CHRIST THE TEACHER INSTITUTE FOR EDUCATION

TANGAZA COLLEGE

CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN AFRICA

SEKONE ABEL

FILE NUMBER: C012008

DEPARTMENT: MATHEMATICS

CMTH

TERM PAPER: QUESTION N 2

LECTURER: Ms.

NAIROBI/ 12TH OCTOBER 2012

Preliminaries
Conics, an abbreviation for conic sections, are curves that result from the intersection of a (right
circular) cone and a plane. The conics we shall study arise when the plane does not contain the
vertex. Circles, parabolas, ellipses, and hyperbolas are called conic sections because you can get
those shapes by placing two cones - one on top of the other - with only the tip touching, and then
you cut those cones by a plane. When you move that plane around you get different shapes.
Those shapes are Parabolas (when the plane is parallel to one and only one generator);
hyperbolas (when the plane is parallel to two generators); and ellipses (when the plane is parallel
to no generator, in which case it intersects each generator). A special case of the ellipse is a circle
(which results when if the plane intersects each generator and is also perpendicular to the axis of
the cone).

We shall discuss three conics: the parabola, the hyperbola and the ellipse.
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The Parabola
Definition
A parabola is defined as the collection of points P in a plan such that the distance from each
point to a fixed point F equals its distance to a fixed line D. The point F is called the focus of the
parabola and the line D is its directrix. As a result, a parabola is the set of points P for which
d(F, P) = d(P, D)

(1)

Figure 2 shows a parabola. The line through the focus F and perpendicular to the directrix D is
called the axis of symmetry of the parabola. The point of intersection of the parabola with its
axis of symmetry is called the vertex V. Because the vertex V lies on the parabola, it must satisfy
equation (1), namely d(F, V) = d(V, D). Thus, the vertex is midway between the focus and
the directrix. We shall let p equal the distance d(F, V) from F to V.
Figure 2

Derivation of the equation

To do this, we use a rectangular system of coordinates, positioned so that the vertex V, focus F,
and directrix D of the parabola are conveniently located. If we choose to locate the vertex V at
the origin, (0, 0), then we can position the focus F on either the x-axis or the y-axis.
Lets consider figure 3. The equation of D must be x= - p ; if P(x, y) is any point on the parabola,
then P must obey equation (1), namely d(F, P) = d(P, D).
Figure 3

d(F, P) = d(P, D) (use the distance formula and square both side)
( x p )2+ y 2 = |x +a|
( x p )2 + y 2=( x +p )2
2
y =4 px
Therefore, the equation of a parabola with vertex at (0, 0), focus at (p, 0), directrix x=-p,
p>0 is
y 2=4 px
In general, the equations of a parabola with vertex at (0, 0), and focus on an Axis, p>0 can
be obtained according to different cases in the table1.
VERTEX

FOCUS

(0, 0)

(p, 0)

(0, 0)

(-p, 0)

(0, 0)

(0, 0),

DIRECTRIX

x= - p

EQUATION

DESCRIPTION

y 2=4 px

Parabola ,axis of
symmetry is the
x-axis, opens to right

x= p

y 2=4 px

Parabola, axis of
symmetry is the
x-axis, opens to left

(0, p)

y= - p

x =4 py

(0, -p)

y= p

x =4 py

Parabola, axis of
symmetry is the
y-axis, opens up

Parabola, axis of
symmetry is the
y-axis, opens down

GRAPH

Center at (h, K)

Table 2 gives the different cases of parabola with vertex at (h, k), h>0, k>0 and Axis of
symmetry parallel to a coordinate Axis.
VERTEX

FOCUS

DIRECTRIX

(h, k)

(h +p,
k)

x= - p +h

(h, k)

(h - p,
k)

(h, k)

(h, k)

EQUATION

DESCRIPTION

( yk )2=4 p ( xh )

Parabola, axis of
symmetry parallel to
x-axis, opens to right

x= p + h

( yk )2=4 p ( xh )

