KARUNYAUNIVERSITY

Introductionto National
YouthProgrammes
FortheFirst YearB.Tech Students
KarunyaUniversity

January2012

Compiledby

Prof.P.K.Kurian
HeadofDepartment
DeptofExtensionandContinuingEducation
KarunyaUniversity

CONTENTS

No
1

Unit/ Topic
Page No
Unit 1 (NSO)
Wellness: Physical fitness
Components of fitness
Importance of fitness
Effect of exercise on various body systems.
Unit 2 (NSO) Rules and Regulations of
Football
Basketball
Volleyball
Badminton
Cricket
Hockey
Kabaddi
Table tennis
Chess
Carrom.
Unit 3 (NCC)
History of National Cadet Corps (NCC) Requirement -Act of Parliament
Logo Motto Branches
Training Activities.
NCC Activities Parade Training
Weapons Training Drills Firing Practice
Physical Training Activities
Obstacle Course Training.
Adventure Activities - Para Jumping Para Gliding Mountaineering Rock
Climbing River Rafting and other branch related activities.
Community Service Collaboration with other services like NSS, NSO, Youth
Corps, Scouts & Guides.
Requirements for NCC Unit in Schools / Colleges / Universities Junior
Division and Senior Division Boys & Girls NCC Units. Benefits of NCC Personality/Character Development and Employability
Unit 4 (NSS)
Orientation to NSS: Genesis Objectives of NSS emblem Motto
Organisation and administration set-up of NSS- Special Camping Programmes,
Awards, Participation in Republic day Parade, National Integration Camps,
Youth festivals, etc
Unit 5 (Rural Development)
Features and scope of Rural Development - General problems faced by rural
population Population growth, illiteracy, unemployment, problems in agricultural sector,
health, hygiene, sanitation and nutrition, drinking water supply, housing. Role
of Educational institutions in rural development - Participatory development
tools : Participatory Rural Appraisal, Participatory Learning and Action, Rapid
Rural Appraisal - Government programmes for Rural Development.
2

09DE101

Introduction to National Youth Programmes

2:0:0

Learning Objective:
To study the important concepts in Physical fitness.
To study Rules and Regulation of Athletics and Games.
To Understand the role of National Cadet Corps in National Development and Security.
To Understand the role of National Service Scheme in Community Development.
To sensitize the students about the importance of Rural Development in National Development.
Unit 1 (NSO)
Wellness: Physical fitness Components of fitness Importance of fitness Effect of exercise
on various body systems.
Unit 2 (NSO)
Rules and Regulations : Athletics - Ball badminton - Basketball - Badminton - Cricket Football
- Volleyball Hockey Kabaddi - Table tennis Chess Carrom.
Unit 3 (NCC)
History of National Cadet Corps (NCC) Requirement Act of Parliament Logo Motto
Branches Training Activities. NCC Activities Parade Training Weapons Training Drills
Firing Practice Physical Training Activities Obstacle Course Training. Adventure Activities
Para Jumping Para Gliding Mountaineering Rock Climbing River Rafting and other
branch related activities. Community Service Collaboration with other services like NSS, NSO,
Youth Corps, Scouts & Guides. Requirements for NCC Unit in Schools / Colleges / Universities
Junior Division and Senior Division Boys & Girls NCC Units. Benefits of NCC - Personality
/ Character Development and Employability
Unit 4 (NSS)
Orientation to NSS: Genesis Objectives of NSS emblem Motto Organisation and
administration set-up of NSS- Special Camping Programmes, Awards, Participation in Republic
day Parade, National Integration Camps, Youth festivals, etc
Unit 5 (Rural Development)
Features and scope of Rural Development - General problems faced by rural population Population growth, illiteracy, unemployment, problems in agricultural sector, health, hygiene,
sanitation and nutrition, drinking water supply, housing. Role of Educational institutions in rural
development - Participatory development tools : Participatory Rural Appraisal, Participatory
Learning and Action, Rapid Rural Appraisal - Government programmes for Rural Development.
References:
1. NSS Manual 2005, Ministry of Youth Affairs, India.
2. NCC Manual 2007, DGNCC, New Delhi 110 066
3. National Service Scheme Theory and Practices 2005,
Avinashilingam University for Women, Coimbatore
4. Reddy. A.A. 2001 Extension Education, Sree Lakshmi Press, Bapatla
5. Larry G.Shaver., Essentials of Exercise Physiology.
6. Edward L . Fox & Donald K. Mathews., The Physiological basis of Physical Education and
Athletics

Unit 1 (NSO)
Wellness: Physical fitness Components of fitness Importance of fitness Effect of exercise
on various body systems.

PHYSICAL FITNESS AND WELLNESS

What is physical fitness? Long ago Plato observed The body needs to be vigorous in order to
obey the soul; a good servant ought to be robust. The weaker the body, the more it commands,
the stronger it is, the better obeysIn order to think we must exercise our limbs, our senses and
our organs, which are the instruments of our intelligence. In order to derive all the advantages
possible from these instruments, it is necessary that the body which furnishes them should be
robust and sound.
These are not hollow words or the fictitious thinking n of an idealist philosopher; they are more
significant with a stark/strong/rigid reality- a reality which the individuals and the nation must
take notice of. Health and fitness are sine-quo-non of human life. Healthy and fit citizen is an
asset while a weak person is a liability; the former commands and the latter demands. Realizing
the human efficiency and productivity are very much dependent exclusively on ones health and
fitness, almost all the countries have given adequate attention to this vital aspect of their national
life. The importance of health and fitness through the medium of physical activity can hardly be
underestimated in the modern times, when the lifestyle is changing rapidly. Tremendous
urbanization and mechanism of daily routines has resulted not only in hurrying and scurrying
but has also deprived people of natural energy, vigour, muscular power and prowess so
essential for a purposeful life.
Physical Education and Health
It has been rightly said that physical fitness and wellness are ones richest possessions; they
cannot be purchased, they are to be earned through regular and systematic fitness programme
and positive life style habits. Everyone performs physical activity in order to sustain life.
However, the rate of physical activity varies from one individual to another based on the
personal; lifestyle and other factors. Physical fitness is the capacity to carry our reasonably well
various forms of physical activities without being unduly tired and includes developing qualities
important to the individuals health and well-being.
WHY PHYSICAL EDUCATION IS IMPORTANI IN SCHOOLS/COLLEGES
1. It teaches the values of physical fitness and how to become physically fit.
2. It improves knowledge of our bodies from physiological, psychological and
biomechanical viewpoints.

3. It teaches various physical activities that can be practised now and in the later life such as
motor skills for the sports like basketball, swimming, tennis, volleyball and so on.
4. It provides an understanding of the important role of physical education and sport in
society.
5. It teaches the rules of ethical behaviour in sporting situations.
6. It teaches value of sport and leisure activities for a healthy life in todays world.
7. Physically and mentally fit individuals are stronger in enduring conditions for existence
essential for survival, physical fitness is nothing but is a healthfulness, strength, sound,
vigour, power and capability to work efficiently. Fitness keeps a man always ready for
life. Fitness makes life worth living. Fitness leads to intellectual and spiritual life,
occupation, love life and social activities.
Components of Physical Fitness
Cardio
Respiratory-Endurance

Muscular
Endurance

Strength
PHYSICAL
FITNESS

Power

Speed
Agility

Flexibility

1. Cardio- respiratory Endurance; This is the quality that enables one to continue
engaging in reasonably vigorous physical activities for extended period of time where the
required cardio- respiratory adjustments to the activity is build up.
2. Muscular Endurance: This is the quality that enables a person to sustain localized
muscle group activities for extended period of time.
3. Strength: Strength is the amount of muscular force one is capable of exerting in a single
muscular contraction. Strength is the ability of a muscle for producing maximum amount
of force.
4. Speed: Speed (a function of distance and time) is the ability to make rapid (swift/with
great speed) movements of the same type in the shortest possible time.

5. Power (i.e explosive strength): It is the quality of a muscle to contract forcefully or to

produce maximum force in the quickest /shortest possible time.
6. Agility: It is the ability of human being to charge or alter direction quickly, efficiently
accurately, and effectively during physical activity.
7. Flexibility: It is the ability of a muscle to perform movements freely to its large extent
through a full range of motion. It is important to have flexibility so as to be in total
balance. Basic stretch exercise can prevent and lessen most muscle soreness and strains.
Proper stretching allows for free movements. It also refers to the functional capacity of a
joint to move through a normal range of motion. It is specific to a given joint and is
actually more dependent upon the musculature surrounding a joint than on the actual body
structure of the joint itself.
Physical fitness can be classified into two categories namely
a) Health related physical fitness
b) Motor skill related physical fitness
Health related physical fitness could be defined as a scientific body of positive effects of
regular and vigorous exercises with the prevention of degenerative/fatal diseases such as
coronary heart disease, obesity and various muscular disorders. The following findings of
the researchers support the need for health related physical fitness.
1. Research studies with people of ages and both sexes reveal that physical fitness is on
the decline. Results very clearly indicate that over the years there has been a decline
in the aerobic fitness and increase in the body fat. The hypokinetic namely cardiovascular disease, adult- onset diabetes and low back problems are on increase. These
conditions could be improved due to better health awareness, lowering cardiovascular disease risk factor and bringing about change in the diet.
2. Research studies show that childhood behaviour influences adulthood characteristics
and behaviour. This is especially true in respect of body composition. The correct
approach is to prevent adulthood obesity rather than causing it. Maintaining good
body composition as a youth is considered vital for lowering adulthood obesity.
Health related physical fitness can do a great deal in this regard.
3. The research findings also bring to light certain important details with regard to
cardio-vascular risk factors. Children who had cardio-vascular disorders and also
smoked cigarettes were more prone to get cardio-vascular diseases in later life. Better
health awareness through health related physical fitness can inculcate good health
habits and thus prevent serious problem in later lifes.
6

Components of Health Related Physical Fitness

Flexibility

Cardio-respiratory
endurance
Health Related Physical
Fitness

Muscular Strength
and Endurance

Body
Composition

1. Cardio- respiratory Endurance: It is the ability of the lungs, heart and blood vessels to
supply a sufficient amount of oxygen and nutrients to the cell to meet the demands of
activities, characterized by moderate contractions of large muscle groups over
prolonged/longer period of time.
2. Muscular strength and endurance: It is the ability of the muscle to generate force
during period of time and also to get over resistance in the case of endurance loads of
medium intensity of stimulus and resist muscular fatigue.
3. Flexibility: It is the ability of muscle to perform movements with large amplitude (range
of motion). It is the ability of joints to move through their full range of motion along with
cardiovascular endurance and muscular strength. Flexibility is the key component to
maintain balanced fitness. To improve or maintain flexibility, the way is to stretch.
4. Body Composition: It is the classification of human body into fat weights and lean body
mass. Body composition is an important component of health-related physical fitness.
Good body composition results from aerobic activity, strength training and proper diet.
Motor skills related physical fitness has direct relevance to performance in games and sports with
greater power, speed, endurance, agility, co-ordination, balance etc, and it turn makes him
capable of attaining good performance in sports.
COMPONENTS OF MOTOR SKILL-RELATED PHYSICAL FITNESS
1. Speed: Speed (a function of distance and time) is the ability to make rapid/quick
movement in shortest period of time.
2. Co-ordination: It is the performance pre-requisite and is primarily determined by
mechanism involved in control and regulation of movement. It is dependent on the
coordinative process of nervous system and functional capacity of sense organs.
7

3. Power: Power (explosive strength) is the

Speed
Co ordination
ability of muscle to contract forcefully in
the shortest period of time or to produce
maximum force in shortest period of time.
4. Endurance: It is the quality that enables
Motor skill
one to continue engaging in reasonably
Related
Endurance
Power
vigorous physical activities for extended
period of time (i.e reaction time)
5. Agility: It is the ability of the human body
to change direction quickly and
effectively.
Agility
Balance
6. Balance: It is the ability of the body to
maintain equilibrium (movement control)
under static and dynamic conditions throughout various movements. Muscle balance is
working of muscles harmoniously for producing joint movements appropriately.
The term wellness involves variety of activities which help human being to recognize
components of lifestyle that are injurious to health and then participate in different programmes
so as to improve quality of life and achieve total well being. The content of wellness goes
beyond absence of mere disease and optimal physical fitness.
Benefits of Fitness Programme: While participating in fitness programmes many benefits can
be derived, the most important benefit of all is that individuals enjoy better quality of life. One
can enjoy his life to its fullest potential. The following are the benefits of the fitness programme.
1. It improves the quality of life.
2. It improves and strengthens the cardio-vascular system.
3. It improves muscular tone, strength, endurance and flexibility.
4. It helps to maintain ideal body weight.
5. It improves posture and physical appearance.
6. It decreases the risk of chronic heart diseases and illness.
7. It relieves tension and stress.
8. It increases level of energy and productivity.
9. It slows downs the aging process.
10. It improves the self-image, morale and helps in fighting depression.
11. It motivates towards positive lifestyle.
12. It regulates and improves overall body functions.
Due to the above stated benefits most people in the country now participate in various fitness
programmes to improve and maintain health.

THE COMPONENTS OF WELLNESS

The current statistical estimates reveal that the main causes of death today are lifestyle related.
Majority of the deaths are caused by cardio-vascular problems and the fact is that more than 75%
of these could be prevented through a positive lifestyle programme.
The concept of wellness includes many other components and most of them are not associated
/connected with physical fitness. In fact, physical fitness is one of the components of wellness.
The other components associated with wellness are cardio-vascular risk factors, health education,
alcohol and drugs, smoking, tension and stress, proper nutrition, cancer prevention, spiritual
well-being, safety and sexuality.
1. Physical fitness
Physical fitness and wellness are closely associated and are contributory to each other. Physical
fitness contributes a lot in leading a healthy lifestyle. A combination of physical fitness
programme with a healthy lifestyle programme has been recommended by the experts as a
wellness approach to good health and quality of life. A physically fit person seems to enjoy a
healthy life style.
2. Cardio-vascular risk factors
These risk factors are associated with various pathological conditions that effect the heart and the
circulatory system. The main cardio-vascular risk factors responsible for deaths are
atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, heart attack, high blood pressure, peripheral vascular
disease, rheumatic heart disease and congestive heart failure. Even though, cardio-vascular
diseases are the leading cause of death all over the world, yet, during the last three decades, there
has been reduction in these problems mainly because of proper risk factor management and
better health care. Cardio-vascular risk factors can also be reduced through a systematic and well
developed programme of sports, fitness activities and healthy lifestyle.

Physical Fitness

Cardio vascular risk factors

Health Education
Alcohol and Drugs

Smoking

Tension & stress

WELLNESS

Spiritual well-being
Proper nutrition

Safety

Cancer prevention

Sexuality

Components of Wellness
3. Health Education: Health education is a process that informs, motivates and helps people to
adopt and maintain healthy practices and lifestyle. It spreads scientific knowledge about
prevention of disease and thus promoting good health. It not only motivates people to change
their habits and ways of living but also helps them by informing about the harmful effects of
alcohol, smoking, drugs, and physical inactivity. Health education provides learning
experiences which favourably influence habits, attitudes and knowledge relating individual,
family and community.
4. Alcohol and Drugs: Consumption of alcohol and hard drugs are the most self-destructive
forms of addiction in our society. Intake of alcohol causes vision and hearing problems,
decreases reaction time, lowers concentration and motor performance and also adversely
10

affects sexual functions. Long term effects of alcohol intake causes scarring of or damage to
the liver, increases risk or oral, oesophageal and liver cancer, raises blood pressure, damages
brain cells thus resulting in loss of memory, causes stomach ulcers, increases risk of heart
strokes and sexual impotence. Over the years consumption of drugs has become a serious
problem all over the world. Use of drugs in sports for enhancing performance has become a
serious problem these days. Drugs, no doubt, enhance sports performance but lead to very
serious long term effects on sports persons. In addition to serious health problems, intake of
drugs is also responsible for large number of adolescent and youth suicides.
5. Smoking: Smoking is one of the most common causes of cardio-vascular diseases and it is
responsible for premature deaths all over the world. Smoking and tobacco chewing cause
atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, blood pressure and irritability of the heart. Another
harmful effect of cigarette smoking is lowering of high density lipoprotein (HDL). Tobacco
chewing also increases the risk of mouth cancer.
6. Tension and Stress: Responsibilities and pressures of daily life are common sources of
tension and stress. If they are not managed properly, they can become a serious health hazard
and put constant strain on the cardio-vascular system which may in turn lead to heart disease.
Physical exercises and breathing techniques are useful in stress management. They lead to
lowering of muscular tension and thus decrease stress.
7. Proper nutrition: Good nutrition has very close relationship to overall health and well-being
of the human body. In fact, the term good nutrition is synchronous with maintenance of
healthy body. Intake of proper nutrition leads to normal tissue growth, repair and
maintenance. It is essential to strike a balance between quality and quantity of food and it
should be ensured that the food comprises of all essential nutrients (carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, vitamins, minerals and water ) required by the human body so as to carryout various
activities efficiently and also sustain life. High nutrient density foods (foods that contain a
low or moderate amount of calories but are packed with nutrients) should be preferred over
low nutrient density foods (foods that are high in calories but contain few nutrients). Age,
sex, height and activity levels are decisive factors to assess dietary requirements of an
individual. 60-65 percent of the total energy requirements should be obtained from
carbohydrates (starch), 15-20% from fats and rest 10-15% from the proteins. In addition,
vitamins, minerals and water should be taken adequately. Besides contributing the healthier
lifestyle and wellness, good diet also helps in the prevention of various diseases namely
cancer, obesity, constipation, anaemia, ulcer, general muscular weakness and malnutrition
problems.
8. Cancer prevention: Above 25% deaths all over the world are caused due to cancer. Medical
scientists are of the opinion that cancer is related to a persons lifestyle and environmental
11

factors. What we eat and drink, where we work and play, are closely associated with cancer.
Use of tobacco and excessive use of alcohol are also common factors responsible for causing
dreaded diseases. Doctors are of that opinion that cancer is preventable provided we change
negative lifestyle habits and behaviours. Sound knowledge of health education and healthy
lifestyle can go a long way in fighting cancer.
9. Spiritual well-being: Several research studies have reported a positive relationship among
spiritual well being, emotional well being, satisfaction life and health. It has been found that
occurrence of heart attacks is more among non-religious. Wellness requires the proper
balance between social, physical, mental, emotional and spiritual well being. Therefore, in
order to enable a person to enjoy good quality of life, the relation between and wellness and
spirituality is significant.
10. Safety: Personal safety and accident prevention are vital components of wellness and also
enable a person to lead a better quality of life. Combining alcohol with driving is a common
cause of accidents. Some of the drugs are also responsible for causing mental imbalance and
results in loss of co-ordination and judgement and thereby increasing the risk of accidents. It
is essential to follow all safety rules in order to avoid accidents so as to ensure total well
being of the person.
11. Sexuality: Sexually transmitted diseases (STD) are great health hazard and in the recent past
have become more common than in past all over the world. Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome (AIDS) is the most frightening of the STD as so far there is no cure for it. The
other diseases (STD) are gonorrhoea, genital warts, herpes, syphilis and Chlamydia and some
of them are curable. The best way to prevent sexually transmitted diseases is to have sexual
relationship with only one person. In order to combat this problem children in school are
being imparted sex education. Through thesex education they are made familiar with the ill
effects of these diseases and also briefed about ways and means to prevent them.
Therefore, to improve the quality of life and also to increase longevity, one has to follow all
the health rules and adopt a positive lifestyle programme. Physical fitness and wellness
management will enable a person to develop positive habits which once developed can be
followed throughout the life.
The following example will illustrate the difference between physical fitness and wellness.
An individual who regularly participates in different types programmes for developing the
strength, endurance, speed, flexibility etc., to enhance his fitness level can be classified as a
person in good category each of the fitness components. However, if this individual smokes,
consumes alcohol and suffers from high blood pleasure he may not be termed as a person
with positive lifestyle habits necessary for promoting better health.
12

