration is achieved thus
decreasing over-ventilation.
A strategy similar to the above was also reported by Warden
[179]. Nassif et al. [177] compared their strategy with four other
strategies. They concluded that the S-CO2-DCV strategy can dynamically reset the rate of outdoor air intake to be less than the peak
design ow-rate, yet the dynamic ow-rate of supply air is always
above that for the CO2 based DCV system. They reported that the
return air duct CO2 based DCV did not provide enough ventilation to
the critical zones [177]. Nassif [180] updated his S-CO2-DCV strategy
in response to the new requirements in Standard 62-1-2010. In his
study, he proposed a robust DCV strategy based on CO2 concentration. The proposed strategy offers great benets in terms of
better indoor air control and improved energy efciency.
Several possible approaches for dynamic ventilation reset with
or without DCV were summarized by Stanke [181]. In his study,
Stanke included several occupancy sensing methods other than
CO2 sensors. The advantages and disadvantages of each method of
dynamic ventilation reset were outlined but no single method
emerges as a clear best solution.
Xu et al. proposed a model based optimal ventilation control
method for multi-zone VAV systems [182]. The strategy uses
genetic algorithms to seek an optimized solution for temperature
set-points of critical zones, while considering the dynamic changes in occupancy.
Advantages of DCV mainly include energy cost savings in various types of buildings as was reported by Mansson [183] and Meir
[184]. However, DCV also suffers from disadvantages such as;
(1) Difculties in maintenance, frequent calibration, drift, temperature effects, and uncertain proper location of sensors.
(2) Sensor unreliability as was identied by [185188]. In the event
that the sensors are out of calibration such that measured CO2
concentration is higher than the actual value, the system will
allow inow of excess outdoor air into the air-handling system
to meet the inaccurately measured CO2 concentration in the
zones served by the air handler. Houghton [170] examined the
impact of free cooling by an economizer on DCV systems. He
found out that prolonged periods of economizing decrease the
potential energy savings from DCV.
3.3. Control algorithms for optimization tools in VAV AC systems
3.3.1. Genetic algorithms
Genetic algorithms (GAs) use Darwinian evolution theory to
realize the optimization objective [189]. According to Koza [189]
GAs use operations of evolution to produce new populations with
tness values of higher average. The higher the tness value an
individual possesses, the closer it is to the optimal result. These
algorithms were developed in early 1970s but their utilization in
HVAC systems is recent [190]. The phrase genetic algorithm was
rst brought into existence by Bargley [191]. GAs have so far
addressed issues to do with design of VAV systems, or control of
the systems to minimize cost, energy consumption and
G.S. Okochi, Y. Yao / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 784817
is
Ai
and
is
Bi ; then
is
Ci
is
Ai
and
is
Bi;
then
is
Ai
and
is
Bi ; then
z zi
799
800
G.S. Okochi, Y. Yao / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 784817
3:6
_ aout=p =1 Rra ; m
_ samin m
_ aout=z Az =1 Rra ;
_ sa=p m
m
3:7
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3:8
801
802
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Duct static pressure set point can be reset by varying the supply
airow rate in the system. According to ASHRAE [141], airow is
usually modulated by means of a variable frequency drive (VFD),
an eddy-current clutch, inlet guide vanes, outlet dampers, or a
vane axial fan with adjustable pitch blades. The following points
are worthy noting here, that;
4. Air properties
The air properties comprise of velocity/airow rate, duct static
pressure, supply air temperature, and air humidity in the
G.S. Okochi, Y. Yao / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 784817
4:1
where v is the average air velocity in m/s and A is the crosssectional area in contact with the air in the duct in m2. The average
velocity (v) can be determined by dividing the duct opening into a
number of equal areas and taking the velocity reading of each area
then calculating the average.
The second approach of determining airow rate is by using
pressure drop method. The basic principle in this approach is that
any obstruction in the air path will cause a pressure drop in the
moving air due to frictional resistance and turbulence. By characterizing the obstruction in the air duct and calibrating the
pressure drop against known ow rates, the value of pressure
difference may be used to determine volume airow rate.
According to Bernoulli's principle, the square of air velocity is
directly proportional to the pressure difference between tubes
when measurements are done using a standard pitot-tube as
shown in the equation below;
PT Ps
v2
PV
2
4:2
4:3
vin 2 vout 2
P T P s
4005
4005
4:4
"
P T P s
4Q
4005D2
2
4Q
4005WH
2 #
4:5
where vin and vout are the box inlet and outlet velocities, Q is the
volume airow rate, D is the inlet diameter of the box, W is the
inside width and H inside height of the box outlet.
4.1.1. Airow rate measuring devices
Proper selections of airow rate measuring devices are a very
important aspect for efcient operation of VAV AC systems [238].
The performances of these devices differ even under similar
operating conditions. VAV systems airow rate measuring devices
include but not limited to.
