Running head: Illuminating the glass ceiling effect

CRACKS IN GLASS CEILING: IN WHAT KIND OF PRIVATE SECTOR ORGANIZATIONS

IN PAKISTAN DO WOMEN MAKE IT TO THE TOP?

IQRA ALYAS
ROLL # 11
UNIVERSITY OF PUNJAB (IBA)

Running head: Illuminating the glass ceiling effect

Table of Contents
Abstract...................................................................................................................... 3
Introduction................................................................................................................ 4
Broad problem area:................................................................................................ 6
Thesis statement/Problem statement:.....................................................................6
Literature review........................................................................................................ 6
Hypothesis............................................................................................................ 10
Theoretical framework.......................................................................................... 11
Control variable..................................................................................................... 12
Approach/Methods.................................................................................................... 12
Data collection method......................................................................................... 12
Sampling design.................................................................................................... 12
Data analysis......................................................................................................... 13
Limitations............................................................................................................. 13
Results & discussions............................................................................................ 14
Work to date............................................................................................................. 15
Research implications............................................................................................... 15

Running head: Illuminating the glass ceiling effect

Abstract
Previously women participation in organization is not greater in numbers, but from many years
percentage of their participation in organization become increase. In this research, researcher
investigates the glass ceiling effect by seeing the different organization characteristics with
relation to the proportion of women in top management positions in medium to large size private
sector organizations. Questionnaire and interview will be conducted to collect data from sample.
Multiple logistic regression analysis will be performed to understand the relationship between
dependent and independent variables. Most of the authors found that women occupied top
management positions in organizations that have lower level management positions, higher
management turnover, low average management salaries, put more emphasis on promotion and
development, and work in non-manufacturing firms.
Key words: Glass ceiling, organization characteristics, women at the top management

Running head: Illuminating the glass ceiling effect

Introduction
Although women proportion in labor force has increased intensely from many years but women
are still underrepresented in top management positions in all over the world (Powell, 1999;
United Nations Development Report, 1997). The phenomenon that restricts the women to reach
at the top management position is called glass ceiling effect (Morrison, White, Van Velsor, and
the Center for Creative Leadership, 1987). According to the Morrison and Colleagues glass
ceiling is the barrier that keeps the women to reach up to the certain level in organization. They
explained that it is barrier for women simply because they are women not because they dont
have capabilities to overcome problems at top level (1987). Glass ceiling is a transparent barrier
that restricts the qualified personals in an organization to move upward from certain level
(United States department of labor, 1991).
Glass ceiling creates the difference between top management and other management jobs (Baron
& Pfeffer, 1994). Glass ceiling leads to discouragement, lack of expectation and higher turnover
in talented women, organization can take the benefit of women abilities and firm specific
knowledge (Morrisonetal., 1992; Powell, 1999; Rosin & Korabik, 1991). Glass ceiling also
affect the opinion of both men and women in organization regarding how an organization treats
its employees. If womens are omitted from top management positions because of irrelevant
factors, so employees in lower management position might assume that these factors can also
affect their future promotion in an organization (Cox, 1994; Pfeffer, 1981). Prevalence of glass
ceiling in top management positions is suggestive of sex segregation in organization different
levels. Despite of controlling age and education, both women and men have same goals, values
and work related perspective, this shows that women are absent from top positions not because
of these values and goals (Heilman, 1983; Heilman, Block, Martell, & Simon, 1989; Hodson,
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Running head: Illuminating the glass ceiling effect