In order to guarantee a better, healthier, happier and more productive life, each individual is
to be taught control his personal habits. Research studies have revealed that practising
following simple lifestyle habits may significantly increase quality of life and in turn enhance
longevity.
1. Proper body weight i.e maintains ideal body weight (proper ratio of lean body weight and
fat weight).
2. Proper sleep -7 to 8 hours each night.
3. Developing good eating habits i.e not eating between meals, eating less sweets fat and
eating breakfast every day.
4. Regular exercise.
5. Control of tensions and management of stress.
6. Avoiding intake of alcohol, smoking of cigarettes and all other hard drugs.
There are nonetheless, too many individuals who exercise regularly, but when they take a battery
of fitness tests it is found that they are not as fit as they thought they were. Although these
individuals may be exercising regularly, they are most likely not following basic principles for
physical exercises.
A key principle in exercise prescription is that all programs must be individualized to obtain
optimal results. It means each individual should follow a specific exercise program. Our bodies
are not all alike and that fitness levels and needs varying among all individuals.
It is recommended that each individual regularly take part in fitness and wellness programme for
developing positive addictions and continue with them throughout as to experience a new
quality of life.
The contribution made by fitness to a persons health and well being can be best explained by
the story of George Snell from U.S.A. He weighed approximately 180 Kg.., at the age of 45
years and his blood pressure was 220/180.He was practically blind because he suffered from
diabetes and his blood glucose levels was 487. George decided to do something about his
physical and medical condition and started with a regularly walking and jogging programme.
After about 8 months of continuous exercise, he had last about 90 kg and his eye sight improved
due to lowering of the level of blood glucose to 67. George stopped taking medicines for his
medical problems and continued with his conditioning programme. After another two months, he
succeeded in completing his first marathon, ie running a distance of 42.195km.There have been
several such examples where persons started exercise to get rid of the medical problems and the
result of continued exercise programme they not only got rid of the medical and physical
problems but turned in to high performance sports persons.

13

IMPORTANCE OF WELLNESS
Research findings, literature on health and fitness and medical fitness and medical experts
revealed that majority of deaths are caused by lifestyle related diseases. People all over the world
have formed habits of consuming of high salt, high fat, high sugar and low fibre diets. Over and
above this there is tension and stress in the life. Large number of people has become dependent
on tobacco, alcohol and drugs which in turn leads to a lethargic life style.
Statistics show that nearly 50% of the deaths occur due to cardio-vascular problems and cancer is
responsible for almost 20% of the deaths. Some of the other factors which lead to death are road
accidents, suicides, pulmonary diseases and various other forms of signals. The main factors
responsible for this problems are lack of physical activity, lack of knowledge about health and
hygiene, imbalance and improper nutrition, intake of alcohol and drugs(accidents are mainly
caused due to them). The life style of the people have become lethargic are accustomed to much
sitting, mainly due to technological advancements. Physical activity has no longer remained a
part of the existence.
Keeping in mind the above stated health problems, people of all ages and both sexes are to be
directed to healthy lifestyle habits and made to participate in fitness and wellness programs so as
to maintain better quality of life. People are to be helped to develop positive addictions which
they should follow throughout the life. The most important benefits of wellness approach is the
development of positive attitude that helps people to see lifes myriad possibilities make them
work for their attainment so as to make ones life fulfilling and satisfying.
The main benefits of wellness are:
a) Improvement of efficiency of cardio vascular system.
b) Development of motor components namely strength, endurance, agility, flexibility etc.
And toning of the muscles.
c) Improvement of poise/balancing, figure and physical appearance.
d) Delay in the onset of tiredness and reduced recovery time after vigorous activity.
e) Quick recovery after injury and illness.
f) Reduces the risk of cardio vascular disease.
g) Helps in better management of stress and management.
h) Fulfils proper nutritional requirements.
i) Delays the ageing process.
j) Enhances intellectual capabilities of individuals and help them in tackling the
complicated situations.
k) Help people to meet challenges of life and make themselves confident
l) Enable people to get familiar with their personal needs and makes them capable of
meeting them.
m) Helps people to meet unforeseen situations as and when required.
14

EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON VARIOUS BODY SYSTEMS PHYSIOLOGICAL

ASPECTS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
MUSCULAR SYSTEM:
The muscular system is composed of muscle fibres which form a cover for the bony framework
below the skin. In everything we do, we use muscles. In walking, running, breathing, sitting,
reading, chewing, swallowing, movement of the blood in the blood vessels, and beating of the
heart, different muscles of the body are involved. The human body has over 600 different
muscles.
Structure and function: The
muscles are made up of muscle
fibres. The muscles have the
power of shortening, called
contraction and extending,
called relaxation. The muscle
Voluntary skeletal
Involuntary muscles
that bends a joint is called a
(not under the conscious control)
muscles
1.
smooth
muscles
(in
the
internal
organs
flexor and which straightens the
(Most of them are attached
2. Cardiac muscle (in the heart-(extremely
to the skeleton and move the
joint is the extensor. The
powerful, not under our conscious
skeleton)
control)
movement of the body parts
takes place by the contraction and relaxation process of the muscle fibres.
Muscles

The effect of exercise on the muscular system

All the body movements are performed with the help of skeletal muscles. Muscles need energy
for contraction which is made available as a result of oxidation of food stuff. This facilitates the
supply for the required amount of energy which enables the muscles to contract and relax.
Depending upon the severity of exercise, there is a proportionate increase in the supply of blood
to the working muscles so that, the required amount of oxygen is made available to provide
adequate energy to function. During exercise, the rate of working of circulatory and respiratory
systems is also increased in order to meet the increased demands of the working muscles. With
the supply of required amount of the energy, the muscles can function and also for a longer
period of time.
When the person exercises, there is break down of glycogen (quick source of fuel in the body)
into carbon dioxide, water and energy. The carbon dioxide is eliminated from the body and
energy is utilised for movement. The water is retained by the body for its general use.
As a result of prolonged exercise, the muscles get hypertrophied and thus strength of the muscles
increases. The diameter of muscles too increases and making them stronger. This gain in strength
is due to the strengthening of sarcolemma by increasing its contractile protein content. Regular
exercise also enhances the ability of the muscles to withstand stress for a prolonged period i.e.,
strength endurance of the muscle increases. Prolonged exercise also brings about thickening of
the connective tissue within the muscle.

15

Exercise leads to chemical changes in the muscles which enhance phosphocreatine content,
glycogen, non nitrogenous substances and haemoglobin. All these improve the working
efficiency of the muscle. Capillarization of the muscle is another significant change brought
about by regular exercise. New capillaries are formed in the muscles and thus, blood supply to
the muscles improves. Long term exercise improves efficiency of enzymes present in the
muscles and they in turn bring about quicker energy production. Oxygen extraction capacity of
the muscle improves enabling it to take more oxygen from the same amount of blood. As a result
of regular exercise the muscle is able to produce and tolerate higher lactic acid concentration in
the blood, improving capacity of the muscle to recover from damages.
Circulatory system
Circulation
This system is responsible for the transport of blood in our body. The blood which flows in the
blood cells is pumped day and night by the pumping organ called the heart.
Organs of the circulatory system
The circulatory system is composed of
BloodVessels

1. Heart
2. Blood vessels
3. Blood
Artery

Vein

Capillaries

Structure of the heart

The heart is composed of four
chambers, two upper auricles and
lower ventricles. The heart is divided
into right and left side, by septa and
upper chambers are separated from
lower chambers by valves.
Function
The impure or deoxygenated blood comes to the heart from
the body, to the right auricle of the heart from where it goes to right ventricle and from there to
the lungs where its purified. After purification, it returns to the left side of the heart i.e., to the
left auricle. From the left auricle it goes to the left ventricle from where it is pumped into the
whole body through the arota, the biggest artery of the body.

16

Anatomy of Heart
Impure Blood

Right Auricle

Right Ventricle

Circulation at a glance
Body

Aorta

Lungs

Left Ventricle

Left Auricle

The effect of exercise on the circulatory system: The adaptations and changes in the
circulatory system, to exercise, are highly complex. The effect of exercise varies with different
people, and is greatly influenced by the pre-exercise fitness level of the individual. The
circulatory system is responsible for proper circulation of the blood in the body and the supply of
the adequate amount of blood to the different parts as per the requirement. During exercise,
contracting muscles require oxygen and energy. This is facilitated by an increase in the amount
of the blood pumped out by the heart and also by circulatory adjustments.

17

The increase in the cardiac output is most important factor in the adjustment of the circulatory
system with regard to the increased needs of the body resulting from exercise. This increase is
greater in the athlete than in the non athlete, and it occurs with a smaller increase in the heart
rate.
Regular exercise and improved physical fitness have beneficial effects on the heart muscle. Like
any body muscle, the heart muscle also enlarges and become stronger as a result of exercise. This
is commonly known as athletes heart. Thus the heart works more efficiently at a slower rate
pumping more blood with each beat.
As a result of regular exercise, new capillaries are formed with in muscle fibres. This facilitates
increased supply of oxygen and food to tissues and also ensures removal of waste products.
There are evidences to indicate that exercise increases the red blood corpuscles and hemoglobin
there by increasing the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood.
Regular exercise lowers the blood cholesterol and prevents blocks in arteries. Those who
exercise regularly can tolerate higher concentration of lactic acid in blood which in turns delays
the onset of fatigue.
The circulatory system also helps in the elimination of waste products example urea, co2,
excessive salts etc. which are produced during exercises through various organs of excretion.
All the cells of the body need oxygen to carry out their day to day activities. The oxygen used to
burn the food and produce the energy in the form of glucose and carbon dioxide and water
released as waste products.
The respiratory system is composed of:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Nasal chambers
Pharynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Bronchioles
Lungs
Diaphragm

Function: The process of respiratory system is divided into two parts

Respiration

Inhalation

Physical Process

Chemical process

Breathing

Cellular Respiration

Exhalation

18

Breathing: This is a simple process of taking in oxygen and giving out carbon dioxide. During
inhalation the diaphragm moves down, the ribs expand and thus, the volume inside increases.
This results in decreased pressure and the air rushes in, through the nasal chambers, into the
lungs. From here, it diffuses into blood and transferred to each and every cell of the body where
the oxygen is used, to burn the food and to produce the energy. The C02 is released in the
process and is exhaled out of the system.
THE EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Regular exercise enhances the operational efficiency of the respiratory system. The consumption
of oxygen and production of carbon dioxide are more effected by exercise more than any other
factor. The increased oxygen consumption is made possible by the accelerated pulmonary
circulation and increased pulmonary ventilation. The rate of breathing and the volume of each
breath is increased with exercise.
The muscles involved in respiration are strengthened through exercise, and thus, the chest can
expand to a greater extent. This greater expansion permits the lungs to be filled more completely,
reduces the reserved air spaces, and opens up more capillaries in the walls of the air sacs.
Therefore, more hemoglobin in the blood is exposed to the oxygen taken in.
Regular exercise results in the lungs being able to take air, more rapildly, and more oxygen is
taken into the blood stream, more effectively. Regular exercise also results in increase of vital
capacity. In performing similar tasks, a trained individual takes smaller amount of air and
absorbs greater amount of oxygen from the inhaled air than an untrained individual. It is believed
that increase in number of capillaries in the lungs, caused by amount of blood being exposed to
the air at given time, is responsible for economy in respiration.
This is the main control system of the body. The complete co-ordination and control of the body,
directly or indirectly, is done by the nervous system.
Composition and function of the Nervous system: The nervous system is composed of;
1. Brain, inside the skull.
2. Spinal cord, inside the vertebral column.
3. Nerves, made of nerve cells called neurons.

19

AMYGDALA:Lyingdeepinthecenterof

thelimbicemotionalbrain,thispowerful
structure,thesizeandshapeofanalmond,
isconstantlyalerttotheneedsofbasic
survivalincludingsex,emotionalreactions
suchasangerandfear.Consequentlyit
inspiresaversivecues,suchassweaty
palms,andhasrecentlybeenassociated
witharangeofmentalconditionsincluding
depressiontoevenautism.Itislargerin
malebrains,oftenenlargedinthebrainsof
sociopathsanditshrinksintheelderly.
BRAIN STEM:Thepartofthebrainthat

connectstothespinalcord.Thebrainstem
controlsfunctionsbasictothesurvivalofall
animals,suchasheartrate,breathing,
digestingfoods,andsleeping.Itisthe
lowest,mostprimitiveareaofthehuman
brain.
CEREBELLUM: Two peach-size mounds of

folded tissue located at the top of the brain

stem, the cerebellum is the guru of skilled,
coordinated movement (e.g., returning a
tennis serve or throwing a slider down and
in) and is involved in some learning
pathways.

The Frontal Lobe is the most recently-evolved

part of the brain and the last to develop in young

adulthood. Its dorsa-lateral prefrontal circuit is
the brains top executive. It organizes responses
to complex problems, plans steps to an
objective, searches memory for relevant
experience, adapts strategies to accommodate
new data, and guides behavior with verbal skills
and houses working memory. Its orbito-frontal
circuit manages emotional impulses in socially
appropriate ways for productive behaviors
including empathy, altruism, interpretation of
facial expressions. Stroke in this area typically
releases foul language and fatuous behavior
patterns.
The Temporal Lobe controls memory storage

area, emotion, hearing, and, on the left side,

language.
The Parietal Lobe receives and processes

sensory information from the body including

calculating location and speed of objects.
The Occipital Lobe processes visual data and

routes it to other parts of the brain for

identification and storage.

20

 CEREBRUM: This is the largest brain

structure in humans and accounts for about

two-thirds of the brains mass. It is divided
into two sides the left and right
hemispheresthat are separated by a deep
groove down the center from the back of the
brain to the forehead. These two halves are
connected by long neuron branches called
the corpus callosum which is relatively
larger in womens brains than in mens. The
cerebrum is positioned over and around most
other brain structures, and its four lobes are
specialized by function but are richly
connected. The outer 3 millimeters of gray
matter is the cerebral cortex which consists
of closely packed neurons that control most
of our body functions, including the
mysterious state of consciousness, the
senses, the bodys motor skills, reasoning
and language.

No Parts of brain
Cerebrum

Cerebellum
Medulla
Spinal cord

HIPPOCAMPUS: located deep within the brain,

it processes new memories for long-term

storage. If you didn't have it, you couldn't live in
the present, you'd be stuck in the past of old
memories. It is among the first functions to falter
in Alzheimer's.
HYPOTHALAMUS: Located at the base of the

brain where signals from the brain and the

bodys hormonal system interact, the
hypothalamus maintains the bodys status quo. It
monitors numerous bodily functions such as
blood pressure and body temperature, as well as
controlling body weight and appetite.
THALAMUS: Located at the top of the brain

stem, the thalamus acts as a two-way relay

station, sorting, processing, and directing signals
from the spinal cord and mid-brain structures up
to the cerebrum, and, conversely, from the
cerebrum down the spinal cord to the nervous
system.

Functions
Receives the sensor impression.
Acts as the centre of voluntary motor impulse.
Acts as the centre of emotions, consciousness, memory, thought,
intelligence, learning and voluntary acts.
Co- ordinates muscle movements and maintains muscle
Originates impulses which regulate heart action, breathing movements and
automatic functions.
Relays sensory and motor nerve impulse and functions As a centre of
simple reflex action.

