ENPE 490

A. Veawab

5. OIL REFINING
5.1 Overview
Objective:
Separate and in some cases alter hydrocarbons in crude oil to produce commercial products
Overall process:
CRUDE OIL

DESALTING

FRACTIONATION
Atmospheric distillation
Vacuum distillation

CONVERSION PROCESS
Catalytic cracking
Coking
Hydrocracking
Visbreaking
Alkylation
Polymerization

FINISHING PROCESS
Amine treating
Hydrotreating
Solvent deasphalting
Solvent dewaxing
Etc.

Remove salts

Separate fractions of crude oil

Produce gas, gas oil, distillate
Produce gas oil, lube stock, residual

Alter hydrocarbons
Upgrade gasoline
Convert vacuum residuals (gas oil, coke,
distillate) to gasoline, petrochemical feedstock
Convert gas oil, cracked oil, residuals to lighter
hydrocarbon
Reduce viscosity of atmospheric distillation
residual to distillate and tar
Unite olefins and isoparaffins
Unite two or more olefins

Remove contaminants/ upgrade quality

Remove H2S and CO2
Remove impurities and saturate hydrocarbons
Remove asphalt from vacuum distillator
Remove wax from lube stocks
Etc.

COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS
Fuel gas, Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), Gasoline, Jet fuels, Kerosene, Fuel oils, Diesel fuel
oils, Residual fuel oils, Lubricants, Greases/ waxes

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5.2 Process & waste generated

5.2.1 Desalting
Objective:
Remove inorganic salts => to reduce corrosion, plugging, fouling of equipment, and to prevent
poisoning the catalysts
Process:
1) Chemical separation
add water + chemical surfactant (demulsifier) to crude oil
(water acts as extraction liquid => extract salts from oil to water)
heat this mixture (crude oil + water + demulsifier) to 65-177oC to dissolve inorganic salts
into water
in a settler, the water containing inorganic salts is separated from crude oil
2) Electrostatic separation
(same as chemical separation) add hot water + surfactant to crude oil
apply high-voltage electrostatic charges => settle out water + salts at the settler bottom
(For both processes, add ammonia to reduce corrosion & add caustic or acid to adjust pH of
water wash)
Electrical
power

Process
water

Desalted crude
Unrefined
crude

Emulsifier
Heater

GRAVITY
SETTLER
Effluent water

Redrawn from J. G. Speight Environmental Analysis and Technology for the Refining Industry, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. (2005)

Waste
Effluent water
containing inorganic salts + other chemicals such as ammonia, caustic, acid,
chlorides, sulfide, suspended solids)
sent to wastewater treatment facility
H2S
released when the fluid (water + oil containing sulfur) is heated.
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5.2.2 Fractionation
Objective
To separate hydrocarbons into fractions of different ranges of boiling point => use distillation
Process
1) Atmospheric distillation
Operation:
Desalting crude oil is passed through a furnace (400oC) where hydrocarbons are boiled, thus
generating a great volume of hot hydrocarbon vapors.
Hot hydrocarbon vapors + crude oil residue enters the bottom of atmospheric fractionator
(flash zone)
Vapors of hydrocarbons with the lowest boiling point range (C1 C4) flow up to the top of
the fractionator and are sent to a gas separator to separate out gasoline (a mixture of butane
and propane). The lighter gases are then sent to downstream process to produce methane,
ethane, etc.)
Vapors of hydrocarbons with lower boiling point ranges condense to liquids at different
heights (temperatures) of fractionator => liquid products are drawn from the side of the
fractionators.
Each side stream of liquid products is mostly contaminated with lighter hydrocarbons. To
remove the lighter hydrocarbons, the liquid product is sent to a stripper (at bottom) where hot
steam (stripping agent) is injected. The lighter hydrocarbons are stripped out, flow upward
with the steam, leave the stripper top and are sent back to the upper portion of the
fractionator (where the lighter hydrocarbons are condensed). The steam leaves the
fractionators to the gas separator where water is separated out and sent to wastewater
treatment facility.
Gas
Gas (butane and lighter)
+

GAS
SEPARATOR
Gasoline

Gasoline (light naphtha)

Heavy naphtha
ATMOSPHERIC
FRACTIONATION

Kerosene
Light gas oil
Heavy gas oil

DESALTER
Crude oil

Furnace

Residuum

Redrawn from J. G. Speight Environmental Analysis and Technology for the Refining Industry, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. (2005)
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2) Vacuum distillation
Objective
To separate crude oil residue (heavy hydrocarbons) from the atmospheric fractionators =>
produce lubricating oil and gas oil
Why not raising temperature in the atmospheric fractionator to separate these higher boiling
point (less volatile) hydrocarbons?
At temperatures > temperatures in atmospheric fractionators, the crude oil residue tends to
thermally decompose or crack.
How the vacuum fractionator can separate the crude oil residue without thermal decomposition?
Boiling point decreases with reducing pressure. => pressure can be reduced to 50-100 mmHg
=> lubricating oil is separated at 250-350oC. => gas oil is separated at 150oC.
To vacuum
system

VACUUM
TOWER

Vacuum gas oil

Lubricating oils
Residuum

Furnace
Vacuum residuum
Redrawn from J. G. Speight Environmental Analysis and Technology for the Refining Industry, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. (2005)

Wastes from both atmospheric and vacuum fractionators

Air emissions from combustion of fuel in furnace and boilers that produce steam for stripping
Sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate
matters (PMs), volatile hydrocarbons, etc.
Fugitive emissions of volatile constituents arise from leaks in valves, pumps, flanges, etc.
Ammonia, benzene, toluene, xylene, etc
Emissions from process vents
Wastewater
(process water is in direct contact with oil => condensed steam from side-stripping
containing water soluble compounds) => one of largest sources of wastewater in refinery
(e.g. 26 gallons per barrel of oil)
Ammonia, chloride, phenol, mercaptans, etc.
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5.2.3 Visbreaking
Objective
To convert residual oil (from atmospheric & vacuum distillation process) to light hydrocarbons
(gas oil, LPG and gasoline)
Concept
Use heat to crack large to smaller hydrocarbon molecules => reduce viscosity of residual oil
Operation
Residual oil is heated in a furnace and sent to a soaker where sufficient time is provided for
thermal cracking of residual oil.
Vapors of cracked oil products (gas oil, LPG and gasoline) are quenched by a heat exchanger
to stop thermal cracking and then introduced to a fractionator for product separation.
Steam strippers are used to purify the cracked oil products by separating lighter hydrocarbons
and recycling them back to the fractionators
In the soaker, a steam injection process may be used to remove organics deposits.