Parabola, axis of
symmetry parallel to
x-axis, opens to left

(h, k +
p)

y= - p + k

( xk )2 =4 p ( yh )

Parabola, axis of
symmetry parallel to
y-axis, opens up

(h, k p)

y= p +k

( xk )2 =4 p ( yh )

Parabola, axis of
symmetry parallel to
y-axis, opens down

GRAPH

The ellipse
Definition
An ellipse is the collection of all points in the plane the sum of whose distances from two fixed
points, called the foci, is a constant.
Figure 4

In figure 4, the foci are labeled F1 and F2. The line containing the foci is called the major axis.
The midpoint of the foci is called the center of the ellipse. The line through the center and
perpendicular to the major axis is called the minor axis.
The two points of intersection of the ellipse and the major axis are called the vertices, V1 and V2,
of the ellipse. The distance from one vertex to the other is called the length of the major axis.
The ellipse is symmetric with respect to its major axis and with respect to its minor axis.
Derivation of the equation
Let us place the ellipse on a system of rectangular coordinates. First, we place the center of the
ellipse at the origin. Second, we position the ellipse so that its major axis coincides with a
coordinate axis.
Suppose the major axis coincides with the x-axis. See figure 5.
Figure 5

Now we let 2a denote the constant distance referred to in the definition. We have F1(-c, 0) and
F2(c, 0). If P(x, y) is any point on the ellipse, we have
d(F1, P) + d(F2, P) = 2a
( x + c )2 + y 2 + ( x c )2+ y 2 = 2a

( x + c) + y
2

= 2a -

( x c ) + y
2

(square both side, isolate the radical, divide each side

by 4 ) gives
cxa2=a ( xc ) + y 2
2

(square both side again and simplify) to get

( a2 c 2 ) x 2 +a2 y 2=a 2 ( a 2c 2 ) (Equation 1)

To get points on the ellipse off the x-axis, it must be that a > c. However, we have
d(F1, P) + d(F2, P) = 2a, d(F1, P)=2c, and d(F1, P) + d(F2, P) > d(F1, F2 ). Thus, 2a
> 2c and a > c.
Since a > c, then a2 > c2 , so a2 - c2 > 0. Let b2 = a2 - c2, b > 0.
Then a > b and Equation 1 can be written as
b2 x 2+ a2 y 2=a2 b2 (divide each side by a2 b2 )
x2 y2
+ =1
a2 b2
Therefore, an equation of the ellipse with center at (0, 0) and foci at (-c, 0) and (c, 0) is
x2 y2
+ =1
a2 b2

where a > b and b2 = a2 - c2

(2)

The major axis is along the x-axis.

If the major axis of an ellipse with center at (0, 0) coincides with the y-axis, then the foci are at
(0, -c) and (0, c). Using the same steps as before, the definition of an ellipse leads to the
following result:
An equation of the ellipse with center at (0, 0) and foci at (0, -c) and (0, c) is
x2 y2
+ =1
b2 a2

where a > b and b2 = a2 - c2

(3)

The major axis is the y-axis; the vertices are at (0, -a) and (0, a). Figure 6 illustrates the graph
of such6 an ellipse.
Figure

Note: The circle may be considered a special kind of ellipse. To see how, let a = b in equation
(2) or in equation (3). Then
x2 y2
+ =1
a2 a2
2

x + y =a
This is the equation of a circle with center at the origin and radius a.
Center at (h, k)

Table 3 gives ellipses with center at (h, k) and Major Axis parallel to a coordinate axis.
CENTER

MAJOR AXIS

FOCI

VERTICES

EQUATION

GRAPH

(h, k)

Parallel to x-axis

(h c, k)

(h a, k)

( xh )2 ( yk )2
+
=1
a2
b2

a > b and b2 = a2 - c2

(h, k)

Parallel to y-axis

(h, k c)

(h, k a)

