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LOADSONBUILDINGS
LOADTYPES
Thedeterminationoftheloadsactingonastructureisacomplexproblem.Thenatureof
theloadsvariesessentiallywiththearchitecturaldesign,thematerials,andthelocation
ofthestructure.Loadingconditionsonthesamestructuremaychangefromtimetotime,
ormaychangerapidlywithtime.
Loadsareusuallyclassifiedintotwobroadgroups:deadloadsandliveloads.Dead
loads(DL)areessentiallyconstantduringthelifeofthestructureandnormallyconsistof
theweightofthestructuralelements.Ontheotherhand,liveloads(LL)usuallyvary
greatly.Theweightofoccupants,snowandvehicles,andtheforcesinducedbywindor
earthquakesareexamplesofliveloads.Themagnitudesoftheseloadsarenotknown
withgreataccuracyandthedesignvaluesmustdependontheintendeduseofthe
structure.
Instructuralanalysisthreekindsofloadsaregenerallyused:
1.Concentratedloadsthataresingleforcesactingoverarelativelysmallarea,for
examplevehiclewheelloads,columnloads,ortheforceexertedbyabeamon
anotherperpendicularbeam.
2.Lineloadsthatactalongaline,forexampletheweightofapartitionrestingona
floor,calculatedinunitsofforceperunitlength.
3.Distributed(orsurface)loadsthatactoverasurfacearea.Mostloadsare
distributedoraretreatedassuch,forexamplewindorsoilpressure,andthe
weightoffloorsandroofingmaterials.
DeadLoads(DL)
Thestructurefirstofallcarriesthedeadload,whichincludesitsownweight,theweight
ofanypermanentnonstructuralpartitions,builtincupboards,floorsurfacingmaterials
andotherfinishes.Itcanbeworkedoutpreciselyfromtheknownweightsofthe
materialsandthedimensionsontheworkingdrawings.Althoughthedeadloadcanbe
accuratelydetermined,itiswisetomakeaconservativeestimatetoallowforchangesin
occupancyforexample,thenextownermightwishtodemolishsomeofthefixed
partitionsanderectotherselsewhere.
LiveLoads(LL)
Allthemovableobjectsinabuildingsuchaspeople,desks,cupboardsandfiling
cabinetsproduceanimposedloadonthestructure.Thisloadingmaycomeandgowith
theresultthatitsintensitywillvaryconsiderably.Atonemomentaroommaybeempty,
yetatanotherpackedwithpeople.Imaginethe`extra'liveloadatalivelyparty!
WindLoad(WL)
Windhasbecomeaveryimportantloadinrecentyearsduetotheextensiveuseof
lightermaterialsandmoreefficientbuildingtechniques.Abuildingbuiltwithheavy
masonry,timbertiledroofmaynotbeaffectedbythewindload,butontheotherhand
thestructuraldesignofamodernlightgaugesteelframedbuildingisdominatedbythe
windload,whichwillaffectitsstrength,stabilityandserviceability.Thewindactsbothon
themainstructureandontheindividualcladdingunits.Thestructurehastobebracedto
resistthehorizontalloadandanchoredtothegroundtopreventthewholebuildingfrom
beingblownaway,ifthedeadweightofthebuildingisnotsufficienttoholditdown.The
claddinghastobesecurelyfixedtopreventthewindfromrippingitawayfromthe
structure.
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SnowLoad(SL)
Themagnitudeofthesnowloadwilldependuponthelatitudeandaltitudeofthesite.In
thelowerlatitudesnosnowwouldbeexpectedwhileinthehighlatitudessnowcouldlast
forsixmonthsormore.Insuchlocationsbuildingshavetobedesignedtowithstandthe
appropriateamountofsnow.Theshapeoftheroofalsoplaysanimportantpartinthe
magnitudeofthesnowload.Thesteeperthepitch,thesmallertheload.Thesnowfalling
onaflatroofwillcontinuetobuildupandtheloadwillcontinuetoincrease,butona
pitchedroofapointisreachedwhenthesnowwillslideoff.
EarthquakeLoad
Earthquakeloadsaffectthedesignofstructuresinareasofgreatseismicactivity,such
asnorthandsouthAmericanwestcoast,NewZealand,Japan,andseveral
Mediterraneancountries.OnlyminordisturbanceshavebeenrecordedineastAsiaand
Australia.
ThermalLoads
Allbuildingmaterialsexpandorcontractwithtemperaturechange.Longcontinuous
buildingswillexpand,anditisnecessarytoconsidertheexpansionstresses.Itisusual
todivideareinforcedconcreteframedbuildingintolengthsnotexceeding30mandto
divideabrickwallintolengthsnotexceeding10m.Expansionjointsareprovidedat
thesepointssothatthestructureisphysicallyseparatedandcanexpandwithout
causingstructuraldamage.
SettlementLoads
Ifonepartofabuildingsettlesmorethananotherpart,thenstressesaresetupinthe
structures.Ifthestructureisflexiblethenthestresseswillbesmall,butifthestructureis
stiffthestresseswillbesevereunlessthetwopartsofthebuildingarephysically
separated.
DynamicLoads
Dynamicloads,whichincludeimpactandaerodynamicloads,arecomplex.Inessence,
themagnitudeofaloadcanbegreatlyincreasedbyitsdynamiceffect.
CALCULATIONOFLOADS
Actualloadingsinabuildingaretypicallyeitherconcentratedoruniformlydistributed
overanarea.Theformerneednofurtherconsiderationotherthanasnecessaryto
characterisethemasaforcevector.Inthelatter,however,somemodellingisneeded
whentheareaconsideredisactuallymadeupofanassemblyofonewaylineand
surfaceelements.Theseelementswouldpickupdifferentportionsofthetotalload
actingoverthesurface,dependingontheirarrangement.
ConsiderthesimplestructuralassemblyshowninFigure1(a).Eightprecastconcrete
elementsaresupportedbythreebeamsBothexternalbeamshavetocarrytheweightof
ahalfconcreteelementThemiddlebeamcarriestheweightofoneelement(oftheleft
andrightelementasillustratedinFigure1(b)).Thereactionsfromalltheelements
supportedbyabeamthenbecomeloadsactingonthebeam.Notethattheseloadsform
acontinuouslineloadonthebeam.Loadsofthistypeareexpressedintermsofaload
orforceperunitlength(i.e.N/m)andarecommonlyencounteredinthestructural
analysisprocess.