4.1.1.1. Pitot-static tubes. These are mostly used to measure airow
in terminal boxes. The Pitot tube is placed into the air stream when
measuring the velocity of an air in ducts, so that the sensing tip
803
points directly into the moving air stream [240]. Then the Pitot
tube along with a differential pressure measuring device will
generate a signal which represents the difference between the
total pressure and the static pressure [241]. The resultant pressure
magnitude represents the true pressure caused by air movement.
Pitot-static tubes have a disadvantage in that their accuracy
usually falls off at low end of the range.
4.1.1.2. Hot-wire anemometer. Hot-wire (thermal) anemometer can
accurately measure airow in buildings when adequate number of
sensors are used across a duct section [242]. The main advantage
of hot-wire anemometers is that they can provide analog outputs
that are proportional to ow and doesn't need calculation of
square root to measure airow. However, the application of this
device is unpopular due to the following disadvantages. Hot-wire
anemometers can only measure one point in the duct crosssection and may also require periodic calibration [243].
The set-up for the airow measurement is as shown in Fig. 4.1.
4.1.2. Airow control
Airow control in VAV systems is a very important aspect. The
main objective of airow control is to ensure each zone or space
receives sufcient airow, proper control of outside air intake and
maintenance of positive building pressure [149]. We can use
damper position control as well as static pressure control to
ensure delivery of sufcient air to each conditioned space [149].
Intake of outdoor air often utilizes the direct method [245], the
xed damper position, the plenum pressure control, and the CO2
demand control.
In many applications, control of outdoor air is achieved by
setting both the outside air damper and return air damper at xed
positions. The positioning of dampers is done during the process
of system balancing and testing. The prevailing conditions during
testing dictate intake of outdoor air. This can be higher or lower
than the set-point value. The outside air damper is usually
modulated by a controller in order to maintain the needed outdoor
airow. Accurate measurement of airow requires provision of a
minimum outdoor air fan or duct [246]. The direct method can
provide efcient outside air control as long as measurement of
airow is accurate. However, cases of air leakage in most buildings
can lead to reduced accuracy of measurement of outside air. This
may occur when the maximum outdoor air damper by-passes the
ow station [149].
The plenum-pressure control method is able to maintain the
desired level of pressure inside the air mixing box by regulating
the speed of return air fan or the position of return air damper
[247]. In this control method, the ow meter is the air damper.
4.1.3. Improvement of airow control
There have been several studies done to improve airow control strategies. Cheong [248] studied airow measurements balancing of air distribution system. The author studied the applicability and precision of tracer-gas method. Results showed that
tracer-gas method can be a good substitute of pitot-static transverse method in measuring ow during balancing.
Tan and Dexter [249] investigated the design of simple airow
actuators or control signals. The authors carried out simulation of
the air-circuits of a VAV AC system and experimentally validated
their ndings. They used simulation to investigate the relationship
between supply airow, inlet airow, extract airow. They further
used simulation to draw relationship between fan control signals
and mixing air-box dampers in the AHU [249]. Linear estimators
were proposed for determining airow rates on the basis of results
from simulation. Chow and Liu [250] developed and implemented
practical terminal box control sequences for resetting minimum
airow in a single duct terminal boxes in VAV systems. A
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Fig. 4.1. Schematic diagram of airow measurement and control set-up [243].
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Ci Cs
;
Ce Cs
4:6
4:7
V ot Y V st
4:8
805
4.3. Summary
The most important properties of air in VAV air-conditioning
systems are airow rate, duct static pressure, humidity, outdoor
and supply air temperature, space temperature and return air
temperature of the conditioned space. Airow rate measurement
can be done using hot-wire anemometer, pitot-static, ow stations, trace-gas technique etc.
Airow control has the main objective of ensuring sufcient
airow capacity to each conditioned zoned, proper control of
outside air intake, and maintaining positive building pressure.
Airow control in VAV systems can be achieved through controlling static pressure and damper position. Accurate measurement
of airow requires a minimum outside air duct or fan.
Literature survey shows that balancing and distribution of airow in VAV air-conditioning systems is one of the main challenging areas of research concerning VAV system control. So far, there
is no standard method given for balancing and distribution of
airow through zones in VAV air-conditioning systems.
where
X V on =V st is uncorrected outdoor airow fraction.
Y V ot =V st is the corrected outdoor airow fraction
Z is the critical space ventilation fraction
V on is the sum of space ventilation airows.
V ot Y V st required system outdoor airow
V st is the total supply airow.
The challenge of VAV design is to properly ventilate all spaces
at all load conditions. Supply air in VAV systems is a mixture of
ventilation air and re-circulated air that is carried to the space by a
single duct. This therefore means that the proportion of air in this
supply air mixture must change as the supply airow changes to
maintain proper ventilation levels in conditioned spaces [268].
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Table 5.1
A list of some common VAV system faults [288].
Faults
Symptoms
1.
2.
1.
1.
2.
Zone temperature sensor offset
1.