1989; Lefkowitz, 1994; Mittman, 1992; Morrison & Von Glinow, 1990; Schein & Mueller,
1992).
According to Morrison and Powell glass ceiling is exist in organization in the context that when
decisions are made to fill top positions then apparent fit of candidates are preferred for these post
rather than their job qualifications (Morrison et al., 1992; Powell, 1999). There will be more
biasness in decision making if the process of selecting top managers is less open to scrutiny.
More biased decision making process leads to gender homogeneity in top management ranks
(Powell, 1999). In organization different rules, procedures, practices and structures are applied
that keeps men at the top management positions. Different government institutions, human
resource professionals and interest groups encouraged the organizations to change their specific
norms, procedures and policies that create glass ceiling (Morrison et al., 1992; U.S. Department
of Labor, 1995).
Morrison and Von Glinow (1990) explained in their studies different barriers like lack of
opportunities and mentors, dual labor markets for men and women, lack in the power of women
and dominance of white men in management. All these barriers limit the women to achieve top
ranks in organization. Tharenou, Latimer, and Conroy (1994) conducted the study to explain
glass ceiling effect they found that when training and development is provided to women then
this training helps the women to make advancement in themselves and reach up to top
management positions, on the other hand when men received training and development then they
can reach at the top management positions more rapidly than women. If womens are employed
in human resource department where womens are more in numbers than men in the sample, able
the womens to achieve top ranks in management (Powell and Butterfield 1994).

Running head: Illuminating the glass ceiling effect

Broad problem area:

Illuminating the glass ceiling effect

Thesis statement/Problem statement:

Cracks in glass ceiling: In what kind of private sector organizations in Pakistan do women make
it to the top?

Literature review
Opportunity for women to reach at top management level is created through organization
structural characteristics, policies and procedures. One of the structural characteristic is gender
diversity that is present in lower management level. If womens are present in lower management
levels then women chances of existence at top management position will increase. There are
several reasons for it such as, if there will be more gender diversity exists in lower management
of organization then it is considered that gender diversity exists in organization, because of this
institutional pressure will arise that encourage the continuation of this type of culture (Markham,
Harlan,&Hackett,1987;Cox, 1994). There is the positive influence between heterogeneity and
amount of attraction and formation of friendship among different group members (Blau, 1977,
1994; Blum, 1984).
If women receive more interactions and help from different group members then it can positively
affect the job level attainment of women (Stewart & Gudykunst, 1982). Those women and men
who are working in organization from many years, they have sufficient firm specific knowledge
that is needed for top management positions. If organizations prefer to promote lower level
employees to the top positions, then there will be more chances for women to attain top
management position. Womens representation in top management positions is because of the
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Running head: Illuminating the glass ceiling effect

presence of women in low management positions. Women can lead to other women more sassily
then to lead men (Bergmann, 1989; Reskin & Ross, 1992).
Only the demographic factors are not sufficient for the emergence of top management but other
factors like policies, procedures and structure are also important (Baron & Bielby, 1985). More
opportunities will create for womens to reach up to the top positions if more management
turnover is occur and top management positions are filled from existing employees (Beatty,
Schneier, & McEvoy, 1987). More management turnover in organization leads to tight labor
supply for top management, if internal labor supply is less than company has to hire top
managers from outsiders, it will increase cost. Because of this chances for womens to become a
top managers will also increase. In addition to that more management turnover means more
instability (Harrison & Sum, 1979; Tolbert, Horan, & Beck, 1980). If male managers turnover is
more because of achieving better image in different organization, so women will find less
competition from men for top management positions (Markham et al., 1987; Mittman, 1992).
Those occupations were more womens are employed; they have lower average salaries than
those with fewer women (Pfeffer&Davis-Blake, 1987; Tomaskovic-Devey, 1993). Fields and
Wolff (1991) found in their studies that as there is an increase in women number in top
management ranks so the gap between the salaries of men and women has decreased, this will
cause reduction in average pay level of men and will cause increase in average pay level of
women. Average management salaries can make a difference in organizations, in lower paying
economic sector women are greater in number than the highest paying economic sector (Beck,
Horan, &Tolbert,1978;Tolbertetal.,1980). Those firms that are low capital intensive have lower
average salaries for employees, because they have to face economic pressure like they have to