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Figure1
Anotherwayoflookingatthissameloadingistothinkintermsofcontributoryareas.
Eachofthebeamscanbeconsideredassupportinganareaoftheextentindicatedin
Figure2(a)and(b).Thewidthofeachareaisoftencalledtheloadstrip.Theloadacting
overthewidthoftheloadstripistransferredtothesupportbeams.Iftheuniformly
distributedloadisconstantandtheloadstripisofaconstantwidth,theamountofload
carriedperunitlengthbythesupportbeamissimplytheloadperunitareamultipliedby
thewidthoftheloadstrip.ThisprocessisillustratedinFigure2.Theresultisagaina
continuouslineloaddescribableintermsofaloadperunitlength.Thisprocessisvalid
forequaluniformlydistributedloadsonly.

Figure1
Theloadingconsideredshould,ofcourse,includebothliveanddeadloadcomponents.
Theexactvalueofthelattercanbefoundbycalculatingthevolumecontributaryarea
thethicknessofthematerialandmultiplyitbytheunitweightsforthatmaterial.
Determiningthesevaluescanbetedious.Analternativeistouseaunitweight,e.g.the
weightforonesquaremetre,typicallyexpressedasaforceperunitarea,torepresent
theweightexpressedasN/m2,.Sinceliveloadsarealsoexpressedintermsofaforce
perunitarea,thecalculationprocessisfacilitated,sincebothloadscanbeconsidered
simultaneously.Somesampleloadcalculationsperm2areshownbelow.
SAMPLEDESIGNCALCULATIONS
Fordesignpurposesitismostappropriatetoselectaunitareaforallloads(dead,live,
windetc.).Thisoftensimplifiesthecalculationbecausetheunitareamaybeusedfor
memberswiththesameloadingbutdifferentcontributoryareas.
Todeterminetheloadperunitareaisthemostappropriateprocedureinstructural
design.Thetotalloadcaneasilybecalculatedbyloadperunitareatimesthe
contributaryarea.Fordesignpurposesoftentheunitloadingstripisusedasindicatedin
Figure1(b)above.
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Itisconvenienttodeterminefirstalltheloadingsperunitareathatoccurfrequently
throughoutthebuilding.Theadvantageisthatthesefigurescanthenbeusedforall
differentareasorfloorlevelswiththesameloading.
Thefollowingisanexampleofaunitloaddeterminationforanofficebuilding.
FLATROOF
Tanking(Bituminousfelt(5ply)and50mm
gravel
50mmInsulation

1.20kN/m2

13mmGypsumplaster

0.03"
4.50"
0.22"

DEADLOAD

5.95kN/m2

LIVELOAD(SA1170.1&4.8.1.1)

0.25kN/m2

TOTALLOAD

6.20kN/m2

180mmConcreteslab(0.18x25kN/m3)

OFFICES
Carpet
50mmInsulation
200mmConcreteslab(0.20x25kN/m3)
13mmGypsumplaster
DEADLOAD

0.05kN/m2
0.03"
5.00"
0.22"
5.30kN/m2

LIVELOAD(AppendixB6.11)

3.00kN/m2

TOTALLOAD

8.30kN/m2

CORRIDORSANDPASSAGEWAYS
Carpet

0.05kN/m2

40mmScreed(0.04x22kN/m3)
20mmInsulation

0.88"
0.05"

200mmConcreteslab(0.20x25kN/m3)
13mmGypsumplaster

5.00"
0.22"

DEADLOAD

6.20kN/m2

LIVELOAD(AppendixB6.4)