The Effect of Exercise on Nervous System: During exercise, the metabolic demands of the
body are increased. Various systems of the body work in coordinated manner to meet these
demands. Thus, to meet these demands, the functioning of various systems of the body is also
altered. Since action of the muscles is controlled by the nervous system, the activity of the
nervous system also undergoes a change and it starts working more efficiently.
The nerves control the movement of the muscles, as the muscles react to the message relayed to
them by the nerves. Muscle nerve co-ordination and efficiency is enhanced by this system are
balance, co-ordination, reaction time, and kinesthetic sense. These components are improved by
repeated, regular exercises as the nervous system responds more rapidly and efficiently as a
result of training. The movements become smooth and accurate and gradually the motor tasks
21

become skilful. As a result of improved co-ordination, unwanted movements are avoided and
unnecessary wastage of energy is prevented.
Regular exercise helps in adjustment of strength of contraction of muscles in accordance with the
force required to perform the muscular action thus, preventing unnecessary expenditure of
energy. Response time is also enhanced as a result of regular exercise. The speed with which the
nerve impulse passes through the nerve fibres increases. The onset, of fatigue in a prolonged
activity is delayed because of reduction in causes related to the nerve.
Digestion: The process of breaking down of complex food into simple pieces is called digestion

Organs of the Digestive system

The human digestive system is a complex series
of organs and glands that processes food. In
order to use the food we eat, our body has to
break the food down into smaller molecules that
it can process; it also has to excrete waste.
Most of the digestive organs (like the stomach
and intestines) are tube-like and contain the food
as it makes its way through the body. The
digestive system is essentially a long, twisting
tube that runs from the mouth to the anus, plus a
few other organs (like the liver and pancreas)
that produce or store digestive chemicals.

The Structure and Function of the Digestive System

Your digestive system is uniquely constructed to perform its specialized function of turning food
into the energy you need to survive and packaging the residue for waste disposal. To help you
understand how the many parts of the digestive system work together, here is an overview of the
structure and function of this complex system.
Mouth: The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract; and, in
fact, digestion starts here when taking the first bite of food.
Chewing breaks the food into pieces that are more easily digested,
while saliva mixes with food to begin the process of breaking it
down into a form your body can absorb and use.
Esophagus: Located in your throat near your trachea (windpipe),
the esophagus receives food from your mouth when you swallow.
22

By means of a series of muscular contractions called peristalsis, the esophagus delivers food to
your stomach.
Stomach : The stomach is a hollow organ, or "container," that holds food while it is being mixed
with enzymes that continue the process of breaking down food into a usable form. Cells in the
lining of the stomach secrete a strong acid and powerful enzymes that are responsible for the
breakdown process. When the contents of the stomach are sufficiently processed, they are
released into the small intestine.
Small intestine : Made up of three segments the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum the small
intestine is a 22-foot long muscular tube that breaks down food using enzymes released by the
pancreas and bile from the liver. Peristalsis also is at work in this organ, moving food through
and mixing it with digestive secretions from the pancreas and liver. The duodenum is largely
responsible for the continuous breaking-down process, with the jejunum and ileum mainly
responsible for absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.
Contents of the small intestine start out semi-solid, and end in a liquid form after passing through
the organ. Water, bile, enzymes, and mucous contribute to the change in consistency. Once the
nutrients have been absorbed and the leftover-food residue liquid has passed through the small
intestine, it then moves on to the large intestine, or colon.
Pancreas: The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum, the first segment of the
small intestine. These enzymes break down protein, fats, and carbohydrates. The pancreas also
makes insulin, secreting it directly into the bloodstream. Insulin is the chief hormone for
metabolizing sugar.
Liver: The liver has multiple functions, but its main function within the digestive system is to
process the nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. Bile from the liver secreted into the small
intestine also plays an important role in digesting fat. In addition, the liver is the bodys chemical
"factory." It takes the raw materials absorbed by the intestine and makes all the various
chemicals the body needs to function. The liver also detoxifies potentially harmful chemicals. It
breaks down and secretes many drugs.
Gallbladder: The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile, and then releases it into the
duodenum to help absorb and digest fats.
Colon (large intestine): The colon is a 6-foot long muscular tube that connects the small
intestine to the rectum. The large intestine is made up of the cecum, the ascending (right) colon,
the transverse (across) colon, the descending (left) colon, and the sigmoid colon, which connects
to the rectum. The appendix is a small tube attached to the cecum. The large intestine is a highly
specialized organ that is responsible for processing waste so that emptying the bowels is easy
and convenient.
Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the colon by means of
peristalsis, first in a liquid state and ultimately in a solid form. As stool passes through the colon,
water is removed. Stool is stored in the sigmoid (S-shaped) colon until a "mass movement"
23

empties it into the rectum once or twice a day. It normally takes about 36 hours for stool to get
through the colon. The stool itself is mostly food debris and bacteria. These bacteria perform
several useful functions, such as synthesizing various vitamins, processing waste products and
food particles, and protecting against harmful bacteria. When the descending colon becomes full
of stool, or feces, it empties its contents into the rectum to begin the process of elimination.
Rectum: The rectum (Latin for "straight") is an 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the
anus. It is the rectum's job to receive stool from the colon, to let the person know that there is
stool to be evacuated, and to hold the stool until evacuation happens. When anything (gas or
stool) comes into the rectum, sensors send a message to the brain. The brain then decides if the
rectal contents can be released or not. If they can, the sphincters relax and the rectum contracts,
disposing its contents. If the contents cannot be disposed, the sphincter contracts and the rectum
accommodates so that the sensation temporarily goes away.
Anus: The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It is a 2-inch long canal consisting of the
pelvic floor muscles and the two anal sphincters (internal and external). The lining of the upper
anus is specialized to detect rectal contents. It lets you know whether the contents are liquid, gas,
or solid. The anus is surrounded by sphincter muscles that are important in allowing control of
stool. The pelvic floor muscle creates an angle between the rectum and the anus that stops stool
from coming out when it is not supposed to. The internal sphincter is always tight, except when
stool enters the rectum. It keeps us continent when we are asleep or otherwise unaware of the
presence of stool. When we get an urge to go to the bathroom, we rely on our external sphincter
to hold the stool until reaching a toilet, where it then relaxes to release the contents.
The effects of exercise on digestive system: During exercise, the demand of oxygen of the
working muscles increases, which is facilitated by adjustments made by the circulatory and
respiratory systems. In addition to increase in the heart rate to supply more blood to the working
muscles, there is a shift of some amount of blood from less active regions. This results in
adequate supply of blood to the intestines which, in turn, hinders proper digestion. In view of
this, strenuous exercise should be avoided within two or three hours of food intake. Severe
exercise immediately after food intake may results in pain in the stomach or vomiting because of
undigested food in the stomach.
Physical fitness increases the possibility of muscles and nerves of the stomach and intestine
becoming well-toned so as to function efficiently and effectively.
One of the most important functions of exercise is in the maintenance of proper weight. Over
weight is caused by an imbalance in the number of calories consumed through food and drinks,
and the number of calories used for performing daily activities. Exercise aids metabolism by
accelerating the process of burning of calories. Regular exercise prevents obesity by better
assimilation of fat content food.
A proper, balanced diet is essential so that you have the necessary energy to participate in the
exercise and sports. Irregular meals, and too many sweets, for example, can interfere with the
regular functioning of the digestive system and can limit the energy available for exercise.

24

Unit 2 (NSO)
Rules and Regulations : Athletics - Ball badminton-Basketball-Badminton-CricketFootballVolleyball Hockey Kabaddi - Table tennis Chess Carom.
FOOT BALL
Football is believed to have originated in medieval Europe. Game played with the help of foot
was called football. The games were usually played by Peasants. The aristocrats had their own
class games such as horse riding. The word, football has always implied a variety of games
played on foot, not just those that
involved kicking a ball. The
ancient Greeks and Romans are
known to have played some form
of football. The Chinese military
personnel also have played some
form of football as old as 3rd
century BC. Public Schools in
Britain popularized football into an
organized team sport. Teachers,
students and former students from
these schools who enjoyed some
freedom from work, became the
inventors of organised football
games with formal codes of rules to
enable matches to be played
between schools.90mto120
1) Length of the Football field
90mts to 120mts.
2) Width of the Foot ball field
45mts to 90mts.
3) Radius of the centre circle
9.15mts.
4) Weight of the football 14 oz to 16 oz (or) 396 to 453 grams
5) Football team consists of 18 players (Main 11 players + Substitute 7 players)
6) Duration of the game: 45min-5min-45min

25

VOLLEY BALL

VOLLEYBALL COUNT MEASUREMENTS:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Length of the court is 18 mts.

Width if the court is 9 mts.
Distance between the centre line and the attack line is 3mts.
The distance between the attack line and the end line is 6mts.
The height of the net shall be 2.43 for men and 2.24 for women.
Weight of the volley ball 260 grams to 280 grams
Length of the net is 9.5 mts.
Width of the net is 1 meter.
Height of the post is 2.55mts.
Valley ball team consists of 12pkayers (Main 6 players/ Substitute 6 players)

Libero player
1.
2.
3.
4.

The Libero player must wear a. different colour uniform.

He is restricted to perform as a back row player
He may not serve, block or hit.
Replacement involving Libero are unlimited.

26

Kabaddi
There is a popular belief that
Kabaddi originated in the South
Indian State of Tamil Nadu. A folk
history of the game tells that it
developed from a game of tag
between two young boys - the rule
of holding one's breath being added
later. The game is known by many
names, all of Tamil origin:
Kabaddi, Sadugudu, Gudugudu,
Palinjadugudu and Sadugoodatthi.
The word 'Kabaddi' could have
originated from the Tamil words
'kai' (hand) and 'pidi' (catch).
Kabaddi is played with two teams of 12 players (seven on court and five in reserve). The game
consists of two 20-minute halves. Two teams compete, alternating defence and offence, to reach
the highest score by touching or capturing the opposing team's players, all the while chanting
"kabaddi, kabaddi". There are three forms generally played: surjeevani, gaminee and amar.
When a player from the opposite team runs out of breath, he withdraws and other team members
are sent in. The team who are trying not to get touched are also trying to do a stacks on, on the
guy tagging but making sure only to do this when he can't reach the centre line because if he gets
any part of his body over the line, any player touching him gets sent off the field.
KABADDI COURT (MEN) MEASUREMENTS:

Length of the court

Width of the court
distance between the centre line and the bonus line
The distance between the bulk line and the bonus line
distance between the bonus line and the end line is
distance between the end line and the sitting box
Length of the sitting box
Width if the sitting box
Duration of Game

Men
12.5
10mts
3.75mts.
1mt
1.50 mts.
8 mts.
8 mts
1mts.
20-5-20

Women
11
8
3
1
1.50
2m
6
1
15-5-15

9) Kabaddi team consists of 12pkayers (Main7 players. Substitute 5 players.)

27

Cricket
Cricket is a team sport for two teams of eleven players each. A formal game of cricket can last
anything from an afternoon (One day Cricket) to five days (Test Cricket)

Cricket Ground / Field

A cricket ground or the field is a roughly elliptical field of flat grass, ranging in size from about
90 to 150 metres, bounded by an obvious fence or other marker.

Cricket Gear
Bat: Blade made of willow, flat on one side, humped on the other for strength, attached to a
sturdy cane handle. The blade has a maximum width of 4.25 inches and the whole bat has a
maximum length of 38 inches.
Ball: Hard, cork and string ball, covered with leather. A bit like a baseball (in size and hardness),
but the leather covering is thicker and joined in two hemispheres, not in a tennis ball pattern. ball
weighs between 156 and 163 grams.
Wickets : There are two wickets - wooden structures made up of a set of three stumps topped by
a pair of bails.
Stumps: Three wooden posts, 1 inch in diameter and 32 inches high. They have spikes
extending from their bottom end and are hammered into the ground in an evenly spaced row,
with the outside edges of the outermost stumps apart. This means they are just close enough
together that a cricket ball cannot pass between them.
Bails: Two wooden crosspieces which sit in grooves atop the adjacent pairs of stumps
Protective Gear: Pads, gloves, helmet, etc for batsmen to wear to prevent injury when struck by
the ball.

Cricket Match
The order in which the teams bat is determined by a coin toss. The captain of the side winning
the toss may elect to bat or field first. All eleven players of the fielding team go out to field, two
players of the batting team go out to bat. The remainder of the batting team wait off the field for
their turn to bat. The fielding team disperses around the field, to positions designed to stop runs
being scored or to get batsmen out. One fielder is the bowler. He takes the ball and stands some
distance behind one of the wickets (i.e. away from the pitch). Another fielder is the wicketkeeper, who wears a pair of webbed gloves designed for catching the ball and protective pads
covering the shins. He squats behind the opposite wicket. The rest of the fielders have no special
equipment - gloves to assist catching the ball are not allowed to anyone but the wicket-keeper.
One batsman stands behind each popping crease, near a wicket. The batsman farthest from the
bowler is the striker, the other is the non-striker. The striker stands before his wicket, on or near
the popping crease, in the batting stance. The batsman stands with his bat held down in front of
28

the wicket, ready to hit the ball, which will be bowled from the other end of the pitch. The nonstriker simply stands behind the other popping crease, waiting to run if necessary. The bowler
takes a run-up from behind the non-striker's wicket. He passes to one side of the wicket, and
when he reaches the non-striker's popping crease he bowls the ball towards the striker, usually
bouncing the ball once on the pitch before it reaches the striker.
The striker may then attempt to hit the ball with his bat. If he misses it, the wicket-keeper will
catch it and the ball is completed. If he hits it, the two batsmen may score runs. When the runs
are completed, the ball is also considered completed. The ball is considered to be in play from
the moment the bowler begins his run-up.
When one bowler has completed six balls, that constitutes an over. A different member of the
fielding team is given the ball and bowls the next over - from the opposite end of the pitch. The
batsmen do not change ends, so the roles of striker and non-striker swap after each over. Any
member of the fielding team may bowl, so long as no bowler delivers two consecutive overs.
Once a bowler begins an over, he must complete it, unless injured or suspended during the over.
Another possibility during a ball is that a batsman may get out. There are ten different methods
of being out - these will be described in detail later. If a batsman gets out, the ball is dead
immediately, so it is impossible to get the other batsman out during the same ball. The batsman
who is out leaves the field, and the next batsman in the team comes in to bat. The not out
batsman remains on the field.
When ten batsmen are out, no new batsmen remain to come in, and
the innings is completed with one batsman remaining not out. The
roles of the teams then swap, and the team which fielded first gets to
bat through an innings. When both teams have completed the agreed
number of innings, the team which has scored the most runs wins.

Getting Runs

Famous Cricket
Grounds
Eden Gardens, Calcutta
Lords, London
Port Elizabeth, South Africa
Manchester, England
Melbourne, Australia
Eden Park, NewZealand
Sharjah
Gabba, Australia
Johannesburg, South Africa
Guyana, West Indies
Wellington, NewZealand
Trinidad, West Indies
Madras, India

Whenever a batsman hits the ball during a delivery, he may score

runs. A run is scored by the batsmen running between the popping
creases, crossing over midway between them. When they both reach the opposite crease, one run
is scored, and they may return for another run immediately. The fielding side attempts to prevent
runs being scored by threatening to run out one of the batsmen.
If the batsmen are attempting to take runs, and a fielder gathers the ball and hits a wicket with it,
dislodging one or both bails, while no batsman is behind that wicket's popping crease, then the
nearest batsman is run out.
If the batsmen run one or three, then they have swapped ends and their striker/non-striker roles
are reversed for the next. In addition to scoring runs like this, if a batsman hits the ball so that it
reaches the boundary fence, he scores four runs, without needing to actually run them. If a
batsman hits the ball over the boundary on the full, he scores six runs. The batsmen usually stop
29

taking runs when a fielder is throwing the ball back towards the pitch area. If no fielder near the
pitch gathers the ball and it continues into the outfield again, the batsmen may take more runs.
Such runs are called overthrows. If the ball reaches the boundary on an overthrow, four runs are
scored in addition to the runs taken before the overthrow occurred. Runs scored by a batsman,
including all overthrows, are credited to him by the scorer. The number of runs scored by each
batsman is an important statistic.
If, while running multiple runs, a batsman does not touch the ground beyond the popping crease
before he returns for the next run, then the umpire at that end will signal one short, and the
number of runs scored is reduced by one.

Extras: Extras are runs scored by means other than when the ball is hit by a batsman. Extras are
not credited to any batsman, and are recorded by the scorer separately. The total number of runs
for the innings is equal to the sums of the individual batsmen's scores and the extras. There are
four types of extras: no balls, wides, byes, and leg byes. The bowler must bowl each ball with
part of his frontmost foot behind the popping crease. If he oversteps this mark, he has bowled a
no ball. The umpire at that end calls ``no ball'' immediately in a loud voice. The batsman may
play and score runs as usual, and may not be out by any means except run out, handle the ball,
hit the ball twice, or obstructing the field. Further, if the batsman does not score any runs from
the ball, one run is added to the batting team's score. Also, the bowler must bowl an extra ball in
his over to compensate.
If the bowler bowls the ball far to one side or over the head of the batsman, so making it
impossible to score, the umpire will signal the ball as a wide. This gives the batting team one run
and the bowler must rebowl the ball. If the striker misses a ball and the wicket-keeper fails to
gather it cleanly, the batsmen may take runs. These runs are called byes and are scored as extras.
If the striker, in attempting to play a shot, deflects the ball with part of his body, the batsmen
may attempt to take a run. Such runs are called leg byes. If the striker did not attempt to play a
shot with his bat, leg byes may not be taken. The umpire adjudicates by signalling a dead ball if
the batsmen attempt to run when, in his opinion, no attempt was made to play a shot.