Gas + gasoline
Quench

Gas oil

FRACTIONATOR

Cracked or
visbroken residue

SOAKER
Feed
Furnace

Redrawn from J. G. Speight Environmental Analysis and Technology for the Refining Industry, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. (2005)

Waste
Fugitive emissions
Wastewater produced from steam strippers (ammonia, chloride, phenol, mercaptans..)
Air emissions (combustion gases from the furnace and boiler that produces steam for steam
stripping => particulates, CO2, SOx, NOx, VOcs. Etc.)

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5.2.4 Coking
Objective To convert residual oil (from atmospheric & vacuum distillation process) to light
hydrocarbons (gas oil, LPG and gasoline)
Concept
Use heat to crack large to smaller hydrocarbon molecules
Operation
Residual oil is heated in a furnace and begins to crack. => produce vapors of gas oil and
gasoline and other light hydrocarbons
Cracking continues at a coke drum where vapors of cracked products are separated and sent
to a fractionators for product separation. Side steam strippers are used to purified the
products.
Solid coke and uncracked liquids are left in the coke drum.
*** Once one coke drum is filled up with solid coke + liquids, this drum will be out of service for
cleaning and another drum will be in use.
Cleaning the coke drum:
Purges steam through the drum => Produce more vapors of cracked products (reduce content
of petroleum coke (solid) => condense these vapors and send to a phase separator to separate
vapor, oil, and sour water (containing sulfur compounds).
Coke (solid) is removed from the coke drum by using high pressure water.

FRACTIONATOR

COKE DRUM

COKE DRUM

Gas + gasoline

Gas oil

Feed

Furnace

Heavy distillate
Recycle

Redrawn from J. G. Speight Environmental Analysis and Technology for the Refining Industry, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. (2005)
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Waste
Fugitive emissions through leak and vents
Air emissions
combustion gases from the furnace and boiler that produces steam for steam stripping
=> particulates, CO2, SOx, NOx, VOcs. Etc.
Particulates from decoking (using high pressure water)
Wastewater produced from:
steam strippers
Cleaning the coke drum => decoking, steam purging
(contains hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, suspended solids, chloride, phenol, mercaptans, etc.)

5.2.5 Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC)

Objective
To convert high molecular weight hydrocarbons (gas oil from atmospheric distillation & vacuum
distillates => gas oil and lubricating oil) to more valuable products (e.g. gasoline)
*** FCC is preferred over thermal cracking => FCC produces more gasoline with higher octane
rating.
Concept
Crack long-chain hydrocarbons using heat+ fluidized powdered catalyst =>vaporize lighter H-Cs
Operation
***Key process is at reactor & regenerator
Preheated feed (e.g. gas oil) is sent to the catalyst riser (at the bottom of reactor) to mix with
the powdered catalyst. => cracking occurs => produce vapors of light H-Cs
Vapors of light H-Cs + spent catalyst are fluidized => flow upward to the reactor.
At the reactor, cyclones are used to separate spent catalyst from vapors of light H-Cs.
Vapors of light H-Cs leave the reactor top to a fractionator for product separation and
purification (using steam strippers).
Spent catalyst flows down to the bottom of reactor where light H-Cs are stripped out from
catalyst by the countercurrent flow of stripping steam. => then the spent catalyst leaves the
reactor to the regenerator.
At the regenerator, spent catalyst is recovered. => use very hot air to purge the regenerator to
remove cokes deposited on the catalyst => hot air leaves the regenerator and go to a wasteheat boiler and then catalyst recovery unit (or particulate removal units => e.g. electrostatic
precipitator)

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Gas to recovery
Waste heat
boiler

Water
Gasoline
Fractionator

Flue gas (To final

dust collector)

Light gas oil

Reactor

Heavy gas oil

Stripping
steam

Regenerator

Fresh feed

Slurry
settler

Air

Wash oil

Recycle

Slurry decant oil

Redrawn from J. G. Speight Environmental Analysis and Technology for the Refining Industry, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. (2005)

Waste
Air emissions (significant => main source that contributes to air emissions)
Combustion gas from the heater that uses to preheat feed oil
Off gas from the catalyst regenerator (containing entrained catalyst powder => PMs +
CO)
SOx and NOx from catalytic cracker (reactor riser)
Wastewater from
Catalytic cracker (water contains hydrogen sulfide and ammonia)
Steam stripper (water contains oil, suspended solid, phenol, cyanide, hydrogen
sulfide, ammonia, and spent catalysts
Spent catalysts => landfill, land treatment, separation of metal

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5.2.6 Hydrocracking
Objective
To convert kerosene, atmospheric gas oil, vacuum gas oil to naphtha, diesel and jet fuel
Concept
Crack high molecular weight aromatic hydrocarbons => use heat + catalyst + HYDROGEN
GAS => lower boiling point ranges of products
***Aromatic hydrocarbons resist FCC.
***FCC is used for cracking paraffin (single bond C-C).
***hydrogen gas is available from catalytic reforming operation within refinery.

Fresh gas

Quench
gas

Product
Recycle gas
compressor

1st
stage

2nd
stage

HP
separator

LP
separator
Recycle
Feed

Redrawn from J. G. Speight Environmental Analysis and Technology for the Refining Industry, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. (2005)

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Operation
Feed oil is preheated, mixed with hydrogen gas, and introduced to 1st fixed bed
hydrocracking reactor packed with catalyst.
At 1st reactor, hydrocracking takes place. => produce a mixture of cracked H-C vapors
+hydrogen gas
The hydrocracking products from 1st reactor leave the reactor, are cooled down by a series of
heat exchanger, and sent to HP- and LP-separator to separate hydrogen gas from the 1st
reactor products.
The separated hydrogen gas is passed through a recycle gas compressor and sent to hydrogen
gas storage for reuse. The hydrocracking products are sent to a fractionator (stripper) to
separate products and recycle the heavier products (at the bottom) to a 2nd hydrocracking
reactor.
At the 2nd reactor, further hydrocracking takes place. The cracked products are sent to mix
with cracked products from 1st reactor.
Waste
Air emissions
combustion gas from a furnace
fugitive emissions through leak and vents
Sour wastewater at the top of fractionators
Propylene (toxic) => light end product => found in both air emissions & wastewater
Spent catalyst => toxic metals (nickel, cobalt and molybdenum)