4.00kN/m2

TOTALLOAD

10.20kN/m2

STAIRSANDLANDINGS
Stairs
Marbletiles

0.42kN/m2

Concretewedge(2x0.17x0.25x4x23.5
kN/m2

2.08kN/m2

160mmConcreteslab(0.16x25kN/m2)

4.00"

DEADLOAD

6.50kN/m2

LIVELOAD(AppendixB6.4)

4.00kN/m2

TOTALLOAD
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Landings

10.50kN/m2

160mmConcreteslab(0.16x25kN/m2)

0.42kN/m2
4.00"

DEADLOAD

4.42kN/m2

LIVELOAD(AppendixB6.4)

4.00kN/m2

TOTALLOAD

8.42kN/m2

Marbletiles

Havingcompiledtherequiredunitloadingfigurestheloadperrunningmetrefora
particularmembercanbecalculatedquitequicklybymultiplyingtheunitloadwiththe
appropriatedepthoftheloadingstrip,orincasethetotaldeadloadonamemberis
neededbymultiplyingtheunitloadwiththecontributaryarea.
AUSTRALIANSTANDARDLOADINGCODE(AS1170PART1)
InthepreviousUnittheexternalloadsonstructureswereclassifiedinseveraldifferent
ways.TheminimumdesignloadonstructuresmustbeinaccordancewiththeSAA
LoadingCodeSA1170Parts1to3.AccordingtoPart1`DeadandLiveLoadsandLoad
Combination',thestructuremustbedesignedfortheworstloadcombinationforstrength,
stabilityandserviceabilityforlimitstatesdesign.
Itisbeyondthescopeofthissubjecttoconsiderallloadcombinations(strengthlimit
stages,stabilitylimitstagesandserviceabilitystages)ofthestandard.Wewillonly
considerthefollowingloadcombinationforstrengthlimitstage:

WhereG,Q,Wuarepartsofdead,live,andwindloads,andhavethefollowingmeaning:

Therearesomeotherliveloads,whichareconsideredinthissubject.
1.Handrails,balustradesandrailingsofprivatedwellingsmustresistasingleforceof
0.6kNactinginward,outwardordownwardatanypointonthehandrail,a
continuousloadof0.4kN/m,andthewindloadactingonortransmittedtothe
handrail.
Allotherhandrailsincludingparapetsandrailingstoallroofsshallresistastatic
loadof0.75kN/mactinginward,outwardordownwardortheappropriatewind
load,whicheverproducesthemostadverseeffects.
2.Forallnontrafficableroofs,eitherflatorpitched,eachmemberprovidingsupport
tothecladdingthereof(includingdecking,purlins,beamsandtrusses)shallbe
designedtowithstandtheliveloadresultantfromstackedmaterialsorequipment
usedinrepairormaintenanceoperationswhichshallbetakenas0.25kPaonthe
planprojection,exceptthatwheretheareasupportedbyanystructuralmemberis
lessthan14.0m,theintensityofliveloadsonthatmembershallbedeterminedas
follows:
Liveload=(1.8/A+0.12)kPa
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A=theplanprojectionofthesurfaceareaofroofsupportedbythememberunder
analysis,insquaremetres.
3.Forflatornearflatroofsandbalconieswhichareintendedtobeavailablefor
pedestriantrafficorresort,theconstruction(includingdecking,purlins,beamsand
trusses)shallbedesignedtosupportthefollowinguniformlydistributedliveloador
aconcentratedloadof1.8kN,whicheverloadgivesthemoreadverseeffect
1.(a)forhouses:3kPa(for10.0morless)varyinglinearlyto1.5kPa(for40.0
morgreater)
2.(b)forallotherbuildings:4kPa(for10.0morless)varyinglinearlyto3kPa
(for40.0morgreater)
3.Cantileveredsectionsoftrafficableroofsshallbedesignedfortheliveload
correspondingtotheareaof10.0morless.
StudentswhowantmoredepthofinformationmayrefertoPart1andPart2ofthe
LoadingCode
Thefollowingexamplesshowyouhowtocalculatethedeadload(DL)ofa
structuralmemberorcomponentandliveload(LL)onafloorareaofaresidential
building.
Example1
Weusethefollowingformulatocalculatethedeadload:
Deadload=VolumeDensity(DL=m3kN/m3
Calculatetheweight(DL)foraGlulambeam,size42075mm5.4mlong.
Densityoftimberis1100kg/m3
Solution:
Firstconvertmassdensityinweightdensity.1100kg/m3=11000N/m3=11kN/m3
Nowwecancalculatetheweightofthetimberbeam(bearer):
W = 0.4200.0755.411
= 1.87kN
Example2:
Calculatetheliveload(LL)thatthebearerhastocarry(contritbutaryareais5.4
3.6m).TheapplicableLLaccordingtoAS1170Part1(Deadandliveload)is1.5
kPaforresidentialapplication.
Remember1kPa=1kN/m 2

Solution:
UsingtheformulaLL=m(length)m(width)kN/m2
LL = 5.43.61.5
= 29.16kN
Youhavestudiedhardtakeabreakbeforeyouclickhereformoreload
calculations.

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