Ways of Getting OUT:

1. Caught: If a fielder catches the ball on the full after the batsman has hit it with his bat.
However, if the fielder catches the ball, but either during the catch or immediately afterwards
touches or steps over the boundary, then the batsman scores six runs and is not out.
2. Bowled: If the batsman misses the ball and it hits and breaks the wicket directly from the
bowler's delivery. The batsman is out whether or not he is behind his popping crease. He is also
out bowled if the ball breaks the wicket after deflecting from his bat or body. The batsman is not
out if the wicket does not break.
3. LBW (Leg Before the Wicket): If the batsman misses the ball with his bat, but intercepts it
with part of his body when it would otherwise have hit the wicket, he is considered out due to
LBW.
30

4. Stumped: If a batsman misses the ball and in attempting to play it steps outside his crease, he
is out stumped if the wicket-keeper gathers the ball and breaks the wicket with it before the
batsman can ground part of his body or his bat behind his crease.

5. Run Out: If a batsman is attempting to take a run, or to return to his crease after an aborted
run, and a fielder breaks that batsman's wicket with the ball while he is out of the crease. The
fielder may either break the wicket with a hand which holds the ball, or with the ball directly. It
is possible for the non-striker to be run out if the striker hits the ball straight down the pitch
towards the non-striker's wicket, and the bowler deflects the ball on to the wicket while the nonstriker is out of his crease.
6. Hit Wicket: If, in attempting to hit a ball or taking off for a first run, the batsman touches and
breaks the wicket. This includes with the bat or dislodged pieces of the batsman's equipment even a helmet or spectacles!
7. Handling the Ball: If a batsman touches the ball with a hand not currently holding the bat,
without the permission of the fielding side. This does not include being hit on the hand by a
delivery, or any other non-deliberate action.
8. Hit the Ball Twice: If a batsman hits a delivery with his bat and then deliberately hits the ball
again for any reason other than to defend his wicket from being broken by the ball. If the ball is
bouncing or rolling around near the stumps, the batsman is entitled to knock it away so as to
avoid being bowled, but not to score runs.
9.Timed Out: If a new batsman takes longer than two minutes, from the time the previous
wicket falls, to appear on the field.
10. Obstructing the Field: If a batsman deliberately interferes with the efforts of fielders to
gather the ball or effect a run out. This does not include running a path between the fielder and
the wicket so that the fielder cannot throw the stumps down with the ball, which is quite legal,
but does include any deliberate attempt to swat the ball away.

Officials
The game is adjudicated by two umpires, who make all decisions on the field and whose word is
absolutely final. One umpire stands behind the non-striker's wicket, ready to make judgments on
LBWs and other events requiring a decision. The other umpire stands in line with the striker's
popping crease, about 20 metres (20 yards) to one side ready to judge stumpings and run-outs at
his end. The umpires remain at their respective ends of the pitch, thus swapping roles every over.

Umpire Signals
Out: When a batsman is out, the umpire making the decision raises one hand above his head,
with the index finger extended.
31

Not Out: There is no formal signal to indicate that a batsman is not out. The umpire can either
shake his head `no' or not signal at all.
Four: A four scored by the ball reaching the boundary is signalled by an arm extended
horizontally and waved briefly back and forth in a horizontal arc.
Six: A six is signalled by raising both arms straight over the head.

Fielding Positions
There are a number of named basic fielding positions, some of
which are employed very commonly and others that are used
less often. However, fielding positions are not fixed, and
fielders can be placed in positions that differ from the basic
positions. The image shows the location of most of the named
fielding positions. This image assumes the batsman is righthanded. The area to the left of a right-handed batsman (from
the batsman's point of view) is called the leg side or on side,
while that to the right is the off side. If the batsman is lefthanded, the leg and off sides are reversed and the fielding
positions are a mirror image of those shown.

Bowling Action: The bowling action itself has to conform to

several restrictions. The bowler's arm must be straight when the ball is bowled (so no ``throwing''
is allowed). The ball must be bowled overarm, not underarm. When you throw the ball, the
elbow is cocked and used to impart energy to the ball by straightening. When a ball is bowled,
the elbow joint is held extended throughout. All the energy is imparted by rotation of the arm
about the shoulder, and possibly a little by wrist motion.

Bowling Style: There are two basic approaches to bowling: fast and spin. A fast bowler bowls
the ball as fast as practicable, attempting to defeat the batsman with its pace. If the ball also
swings in the air, or seams (moves sideways) off the pitch because of bouncing on the seam, it
can be very difficult to play. A spin bowler has a more ambling run-up and uses wrist or finger
motion to impart a spin to the ball. The ball then spins to one side when it bounces on the pitch,
thus also hopefully causing it to be hard to hit. Fast bowlers are generally used with a new ball,
while spin bowlers get more spin with a worn ball. There is also medium pace bowling, which
concentrates more on swing and seam than pace.
Typical bowling speeds are:
Fast bowler: 130-140 km/h (80-90 mph)
Medium pace bowler: 100-130 km/h (60-80 mph)
Spin bowler: 70-90 km/h (45-55 mph)
Batting Shots: The different types of shots a batsman can play are described by names:

Block: A defensive shot played with the bat vertical and angled down at the front, intended to stop the ball
and drop it down quickly on to the pitch in front of the batsman.

32

Drive: An offensive shot played with the bat sweeping down through the vertical. The ball travels swiftly
along the ground in front of the striker. A drive can be an on drive, straight drive, off drive, or cover
drive, depending in which direction it goes.
Cut: A shot played with the bat close to horizontal, which hits the ball somewhere in the arc between cover
and gully.
Edge, or Glance: A shot played off the bat at a glancing angle, through the slips area.
Leg Glance: A shot played at a glancing angle behind the legs, so that it goes in the direction of fine leg.
Pull: A horizontal bat shot which pulls the ball around the batsman into the square leg area.
Sweep: Like a pull shot, except played with the backmost knee on the ground, so as to hit balls which
bounce low.
Hook: Like a pull shot, but played to a bouncer and intended to hit the ball high in the air over square leg hopefully for six runs.
French Cut: An attempt at a cut shot which hits the bottom edge of the bat and goes into the area behind
square leg.
Reverse Sweep: A sweep with the bat reversed, into the point area.
Most of these shots can also be lofted, in an attempt to hit the ball over the close fielders (or the boundary).
The batting strokes can be divided into two categories: Straight bat and cross bat. The straight bat shots
are played with the bat held close to the vertical, and are the blocks, drives and glances. Cross bat shots are
played with the bat held more horizontally, like a baseball bat. These include cuts, pulls, sweeps and hooks.

Forms of Cricket: Cricket is played in two very distinct forms. The first is limited duration, in which a
specific number of hours of playing time are allocated and each team plays two innings. Test matches are
played over five days, with six hours play each day. Each day's play is divided into three sessions of two
hours each, with a 40 minute break between the first two session for lunch, and a 20 minute tea break
between the last two sessions. A short drinks break is taken once an hour, or more often in very hot
weather. Play usually goes from 11:00 local time to 18:00, although this may be varied if sunset occurs
early. The scheduled close of play time is called stumps.
The second is limited overs, in which each team plays one innings of a pre-determined number of overs.
This form is called Limited overs cricket or One day Cricket. A one- day match is played on a single day.
Either a red or a white cricket ball may be used, and play under artificial lighting is allowed. Each team
gets only one innings, and that innings is restricted to a maximum number of overs. Usual choices for the
number of overs are 50, 55, or 60.
Teams which play Cricket: The International Cricket Council overseas all international cricket worldwide. Full members play Test matches. They include 1) Australia, 2) England, 3) India, 4) New Zealand,
5) Pakistan, 6) South Africa, 7) Sri Lanka, 8) West Indies 9) Zimbabwe and Bangladesh.

33

Ball badminton is a sport native to India. It is a racket game, played with a yellow ball made of
wool, on a court of fixed dimensions (12 by 24 metres) divided by a net. The game was played as
early as 1856 by the royal family in Tanjore, the capital of Thanjavur district in Tamil Nadu,
India. It enjoys the greatest popularity in India.
Games are usually played outdoors
during the day. As a result weather
conditions
wield
a
considerable
influence, and ball badminton's rules
allow the effects of weather conditions to
be distributed more-or-less evenly
between both teams. More recently,
indoor versions of the game have been
played under artificial lighting. All-India
tournaments are conducted regularly
using floodlights in Tamil Nadu,
Pondicherry, Andhra, and Karnataka.
Equipmentandcourt:
The ball is yellow wool, from 22 to 23 grams in weight and from 5 to 5.5 cm in diameter. A
standard ball-badminton racket usually weighs from 200 to 250 grams and is 63 to 70 cm in
length. The strung oval area of the racket should be 20 to 22 across and 24 to 27 cm in length.

Rules
Ball badminton is a team sport. The ball is served (hit from the right or left court of one side to
the diagonally-opposite court of the other side). The server begins on the right court and moves
to the left court each time a point is scored. The ball may be returned by any opposing player.
After the first 8th, 15th, and 22nd point the teams change positions, with the server continuing to
alternate between the right and left courts. The ball is served underhand below the waist, then it
must go over the net and beyond the serving crease line on the other side. An overhand service
if the ball is above the server's waist when it is struckis a fault. The ball must be returned
before it touches the ground, and no player may strike the ball twice in succession. The server
must not serve until the other side is ready; ordinarily, the players of the receiving side are
expected to be ready. During the game the player must not leave the court except in the act of
playing, if he has an accident, or with the referee's permission for activities such as changing a
racket, tying a shoelace, or tightening a belt. The referee normally grants a player's request for
such activities, unless the ball is in play; however, he has the final right to refuse if he deems
such activities delaying tactics. In "fives" tournaments, a team consists of eight formallydesignated players, any five of whom play while the other three remain on the sidelines with the
team manager, ready to play. Doubles tournaments use teams of three players. During a match of
two or three games, three player substitutions are allowed. Substitutions may be made at any
time during the game. The ball may not be changed during a three-game match set, unless it is
damaged.

34

Shuttle Badminton
Shuttle Badminton is a racquet sport played by either two opposing players (singles) or two
opposing pairs (doubles), who take positions on opposite halves of a rectangular court that is
divided by a net. Players score points by striking a shuttlecock with their racquet so that it passes
over the net and lands in their opponents' half of the court. Each side may only strike the
shuttlecock once before it passes over the net. A rally ends once the shuttlecock has struck the
floor. The shuttlecock (or shuttle) is a feathered projectile whose unique aerodynamic properties
cause it to fly differently from the balls used in most racquet sports; in particular, the feathers
create much higher drag, causing the shuttlecock to decelerate more rapidly than a ball.
Shuttlecocks have a much higher top speed, when compared to other racquet sports. Because
shuttlecock flight is affected by wind, competitive badminton is played indoors. Badminton is
also played outdoors as a casual recreational activity, often as a garden or beach game.
Since 1992, badminton has been an Olympic sport with five events: men's and women's singles,
men's and women's doubles, and mixed doubles, in which each pair consists of a man and a
woman. At high levels of play, especially in singles, the sport demands excellent fitness: players
require aerobic stamina, agility, explosive strength, speed and precision. It is also a technical
sport, requiring good motor coordination and the development of sophisticated racquet
movements.

History and development

The beginnings of Badminton can be traced to mid-18th century British India, where it was created by
British military officers stationed there. Being particularly popular in the British garrison town Poona
(now Pune), the game also came to be known as Poona.
Playing court dimensions
The court is rectangular and divided into halves by a net. Courts are usually marked for both singles and
doubles play, although badminton rules permit a court to be marked for singles only.[7] The doubles court
is wider than the singles court, but both are of same length. The exception, which often causes confusion
to newer players, is that the doubles court has a shorter serve-length dimension.
The full width of the court is 6.1 metres (20 ft), and in singles this width is reduced to 5.18 metres (17 ft).
The full length of the court is 13.4 metres (44 ft). The service courts are marked by a centre line dividing
the width of the court, by a short service line at a distance of 1.98 metres (6 ft 6 inch) from the net, and by
the outer side and back boundaries. In doubles, the service court is also marked by a long service line,
which is 0.76 metres (2 ft 6 inch) from the back boundary. The net is 1.55 metres (5 ft 1 inch) high at the
edges and 1.524 metres (5 ft) high in the centre. The net posts are placed over the doubles sidelines, even
when singles is played.
The minimum height for the ceiling above the court is not mentioned in the Laws of Badminton.
Nonetheless, a badminton court will not be suitable if the ceiling is likely to be hit on a high serve.
Scoring system and service
Each game is played to 21 points, with players scoring a point whenever they win a rally regardless of
whether they served [7] (this differs from the old system where players could only win a point on their
serve and each game was played to 15 points). A match is the best of three games.

35

At the start of the rally, the server and receiver stand in diagonally opposite service courts (see court
dimensions). The server hits the shuttlecock so that it would land in the receiver's service court. This is
similar to tennis, except that a badminton serve must be hit below waist height and with the racquet shaft
pointing downwards, the shuttlecock is not allowed to bounce and in badminton, the players stand inside
their service courts unlike tennis. When the serving side loses a rally, the serve immediately passes to
their opponent(s) (this differs from the old system where sometimes the serve passes to the doubles
partner for what is known as a "second serve"). In singles, the server stands in their right service court
when their score is even, and in her/his left service court when her/his score is odd. In doubles, if the
serving side wins a rally, the same player continues to serve, but he/she changes service courts so that
she/he serves to a different opponent each time. If the opponents win the rally and their new score is even,
the player in the right service court serves; if odd, the player in the left service court serves. The players'
service courts are determined by their positions at the
start of the previous rally, not by where they were
standing at the end of the rally. A consequence of this
system is that, each time a side regains the service,
the server will be the player who did not serve last
time.
Racquets: Badminton racquets are lightweight, with
top quality racquets weighing between 70 and
95 grams (2.4 to 3.3 ounces) not including grip or
strings.[8][9] They are composed of many different
materials ranging from carbon fibre composite
(graphite reinforced plastic) to solid steel, which may
be augmented by a variety of materials. Carbon fibre
has an excellent strength to weight ratio, is stiff, and gives excellent kinetic energy transfer. Before the
adoption of carbon fibre composite, racquets were made of light metals such as aluminium. Earlier still,
racquets were made of wood. Cheap racquets are still often made of metals such as steel, but wooden
racquets are no longer manufactured for the ordinary market, because of their excessive mass and cost.
Nowadays, nanomaterials such as fullerene and carbon nanotubes are added to rackets giving them
greater durability.
Shuttlecock: A shuttlecock (often abbreviated to shuttle; also called a birdie) is a
high-drag projectile, with an open conical shape: the cone is formed from sixteen
overlapping feathers embedded into a rounded cork base. The cork is covered with
thin leather or synthetic material. Synthetic shuttles are often used by recreational
players to reduce their costs as feathered shuttles break easily. These nylon shuttles
may be constructed with either natural cork or synthetic foam base, and a plastic
skirt.
Comparisons with other racquet sports
Badminton is frequently compared to tennis. The following is a list of comparisons: Figure1Shuttlecock
withfeathers
In tennis, the ball may bounce once before the player hits it; in badminton,
the rally ends once the shuttlecock touches the floor.
In tennis, the serve is dominant to the extent that the server is expected to win most of his service
games (at advanced level & onwards); a break of service, where the server loses the game, is of
major importance in a match. In badminton a server has far less advantage, and is unlikely to
score an 'ace' (unreturnable serve).
In tennis, the server is allowed two attempts to make a correct serve; in badminton, the server is
allowed only one attempt.
The tennis court is larger than the badminton court.