5.2.7 Hydrotreating
Objective
to remove sulfur and nitrogen from gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, diesel fuel, and fuel oil
*** sulfur is converted toH2S (hydrogen sulfide). H2S is removed in amine treating process.
e.g.
CH3-S-C4H9 +H2 => CH4 + C4H10 + H2S
CH3-S-S-CH3 + H2 => 2CH4 + H2S
When remove sulfur, the process is called hydrodesulfurization.
***nitrogen is converted to NH3 (ammonia).
***aromatic H-C is converted to saturated H-C.
Concept
Undergo hydrogenation in the presence of catalyst and hydrogen gas => boiling ranges of
products do not change much.

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Operation
Feed (liquid) is mixed with hydrogen (gas) and preheated in a furnace.
In the furnace, the mixture of feed and H2 is totally vaporized and heated to a required
temperature.
The vapor mixture is sent to a fixed bed reactor packed with catalyst. => reactions between
feed and H2 take place. =>hot reaction products are formed and leave the reactor to a cooler
=> reaction products are a mixture of liquid + gas (mostly H2 + H2S)
After cooler, the reaction products are sent to a phase separator. H2 is separated and recycled
for use. If H2S exists => use amine treating. Liquid products are sent to a fractionator where
the products are separated (at the bottom) and others (e.g. CH4, C2H4, H2S..) are separated
(at the top).

Hydrogen
make-up

Hydrogen recycle

Fuel gas

Unstabilized
light distillate

Feed

Desulfurized product

Redrawn from J. G. Speight Environmental Analysis and Technology for the Refining Industry, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. (2005)

Waste
Air emissions
combustion gas from a furnace
H2S in off-gas stream of fractionator. => sent to amine treating and sulfur recovery
units
fugitive emissions through leak and vents (BTEX & other volatiles)
Sour wastewater (containing ammonia and H2S) at the top of fractionators for product
separation
Propylene (toxic) => light end product => found in both air emissions & wastewater
Spent catalyst => toxic metals

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5.2.8 Catalyst reforming

Objective
To convert naphtha (from atmospheric fractionators) to gasoline
Concept
Reforming = Rearrange molecule structures of naphtha to form higher-octane motor gasoline =>
use heat + catalyst => hydrogen gas is by-product.
Examples:

methylcyclohexane toluene + 3H2

methylcyclopentane cyclohexane benzene + H2

n-heptane toluene + H2

Operation
***Feed (naphtha) must be pretreated in a hydrotreater to remove sulfur and nitrogen
compounds before catalyst reforming. => because sulfur and nitrogen compounds deactivate
most catalyst metals (e.g. platinum)

Feed is preheated and then sent to a reactor where reforming takes place in the presence of
heat + catalyst (packed in the reactor).
As reforming continues in the reactor, temperature is reduced (due to endothermic reaction)
=> yield of reforming decreases => thus, feed is partially reformed => the product from 1st
reactor must be re-heated before it is introduced to the next reactor (in figure, 3 reactor are
used.)
The product stream from the final reactor is passed through a separator to separate hydrogen
gas (produced during reforming) and liquid product.
The liquid product is fed to a fractionators to separate light hydrocarbon from the reformate
(gasoline).

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Reactor

Reactor

Reactor

Feedstock
Furnace

Furnace

Furnace

Light hydrocarbon

Hydrogen recycle

Separator
Reformate

Fractionator

Redrawn from J. G. Speight Environmental Analysis and Technology for the Refining Industry, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. (2005)

Waste
Fugitive emissions of volatile compounds
Toluene, xylene and benzene (toxic aromatics produced during reforming) => highly
volatile
Air emissions from process heaters and furnaces => combustion gases (particulates, SOx,
NOx, CO and volatile hydrocarbons)
Spent catalysts

5.2.9 Isomerization
Objective
To increase octane number of gasoline (pentane C5/hexane C6) and to produce feedstock
(isobutane-C4) for alkalation process
Concept
Similar to catalytic reforming => but only convert normal paraffins to their isomers (i.e. C4 C6
from the catalytic reformer)
For example: n-butane isobutane
-C-C-C-C-

-C-C-CC
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Operation (for n-butane feedstock as an example)

Feedstock is passed through a fractionator (first) to separate iso-butane product, and sent to
another fractionators (second) to separate n-butane and reject heavier H-C compounds (C5+).
Organic chloride is added to maintain catalyst efficiency.
The product stream (top from the second fractionators) is heated in an heat-exchanger and in
a furnace. The product stream is then introduced to a reactor for isomerization. => isomer
product stream leaves the reactor from the bottom, is cooled by a heat-exchanger, and then
enters a settler and a fractionators to separate iso-butane product (at bottom) and any lighter
H-Cs.
ISOMERIZATION
REACTOR

To fuel gas

Iso-C4 product
DEBUTANIZER

Butane feed

Organic
chloride
makeup

Feed heater

STABILIZER

DEISOBUTANIZER

C5+ reject

Makeup gas
Isomerized butane recycle

Redrawn from J. G. Speight Environmental Analysis and Technology for the Refining Industry, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. (2005)

Waste
Fugitive emissions from leak and vents
Combustion gases from furnace
Sour water (HCl (catalyst dissolved in water + water) and caustic wastewater (used to
neutralize chloride catalyst)
Calcium chloride neutralization sludge => disposed off-site
5.2.10 Alkalation
Objective To produce high-octane gasoline
Concept
Olefins (propylene and butylene) from FCC or hydrocracking + isobutane + acid catalyst
(sulfuric acid or hydrofluoric acid) high octane paraffinic hydrocarbons (alkylate) which
is a premium blending stock for gasoline
Reaction takes place at 0-30oC
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Operation
Olefins is mixed with isobutene and fed to a reactor where alkalation takes place in the
presence of an acid catalyst. => products leaving the reactor are alkylate + isobutene (+
propane) + acid catalyst
The product mixture is sent to an acid settler to separate out the acid catalyst (bottom layer of
the settler) from the hydrocarbon product. The acid catalyst is then recycled back to the
reactor for reuse.
The hydrocarbon product (top layer of the settler) is washed with caustic to remove the
residual of acid catalyst, and then distilled to separate the alkylate from isobutane.