Running head: Illuminating the glass ceiling effect

keep costs as low as possible, these pressure restricts the organizations to pay less salaries to both
men and women. So men prefer to go toward the highest paying sector because they find more
opportunities there. But in low salaried companies women have more chances of promotion
(Beck et al., 1978; Tolbert et al., 1980).
More the company conducts training and development; there will be more chances that women
are present in top management position (Konrad & Pfeffer, 1991; Lyness & Judiesch, 1999).
More the organization focus on internal promotion and development, more it has programs
available for lower level employees. Because of this specialized program minorities and women
have a chance to reach up to the top management position (Morrison & Von Glinow, 1990).
Stewart and Gudykunst (1982) found in their studies that more formalized promotion system
helps the women more than mans.
Institutional theory explains that highly government regulated organizations and dealing in
intangible products possibly place women in top management positions (Baronetal., 1986).
Nonmanufacturing industries like transport, hospitals, education and communication are created
there structure that is consistent with their institutional environment (Meyer, Scott, & Deal,
1981). On the other hand manufacturing firms are dealing in complicated technologies and
tangible products, so these firms structure base on technical work and processes, manufacturing
firms structure are less affected by institutional environment (Scott, 1995). Entrepreneurial skills
and leadership styles (openness, approachability, encouraging, participative, interactional,
relational, transformational) are those characteristics that make the women needed for the top
management position in service sector. But these two factors are not needed in manufacturing

Running head: Illuminating the glass ceiling effect

industry because this industry base on tangible products and technological processes
(Damanpour, 1991; Mills & Moberg, 1982).
Those organizations that are older in age, they give value to that culture where less diversity is
preferred. Because in older companies number of mens is more in top ranks and they are older
in themselves. They received training at the time when participation of women is not too much in
work force (Cox, 1994; Jack sonetal., 1993). Those organizations where women are placed in top
management, which shows, that those organizations prefer change, but this phenomenon is
inconsistent with older organizations. In newer organizations, women can be found in top
management positions that confirm the institutional pressure (Carroll & Hannan, 1985).
Large organizations are different from small organizations in resource dependence and
institutional sense. Large organizations have power to get desire resources than small ones
(Pfeffer & Salancik, 1978). In large organizations women can move toward top positions more
rapidly than small organizations because large ones are more dignified and formalized in process
and procedures in evaluating candidates for top management positions. Training programs are
more beneficial for women to reach at the top in large organizations than small ones. Large
organizations have to face pressures from members such as professional groups to maintain their
legality (Goodstein, 1994; Powell, 1991).
Those organizations who deal in government contracts have to face institutional pressures for
compliance of guidelines. In private organizations that have substantial contracts with
government have to face more institutional pressure to fairly consider women candidates to the
top position (Morrison et al., 1992).

Running head: Illuminating the glass ceiling effect

Hypothesis
1. More the percentage of lower level management positions are filled by women, more will
be the chances that organization will have women in top management positions.
2. More management turnover in organization, more the organization will have women in
top management turnover.
3. The lesser the average management salaries paid in organization, the more will be the
chances that organization will have women in top management position.
4. More the organization indulge in promotion and development, more will be the chance
that organizations have women in top management positions.
5. Those organizations that are related to non-manufacturing industry, they have more
women in top management positions than organizations related to manufacturing
industry.
6. Organization that is newer in age, more will be the chances that organizations have
women in top management positions.
7. Those organizations that are bigger in size (in terms of number of employees) will have
more women in top management positions.
8. Organizations that makes contract with government will have more women in top
management positions.

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Running head: Illuminating the glass ceiling effect

Theoretical framework

Dependent variable

Independent variable

lower level management

Percentage of women in top

management positions

Percentage of women in

positions
Voluntary management

turnover
Average management

salaries
Emphasize on promotion

and development
Industry type
(Manufacturing & Non-

manufacturing)
Organization age
Organization size
Government contracts

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Running head: Illuminating the glass ceiling effect

Control variable
In this study control variable will be number of top management positions. Information regarding
the top management positions can be obtained from human resource managers of organizations.
More the top management positions are vacant in organization, more will be the chance for
women to avail this opportunity. After maintaining sizeable requirement for males in top
management positions, they allow the women to reach up to the top management positions if
they have capabilities (Jodi s. Goodman, Dail l. Fields, Terry c. Blum).

Approach/Methods
Data collection method
Primary data will be collected for this type of study, which is totally base on qualitative data.
Data is collected from top personals and employees of different organizations through face to
face and telephone interviews and through questionnaire. Questionnaires are filled from more
than 300 employees of medium to large size organizations. In addition to that scholarly articles
also provide help for collecting data.