36

Tennis racquets are about four times as heavy as badminton racquets, 1012 ounces
(approximately 284340 grams) versus 23 ounces (70105 grams).[14][15] Tennis balls are more
than eleven times heavier than shuttlecocks, 57 grams versus 5 grams.[16][17]
The fastest recorded tennis stroke is Ivo Karlovic's 156 mph (251 km/h) serve,[18] whereas the
fastest badminton stroke during gameplay was Fu Haifeng's 206 mph (332 km/h) recorded
smash.[19]

TABLE TENNIS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Length of the Table Tennis Table

:2.74m
Width of the table
:1.525m
Length of the Table Tennis Table net:15.25 cm
Width of the Table Tennis ball
:2.5grams
Reverse singles used in Table Tennis game

Description:
Table Tennis is a game of skill and precision. Many
people spend hours and hours in their garages or basement playing with friends and refining their
skills.
CHESS
Soldiers
: 16 Nos
Horse
: 04 Nos
Bishop
: 04 Nos
Elephants
: 04 Nos
Queens
: 02 Nos
Kings
: 02 Nos
Coins colour: white & black

37

Basket Ball
Basketball court dimensions in practice vary in
overall length and width. In many areas of the
country, older high school gymnasiums in particular
have smaller overall size than regulation. Many of
these same gyms have varying backboard designs
and dimensions.
Court Size Overall:

College 94 feet long and 50 feet wide

High School 84 feet long and 50 feet wide
Junior High 74 feet long and 42 feet wide

The object of a basketball game is to score points by

making field goals or free throw shots. There are two
opposing team, each with five players. A game
commences with a jump ball at the court center, wherein
each of the teams vie for ball possession. Each team then
tries to recover the ball, makes a series of passing moves,
and makes shots within shooting range at their
designated baskets circular hoops and net positioned at
each ends of the court. The opposing team, on the other hand, tries to block the shots to prevent
the ball from going into the basket and attempts to recover the ball. Basketball rules award two
points for each field goal, while three points are scored for field goals shot beyond a designated
distance from the basket. Two free throw shots, each worth a point, are awarded to a player after
being fouled by a player from the opposing team in a penalty situation. In professional rules, a
game consists of four quarters, each with 12 minutes. The team with the higher score wins a
game

38

Hockey
Field Hocckey, or Hocckey, is a team
m sport in whhich a team of
o players atteempts to scorre goals by hiitting,
pushing or
o flicking a ball into an oppposing team'ss goal using sticks.
s
It is moost commonlyy known simpply as
"hockey";; however, th
he name fieldd hockey is used
u
in counttries in whichh the word hockey is gennerally
reserved for another form
f
of hockkey, such as ice hockey or
o street hockkey. The International Hoockey
Federationn (FIH) is th
he global goveerning body. It organizes events such as the Hockeey World Cuup and
Women's Hockey Worrld Cup. The Hockey
H
Ruless Board under FIH producces rules for thhe sport.
History: Hockey
H
can be
b identified with
w the earlyy game of hurrling. Games played with curved
c
sticks and a
ball have been found throughout history
h
and thhe world. Theere are 4000--year-old draw
wings from Egypt.
E
The modeern game grew
w from English public schhools in the early
e
19th cenntury. The Hockey
H
Association
was foundded in 1886. The first international toook place in 1895
1
and the Internationall Rules Boardd was
founded inn 1900. Hock
key was playeed at the Sum
mmer Olympiccs in 1908 andd 1920. It waas dropped in 1924,
leading too the foundatiion of the Fddration Interrnationale de Hockey (FIH
H) as an internnational goveerning
body by seven contineental Europeaan nations, and
a hockey was
w reinstatedd in 1928. Thhe game hadd been
taken to Inndia by Britissh servicemenn and the firstt clubs formedd in Calcutta in 1885. The Beighton Cuup and
the Aga Khan
K
tournam
ment commencced within tenn years. Enterring the Olym
mpics in 1928,, India won alll five
games witthout concediing a goal and won from 1932
1
until 19556 and then in
i 1964 and 1980. Pakistann won
in 1960, 1968
1
and 1984
4.
In the earrly 1970s arttificial turf beegan to be used.
u
Synthetiic pitches chaanged most aspects
a
of hoockey,
gaining sppeed. New tacctics and techhniques such as
a the Indian dribble develloped, follow
wed by new ruules to
take accouunt. The swittch to syntheetic surfaces ended
e
Indian and Pakistanni dominationn because artiificial
turf was too expensiv
vein compparison to thhe wealthier European coountriesandd since the 1970s
Australia,, The Netherlaands and Germany have doominated at thhe Olympics from 2011-20012.
Most hocckey field dim
mensions werre originally fixed using whole
w
numbers of impeerial measuures. Neveertheless, metric
m
measurem
ments are now
w the official dimensions as
a laid down by
b the
Internatioonal Hockey Federation (F
FIH) in the "R
Rules of Hocckey".
It is thesse dimensionns that are given
g
in thiss article, witth the
imperial units in parrentheses. Thhe pitch is a 91.40 m 55 m
(100 yd 60 yd) rectaangular field.. At each endd is a goal 2.14 m
(7 feet) high
h
and 3.66 m (12 ft) wide
w
measureed from the inner
sides of the posts and
a
crossbar, and an appproximately semicircular area
a 14.63 m (16 yd) from the goal know
wn as the shoooting
[8]]
circle (orr D or arc), bounded byy a solid line, with a dotted line
5 m (5 ydd 6 inthis marking
m
was not
n established until after metric
m
conversioon) from thatt, as well as lines across the field 22.90 m
(25 yd) from
f
each ennd-line (geneerally referreed to as the 23 m
lines) andd in the centter of the fieeld. A spot 0.15m
0
in diam
meter,
called thee penalty spoot or stroke mark,
m
is placced with its centre
c
6.40 m (77 yd) from thee centre of each goal.

39

Rules and play: The game is played between two teams of up to sixteen players, eleven of whom are
permitted to be on the pitch at any one time. The remaining five players, the substitutes, may be
substituted in any combination, from one to five, an unlimited number of times in the course of a game.
Substitutions are permitted at any point in the game, apart from between the award and end of a penalty
corner; the only exception to this rule is for injury or suspension of the defending goalkeeper, this is not
allowed when you're playing with a field keep.
Positions
One player from each team may be designated the goalkeeper. Goalkeepers must wear at least a helmet
and a different coloured shirt in order to have "goalkeeping privileges". They may also opt to wear
additional padding such as "kickers" over the shoes, leg-guards, padded shorts, body and arm
protectorsif they opt for this protection, they are termed "fully protected goalkeepers". Although such
goalkeepers may block or deflect the ball from the goal with any part of their bodies, and propel the ball
with their feet, legs, the associated padding or their stick, they must always carry a stick. Goalkeepers are
permitted to play the ball outside their defensive circle (scoring area or "D"), but may only use their
hockey-stick in this circumstance, not their kickers; leg-guards; gloves/hand protectors or any part of the
body. Fully protected goalkeepers are prohibited from passing their side's defensive 23 m line during
play, unless they are taking a penalty stroke. A goalkeeper who is wearing only a helmet and different
coloured shirt may remove the helmet and play anywhere on the field and retains goalkeeping privileges
even if they do not have chance to replace the helmet when play returns to their defensive circle. They
must however wear a helmet to defend penalty corners and penalty strokes. For the purposes of the rules,
all players on the team in possession of the ball are attackers, and those on the team without the ball are
defenders.
Scoring
The teams' object is to play the ball into their attacking circle and, from there, hit, push or flick the ball
into the goal, scoring a goal. The team with more goals after two 35-minute halves wins the game.
Equipment
Hockey Stick
Each player carries a "stick", normally between 3637 inches long, but they make
them shorter and longer, and are traditionally made of wood but now often made
with fibreglass, kevlar and carbon fibre composites, with a rounded handle, flattened
on the left side and with a hook at the bottom. Metal is forbidden from use in hockey
sticks. There was traditionally a slight curve (called the bow, or rake) from the top
to bottom of the face side of the stick and another on the 'heel' edge to the top of the
handle (usually made according to the angle at which the handle part was inserted
into the splice of the head part of the stick), which assisted in the positioning of the
stick head in relation to the ball and made striking the ball easier and more accurate.
The hook at the bottom of the stick was only recently the tight curve (Indian style)
that we have nowadays. The older 'English' sticks had a longer bend, making it very
hard to use the stick on the reverse. For this reason players now use the tight curved
sticks. The handle makes up the about the top third of the stick. It is wrapped in a grip
similar to that used on tennis racket. The grip may be made of a variety of materials,
including chamois leather, which many players think improves grip in the wet.
It was recently discovered that increasing the depth of the face bow made it easier to get high speeds from
the dragflick and made the stroke easier to execute. At first, after this feature was introduced, the Hockey
Rules Board placed a limit of 50 mm on the maximum depth of bow over the length of the stick but

40

experience quickly demonstrated this to be excessive. New rules now limit this curve to under 25 mm so
as to limit the power with which the ball can be flicked.
Hockey ball
The ball is spherical, hard and made of plastic (sometimes over a cork core) and is often covered with
indentations to reduce hydroplaning that can cause an inconsistent ball speed on wet surfaces.
Formations
Formations provide structure to a hockey team on the pitch. They help players understand and share the
defensive and attacking responsibilities. Although higher level teams may select from a wide range of
formations, teams containing inexperienced players or teams which see frequent changes to their players
are likely to select from a more limited range of formations such as 433, 532 and 442. (The
numbers refer to the number of players arrayed across the pitch, starting in front of the goalkeeper with
the defenders, then midfield and then attack.) The 235 formation, used predominantly in Australia from
relatively lowly interschool to professional interstate competitions, provides common language for many
players and helps explain why "centre half" is often a name used for a player in the centre of a defence
with four or five players.

41

Unit-3
National Cadet Corps (NCC)
History of National Cadet Corps (NCC) Requirement Act of Parliament Logo Motto
Branches Training Activities. NCC Activities Parade Training Weapons Training Drills
Firing Practice Physical Training Activities Obstacle Course Training. Adventure Activities
Para Jumping Para Gliding Mountaineering Rock Climbing River Rafting and other
branch related activities. Community Service Collaboration with other services like NSS, NSO,
Youth Corps, Scouts & Guides. Requirements for NCC Unit in Schools / Colleges / Universities
Junior Division and Senior Division Boys & Girls NCC Units. Benefits of NCC - Personality
/ Character Development and Employability

History of NCC:
National Cadet Corps is a tri-Services Organisation comprising the Army, Navy and Air Force,
engaged in grooming the youth The Leaders of Tomorrow into disciplined and patriotic
citizens. It aims to develop character, comradeship, discipline, leadership, secular outlook, spirit
of adventure, and ideals of selfless service amongst the youth of the country. It also provides a
suitable environment to motivate the youth to take up a career in armed forces.
The NCC in India was formed with the National Cadet Corps Act of 1948. It was raised on 15
July 1948. The National Cadet Corps can be considered as a successor of the University Officers
Training Corps (UOTC) which was established by the British Government in 1942. During
World War II, the UOTC never came up to the expectations set by the British. This led to the
idea that some better schemes should be formed, which could train more young men in a better
way, even during peace. A committee headed by Pandit H.N. Kunzru recommended a cadet
organization to be established in schools and colleges at a national level. The National Cadet
Corps Act was accepted by the Governor General and on 15 July 1948 the National Cadet Corps
came into existence.
During the 1965 and 1971 wars with Pakistan, NCC cadets were the second line of defense. They
organized camps to assist the ordnance factories, supplying arms and ammunition to the front,
and also were used as patrol parties to capture the enemy paratroopers. The NCC cadets also
worked hand in hand with the Civil Defense authorities and actively took part in rescue work and
traffic control. After the 1965 and 1971 wars, the NCC syllabus was revised. Rather than just
being the second line of defense, NCC syllabus laid a greater stress on developing qualities of
leadership and officer-like qualities. The military training which the NCC cadets received was
reduced and greater importance was given to other areas like social service and youthmanagement.

42

Objectives of NCC
1. To develop qualities of character, courage, comradeship, discipline, leadership, secular
outlook, spirit of adventure and the ideals of selfless service amongst the youth of the country.
2. To create a human resource of organized, trained and motivated youth, to provide leadership
in all walks of life and be always available for the service of the nation.
3. To provide a suitable environment to motivate the youth to take up a career in the armed
forces.

Act of parliament:
The National Cadet Corps (NCC) was formed in 1948 by an Act of Parliament with a view to
inculcate the qualities of initiative, self confidence and a sense of responsibility, which are the
essential ingredients of leadership among the youth of the country. The aim of NCC training is
not only to produce material for the armed forces but also to provide leaders for other fields of
our national activities and to inculcate defence consciousness in our youth.
The NCC is the best organised and premier youth organisation in the country
with 13 lakhs students on its rolls and it helps in national integration by
providing an opportunity to students of all states in getting together on All
India Camps. It provides mountaineering, skiing, flying, gliding, paratrooping
and boat pulling training to the cadets in addition to elementary military
training.
The P&T Department have brought out this stamp in
commemoration of the Silver Jubilee of the NCC and dedicated to the youth
of the country. The design of the stamp depicts the emblem of the NCC.

LOGO:
The Motto of the NCC is Unity and Disciplinewhich was adopted on 23 Dec 1957. In living up
to its motto, the NCC strives to be and is one of the greatest cohesive forces of our nation,
bringing together the youth hailing from different parts of our country and moulding them into
united, secular and disciplined citizens of our nation. Unity implies our basic oneness, the
brotherhood of all Indian people regardless of their caste, colour and creed. Likewise discipline
is the very bedrock on which any nation is founded. It is for this reason that unity and discipline
have been adopted as motto of NCC.

43

Branches:
AIR FORCE
1.

Flying Branch (Pilot) (Pre-Flying Training)

10% of vacancies for direct entry for Pilots courses are reserved for NCC C certificate holders.
They are not recruited through UPSC entrance exam.
2.

Other Branches

10% of vacancies are reserved in each branch for NCC `C certificate holders. They are not
recruited through UPSC entrance exam.
AIR FORCE (Airman)
3. The marks as given below are added to selection Test marks of the qualified candidates
possessing NCC Certificates:C
B
A
A
A

Certificate
Certificate
Certificate
Certificate
Certificate

Part I & II
Part I only

.
.
..
..
.

5 marks
4 marks
3 marks
3 marks
2 marks

NCC Activities
Besidesitsinstitutionaltraining,adventureactivities,youthexchangeprogrammesandsports,theNCC
alsoorganizescommunitydevelopmentactivitiestomakeouryoungpeopleconsciousandsensitiveto
theneedsandproblemsoftheirfellowcountrymen,asalsotocontributemeaningfullytoenrichingthe
communitylife.Someofthemajoractivitiesareblooddonation,adultliteracy,antidowry,antileprosy,
antidrugs,treeplantation,eyedonation,communityprojectsandworkinCheshireHomes.TheNCC
alsoactivelyrendersassistanceduringnaturalcalamities

Institutional Training
Adventure Training
Community Development
Sports
Youth Exchange Programme

44

Training Activities:
The NCC carries out training in five distinct spheres as under :a) Institutional Training : Drill, shooting, Physical fitness, map reading, First aid,
Gliding/Flying, boat pulling, sailing and camp training covering basic of military training in
Army, Navy and Air Force.
b) Community development: These are the activities organized to make youth and through
them people conscious and sensitive to the needs and problems of their fellow countrymen as to
contribute meaningfully to enriching the community life. Major activities include Blood
donation, Adult literacy, Anti Dowry and Leprosaria, Aids-Awareness, Tree plantation,
volunteer service in Cheshire homes and eye donations etc.
c) Youth exchange programme: This is a very important activity. It is done to increase
international understanding and bolster awareness. These exchanges are done with NCC
community of 10 countries namely Australia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Canada, Maldives, Nepal,
Singapore, UK, Russia and Vietnam at international level.
d) Sports: NCC Games are organized at National level in three disciplines viz. Foot ball/Volley
ball and Athletics. Foot ball team as part of NE region was runners up in 1998. In 2001, both
Senior & Junior teams lifted the Championship. A matter of pride and surprise is that though
team was known as NER but it was represented 99% by boys from Manipur alone.
e) Adventure Training
To develop special qualities of courage, leadership spirit of adventure and comradeship team
work and self confidence, some of the activities being organized by NCC are Trekking, Rock
Climbing, Mountaineering, Para jumping, Scuba diving, water Skiing, Sailing, Yatching, Hang
Gliding and Micro light flying. Slithering and Motor cycle expeditons etc., Numerous, camps
inside and outside the state of Manipur have been held of greater significance been at Shillong
(Rock climbing(NMI Uttakashi. HMI Darjeeling(Mountaineering)

45

Weapons training:
SECTION-1
CHARACTERISTICS OF .22 RIFLE, STRIPPING, ASSEMBLING,
CARE AND CLEANING AND SIGHT SETTING
The major characteristics of Rifle .22 No MK-II, MK IV and Deluxe BA are :Ser No

Details

Rifle .22 No II MK IV BA

Rifle .22 Deluxe BA

(a)

Length

(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(j)
(k)

Weight
Magzine Capacity
Muzzle Velocity
Grooves in the barrel
Effective Range
Max Range
Calibre
Ammunition
Rate of fire :(i) Normal
(ii) Rapid

45"
8 Lbs 10 OZ
10 Rounds
2700 per sce
06
25 yds
1700 yds at 33 angle
.22
.22

43"
6 LBs 2 OZ
05 Rounds
2700 per sec
06
25 yds
1700 yds at 33 angle
.22
.22

05 Rds pm
10-15 Rds pm

05 Rds pm
10-15 Rds pm

These points must be kept in mind while assembling Rif .22

Bolt head to be fully tight.
Bolt head and guide rib as well as cocking piece and steel lug to be in a line.
Number of the bolt should tally with that of the rifle.
Safety catch should be applied.

SECTION-2
LOADING, COCKING AND UNLOADING
Drill for loading and unloading in the lying position for Rif .22?
a) To lie down, take a long pace forward with the left foot and at the same time pass the rifle into
left hand, grasping it at the point of balance. Place the right hand on to the ground in line with the
left foot. During this movement push the rifle forward and lower to the ground. The left arm will
now be extended to the front. The legs will be well apart. Now load the rifle as taught.
(b) Unload the rifle without further orders. Place the right hand on the ground below the right
shoulder. Draw up the left hand. Stand up as quickly as possible.

46

SECTION-3
LYING POSITION AND HOLD
Three basic essentials of good shooting:
(a)
Position must be comfortable and hold so firm that the rifles gains a rock like steadiness.
(b)
The firer must aim correctly.
(c)
The trigger is pressed in such a way that aim is not disturbed.
Characteristics of good lying position:
(a) Legs opened wide apart and body slanting to the left from the line of the target.
(b) Formation of the two triangles:(i)
Horizontal triangle formed by the three points where the chest leaves the ground, the left
elbow and the right elbow.
(ii)
Vertical triangle as viewed from the front of firer the two of its sides are formed by the
forearms, the base being the ground between elbows. In addition as a quick check, the
shoulders should be level
SECTION 4
AIMING I - RANGE AND TARGETS (Only for JD/JW Cadets)

Aiming: Focus the target so that a clear picture is formed on the retina of the eye and get the
true centre of the target. Then with the eye focus to the foresight.
(b) Hold the rifle properly as has already been taught and keep it upright.
(c)
Close the left eye and focus the foresight.
(d)
See the foresight through the black sight. The foresight should be seen right in the
centre of the U. The tip of the foresight must be aligned in the centre and in level
with the shoulder of the U.
Targets used for firing with Rif .22.
(a) For application firing 1' x 1' target is used. The aim is to be taken at the bull which
is the black, centre most circle.
(b) For grouping, 1' x 1' target with a white patch in the centre of the bull is used.
(c) For rapid firing, 6 inches figure target is used. The aim is taken at the centre of the
figure.