( xh )2 ( yk )2
+
=1
b2
a2

a > b and b2 = a2 - c2

The hyperbola
Definition
A hyperbola is the collection of all points in the plane the difference of whose distances from two
fixed points, called foci, is a constant.
Figure 7 illustrates a hyperbola with foci F1 and F2. The line containing the foci is called the
transverse axis. The midpoint of the foci is called the center of the hyperbola. The line through
the center and perpendicular to the transverse axis called the conjugate axis. The hyperbola
consists of two separate curves, called branches that are symmetric with respect to the
transverse axis, conjugate axis, and center. The two points of intersection of the hyperbola and
the transverse axis are called the vertices V1 and V2 of the hyperbola.
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Figure 7

Derivation of the equation

Let us place the hyperbola on a system of rectangular coordinates. First, we place the center of
the hyperbola at the origin. Second, we position the hyperbola so that its transverse axis
coincides with a coordinate axis.
Suppose the transverse axis coincides with the x-axis. See figure 8.
Figure 8

We have F1(-c, 0) and F2(c, 0). Now we let the constant difference of the distances from any
point P(x, y) on the hyperbola to the foci F1 and F2 be denoted 2a. (If P is on the right
branch, + sign is used; if P is on the left branch, the sign is used.)
The coordinates of P must obey the equation:
d(F1, P) d(F2, P) = 2a
(use distance formula)

( x + c) + y

( x + c) + y

= 2a +

to get

( x c ) + y
2

= 2a

( x c ) + y

( c 2a2 ) x 2a2 y 2=a2 ( c 2a2 )

(isolate one radical, square both sides and simplify)

(1)

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To get points on the hyperbola off the x-axis, it must be that a < c. Look again at figure 8. The
point P is on the right branch, so d(F1, P) d(F2, P) = 2a. Now d(F1, P) < d(F2, P) + d(F1,
F2 ).
d(F1, P) - d(F2, P) < d(F1, F2 ). Thus, 2a < 2c and a < c.
Since a < c, then a2 < c2, so c2 - a2 > 0. Let b2 = c2 - a2, b > 0.
Then Equation 1 can be written as
b2 x 2a2 y 2=a2 b2
x2 y2
2 =1
2
a a
Therefore, an equation of the hyperbola with center at (0, 0) and foci at (-c, 0) and (c, 0) is
x2 y2
2 =1
2
a b

where b2 = c2 - a2

(2)

The transverse axis is the x-axis.

If the transverse axis of the parabola with center at (0, 0) is the y-axis, then the foci are at (0,
-c) and (0, c). Using the same steps as before, the definition of an hyperbola leads to the
following result:
An equation of the hyperbola with center at (0, 0) and foci at (0, -c) and (0, c) is
y2 x2
=1
a 2 b2

where

b2 = c2 - a2

(3)

The vertices are at (0, -a) and (0, a).

Figure 9 shows the graph of the hyperbola defined in Equation (3).

Figure 9

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Asymptotes of hyperbolas
We must recall that an asymptote of a graph is a line with the property that the distance from the
line to points on the graph gets closer to 0 as
The hyperbola

x2 y2
=1
a2 b 2

x s .

has two asymptotes

b
y= x
a

and

y=

b
x
a

The asymptotes of a hyperbola are not part of the hyperbola, but they do serve as a guide for
graphing a hyperbola. For example suppose we want to graph the equation

x2 y2
=1
a2 b 2

We begin by plotting the vertices (-a, 0) and (a, 0). Then we plot the points (0,- b) and (0,
b). use these four points to construct a rectangle. The diagonals of this rectangle have slopes
b/a
and b/a, and their extension are the asymptotes y =(b/a)x and y = -(b/a)x of the
hyperbola.
See figure 10.
Figute 10

The hyperbola

y2 x2
=1
a 2 b2

has two asymptotes

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a
y= x
b

and

y=

a
x
b

Center at (h, k)

Table 4 gives hyperbolas with center at (h, k) and Transverse Axis parallel to a coordinate axis.
CENTER