Recycle isobutane

Feedstock

REACTOR

ACID SETTLER

Alkylate
CAUSTIC
SCRUBBER

Recycle acid
Fresh acid

DEISOBUTANIZER

Reject acid

Alkalation unit using sulfuric acid catalyst (Redrawn from J. G. Speight Environmental Analysis and
Technology for the Refining Industry, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (2005))

Waste
Fugitive emissions of volatile compounds in the feed and the process vents
strong odor from sulfonated organic compounds and organic acid (catalyst) even at
low concentration For hydrofluoric acid alkylation unit:
o acidic H-C gas (hydrogen fluoride) is sent to a separate closed-relief
system where the acid is neutralized.
o Basins are covered, and the acid catalyst is water-washed or passed
through an activated carbon bed to remove odor.
Air emissions => combustion gases from process boiler to produce steam for distillation/
steam stripper
Wastewater from water washing, steam stripper => contaminated with oil and other
impurities
Neutralization sludge from the caustic scrubber (removal of acid catalyst from product) =>
consists of calcium fluoride and unreacted lime => to landfill or to steel manufacturing plants
and hydrofluoric acid manufacturer

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5.2.11 Deasphalting
Objective
To remove asphaltenes and resins from vacuum fractionation (distiallation) residue => used for
producing lubrication oil
Concept
Liquid-liquid extraction => Use propane (liquid) to extract oil from vacuum fractionation residue
feedstock at 38-60oC
***Volume of propane used for oil extraction = 4-8 times the volume of feedstock
Operation
At deasphalting tower: => Oil is extracted from the feedstock by liquid propane.
Feedstock (oil + asphaltenes + resins) is fed to the top of a deasphalting tower and flows
downward
Liquid propane is fed to the bottom of the deaphalting towere and flows upward.
As the feedstock is in contact with the liquid propane, oil from the feedstock transfers to the
liquid propane.
Liquid propane + oil leaves the top of the deasphalting tower while the feedstock
(asphaltenes + resins) is contaminated with liquid propane and leaves the bottom of the
deasphalting tower.
At solvent vaporizers:
The mixture of propane + oil from the top of the deasphalting tower is heated to vaporize or
recover propane from oil. => The remaining oil (deasphalted oil) is sent to the deasphalted
oil stripper.
The recovered propane is sent back to a propane work drum and recycled for use.
At deasphalted oil stripper:
The deasphalted oil is distilled with steam to strip out the remaining propane for further
purification. => remove propane and recycle propane for reuse => produce deasphalted oil
At asphalt flash drum & stripper:
The mixture of asphaltenes + resins from the bottom of the deasphalting tower is sent to aa
furnace for preheating and a flash drum & stripper to remove propane and recycle propane
for reuse.
Waste
Wastewater
o Propane-contaminated water from propane recovery
o Steam stripping wastewater (containing oil + propane)
Air emissions
o Fugitive emissions of propane and combustion gases

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Compressor
Solvent
condenser

Jet
condenser

Solvent
vaporizer
Propane
work drum

Feed

Water
Solar water

Deasphalting
tower
Asphalt
flash drum

Deasphalted
oil stripper
Superheated steam
Asphalt
stripper

Deasphalted oil
Superheated steam

Asphalt
furnace

Asphalt

Redrawn from J. G. Speight Environmental Analysis and Technology for the Refining Industry, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. (2005))

5.2.11 Dewaxing
Objective
To remove wax from vacuum fractionation residue => improve flow property and produce
lubrication oil
Concept
Use a solvent to dilute oil portion => reduce temperature to crystallize wax => then use filter to
separate wax from oil
Solvent = mixture of methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) + toluene => most used***
Waste
Wastewater
o solvent-contaminated water from solvent recovery
o Steam stripping wastewater (containing oil + solvent)
Air emissions
o Fugitive emissions of solvent and combustion gases

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Operation
Feedstock (oil + wax) is mixed with a solvent, and then passed through a heat-exchanger and
a chiller to reduce its temperature and crystallizes wax.
The mixture of oil + solvent + wax crystal is sent to a rotary filter to separate wax. During
filtration, additional solvent may be added in order to maintain sufficient liquid for easy
handling.
Wax crystal (+ solvent) is heated in a heater and an evaporator to strip out and recover the
solvent. The recovered solvent is recycled for reuse.
Oil (+ solvent) is heated in a heater and an evaporator to recover solvent for reuse and
produce dewaxed oil.

Solvent
Wash
solvent

Slack wax
evaporator

Rotary
filter

Chiller

Heater
Dewaxed oil
evaporator
Heater
Dewaxed
oil

Feed

Slack wax

Redrawn from J. G. Speight Environmental Analysis and Technology for the Refining Industry, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. (2005))

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5.2 Emission estimation

Two types of emissions from chemical plants:
Design emissions
Intentional releases of air pollutants from process to atmosphere
Predicted and designed at the design stage
Fugitive emissions
Unintentional releases of air pollutants to atmosphere
Occur where there are seals between process fluid and external environment (e.g. at
flanges, valves, pumps, compressors, process drains, storage tanks)
Methods to estimate emissions
Direct emission measurement at sources
Source test or stack test => procedures for monitoring regulated pollutants are
provided EPA.
Accurate but costly
Not applicable for facilities not yet built
Engineering calculations
Relatively inexpensive (compared to direct measurements) but require good
knowledge of process design
Commercial process simulators are available.
**** Example of using engineering calculation to estimate design emissions
A process heater burn oil at a rate of 1 kg/s. Analysis shows that oil has a sulfur content of 3%wt,
and ash (unburned residue after combustion) also contains sulfur (i.e. 5%wt of the sulfur in oil
burned). What is the annual rate of emission of SO2?
Emission factors
Published estimates of emissions from given sources => based on historical emission
data gathered from actual operations
Well known sources of emission factors => USEPA emission factors
Quick estimation and inexpensive
***Choose to use emission factors***