47

SECTION-5
TRIGGER CONTROL AND FIRING A SHOT
Essentials of good shooting:
(a)
Determination.
Accurate shooting is never achieved without concentration,
each time a shot is fired the firer must be fully determined that it is going to
be perfect one.
(b)
Turning the Shot. From the time correct holding is achieved, more than five
seconds should not be taken to fire a shot. Dwelling on the aim cause the eye
and muscles to tire and results in bad shooting.
(c)
Action on Range Being Ordered.
When the 'range' is given the firer should
adjust his sights and await for indication of the target.

Sequence of action while firing a shot.

(a)
(b)

Aiming Position:On taking the aim, the firer must take the first pressure.
Breathing: Just before taking an aim, breathing must be gently restrained. It is
important to coordinate so that when the foresight comes to the point of aim,
the breath is partially exhaled.
Firing:Immediately on 'correct aim' the second pressure will be taken and shot
fired. For a second or two after firing, there should be no relaxation of the
hold or movement of trigger finger or head.
Follow Through. The hold and aim must be maintained until the bullet has
left the barrel. Better still fire should allow through until the bullet has reached
the target.

(c)

(d)

SECTION-6
RANGE PROCEDURE AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Normal procedure on the firing.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

The party to fire is brought within about 100 yds of the firing point.
The practices to be fired are explained.
Firers are detailed to targets.
The coaches, ammunition party and look out men take up their positions.
The first two details only form up behind their targets
On the order of 'Age Barh' (Detail Advance) the first detail will take position on the
firing point.
g) On the lowering of the red flag at the butt, the officer supervising the firing point may
order his red flag to be taken down and give the order of 'Detail Advance'. The coaches
check up their positions and correct them if needed, and give the word of command

48

h)
i)
j)

k)

l)
m)
n)

'Limber Up'. On this, the firers must align rifles as they have been taught. The officer
will then give the order to load and carry on.
The firing will start only after getting orders from officer-in-charge firing.
On completion of fire, the firers must raise their right hand up, keeping the elbow on the
ground.
Officer-in-charge will give the word of command 'Khali Kar' (before this he must
ensure that all have finished). On this the firers will take their rifles onto their shoulders
and move the bolt twice, press the trigger and stand up.
The officer-in-charge will give the command 'Detail Report' on this the firers would
report 'Number ek rifle theek, do theek, teen theek and number char rifle theek'.
The report will be form left to right. (Normally four targets are used on miniature range).
The first and last firer will say 'Number ek rifle theek' and the rest will say 'Do theek,
teen theek' and so on.
The details are changed by word of command and the new detail which has been waiting
comes up while another detail forms up behind.
Before the firers leave the range they will have a further weapon inspection. Each firer
will be asked whether she has any live ammunition. It will be ensured that they have no
live ammunition.

SECTION -7
AIMING II - ALTERATION OF SIGHT (Only for SD/SW cadets)
The central point of area covered by the group of rounds fired with consistent aim and held at
the same aiming mark is called MPI(Mean Point of impact).
Elevation at different ranges
The amount of alteration necessary may be found from the following table which shows the
change of MPI when the sight is changed by 100 yards.
Range Target
200 Yards
300 Yards
400 Yards
500 Yards

Rise or drop of MPI on Target

6 inches
12 inches
18 inches
24 inches

An alteration of 50 yards in the sight will bring half the effect shown above. 200 yards will
double it on the target.

49

SECTION-8: THEORY OF GROUP AND SNAP SHOOTING (Only for SD/SW cadets)
Grouping capacity:
The diameter of a circle containing all five shots, fired by a man to the best of his ability, is
known as his grouping capacity.
Main points to be observed during snap shooting.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Accuracy is not sacrificed for speed.

There is no verbal declaration of aim, since this would cause distraction.
The butt remains in the shoulder in order to save time in re-aiming.
Perfect bolt manipulation to ensure that no time is wasted in reloading.
Firing will continue until such time as the command Stop is given, or no further fire
is required.

Drill:
All NCC units(Land)/squadrons(Air & Sea) practise drill as a means of instilling discipline and
teamwork, it is also used in formal parades, for moving around military bases and moving cadets
in a smart and orderly fashion.
Cadets and Cadet Officers who possess a high standard of military drill may be given Parade
Appointments such as Colours Ensign, Parade Regimental Sergeant Major, Colours Regimental
Sergeant Major and Armed Escort. This group is given further drill training and compose the
Guard-of-Honour contingent who greet visiting dignitaries.
Certain units also form Precision Drill Squad which specialise in performing display drills and
the newly introduced Freestyle Drill teams.
Physical Training:
PT, or Physical Training, is widely emphasized in the Corps, and a typical PT session could take
up about an hour. Physical Training usually consists of calisthenics, led by a Physical Training
Instructor (PTI), himself usually a Specialist who is trained in this field by his seniors or C/offr.
PT usually starts with a short warm-up, then a few sets of static stations before the whole unit
goes for a company run. Physical fitness is a criterion for the Best Unit Competition. It has also
been added as a graded component for courses.
Marksmanship: Cadets have the opportunity of firing an M16 or SAR 21 rifle on firing ranges. Cadets
first train on the Army Individual Marksmanship Trainer (IMT), a computerised simulation, before
progressing on to shoot at live firing ranges. Safety is always the main concern when shooting, with
50

everything done by the book. Cadet live firing is always conducted by active armed forces personnel
under the supervision of a trained Safety Officer. An armed forces Medic is also attached as a safety
measure.

A Shooting Competition is also organised annually where cadets from all three elements (Land,
Sea and Air) compete.
Cadets who obtain a respectable shooting score are awarded a Marksmanship badge.
Adventure Training:
As part of the NCC's mission to develop resourceful, responsible, resilient, loyal leaders and
team players, the NCC offers a wide range of adventure and experimential programmes and
activities.
Part A (Alpha, Secondary 1 cadets) cadets attend an outdoor camp for at least 2 nights and 3
days conducted by their school's unit. From 2008 onwards, they will also attend Camp FORGE,
an adventure-based experiential day camp held in NCC Campus. The acronym FORGE, stands
for Fun, Orientation, Resilience-Building, Group Dynamics (Social Gelling and Bonding) and
Experiential Learning. Cadets are given opportunities to participate in activities such as archery,
paint-ball gun competition and the Flying Fox, amongst many adventure facilities. Part B (Bravo,
Secondary 2 cadets) cadets, until 2008, will attend Camp FEAST. From 2008 onwards Part A
cadets will attend Camp FEAST as opposed to Part B in previous years. Part B cadets have a
new camp to attend. This new camp, since 2009, is termed Camp STEEL. This stands for
Standards, Tenacity, Emotional Intelligence, Energy and Leadership. This is a 2 Day residential
camp during which cadets participate in more challenging adventure training like the Rappelling
Wall, Advanced Paintball Challenge, Weapons Technical Handling, Team Building and Team
Learning, and basic Emotional Intelligence knowledge. All these serve to provide cadets with
tools to become better leaders-both of themselves and of their peers and juniors
Part C (Charlie, Secondary 3 cadets) cadets will undergo their marksmanship test, where they get
a chance to fire the real SAR 21 rifle.
Selected cadets will also be sent to the Cadet Specialist Course, where they undergo training and
tests and will eventually pass out as a 3rd Sergeant or 2nd Sergeant, depending on performance.
Cadets who performed well will be selected to attend a further training course known as the
Senior Specialist Course, where they will undergo trainings and test and eventually pass out as
Staff Sergeants (SSG). Cadets will also be rewarded with a red lanyard which can be worn round
their shoulders while they are in uniform.

51

Trekking and Mountaineering Expedition:

NCC organises visits for young student to hill stations where they are taken out for trekking/rock
climbing expeditions. The children who perform well in such events are sent to various National
Institutes of Mountaineering. Those who volunteer are also given opportunity to go for
mountaineering expeditions. These activities include Trekking, Rock Climbing, Course at
National Institutes of Mountaineering and Mountaineering Expeditions
National Integration Camps:
NCC in Delhi offers opportunities to young students from schools and colleges to visit various
interesting places in the country. During these visits, the students get an opportunity to stay with
students from the other part of our country and get to know their cultural heritage. The students
are also taken around on Sight Seeing visits to historial places. This helps in imbibing
nationalistic spirit.
Community Volunteering: Cadets often volunteer to help local charitable organisations

through various fund raising and interaction programmes. For example, the Corps has
previously raised funds for disabled youth. The Corps also frequently organises
Clean-up projects at local parks, beaches and nature reserves.
In addition, the Corps occasionally organises overseas community projects in countries like India
and Cambodia.
International Cadet Exchanges: Every year selected cadets are given the opportunity to participate
in various international exchanges with cadets from countries like Australia, Brunei, Canada, New
Zealand, the United Kingdom, the United States of America , Hong Kong and India.

ADVANTAGES OF NCC
To the
Students

* An excellent opportunity to get acquainted with the services.

* A chance of a lifetime to get trained in scores of adventure activities.
A training ground for acquiring iron-will and impeccable discipline.
* Participation in dedicated teams in service to the nation.
* Hundreds of Scholarships to those who excel in all activities,
ranging from academics to adventure.
* Opportunity to travel abroad.
* No military service liability.

To the
Teachers

* Status of service officer without military service liability.

* Opportunity to lead cadets into performing social service, adopt finer
values in life and become better citizens of the country.
* Opportunity to take part in adventure activity.
52

* Opportunity to travel abroad.,

* Honorary commission after retirement up to the rank of Lt. Col. In
deserving cases.
Misc

I)
II)
III)
IV)
V)
VI)

A cadet holding C certificate in B grade gets entitled to apply for direct

commission in the defence services.
A cadet holding B or C certificate can aspire to be enrolled as ASI
in the State Police (10% in Manipur
Preferential advantage in seeking admissions in professional
course at all India level.
Four best cadets awards and four second best cadet awards of
Rs 3000 and Rs 2000 each respectively.
Four NCC scholarship of Rs 5000 each to cadets from Manipur
granted by the DG NCC New Delhi.
Governor's Gold medal for Best Boy

A) JUNIOR DIVISION/WING:
Scholarship for cadets passing Class X examination and fulfilling the laid down eligibility
criteria. Two scholarhip of Rs 5000/- each for one year will be awarded to JD and JW cadets per
NCC Group. Total number of scholarhips will be 368.
B) SENIOR DIVISION/WING :
scholarships for cadets passing 10 + 2 or equivalent examination admitted in regular graduation
courses recognized by the UGC viz BA B Sc, B Com, BCA, BBA and fulfilling laid down
eligibility criteria. Two scholarships of Rs 15,000/- each for one year will be awarded to SD and
SW cadets per NCC Group. Total number of scholarships will be 368.
C) HIGHER STUDIES :
Scholarships for cadets passing 10 + 2 or equivalent examination admitted in professional
courses recognized by the Government and UGC viz Engineering, Medical, Business
Administration, Hotel Management etc and fulfilling the laid down eligibility critieria. Sixty six
scholarships of Rs 40,000/- each will be awarded for one year common for Boys and Girls.
Distribution of these scholarships between various States and Union Territories will be based on
the number of NCC Groups per State/ UT

53

ACHIEVEMENTS:

VSC CAMP: At National level Vayu Sainik Camp held at Oct 2002 at Bangalore, our team
scored 1st position in cultural and Line Area competition.
DG's Commendation Card: Awarded to Maj (Mrs) Motimala, ANO. This is her 3rd award in
NCC.
Local Republic Day Parade: Four contingents of NCC participated in the local RD Parade.
SD/SW (Army) contingent was adjudged 1st and SD(Air) the 2nd.
Manipur State Association Firing Competition: Seven cadets participated. Cadet was awarded
the 1st position in .22 Rifles open Sight Men Junior and Cadet Sandhya Rani got 1st in the
Women Junior.
NCC Day Celebrations: Organized on 24 Nov 02 in a noble way of blood donation, cultural
programme, aeromodelling and essay competition.
Motivation cum Information Hall : It was inaugurated by Brig RR Nautiyal, Dy DG, NCC
NER Dte, Shillong on 02 Dec 02. It contains trophies, medals, models of aircrafts and detailed
information.

54

4.

National Service Scheme- NSS

Unit 4 (NSS)
Orientation to NSS: Genesis Objectives of NSS emblem Motto Organisation and
administration set-up of NSS- Special Camping Programmes, Awards, Participation in Republic
day Parade, National Integration Camps, Youth festivals, etc

Genesis of NSS:
The idea of involving students in the task of national service dates back to the times of Mahatma
Gandhi, the father of the nation. The central theme which he tried to impress upon his student
audience time and again, was that they should always keep before them, their social
responsibility. Advising them to form a living contact with the community in whose midst their
institution is located, he suggested that instead of undertaking academic research about economic
and social disability, the students should do something positive so that the life of the villagers
might be raised to a higher material and moral level. In the post-independence era the
University Grants Commission headed by Dr. Radhakrishnan recommended introduction of
national service in the academic institutions on a voluntary basis with a view to developing
healthy contacts between the students and teachers on the one hand and establishing a
constructive linkage between the campus and the community on the other hand. The Central
Advisory Board of Education (CABE) recommended that students should devote some time to
manual work on a voluntary basis and that the teachers should also associate with them in such
work in January, 1950. First Five year Plan adopted by the Government of India in 1952, the
need for social and labour service for students for one year was further stressed. Consequent
upon this, labour and social service camps, campus work projects, village apprenticeship scheme
etc were put into operation by various educational institutions. In 1958, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru
in his letter to the Chief Ministers, mooted the idea of having social service as a prerequisite for
graduation. He further directed the Ministry of Education to formulate a suitable scheme for
introduction of national service into the academic institutions.
In 1959, a draft outline of the scheme was placed before the Education Ministers Conference.
The Conference was unanimous about the urgent need for trying out a workable scheme for
national service. In view of the fact that education as it was imparted in schools and colleges, left
something to be desired and it was necessary to supplement it with programmes which would
arouse interest the social and economic reconstruction of the country. The Conference suggested
the appointment of a committee to work out details of the proposed pilot project. In pursuance of
these recommendations, a National Service Committee was appointed under the Chairmanship of
Dr. C.D. Deshmukh on August 28, 1959 to make concrete suggestions in this direction. The
committee recommended that national service for a period of nine months to a year may be made
compulsory for all students completing high school education and intending to enroll themselves
in a college or a university. In 1960, at the instance of the Government of India, Prof. K.G.
Saiyidain studied national service by students implemented in several countries of the world and
submitted his report under the title National Service for the Youth to the Government with a
number of recommendations as to what could be done in India to develop a feasible scheme of
55

social service by students. It was also recommended that social service camps should be open to
students as well as non-students within the prescribed age group for better inter-relationship.
The Education Commission headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari (1964-66) recommended that students at
all stages of education should be associated with some form of social service. This was taken
into account by the State Education Ministers during their conference in April 1967 and they
recommended that at the university stage, students could be permitted to join the National Cadet
Corps (NCC) which was already in existence on a voluntary basis and an alternative to this could
be offered in the form of a new programme called the National Service Scheme (NSS).
Promising sportsmen, however, should be exempted from both and allowed to join another
scheme called the National Sports Organisation (NSO), in view of the need to give priority to the
development of sports and athletics.
The Vice Chancellors Conference in September, 1969 welcomed this recommendation and
suggested that a special committee of Vice Chancellors could be set up to examine this question
in detail. In the statement of national policy on education of the Government of India, it was laid
down that work experience and national service should be an integral part of education. In May,
1969, a conference of the students representatives of the universities and institutions of higher
learning convened by the Ministry of Education and the University Grants Commission also
unanimously declared that national service could be a powerful instrument for national
integration. It could be used to introduce urban students to rural life. Projects of permanent value
could also be undertaken as a symbol of the contribution of the student community to the
progress and upliftment of the nation.
The details were soon worked out and the Planning Commission sanctioned an outlay of Rs. 5
crore for National Service Scheme (NSS) during the Fourth Five Year Plan. It was stipulated that
the NSS programme should be started as a pilot project in select institutions and universities.
On September 24, 1969, the then Union Education Minister Dr. VKRV. Rao, launched the NSS
programme in 37 universities covering all States and simultaneously requested the Chief
Ministers of States for their cooperation and help. It was appropriate that the programme was
started during the Gandhi Centenary Year as it was Gandhiji who inspired the Indian youth to
participate in the movement for Indian independence and the social uplift of the downtrodden
masses of our nation.
The cardinal principle of the programme is that it is organized by the students themselves and
both students and teachers through their combined participation in social service, get a sense of
involvement in the tasks of national development. Besides, the students, particularly, obtain work
experience which might help them to find avenues of self-employment or employment in any
organization at the end of their university career. The initial financial arrangements provided for
an expenditure of Rs. 120/- per NSS student per annum to be shared by the Central and the State
Governments in the ratio of 7:5 i.e. the Central Government spending Rs. 70/- and State
Governments Rs. 50/- respectively per NSS student per year. An amount of Rs. 120/- per NSS
student per annum on programmes to be shared by the Central and State Governments in the
ration of 7:5 (i.e. Rs. 70/- per student by the central government and Rs. 50/- per student by the
State Governments). Keeping the inflation in view, it is now under consideration to revise the
amount for Special Camping and Regular Activities.