Sampling design
Sample is basically an idea to dig out a slight proportion out of total population. It is a technique
that is used to select items from the sample (Kothari, C.R., 2004). The sample of this research
will be from 40-50 medium to large size organizations in Pakistan. This sample is selected from
the population of private sector organizations in Pakistan. This sample is enough to provide
information for analyzing the relationships among organization characteristics and women at the
top positions. Previously in research only the human resource managers were considered for
collecting data, but in this research we take in to account managers of all levels in organization.
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Running head: Illuminating the glass ceiling effect

Data analysis
To analyze the tested hypothesis, multiple logistic regression analysis is used. Instead of using
ordinary least square regression, logistic regression has been used because the percentage of top
management positions that is filled by women are highly skewed. There are number of
organizations that have no women in top management positions (Jodi s. Goodman, Dail l. Fields,
Terry c. Blum).

Limitations
Limitations are basically the constraints that restrict the researcher to do research. These
shortcomings are not in the control of researcher. Every research has to face some limitations at
certain point in time. Limitations for this research will be:
Sample size: It is a limit for our study, because in this research only the small, medium and large
size private organizations of Pakistan are taken in to account. Government sector organizations
are not including in it.
Limited funds: Limited funds are another limitation for this study. Because researcher does not
have too much funds to insured each and every aspect of this research within limited budgets.
Low generalization: This research has low generalization. Because only small to large size
private organizations are cater. So this research results cannot be applied on all other firms that
are public.
Limited time duration: We have limited time to complete this research. Within this limited time
we have to complete each and every minor aspect of this research.

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Running head: Illuminating the glass ceiling effect

Results & discussions

All the hypothesis are supported through mean, standard deviation and multiple logistic
regression analysis except 6, 7 & 8 hypothesis. All independent variables have positive relation
with dependent variable except average salaries paid (Jodi s. Goodman, Dail l. Fields, Terry c.
Blum).
United States department of labor, (1995) explains that glass ceiling exists in organizations
because of their practices and policies. Blau (1977) finds in his study that there is a positive
relation between percentage of women in lower management position and percentage of women
in top Management position because it affects positively that increases interaction between
majority and minority groups it also suggest that it is not enough to end discrimination at the top
positions. Greenberg, (1990) found in his study that promotion and development has positive
relation with women at top management positions, and it seems fair. Findings suggest that
women secure top positions in less desirable organizations; on the other hand men secure their
positions in more desirable and stable organizations. Women are found in top management
positions where higher management turnover and average management salaries can be seen
(Beck etal., 1978; Tolbert etal., 1980).

Work to date
TASKS
Proposal submission
Finalize Data collection methods
Data collection

DATE
22-12-2015
31-12-2015 (9 days)
02-2016 (2 months)
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Running head: Illuminating the glass ceiling effect

Data analysis
Write ups
Submission of the final thesis

03-2016 (1 month)
04-2016 (1 month)
05-2016 (1 month)

Research implications
Research on glass ceiling affect has been done previously in developed countries. Developing
countries like Pakistan; no research has been conducted on glass ceiling effect. Most of the
research has been conducted on gender discrimination, leadership with respect to gender and
gender and entrepreneurs. So there is a lot of room for this type of study. In this study researcher
investigates the glass ceiling phenomenon in management levels of organizations. The purpose
of this study is to analyze that what are the organization characteristics that affect the proportion
of women in top management positions? Or what are the characteristics that differentiate the
organizations that have women in top management positions than those organizations that do not
have.
This research will be based on honesty and it will be true to its contents and its reporting, all
techniques, ways, documents and procedures that will be used in doing research shows its
validity. This research will provide sufficient knowledge to readers so that they may make
decision easily. That shows its reliability. This study will help out to organizations in decision
making regarding the management positions. This study will highlight equality among minorities
and majorities in organizations in context of filling the top management positions. This study
will also provide future researchers about further findings.

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Running head: Illuminating the glass ceiling effect

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Running head: Illuminating the glass ceiling effect

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