5.2.1 Design emissions

USEAP emission factors for refinery => Table 5.1-1
Air pollutants included
Particulates, SO2, CO, total hydrocarbons, NO2, aldehydes, ammonia
Process included
Boiler & process heaters, FCC, catalytic cracking, coking, compressor engines,
blowndown systems, vacuum distillation
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Emission factor rating

A = excellent => emission factor derived from sound test data taken from many
randomly selected facilities
B = above average => derived from sound test data taken from a reasonable number
of facilities
C = average => derived from test data collected using unproven or new methods, or
lacking background information from a reasonable number of facilities
D = below average => derived from test data from a small number of facilities
E = poor => derived from test data based on poor or new methodology and from a
small number of facilities that do not represent a random sample of industry
Uncontrolled:
Emission (mass/time) = activity rate emission factor
Example:
Emissions from combustion equipment = (L fuel oil/year)(gal//3.785412 Liters)(lb emission/103
US
Controlled:
Emission (mass/time) = activity rate emission factor (1-control efficiency/100)
5.2.2 Fugitive emissions
Sources of fugitive emissions
Leaks of hydrocarbon vapors from process equipment
Evaporation of hydrocarbon from open areas
(See Table 5.1-2 & 5.1-3)
Valves, flanges, seals and drains
Types of stream service:
Hydrocarbon gas/vapor streams => high emission rate
Light liquid and gas/liquid streams
Kerosene and heavier liquid streams (including all crude oils)
Valves => major emission source because of their number and high emission factor
Cooling towers
Used to transfer waste heat from cooling water to atmosphere => induce contact of
water and air
Emit fugitive volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and gas stripped from cooling
water (H2S and ammonia). => VOCs, H2S and ammonia contaminate cooling water
through leakage of heat exchangers and condensers
Wastewater treatment facilities (oil/water separator)
Main fugitive emissions are VOCs and dissolved gases evaporating from water
surfaces in open process drains, separator and ponds
Storage (tank farm)
Filling loss
Breathing loss
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Calculate fugitive hydrocarbon emissions from equipment leaks:

(Source: California Implementation Guidelines for Estimating Mass Emissions of Fugitive Hydrocarbon Leaks at Petroleum Facilities prepared
by the California Air Pollution Control Officers Association Engineering Managers Committee and the California Air Resources
Board Staff (February 1999).)

Method 1: Average emission factor

Step 1 Separate components into component types (e.g. non-flange connector, flange, openended line, pump seal, valve)
Step 2 Further separate components into service types (gas, light liquid, heavy liquid)
Step 3 Count total number of components in each group (component type/ service type)
Step 4 Emission of each group (component type/ service type)
= number of components average emission factor
Step 5 Total emission = summation of emissions from all component/ service types
EXAMPLE: Estimate fugitive emissions of hydrocarbons from 5,000 components at a
marketing terminal using the average emission factor (Table IV-1b).
Component type

Service type

Valves

Gas
Light liquid
Gas
Light liquid
Gas
Light liquid
Gas
Light liquid

Pump seals
Others
Fittings

TOTAL (kg/hr)

Number of
components
installed at the
marketing
terminal
28
593
0
25
20
85
224
4,025

Average
emission factor
(kg/hr/source)

1.3E-05
4.3E-05
6.5E-05
5.4E-04
1.2E-04
1.3E-04
4.2E-05
8.0E-06

5,000

Subtotal (kg/hr)

0.0004
0.0255
0.0000
0.0135
0.0024
0.0111
0.0094
0.0322
0.0944

(See Table IV-1a) => emission factors for refinery

(See Table IV-1b) => emission facots for marketing terminal
Method 2: Screening value range mode (Leak/ no leak method)
Similar to Method 1, but emission factors are further divided into two groups
No leak = below 10,000 ppmV and leak = 10,0000 ppm
Steps 1 & 2
Step 3
Steps 4 &5

Same as method 1
Count total number of components in each group (component type/service type)
with screening values <10,000 ppmV and 10,000 ppmV
Same as method 1

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Source: California Implementation Guidelines for Estimating Mass Emissions of Fugitive Hydrocarbon Leaks at
Petroleum Facilities prepared by the California Air Pollution Control Officers Association Engineering Managers
Committee and the California Air Resources Board Staff (February 1999).

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EXAMPLE: Estimate fugitive emissions of hydrocarbons from three large heaters at a refinery
using the screening value range method.
Component/
service type
Valves (gas)
Pressure relief
valves (gas)
Connector (gas)
Open-ended line
(gas)

TOTAL (kg/hr)

Screening value
range (ppmv)
<10,000
10,000
<10,000

Number of
components
screened
164
7
3

Screening value
range factor
(kg/hr/source)
6.0E-04
2.626E-01
4.47E-02

Subtotals (kg/hr)

0.098
1.838
0.134

10,000
<10,000
10,000
<10,000

0
703
11
10

1.691
6.0E-05
3.75E-02
1.5E-03

0.000
0.042
0.413
0.015

10,000

1.195E-02

0.024

900

(See Table IV-2a) => Emission factors for refinery

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5.3 Waste management

5.3.1 Management of fugitive emissions
Why manage fugitive emissions at the refinery?
Leaking equipment (valves, pumps and connectors) is the largest source of emissions of
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and volatile hazardous air pollutants (VHAPs) from
refinery (approx. 70,367 tons per year of VOCs and 9,357 tons per year of HAPs)
VOCs cause formation of ground-level ozone => smog => cause asthma
VHAPs cause cancer, reproductive effects and birth defects
Common VHAPs in refinery => acetaldehyde, benzene, formaldehyde, methylene
chloride, napthalene , toluene and xylene
Which components are the primary sources of fugitive emissions?
Valves and connectors => large numbers compared to other components (thousands)
What causes fugitive emissions of valves, connectors, and other sources?
Component
Pump
Valve
Connector
Sampling connection
Compressor
Pressure relief valve
Open-ended line

Source of leaks
Seal
Stem or gland area of valve body (caused by failure of valve
packing or O-ring
Gasket, bolts on flanges
Outlet of sampling valve
Seal
Seal/ operate too close to the set point
Point of line open to the atmosphere

How to control the fugitive emissions from main sources?