56

The response of students to the scheme has been quite encouraging. Starting with an enrollment
of 40,000 students in 1969, the coverage of NSS students, increased to 11.36 lakh during 199596.
The scheme now extends to all the states and universities in the country and covers +2 level also
in many states. Students, teachers, guardians, persons in authority in government, universities
and colleges/schools and the people in general now realize the need and significance of NSS. It
has aroused among the student youth an awareness of the realities of life, a better understanding
and appreciation of the problems of the people. NSS is, thus, a concrete attempt in making
campus relevant to the needs of the community. There are several instances of excellent work
and exemplary conduct of NSS units which have earned them respect and confidence of the
people. The special camping programmes organized under the themes of Youth Against Famine
(1973), Youth Against Dirt & Disease (1974-75), Youth for Eco- Development and Youth
for Rural Reconstruction Youth for National Development and Youth for Literacy (1985-93)
Youth for National Integration and Communal Harmony (1993-95) have resulted in gains both
to the community as well as to the students. The theme for the year 1995-96 onwards for Special
Camping is Youth for Sustainable Development with focus on Watershed Management and
Water land Development. Themes have been selected in accordance with national priorities.
Also, from 1991-92 onwards NSS has launched a nationwide campaign on AIDS Awareness
called Universities Talk AIDS (UTA) which has earned international attention and
appreciation.
The National Policy on Education 1986, with modification undertaken in 1992 envisages that
opportunities will be provided for the youth to involve themselves in national and social
development through educational institutions and outside agencies. Students will be required to
participate in one or the other existing schemes, namely, the National Service Scheme and
National Cadet Corps. The National Service Volunteer Scheme will also be strengthened.
Academic credit for extension work could be considered and in certain areas directly related to
extension activities like social work and rural development (National Policy on Education
Recommendation para 8.22). In pursuance of the above recommendations the programme of
Action 1992 on National Policy on Education provides that special incentives be evolved to
encourage teachers interest and participation, quite apart from incentives to encourage and
sustain participation of students and youth in these programmes. Possible incentives may include
the following:(a) Recognition of the outstanding contribution of teachers to NSS as an extension work under
the third dimension of the university system as equivalent to research work.
(b) Special incentives for teachers for outstanding contributions under NSS.
(c) Special incentives for students with outstanding records under NCC, NSS etc. at the time of
their admission to college and university and also for promotion within colleges land
universities.
From the above, it is evident that special emphasis has been given to NSS in National
Policy on Education. It is now realized that the scheme is useful for the personality development
of the students, particularly in the context of the present campus situation in our country where
the opportunities to students for personality development and other activities are scarce.
57

Objectives of NSS
This programme is to inculcate the social welfare thoughts in the students, and to provide service
to the society without any prejudice. NSS volunteers work hard day and night to ensure that
every one in our society who is needy gets every possible help from them so that they can also
enhance their standards and lead a life of dignity in the society. In doing so, the volunteers
themselves learn a lot from the people in villages as well as appreciate the struggles to lead a
happy life in the extreme scarcity of resources and so on.
The main objectives of National Service Scheme (NSS) are:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

understand the community in which they work

understand themselves in relation to their community
identify the needs and problems of the community and involve them in problem-solving
develop among themselves a sense of social and civic responsibility
utilize their knowledge in finding practical solutions to individual and community
problems
vi. develop competence required for group-living and sharing of responsibilities
vii. gain skills in mobilizing community participation
viii. acquire leadership qualities and democratic attitudes
ix. develop capacity to meet emergencies and natural disasters and
x. Practice national integration and social harmony

Emblem: The symbol for the NSS has been based on the giant Rath Wheel of the world famous
Konark Sun temple1Sun Temple (The Black Pagoda) situated in Orissa, India. The wheel
portrays the cycle of creation, preservation and release and signifies the movement in life across
time and space. The symbol thus stands for continuity as well as change and implies the
continuous striving of NSS for social change.
Motto:
The Motto of NSS is "Not Me But You". It reflects the essence of democratic living and upholds
the need for self-less service. NSS helps the students develop appreciation to other person's point
of view and also show consideration to other living beings. The philosophy of the NSS is well
doctrined in this motto, which underlines on the belief that the welfare .of an individual is
ultimately dependent on the welfare of the society on the whole and therefore, the NSS
volunteers shall strive for the well-being of the society.
Organization
Most of the Government and Government Aided Institutions, both schools and colleges have
NSS units comprising volunteers. Even the private institutions are encouraged to have NSS

The Konark temple is dedicated to Surya, the Sun God, and is unique for its supremely imaginative character. The structure as a whole is
conceived of as a rath (temple on wheels) on twenty-four wheels, the winged chariot of time which the Sun God rides. The base of the temple is
an immense terrace with twelve giant wheels on either side, each 10 feet high. On the raised platform thus created, the temple building was
erected in two conjoined parts forming the deul and the jaganmohan. The natmandir and the bhogmandir were detached structures, all enclosed
within a courtyard measuring 865 ft. by 540 ft.

58

volunteers. A unit may typically count from 20 to 40 students. They are managed internally by a
coordinator from school or college who reports to the regional NSS coordinator. Most of the
institutions incorporate a separate uniform for NSS though it is not mandatory.
Badge: The NSS Symbol is embossed on the badge. The eight bars in the wheel represent the 24
hours of a day. The red colour indicates that the volunteer is full of young blood that is lively,
active, energetic and full of high spirit. The navy blue colour indicates the cosmos of which the
NSS is tiny part, ready to contribute its share for the welfare of the mankind.
NSS SONG : During Silver Jubilee Year 1994 the NSS theme song has been composed. All
NSS volunteers are expected to learn the theme song and sing the song during NSS programmes
and celebrations.
We shall overcome
We shall overcome
We shall overcome some day
O! deep in my heart
I do believe that
We shall overcome some day
Well walk hand in hand
Well walk hand in hand
Well walk hand in hand to- day
O! deep in my heart
I do believe that
We shell overcome some day
We shall live in peace.
We shall live in peace.
We shall live in peace to-day
O! deep in my heart
I do believe that
We shall overcome some day
We shall not be afraid
We shall not be afraid
We shall not be afraid to-day
O! deep in my heart
I do believe that
We shall overcome some day.

Coverage:Started initially in 37 universities involving

40,000 volunteers, the scheme has grown over the years
and it is implemented today with an involvement of
more than 2.6 million volunteers spread over in 200
Universities, Polytechnics and +2 Systems. The efforts
of NSS volunteers have been widely acclaimed by the
community, universities, colleges and general public as
the NSS volunteers have been rendering selfless service
to the community.
Financial Arrangements: The scheme is funded by
both Central and State Governments in the ratio of 7:5
to organise Regular Activities (RA) and special
Camping Programmes (SCP). An amount of Rs.160/-per
volunteer per annum is released towards Regular
Activities (RA) and Rs.300/- per volunteer per Special
Camping Programme (SCP) which is of 10-days
duration to be organised in the adopted
villages/communities. In addition, the Government of
India provides 100% financial assistance to run NSS
Regional Centres, State Liaison Cells and
TOCs/TORCs, The Central Government also provides 100% financial assistance for implementation of NSS
Programmes in Jammu & Kashmir and Union
Territories without Legislatures.

NSSDay:NSSwasformallylaunchedon24thSeptember,1969,thebirthcentenaryyearoftheFatherof
theNation.Therefore,24SeptemberiscelebratedeveryyearasNSSDaywithappropriateprogrammes
andactivities.

Administrative Structure at National Level

Youth Programme like National Service Scheme requires administrative structures at various
levels for its successful planning and implementation. Therefore, organizational structures have
59

been envisaged at Central, State, University/+2 and College levels. It is vital for the programme
to get support at all the levels and to make sure that the programmes and activities get the
required attention: data from the states, Universities and NSS Regional Centres and provides this
information to the Ministry as feedback. Thus the PA Cell for all practical purpose functions as
the NSS Headquarter.
NSS Regional Centres.
(a)

The Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports has set up NSS Regional Centes in the
country to maintain liaiso0n with the State Governments, Universities, +2 Councils
and TOC/TORCs for the effective implementation of NSS Programme.
(b) NSS Regional Centre (RC) which is a subordinate field office of the Ministry of
Youth Affairs & Sports and depending upon the volunteers strength and size of the
state, RC is either headed by a Deputy Programme Adviser or an Assistant
Programme Adviser. The Deputy Programme Adviser/Assistant Programme Adviser
belong to Group-A grade of the Central Government Service.
(c) Deputy Programme Adviser/Assistant Programme Adviser who head the Regional
Centre are given a core staff for his/her support.

Functions of NSS Regional Centres: In addition, NSS Regional Centres will function in close
coordination with TOCs/TORCs and State Liaison Cells. The functions of the NSS Regional
Centres with reference to the State Governments, Universities and TOC/TORCs are as under :(a)

(b)

As the NSS Regional Centres are subordinate field offices of the Ministry, it is their main
responsibility to ensure the implementation of NSS and other Youth Programmes as per
the spirit and letter of the manual and guidelines issued by the Government of India from
time to time.
It is the duty of the heads of the Regional Centres to explain the Government polices,
without any fear and favour in the discharge of their duties, particularly furnishing
elaboration and explanation to the universities and colleges. Heads of Regional Centres
cannot remain silent under the pressure of universities and/or State.

The National Service Scheme covers students at the level of higher education. Thus the
administrative structures of the higher education have the responsibility of looking after NSS and
its implementation at college/school/universities level. The successful functioning of NSS cell at
University level will give impetus for proper implementation of NSS in the unit level.
1.

NSS University Cell: Every University should have an NSS Cell to supervise and coordinate
NSS Programme in Colleges affiliated to it.

1.1. The Universities having strength of more than 10000 NSS volunteers should have full time
programme coordinators. The Universities having strength of less than 10000 NSS
volunteers may have part time programme coordinators.

60

1.2. NSS being an academic extension programme the University will provide necessary
infrastructure and other facilities like telephone, office and office equipment and secretarial
assistance for the smooth functioning of the cell.
1.3. The cell will function under the Vice-Chancellor, the Programme Coordinator; NSS will be
in charge of the cell and the main executive functionary.
2

Programme Coordinator
The Programme Coordinator is the key functionary as far as NSS is concerned. Therefore, a
dedicated and devoted Programme Coordinator can plan, execute and evaluate the NSS
activities in a proper perspective. The Programme Coordinator will execute all
administrative and policy directives of the government, decisions of the State Advisory
Committee and University Advisory Committee. The NSS programme will be prepared in
the light of the guidelines issued by the Government of India

2.1 Term/Tenure of the Programme Coordinator

The Programme Coordinator will be appointed on deputation/short term contract for the
period of three years extendable by one year further. No Programme Coordinator will be
appointed on Permanent basis.
2.2 Functions of the Programme Coordinators
(a) To assist and guide the NSS unit for implementation of NSS programmes at college
level.
(b) To help in organising camps, training and orientation programmes for the NSS leaders.
(c) To visit the NSS units for monitoring and evaluation.
(d) To ensure implementation of NSS Regular activities and special camping programmes.
(e) To ensure timely release of grants to colleges.
(f) To submit the reports and returns to Programme Adviser, Regional Centre, State
Liaison Officer and TOC/TORC.
(g) To ensure selection of new Programme Officers as per guidelines and ensure their
orientation within the stipulated period.
(h) To submit half yearly reports and other information required to Government of India,
Regional Centre and State Liaison Officer on the prescribed proforma.
(i) To have liaison with Regional Centre and State Liaison Officer and TOC/TORC for
the implementation of NSS programme.
(j) To bring out documents and reports on the achievements of NSS.
(k) To present the views of the Ministry and if advised by the State Government, the view
of the State Government, in the University Advisory Committees and to the ViceChancellors of the Universities, Principals of the Colleges, other persons connected
with NSS Programmes;
(l) To assist in preparation of NSS Programmes, including Special Camping Programmes,
in conformity with the policies and guidelines;
(m) To keep the Vice-Chancellors and heads of +2 Councils apprised of the state of the
programme in their respective Universities and Colleges/institutions;
(n) To take steps to see that funds are released in time by the University to the college;
(o) To visit different NSS units and camps for supervision, consultancy, guidance etc
61

(p)

The ensure that the NSS programme is implemented as per NSS manual and
administrative instructions issued by the Government of India from time to time.
Deviation from the established policies may be brought to the notice of the Ministry
and the Programme Adviser

TOCs/TORCs and Evaluating Agencies

Orientation and training of persons attached with NSS being a vital input for sustaining
its dynamism in universities, colleges and +2 schools, it is necessary that the various facts
of the programme are studied, understood and evaluated. The NSS Regional Centres have
to play their role in this sphere mainly :(i)
To observe the organisation of orientation training, research and evaluation and other
activities in these institutions;
(ii)
To visit the training programmes whenever possible and advise the TOC/TORCs on
policies and guidelines;
(iii) To function as a resource person in the orientation and training programme;
(iv)
To help the TOC/TORCs in the evaluation of regular and special camping programme;
(v)
To report the progress of the TOC/TORCs as member of the Training Advisory
Committee.
Camps

Camps are conducted annually. The camp is fully funded by the Government of India. The camp
is usually located in a rural village or in suburbs. Volunteers may involve in
1. Cleaning
2. Afforestation
3. Stage shows or procession creating awareness on social problems, education, cleanliness
etc
4. Inviting doctors for health camps.
There are no pre-defined or pre-assigned tasks. It is the volunteers' imagination to provide the
service to the society in whatever ways that are feasible. The camps may typically last for a week
or ten days. Many short term camps are also conducted. Two camps have been successfully
organised in BIT Mesra with 40-50 volunteers participating in each camp. The first one was from
818 December 2006 and the second one was from 818 December 2007.The enthusiastic
volunteers donated 10 days time from their holiday and stayed in the campus for serving the
society. Some of the intellectuals were also called to interact with the volunteers.
Other Programs
In some institutions, volunteers are involved in controlling traffic, regulating queues in temples,
controlling stampede in functions. National conferences are held regularly to conduct white
paper presentations, project presentations. It is equivalent to Scouts, National Cadet Corps
(NCC) and other programmes developed for the welfare of the society and the nation.
Further reading
National Service Scheme: A Report, by Khwaja Ghulam Saiyidain. Published by Ministry
of Education, Govt. of India, 1961.
62

Training and consultancy needs in national service scheme, by N. F. Kaikobad, Krishan

K. Kapil. Published by Tata Institute of Social Sciences, 1971.
National Service Scheme: guide-lines to project-masters, by Andhra University, Dept. of
Sociology & Social Work. Published by Dept. of Sociology & Social Work, Andhra
University, 1971.
National Service Scheme in Gujarat: An Evaluation Report for the Year 1986-87, by Tata
Institute of Social Sciences Training Orientation & Research Centre (NSS), India, India.
Dept. of Youth Affairs and Sports. Published by The Centre, 1987.
National Service Scheme in Maharashtra: An Evaluation Report for the Year 1986-87, by
Tata Institute of Social Sciences Training Orientation & Research Centre (NSS), India,
India Dept. of Youth Affairs and Sports. Published by The Centre, 1988.
National Service Scheme in India: A Case Study of Karnataka, by M. B. Dilshad.
Published by Trust Publications, 2001.

63

UNIT V- Rural Development

1. Features and scope of Rural Development
2. Government programmes for Rural Development.
3. General problems faced by rural population -Population growth, illiteracy, unemployment,
problems in agricultural sector, health, hygiene, sanitation and nutrition, drinking water
supply, housing.
4. Role of Educational institutions in rural development
5. Participatory development tools: Participatory Rural Appraisal, Participatory Learning and
Action, Rapid Rural Appraisal
5.1

Features and scope of rural development

Rural development in general is used to denote the actions and initiatives taken to improve the
standard of living in non-urban neighbourhoods, countryside, and remote villages. These
communities can be exemplified with a low ratio of inhabitants to open space. Agricultural
activities may be prominent in this case whereas economic activities would relate to the primary
sector, production of food and raw materials.
Rural development mostly aims at the social and economic development of the rural areas. These
programs are usually top-down from the local or regional authorities, regional development
agencies, NGOs, national governments or international development organizations. But then,
local populations can also bring about endogenous initiatives for development. The term is not
limited to the issues for developing countries. In fact many of the developed countries have very
active rural development programs. (Student Discussion Features of rural areas/ Describe
your village)
5.2

Government programmes for Rural Development.