1.
2.
Increased energy consumption due to increased pressure drops in the plant loop.
Occupant discomfort due to insufcient water ow rate in the plant loop.
Reduction in coil capacity due to reduced overall conventional heat transfer coefcient (UA).
In case of stuck OA damper, no air modulation. This results into energy penalty when OA conditions allow
free cooling or minimum OA is demanded for mechanical cooling/heating mode.
In case of leaking OA damper, an energy penalty when rate of leakage is higher than the needed OA
ow rate.
Energy penalty and thermal discomfort due to improper control of outside air damper, return air damper,
and cooling/heating valve.
Higher energy consumption by the fan/pump in case it is stuck at higher speed than that required.
Reduced indoor air quality when the fan is operating at low speed than that required.
Fig. 5.1. (a) Flow diagram of state variable estimation approach, and (b) parameter estimation approach [284].
G.S. Okochi, Y. Yao / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (2016) 784817
807
808
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faults in sensors. The results suggest that the method can efciently diagnose various types of faults.
Wang et al. [311] proposed an online model-based FDD strategy
to diagnose sudden faults of VAV air-handling units (AHU). The
proposed FDD strategy is a hybrid method. Faults in AHU are
detected using a self-tuning model. The adjustment of model
parameters is accomplished by an optimization strategy based on
a genetic algorithm. If the fault detection threshold is less than the
corresponding residual, this suggests presence of faults in air
handling unit system. The results showed that the strategy can
effectively detect and diagnose faults of AHUs.
Yang et al. [312] designed a hybrid model-based strategy for
detecting faults occurring in sensors located in air handling units.
The authors combined the statistical residual-based method and
the fractal correlation dimension (FCD) algorithm. They claimed
that, considering the strengths and weaknesses associated with
each individual approaches, the hybrid fault detection technique
can give mutual strengths and complement each other.
Sterling et al. [313] studied a model-based detection and
diagnostic solution underpinned by modelica models that uses a
qualitative approach to diagnose that was applied to diagnosis of
AHU. The authors pointed out that modelica-based approach can
adapt to different plants and to changes in the same plant. Xiao
et al. [314] proposed a diagnostic Bayesian network (DBN) for
detecting and diagnosing VAV system terminal faults. Two rules
were adopted to isolate the fault on the basis of the fault probabilities to make the method more robust. When compared with
previous rule-based methods, the proposed method can work well
with uncertain and incomplete information since the faults are
with probabilities rather than in the Boolean format. Results
revealed that ten typical VAV terminal faults could be effectively
diagnosed.
mainly focused on the air handling unit as one of the main components in VAV systems. Recently, attention has been given to the
study of faults in VAV sub-systems like heating/cooling coils,
dampers etc. A few points to note here are that;
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810
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811
8. Conclusion
In this review we have discussed VAV systems modeling and
simulations, control strategies and optimization tools, the airow
characteristics of VAV systems, some common VAV systems' faults,
detection and diagnosis, energy consumption and analysis, and the
current applications of VAV air-conditioning systems.
There are two main classications of models namely, mathematical models and empirical models. The third type of models
known as hybrid models is simply a combination of the two main
model classes. Some of the challenges experienced with different
modeling methods include: at least each modeling approach has a
major shortcoming derived from assumptions, unmeasured disturbances, and uncertainties in thermal properties of elements
that make up the structure; there is no model that combines both
the AHU and building with all the required parameters; and the
existing models for space zone do not address the lag time cooling
load and the effect of solar rays incident on building walls, roof,
and windows. For accurate modeling, we should try to minimize
assumptions as much as possible.
Control of VAV systems helps to increase the working and
energy efciencies of the systems. The most common controllers
used in VAV systems are the PID controllers. The most common VAV
control strategies are the static pressure reset control strategy and
supply air temperature control strategy. Duct static pressure set
point can be reset by varying the supply airow rate in the system.
Modulation of airow is usually realized means of a variable frequency drive (VFD), inlet guide vanes, an eddy-current clutch, or
outlet dampers. The following were noted on VAV control, that;
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Appendix
Denition of terms used
Control point The actual condition (temperature, humidity,
pressure etc.) that is being sensed.
Error/offset This is the amount of deviation from the setpoint. It is the difference between the set-point and the
control point.
Flow-rate of air entering the zone This is the rate at which
cooled or heated (conditioned) air enters the zone in a given
time period.
Set point - This is the desired condition (which must be maintained) of a variable under control such as pressure, temperature, among others.
Static pressure This is the pressure of air that is not in motion
within the duct. It can also be understood as the amount of
resistance to air ow within the duct work. A high static pressure or resistance means more energy is needed to move air
within the duct work.
Throttling range (TR) This is the change in measured variable
(pressure, temperature, humidity etc.) that causes the controller
to travel from one end of its stroke to the other. An example of
this can be the amount of temperature range that causes an
actuator to travel from a completely open position to a completely closed position.
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