Valves:
Use valves with graphite based structured or braided packings
Regular monitoring => valves deteriorate with time => require retightening
Pumps:
Use double seals
How to manage fugitive emissions?
Implement a leak detection and repair (LDAR) program => can reduce fugitive emissions
by as high as 89%
What is LDAR?
Work practice designed to identify leaking equipment so that emissions can be reduced through
repairs. A component that is subject to LDAR must be monitored at specified, regular intervals
to determine whether or not is leaking. Any leaking components must then be repaired or
replaced within a specified time frame.
***Source: USEPA Leak Detection and Repair: A Best Practices Guides
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LDAR is required by many environmental regulations (e.g. New Source Performance

Standard (NSPS), National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
(NESHAP))

Elements of a LDAR program:

Written LDAR program,
Address regulatory requirements => set facility-wide leak rate goal
Establish facility-specific procedures for monitoring, repairs, recordkeeping
Set roles of LDAR team & team members
Establish training program
Identify components
Tag each regulated component with a unique ID number
Update piping & instrumentation diagram by adding component ID
Perform a field audit to ensure correctness of diagram
Define leaks
Check leak definition from regulations (500 ppm for valves 2,000 ppm for pumps)
=> vary by regulation/ component type, type of fluid service (light liquid, gas)
Use leak definition lower than what the regulation requires => provide safety margin
Monitor components
Follow EPA reference monitoring method 21 (detecting VOC leaks from process equipment
using a portable detecting instrument)
Monitor components for leaks in regular intervals => weekly, monthly, quarterly, yearly =>
depend on component type and leak rate
For example: valve => once a month
Repair Components
Repair leaking components asap => no later than specific time
**For example: 5 days for the first attempt and 15 days for final attempt at repair
First attempt at repair
Tighten bonnet bolts
Replace bonnet bolts
Tighten packing gland nuts
Inject lubricant into lubrication pacing and others
If components cannot be repaired without process shutdown, => place component on delay to
repair list => estimate date for repair must be included in facility record.
Recordkeeping
Perform internal and third-party audits of LDAR program on a regular basis to ensure
compliance
Electronically monitor and store LDAR data
Properly record and report all LDAR activities
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5.3.2 Control of gaseous pollutants to the atmosphere

5.3.2.1 Control of hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
Sources: Coker, catalytic cracking, hydrotreating and hydroprocessing
Concept:
1) Sulfur recovery unit => convert H2S to elemental sulfur
2) Incinerator => burn the remaining H2S => convert H2S to SO2
3) Stack => SO2 produced is released to atmosphere through stack
*** typically use tall stack ( 200 ft) to dilute concentration of SO2 at ground to meet air
quality standard
SULFUR RECOVERY UNIT
CLAUS PROCESS
SHELL CLAUS OFF-GAS
TREATMENT (SCOT) PROCESS

INCINERATOR

STACK TO
ATMOSPHERE

Claus process
= partial combustion of H2S to S => catalytic conversion of unburned H2S to S
Operation
At furnace:
H2S-rich gas is partially burned with one-third the stoichiometric quantity of air.
o Some H2S is converted to SO2 (Reaction 1)/ the rest of H2S remains unburned.
o Some SO2 further reacts with H2S and produces elemental sulfur (liquid) (Reaction 2).
2H2S + 3O2 2H2O + 2SO2
2H2S + SO2 2H2O + 3S

(Reaction 1)
(Reaction 2)

At catalytic converters:
Hot gas from the furnace (containing unburned H2S + SO2) is passed over a series of catalyst
beds (alumina) to react SO2 with unburned H2S =>produce elemental sulfur liquid (Reaction 2)
Catalytic section
Tail gas
H2S
Furnace
Air
Liquid sulfur
Redrawn from J. G. Speight Environmental Analysis and Technology for the Refining Industry, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. (2005))
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Shell Claus Off-gas Treatment (SCOT) process

In Claus process, carbonyl sulfide (COS) and carbon disulfide (CS2) are formed during
combustion => most of these carbon-sulfur compounds are unconverted to sulfur.
SCOT process is used to convert COS, CS2 to H2S
Operation
Tail gas from Claus process is heated to about 250 300oC and mixed with hydrogen.
At reactor:
Hot gas mixture (tail gas + H2) is passed through a reactor packed with catalyst
where COS and CS2 react with H2 to form H2S.
At cooler:
The rector effluent is cooled to ambient temperature before sent to amine treating
process
At amine treating process:
H2S is removed from gas stream by being absorbed into an aqueous amine
solution.
At the bottom of absorber, loaded amine (amine + H2S) is sent to a stripper to
release H2S. => the stripped H2S is sent to the Claus process to convert to
elemental sulfur.
At the top of absorber, the treated gas is sent to the incinerator to burn the
remaining (trace) H2S => convert H2S to SO2 => sent to stack

Hydrogen

To Disposal

Reactor

Lean Amine
Absorber

Cooler

Claus Unit
Tail Gas

Loaded Amine

Redrawn from James H. Gary, Glenn E. Handwerk and Mark J. Kaiser Petroleum Refining: Technology and
Economics 5th edition, CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group (2007).
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5.3.2.2 Control of hydrocarbon vapors

Source: process equipment + storage tanks
Concept: Flaring => burn H-C vapor to form CO2 + H2O (complete combustion)
Used as fuel within refinery
HYDROCARBON VAPORS
(collected in closed piping system)

Burn hydrocarbon vapors in a flare

(especially in the event of high
venting rate of H-C vapors during
process upset)

5.3.2.3 Control of carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and catalyst
dusts from catalyst regeneration
Source: Regenerator of catalyst in FCC unit (hot air is passed through regenerator to remove
coke deposited on the spent catalyst => produce CO + VOCs + catalyst particulates
Concept:
Burn CO + VOCs in waste heat boiler => convert to CO2 + H2O
Remove catalyst particulates from gas stream using electrostatic precipitator (ESP) or cyclone
separator

Gas to recovery
Waste heat
boiler

Water
Gasoline
Fractionator

Flue gas (To final

dust collector)

Light gas oil

Reactor

Heavy gas oil

Stripping
steam

Regenerator

Fresh feed

Air

Slurry
settler
Wash oil

Recycle

Slurry decant oil

Redrawn from J. G. Speight Environmental Analysis and Technology for the Refining Industry, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. (2005)
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5.3.2.4 Control of combustion gas (particulates, SO2, NOx, CO)