TRANSVERSE AXIS

(h, k)

FOCI

Parallel to x-axis

VERTICES

(h c, k)

EQUATION

(h a, k)

ASYMPTOTES

( xh )2 ( y k )2

=1
a2
b2

b
yk= ( xh )
a
b 2 = c2 - a 2

(h, k)

Parallel to y-axis

(h, k c)

(h, k a)

a
yk= ( xh )
b
b 2 = c 2 - a2

Conics: The General Quadratic Equation and the Discriminant

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( y k )2 ( xh )2

=1 ,
a2
b2

Every equation that is quadratic in the variables x or y or both can be written in the form
Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2+ Dx + Ey + F = 0 where A through F are constants.
The form Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2+ Dx + Ey + F = 0 is called the general quadratic equation.
Each of the conic sections can be written in the form of a general quadratic equation by clearing
all fractions and collecting all of the terms on one side of the equation. The graph of a general
quadratic equation is always a conic section or a degenerate form of a conic section.
The discriminant of the the general quadratic form Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2+ Dx + Ey + F = 0
is the value B2 4AC
The graph of the general quadratic equation Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2+ Dx + Ey + F = 0 is:
an ellipse if B2 4AC < 0 (degenerate forms: one point or no points)
a parabola if B2 4AC = 0 (degenerate forms: two lines, one line, or no points)
a hyperbola if B2 4AC > 0 (degenerate form: pair of intersecting lines).
Conics: Polar equations
The locus of a point in the plane that moves so that its distance from a fixed point (focus) is in
constant ratio to its distance from a fixed line (directrix) is a conic. The constant ratio is the
eccentricity of the conic and is denoted by e. Moreover, the conic is an ellipse if 0 < e < 1, a
parabola if e = 1, and a hyperbola if e > 1.
The polar equation of a conic is:
r=

ep
1 e sin

r=

or

ep
1 e cos

e > 0 is the eccentricity and |p| is the distance between the pole and the directrix.
Note that:
If the denominator is 1
If the denominator is 1
If the denominator is 1
If the denominator is 1

+ e , it has a horizontal directrix above the pole.

- e sin it has a horizontal directrix below the pole.
+ e cos , it has a vertical directrix to the right of the pole.
- e cos it has a vertical directrix to the left of the pole.

Conics: some applications

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Ellipses: Application to The Solar System

Kepler's First Law of Planetary Motion says that the orbits of the planets are ellipses, with the
Sun at one focus of the ellipse. As reformulated by Newton, the First Law says that the orbits
may be any kind of conic section, with the Sun at one focus of the section. In practice, however,
all planetary orbits must be ellipses, because objects in parabolic or hyperbolic orbits would go
around the Sun once, go out into interstellar space, and never return. For an object to have been
orbiting the Sun for 4.5 billion years, as the planets have been, the orbit must be closed and
repeating, so it must be a circle or an ellipse; and since a circle can be viewed as a special kind of
ellipse (as explained below), all of the orbits in our Solar System are elliptical.
Moreover though not so simple as the circle, the ellipse is nevertheless the curve
most often "seen" in everyday life. The reason is that every circle, viewed
obliquely, appears elliptical.

Parabolas: Path of body projected upward

One of nature's best known approximations to parabolas is the path taken
by a body projected upward and obliquely to the pull of gravity, as in the
parabolic trajectory of a golf ball. The friction of air and the pull of gravity
will change slightly the projectile's path from that of a true parabola, but in
many cases the error is insignificant.

Besides, a ray of light issuing from its focus is reflected by the parabola parallel to the axis of
symmetry of the parabola. Applications: automobile headlight, search light, reflecting telescope.
Hyperbolas:
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If a right circular cone is intersected by a plane parallel to

its axis, part of a hyperbola is formed. Such an
intersection can occur in physical situations as simple as
sharpening a pencil that has a polygonal cross section or
in the patterns formed on a wall by a lamp shade.

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