Source: Process heaters, furnaces, boilers
Concept:
To control particulates => use particulate control equipment
Electrostatic precipitator
Cyclone separator
To control SO2 => use low-sulfur fuels (e.g. natural gas)
=> use desulfurization process to remove SO2 from gas stream
Absorption of SO2 into liquids (e.g. lime or limestone) and form
stable calcium sulfate (solid)
SO2 (g) + CaCO3 (l) CaSO4 (s)
To control NOx => use low-NOx burners
To control CO => ensure complete combustion of fuel (excess in air)
5.3.3 Wastewater treatment
Source:
Process water comes from:
Desalting of crude oil
Steam stripping
Product fractionation reflux drum drains
Boiler blowdown
Etc.
Water comes into direct contact with oil => highly contaminated
Cooling water
Not come into direct contact with oil => less contaminated than process water
BUT if leaks occur in the process equipment => could be highly contaminated
Concept:
Primary treatment
Remove pollutants that settle and float
Not remove soluble pollutants
Use API separator or corrugated plate separator followed by induced gas flotation to
remove oil and solid

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/API_oil-water_separator (accessed on October 6, 2011)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/API_oil-water_separator (accessed on October 6, 2011)

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Dissolved air floatation: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/API_oil-water_separator (accessed on October 6, 2011)

Secondary treatment
Remove soluble organics
Use biological treatment => microorganism consumes dissolved organics
Use activated sludge, trickling filter or rotating biological contactor
Activated sludge

Secondary
settling tank

From primary
treatment

Effluent

Aeration tank
Sludge
Return sludge

Aeration tank:
Air (oxygen) is supplied => Microorganisms consume organics in wastewater as food.
Microorganisms grow => flocculate to form mass of microbes (activated sludge)
Secondary settling tank (clarifier):
settle out activated sludge return most sludge to aeration tank waste the rest of sludge

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Trickling filter
From primary
treatment
Secondary
settling tank
Effluent
Trickling filter
Sludge

Trickling filter:
Wastewater passes through bed microorganisms consume organics microbial growth
on the packing (sludge)
Packing = stone or plastic media => provide contact between microorganisms and organics.
Secondary settling tank (clarifier):
Settle out activated sludge return some effluent to trickling filter waste sludge
Rotating biological rotator (RBC)
Rotating disks
Secondary
settling tank

From primary
treatment

Effluent

Wastewater
holding tank

Sludge

RBC = a series of closely spaced discs (3-3.5 m in diameter) mounted on a horizontal shaft
One-half of disc surface area is immersed in wastewater.

Rotating disks
Disks bring microorganisms into contact with wastewater => as disks rotate, wastewater is
aerated/ microorganisms consume organics => microorganisms grow on the disks
Secondary settling tank (clarifier):
Settle out sludge waste sludge

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5.3.4 Management of sour water

Sour water => steam used in fractionators or side-cut strippers => direct contact with
hydrocarbons => contain H2S and ammonia (NH3)
Sources:
Fractionators (atm and vacuum), catalytic cracker, coker, visbreaker, hydrotreater, hydrocracker
and sulfur plant (tail gas treater)
Treatment:
Sour water stripping process
(achieve < 1 ppm H2S and < 30 ppm NH3 => this treated water can be used for recycle and
reused in the refinery)
Concept:
Use heat to strip gases => thus need to ensure H2S and NH3 are in the gaseous form
To strip H2S => require pH < 5 (above 5 => sulfide is in HS- or S2-)
To strip NH3 => require pH >10 (above 10 => NH4+ is formed.)
Solutions=>
use separate stripper for each gas
Or operate stripper at pH around 8 => OK for both gases

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NITRIFICATION/ DENITRIFICATION
Objective:
To control nitrogen and ammonia level in the treated wastewater (to meet regulatory limit)
Reasons for nitrogen and ammonia control:
To reduce or prevent algae growth in receiving water
To prevent depletion of dissolved O2 in water
**ammonia is toxic to fish and consumes oxygen in receiving water as it converts to NO3-.
Methods for nitrogen control:
Avoid discharge of spent amines
Proper removal of NH3 in sour water stripping process
Treat wastewater by nitrification/denitrification process
Sources of wastewater feed (containing low organic contents)
Stripped sour water from sour water stripper
Treated wastewater from secondary biological wastewater treatment processes (activated
sludge, trickling filter etc.)
Process:
1) Nitrification: (aeration tank)
Nitrification bacteria + NH4+ + 2O2 NO3- + H2O + 2H+

Ammonium ion (NH4+) is oxidized to nitrate (NO3-).

Cell detention time = 15 days in moderate climates = 20 days in cold climates
The nitrified effluent can be discharged if NO3- is allowed in discharged water
(depending on regulations)

2) Denitrification: (anoxic tank)

Denitrification bacteria + 2NO3- + organics (or methanol added) N2 + CO2 + H2O

NO3- is reduced to N2 (gas).

Denitrification bacteria consumes carbon from methanol and oxygen from NO3- =>
produce N2 gas.

3) Clarifier or settling tank)

Separate flocs from treated wastewater and recycle flocs (sludge) to the aeration or
anoxic tank)

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Tertiary or advanced treatment

Further remove contaminants to meet regulatory requirements (suspended solids and organics)
1) Sand filtration
to remove suspended solids (e.g. fine sludge particles from settling tanks of secondary
treatment => typical content of 25-80 mg/L)
may need to meet regulatory limit of solids as low as 15 mg/L
Use two layers of filter (if feed flows from column top)
upper => anthracite for removal of larger particles
lower => sand for removal of finer particles
Require backwashing for bed regeneration (flow water through bed in an opposite direction
to the service operation)

2) Adsorption onto activated carbon

To remove residual soluble organics
Polishing step after biological treatment
***not used in place of biological treatment to remove organics since the carbon usage will be
very very high.
Require bed regeneration using heat

5.4.5 Management of refinery sludge

Type/ source/ composition of sludge:
1) Oily sludge
Cleaning operations of crude oil tanks, wastewater treatment operations => API
separator and corrugated plate separator
Composed of hydrocarbons, phenols, heavy metals (zinc, chromium, cadmium,
nickel, lead, manganese, copper etc.)
2) Bio sludge
Wastewater treatment operations => activated sludge, trickling filter, rotating disk
contactor, and clarifier
Composed of heavy metals + significant amount of nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium
(showing manure potential)
***Refinery sludge is a hazardous waste based on environmental regulations***

Calculation of sludge waste quantity

Source: Jerry A. Nathanson Basic environmental technology: Water supply, waste management and
th

control, 5 edition, Pearson Prentice Hall (2008)

Assume: density of sludge = density of water = 1000kg/m3

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Example: A sludge with a 6% solids concentration occupies a total volume of 300 m3. What is
the water content of the sludge?
a) What is the mass of the sludge solids?
b) If the sludge is further concentrated (or dewatered) to a volume of 200 m3, what will the
solids concentration be? What will the water content be?
Example: A volume of 500,000 gal of sludge contains 100,000 lb of dry solids.
a) What is the solids content of the sludge expressed in percent?
b) If the sludge is concentrated to 4 percent solids, what will its volume be?
Example: A flow of 4ML/d with raw TSS = 240 mg/L and raw BOD = 220 mg/L enters a
trickling filter sewage treatment plant. Removal efficiency in the primary settling tank is 50% for
TSS and 30% for BOD.
a) Compute the mass of primary sludge solids generated per day.
b) Compute the mass of secondary sludge solids generated per day.
c) If the primary and secondary sludges are combined and the mixture has a solids
concentration of 4%, what is the total volume of sludge generated per day?

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Sludge treatment
Refinery sludge => aesthetically displeasing + harmful + too much water ( => cannot be
directly disposed => need treatment prior to disposal
Reasons for sludge treatment:
Volume reduction
Stabilization of organics
1) Sludge thickening
Objective: To increase concentration of sludge => reduce volume of sludge to be treated
Methods:
1.1 Dissolved-air flotation
Suitable for activated sludge
Operation:
Air is injected into sludge under pressure. => air dissolves in sludge.
Sludge is fed into an open tank (at atm. pressure) => lots of air bubbles come out of
sludge => float sludge particles to the surface => form layer of sludge
Skim off the layer of sludge that floats

1.2 Gravity thickener

Suitable for primary sludge
Operation:
Similar to settling tank

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2) Sludge stabilization
Objective: To reduce odor and pathogenic organisms
Methods:
1.1 Lime stabilization
Add lime (Ca(OH)2 or CaO) to the sludge to raise pH to about 11 or above => help
reduce odor and kill pathogens
Simple BUT gives temporary solution => with time, pH drops
1.2 Aerobic digestion
Extension of activated sludge system
Sludge is treated in a dedicated aeration tank for a long time (about 30 days)
Population of microorganism will decline with time (die) when nutrient becomes limited.
Produce aerobically digested sludge

1.3 Anaerobic digestion

Digestion without oxygen
Process consists of two tanks:
o Digestion tank
Sludge is heated to about 35oC and well mixed
Bacteria metabolize complex organics and breaks them down to simpler
molecules (organic acids) => produce methane (CH4)
o Sludge settling tank
Separate layers (top-methane and floating scum layer; middle-liquid
supernatant; bottom-digested sludge)
Supernatant is high in BOD and total suspended solids => sent to the inlet
of wastewater treatment process
Digested sludge is sent for dewatering and final disposal.

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3) Sludge dewatering
Objective : To remove water content from the sludge
Methods:
3.1 Sand bed
Most cost effective means of dewatering (given the availability of the land)
Consists of tile drain in gravel covered by sand (0.25 m thick)
Operation:
Pour sludge onto the bed => water & solids are separated => solids are entrained on the
bed surface while water seeps into the bed layers through the tile drain
Evaporation takes place to convert liquid sludge to solid. (about 3 months drying time)
Remove the dried sludge to disposal
In some areas => sand beds are enclosed under greenhouses to promote evaporation and
present rain.
Problem encountered => sand does not drain well => clogging of sand due to sludge
Wet sludge

Dry sludge

Sand
Gravel
Drain

Drain

Redrawn from P. Aarene Vesilind, Susan M. Morgan and Lauren G. Heine Introduction to Environmental Engineering, 3 rd edition SI, Cengage
Learning (2010).

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3.2 Belt filter press

Operation:
Sludge is mixed with polymer to improve dewatering behavior.
Sludge is fed onto a moving belt. => liquid from the sludge drips through the
porous belt while solids are retained on the surface of the belt.
Belt then moves into a dewatering zone => sludge is squeezed between two
porous belts. => results in liquid (filtrate) and dewatered solids (cake)
Cake is sent to disposal. Liquid is sent to wastewater treatment facility.
Wash
Sludge

Polymer

Drainage

Dewatering

Cake

Wash

Redrawn from P. Aarene Vesilind, Susan M. Morgan and Lauren G. Heine Introduction to Environmental Engineering, 3rd edition SI, Cengage
Learning (2010).

3.3 Centrifuge

http://www.hutch-hayes.com/prod-decantercentrifuges.html

Most common centrifuge used is solid bowl decanter

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Operation:
Pump sludge into a rotating centrifuge at high speed. (polymer may be used to
improve dewatering behavior of sludge.)
Solids are pushed to the wall of centrifuge by centrifugal force => scarped out by
a screw conveyor (cake) => To disposal
Liquid supernatant (centrate) is discharged from centrifuge to the wastewater
treatment.

Calculation
Use mass balance
Assume: steady-state operation, no liquid or solids are produced or consumed in centrifuge
Example:
A wastewater sludge centrifuge operates with a feed of 40L/min and a feed solids concentration
of 1.2%. The cake solids concentration is 22% solids and the centrate solids concentration is 500
mg/L. What is the recovery of solids?

4) Disposal of sludge
Incineration (convert organics to CO2 + H2O + ash (go to landfill))
Land spreading/ farming
Secure landfill for hazardous wastes
Sale as fertilizer

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Final exam of ENPE 490

December 22, 2015 (2 5 pm) @ Education Auditorium

40% of total mark/ Closed book
Allow only calculator approved by the Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science
No other electronic devices (cell phone, etc.) are allowed
Cover contents of Chapters 4-5 (gas processing & refining)
Not cover contents of project presentation
Two parts:
Part I: Short answer (70%)
Part II: Calculation (30%)
Provided:
Kramser-Brown equation (for amount of BTEX absorbed into glycol)
Emission factors
Unit conversion factors
***Email me if you have further questions regarding final exam and class contents ***

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