5.2.1

MINISTRY OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT (GOVT. OF INDIA)

India has been a welfare state ever since her Independence and the primary objective of all
governmental endeavors has been the welfare of its population. Planning has been one of the
pillars of the Indian policy since independence and the countrys strength is derived from the
achievement of planning. The policies and programmes have been designed with the aim of
alleviation of rural poverty which has been one of the primary objectives of planned
development in India. It was realized that a sustainable strategy of poverty alleviation has to be
based on increasing the productive employment opportunities in the process of growth itself.
Elimination of poverty, ignorance, diseases and inequality of opportunities and providing a better
and higher quality of life were the basic premises upon which all the plans and blue-prints of
development were built.
Rural development implies both the economic betterment of people as well as greater social
transformation. In order to provide the rural people with better prospects for economic
64

development, increased participation of people in the rural development programmes,

decentralization of planning, better enforcement of land reforms and greater access to credit are
envisaged. (What is meant by decentralization of power?) / Panchayathi Raj)
Initially, main thrust for development was laid on agriculture industry, communication,
education, health and allied sectors but later on it was realized that accelerated development can
be provided only if governmental efforts are adequately supplemented by direct and indirect
involvement of people at the grass root level. Accordingly, on 31st March 1952, an organization
known as Community Projects Administration was set up under the Planning Commission to
administer the programmes relating to community development. The community development
programme inaugurated on October 2, 1952, was an important landmark in the history of the
rural development. This programme underwent many changes and was handled by different
Ministries.
Rural Development Ministry in India: In October 1974, the Department of Rural Development
came into existence as part of Ministry of Food and Agriculture. On 18th August 1979, the
Department of Rural Development was elevated to the status of a new Ministry of Rural
Reconstruction. That Ministry was renamed as Ministry of Rural Development on 23rd January
1982. In January 1985, the Ministry of Rural Development was again converted into a
Department under the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development which was later
rechristened as Ministry of Agriculture in September 1985. On July 5, 1991 the Department was
upgraded as Ministry of Rural Development. Another Department viz. Department of Wasteland
Development was created under this Ministry on 2nd July 1992. In March 1995, the Ministry
was renamed as the Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment with three departments namely
Department of Rural Employment and Poverty Alleviation, Rural Development and Wasteland
Development.
Again, in 1999 Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment was renamed as Ministry of Rural
Development. This Ministry has been acting as a catalyst effecting change in rural areas through
the implementation of wide spectrum of programmes which are aimed at poverty alleviation,
employment generation, infrastructure development and social security. Over the years, with the
experience gained, in the implementation of the programmes and in response to the felt needs of
the poor, several programmes have been modified and new programmes have been introduced.
This Ministrys main objective is to alleviate rural poverty and ensure improved quality of life
for the rural population especially those below the poverty line. These objectives are achieved
through formulation, development and implementation of programmes relating to various
spheres of rural life and activities, from income generation to environmental replenishment.
In order to ensure that the fruits of economic reform are shared by all sections of society five
elements of social and economic infrastructure, critical to the quality of life in rural areas, were
identified. These are i) health, ii) education, iii) drinking water, iv) housing and v) roads. To
impart greater momentum to the efforts in these sectors the Government had launched the
Pradhan Mantri Gramdoya Yojana (PMGY) and the ministry of rural development was entrusted
with the responsibility of implementing drinking water, housing and rural roads component of
PMGY

65

During the Ninth Plan period, several anti-poverty programmes have been restructured to
enhance the efficiency of the programmes for providing increased benefits to the rural poor. Self
employment programmes have been revamped by merging the Integrated Rural Development
Programme (IRDP), the Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA), the
Supply of Improved Tool-Kits to Rural Artisans (SITRA), the Training of Rural Youth for Self
Employment (TRYSEM), the Ganga Kalyan Yojana (GKY) and the Million Wells Scheme
(MWS) into a holistic self-employment scheme called Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana
(SGSY).
Keeping in view the needs and aspirations of the local people, Panchayati Raj Institutions have
been involved in the programme implementation and these institutions constitute the core of
decentralized development of planning and its implementations. The Ministry is also vigorously
pursuing with the State Governments for expeditious devolution of requisite administrative and
financial powers to PRIs as envisaged under 73rd amendment act of the Constitution of India.
(What is the significance of 73rd and 74th amendment to the Constitution of India?)
On 25th December 2002, under Drinking Water Sector, a new initiative Swajaldhara
empowering the Panchayats to formulate, implement, operate and maintain Drinking Water
Projects has been launched. In order to further involve PRIs in the development process, a new
initiative Hariyali has been launched by Honble Prime Minister on 27th January, 2003.
Hariyali has been launched to strengthen and involve Panchayati Raj Institutions in the
implementation of Watershed Development Programmes namely IWDP, DPAP and DDP.
(What is the history of swajaldhara?)
The empowerment of rural women is crucial for the development of rural India. Bringing
women into the mainstream of development is a major concern for the Government of India.
Therefore, the programmes for poverty alleviation have a womens component to ensure flow of
adequate funds to this section. The Constitutional (73rd) Amendment, Act 1992 provides for
reservation of selective posts for women. The Constitution has placed enormous responsibility
on the Panchayats to formulate and execute various programmes of economic development and
social justice, and a number of Centrally Sponsored Schemes are being implemented through
Panchayats. Thus, women Members and Chairpersons of Panchayats, who are basically new
entrants in Panchayats, have to acquire the required skill and be given appropriate orientation to
assume their rightful roles as leaders and decision makers. To impart training for elected
representatives of PRIs is primarily the responsibility of the State Governments/Union Territory
Administrations. Ministry of Rural Development also extends some financial assistance to the
States/UTs with a view to improve the quality of training programmes and to catalyze capacity
building initiatives for the PRI elected members and functionaries. This Ministry is a nodal
department for the two international organizations viz., the Centre on Integrated Rural
Development of Asia and the Pacific (CIRDAP) and the Afro-Asian Rural Development
Organization (AARDO).
The Ministry consists of the following three Departments:
1. Department of Rural Development
2. Department of Land Resources
3. Department of Drinking Water Supply
66

The Department of Rural Development implements schemes for generation of self employment
and wage employment, provision of housing and minor irrigation assets to rural poor, social
assistance to the destitute and Rural Roads. Apart from this, the Department provides the
support services and other quality inputs such as assistance for strengthening of DRDA
Administration, Panchayati raj institutions, training & research, human resource development,
development of voluntary action etc. for the proper implementation of the programmes. The
major programmes of the Department of Rural Development are Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak
Yojana, (PMGSY), Rural Housing (RH) Sampoorna Gramin Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) and
Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY).
Department of Land Resources implements schemes to increase the bio-mass production by
developing wastelands in the country. Department also provides the support services and other
quality inputs such as land reforms, betterment of revenue system and land records. It also
undertakes development of desert areas and drought prone areas in the country. The major
programmes of the Department of Land Resources are Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP)
The Desert Development Programme (DDP) the Integrated Wasteland Development Programme
(IWDP) and Land Reforms (LR). These aim at increasing the soil and moisture conservation and
productivity of the wasteland of the degraded lands thereby increase the income of the people.
The provision of Drinking Water Supply and extension of Sanitation facilities to the rural poor
are the main components of the activities of the Department of Drinking Water Supply. The
major programmes of the Drinking Water Supply Department are The Swajaldhara, the
Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP) and the Total Sanitation Programme
(TSP).
DEPARTMENT OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT
The Department of Rural Development is implementing a number of programmes in rural areas
through the state Governments for poverty reduction, employment generation, rural
infrastructure habitant development, provision of basic minimum services etc. The important
programmes presently being implemented by the Department are:
1. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY)
2. Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)
3. Sampoorna Gramin Rozgar Yojana (SGRY)
4. Rural Housing (Indira Awaas Yojana)
5. DRDA Administration
6. Training Schemes
7. Promotion of Voluntary Schemes and Social Action Programme, organization of beneficiaries,
advancement and dissemination of rural technology through CAPART.
8. Monitoring mechanism.

67

Keeping in view the fact that Rural Roads are vital to economic growth and measures for poverty
alleviation in the village, Government have launched a 100% Centrally Sponsored Scheme called
the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY). The Programme seeks to provide
connectivity to all unconnected habitations in the rural areas with a population of more than 500
persons through good All-weather roads by the end of the Tenth Plan Period.
In respect of the Hill States (North-East, Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir,
Uttaranchal) and the Desert Areas, the objective would be to connect habitations with a
population of 250 persons and above.
Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) scheme was launched with effect from 25th
September 2001 after merging the Employment Assurance Scheme and the Jawahar Gram
Smridhi Yojana. This is being implemented as a centrally sponsored scheme on cost sharing
basis between the Centre and the States. The cash component of the Programme is shared
between the Centre and State in the ratio of 75:25. Food grains are provided free of cost to the
States/Union Territories. The cost of transportation of the foodgrains is borne by the concerned
States/UTs. The special component of SGRY aims at augmenting food security through
additional wage employment in the calamity affected rural areas after due notification by the
State governments and its acceptance by the Ministry of Agriculture.
The Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) is the single self employment
programme for the rural poor. The Yojana which came in to effect from 1.4.1999, has been
conceived as a holistic programme covering all aspects of self employment like organization of
rural poor into Self Help Groups (SHGs) and their capacity building, training, planning of
activity clusters, infrastructure development, financial assistance through bank credit and subsidy
and marketing support etc.
Housing is one of the basic requirements for human survival. Therefore, construction of houses
was included as one of the major activities under the National Rural Employment Programme
which begun in 1980. Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) begun in
1983. Indira Awaas Yojana IAY was launched during 1985-1986 as a sub scheme of RLEGP and
thereafter it continued as a sub scheme of Jawahar Rozgar Yojana. From 1st January 1986 IAY
was delinked from JRY and made an independent scheme. The Government of India, in 1998
announced a National Housing and Habitat policy which aims at providing Housing for all and
facilitating the construction of 20 lakh additional housing units (13 lakh in rural areas and 7 in
urban areas) with emphasis on standing benefits to the poor and the deprived. The intention is to
end shelterlessness and ensure the conversion of all unserviceable kucha houses by pucca houses
by the end of 11th plan period. The Action plan is being implemented through various
programmes such as Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY), Credit cum Subsidy Scheme for Rural
Housing, Innovative Scheme for Rural Housing and Habitat Development, Rural Building

68

Centres, Equity Contribution by Ministry of Rural Development to HUDCO and National

Mission for Rural Housing and Habitat.
Training has gained an important position in rural development activities concerning various
poverty alleviation programmes. As training, research and development are closely linked,
continuing education of both policy makers and programme implementers is imperative.
Towards facilitating this, National Institute of Rural Development (NIRD) has been conducting
training programmes, workshops, seminars and international programmes. In addition, extensive
support has been provided to a number of training and research institutions dealing with issues
related to rural development.
In order to strengthen the DRDAs and to make them more professional and effective, a new
centrally sponsored scheme, namely, DRDA Administration has been introduced from 1st April,
1999 based on the recommendations of an inter-ministerial committee known as the Shankar
Committee. The scheme replaces the earlier practice of allocating percentage of programme
funds to the administrative cost. Under this, a separate provision has been made to meet the
administrative expenses of the DRDAs who are expected to effectively manage and implement
the schemes.
Information, education and communication (IEC) plays a pivotal role in creating awareness,
mobilizing people and making the development participatory through advocacy and by
transferring knowledge, skills, and techniques to the people. To meet the communication needs
of the various programmes of the Ministry holistically, an integrated IEC strategy envisaging
optimum utilization of available modes of communication, conventional and non-conventional
has been evolved in order to effectively meet the communications needs of the programmes of
the Ministry.
Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) of development activities provide various stakeholders in
these activities with better means for learning from past experience, improving service delivery,
planning and allocating resources, and demonstrating results as part of accountability to key
stakeholders. A comprehensive multi-level, multi-tool system of Monitoring and Evaluation of
the policy and implementation environments of the programmes of the Ministry has been
evolved over the years. In view of the vast canvas for implementation of the programmes of the
Ministry, the monitoring of the programmes is taken up at various levels.
The overall monitoring of all the programmes at the national level is carried out by the
Monitoring Divisions of the Ministry. The Programme Divisions monitor the respective
programmes implemented by them. The Programmes of the Ministry are basically implemented
by the State Implementing Agencies. At the State level, the Secretary/Commissioner dealing
with the Programme monitors its implementation. The actual execution of the Programmes takes

69

place at the District/Village level through DRDAs, Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and other
implementing Agencies, who monitor the execution of the programmes at the grass root level.
In order that the programme implementation reflects the needs and aspirations of the local people
the Panchayati Raj Institutions are considered as an important tool for the implementation of the
programmes of the Ministry. As a step toward decentralization of the planning process and
implementation of the programmes, strengthening of the Panchayati Raj Institutions has been
envisaged through the Constitutional (73rd) Amendment Act, 1992 and with the passage of this
Act, constitutional status has been provided to the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs). Therefore,
under most of the rural development programmes, a crucial role has been assigned to PRIs for
programme implementation. Sustained efforts are being made to strengthen local governance,
institutionalizing peoples participation and empowering women through PRIs. The State
governments are being pursued for delegation of adequate administrative and financial powers to
PRIs and a significant change has been noticed in this regard.
Under this department there are three autonomous bodies viz., Council of Advancement of
Peoples Action and Rural Technology (CAPART), National Institute of Rural Development
(NIRD) and National Rural Road Development Agency (NRRDA).
Council of Advancement of Peoples Action and Rural Technology (CAPART) has been set up
to encourage participation of voluntary agencies in rural development and also to provide
financial assistance to them in their rural development projects. CAPART directly deals with
voluntary agencies and their projects.
National Institute of Rural Development NIRD is engaged in planning and coordination of
national level training. For state and district level training, assistance is given to State Institutes
of Rural Development (SIRD) and Extention Training Centres (ETC) respectively.
National Rural Road Development Agency (NRRDA) recently registered under society
registration Act, 1860, extends support to the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) to
advice on technical specification, project appraisal, appointment of part time quality control
monitors, management of Monitoring system and submits periodic reports to ministry.

70

5.3

General problems faced by rural population -Population growth, illiteracy,

unemployment, problems in agricultural sector, health, hygiene, sanitation, nutrition,
drinking water supply, housing.

5.3.1

Population Growth
Illiteracy
Unemployment
Problems in agricultural sector
Health
Hygiene
Sanitation
Nutrition
Drinking Water Supply
Housing
POPULATION GROWTH

In 1965, about 40 years ago, there were less than 500 million of us. By 2011, the population of
India has touched 121 crore. The effect of this incredible increase has been a falling standard of
living in general, shortages, untold misery and conflict. It is foolish to expect that we can provide
a decent standard of living to so many in such a short time. The vast majority of us do not have
adequate drinking water, sanitation, health care, education and job opportunities. By the year
2030, at the current birth rate, India would have 1700 million people, surpassing China to
become the most populous nation on earth. Some of the effects of overpopulation should be
briefly indicated.

Effect on the environment: Intensive agriculture can impoverish the soil and the
relentless conversion of forests to farmlands leads to soil erosion and desertification.
India loses about 8,000 square miles of arable land each year. Fresh water reserves are
used up faster than what nature can replace; groundwater levels fall. With the
disappearance of forests, rainfall patterns change leading to droughts and floods. The
biotic diversity decreases with the loss of animal habitat. Pollution of lakes, rivers and the
atmosphere takes its toll in terms of health hazards.
Social effect: at the social level, overcrowding leads to communal tensions and civil
unrest. Malnutrition and poor health services create unnaturally high infant mortality
rates. Education takes the back seat while the society is remorselessly driven to
unemployment and under productivity. The cycle of poverty finally gets a firm hold on
the population at large and it is a vicious cycle from which it is almost impossible to
break free. Though we may gloss over the details of the exact effects of all this, it can be
reasonably argued that overpopulation is the corner stone upon which all the other ills of
society are founded.
71

YearAD

WorldPopulation

Populationincrores

200million

1000

275million

1500

450million

1650

500million

1750

700million

600

1804

1billion

400

1850

1.2billion

200

1900

1.6billion

1927

2billion

1950

2.55billion

1955

2.8billion

1960

3billion

1965

3.3billion

1970

3.7billion

1975

4billion

1980

4.5billion

1985

4.85billion

1988

5.0billion

1990

5.3billion

1995

5.7billion

1999

6billion

2006

6.5billion

2009

6.8billion

2011

7billion

2027

8billion

2044

9billion

2050

9.2billion

900

1000
800
700

800
600
500
400
300
200
100

1804
Time till 1804

123
1927

33
1960

15

13

1975

1988

11

12

1999

2011

16
2027

17
2044

StudentProject
FindoutgrowthofpopulationinIndiafortheperiod19012011

72

5.3.2 ILLITERACY
Literacy in India is an indispensable means for effective social and economic participation,
contributing to human development and poverty reduction. UNESCO aims at education for all by
2015. India is one of the countries (along with the Arab states and sub-Saharan Africa) where the
literacy levels are still below the threshold level of 75% but gigantic efforts are on to achieve that
level, efforts which have been relatively successful after India's literacy rate grew from 42% in
1981 to 66% in 2001. More than three fourths of the countrys male population and above half of
the female population is literate. The thrust forward for achieving at least the threshold level of
literacy represents the largest ever civil and military mobilization in the country. The table below
shows the adult and youth literacy rates for India and some of the neighbouring countries in
2002.
Country

Adult Literacy Rate

Youth Literacy Rate

Adult literacy rate is for the age

group 15 years and above. Youth
literacy rate is for the age group
1524 years (i.e., youth represents
a subset of adults). Illiteracy rates
in many third world countries are

China
91% (2000-2005)
98.9% (2004)
India
66% (2000-2007)
82% (2000-2007)
Nepal
44.0
62.7
Pakistan
56.2
53.9
Sri Lanka
92.0
98.0
Bangladesh 41.1
49.7
Student Project
alarmingly high; nestled in the heart of Asia, India's
Name three states in India which
education program is falling behind other nations. Indias
have leading literacy rates in India.
population has touched 1.21 billion mark in 2011.
What factors are contributing to
Many children living in rural areas receive a level of
this achievement?
education which is very poor. Overall enrollment in primary
and middle schools are very low. Fifty percent of children living in these areas leave school
before the fifth grade. These children leave school for variety of reasons: some leave because of
lack of interest; most leave so that they can work in the fields, where the hours are long and the
pay is low. A large percent of the dropouts are females. Forced by their parents, most girls
perform chores and tend the younger children at home. Other features of illiteracy in India
include
Female literacy
Lack of educational infrastructure
Student Project
Insufficient number of qualified and dedicated teachers.
High student-to-teacher ratios.
The story of Keralas
Lack of resources and leakage of resources
Lower allocation of resources for education by
achievement in total literacy
Government
Lack of drinking water and sanitation facilities at
schools

73

5.3.3 UNEMPLOYMENT IN INDIA

India as a nation is faced with massive problem of unemployment. Unemployment can be
defined as a state of worklessness for a man fit and willing to work. It is a condition of
involuntary and not voluntary idleness. Some features of unemployment have been identified as
given below:
1. The incidence of unemployment is much higher in urban areas than in rural areas.
2. Unemployment rates for women are higher than those for men.
3. The incidence of unemployment among the educated is much higher than the overall
unemployment.
4. There is greater unemployment in agricultural sector than in industrial and other major
sectors.
Economists and social thinkers have classified unemployment into various types. Generally
unemployment can be classified as follows:
1. Voluntary unemployment: In this type of unemployment, a person is out of job of his own
desire doesn't work on the prevalent or prescribed wages. Either he wants higher wages or
doesn't want to work at all.
2. In voluntary unemployment: In this type of situation, the person who is unemployed does
not have a remunerative work and devoid of wages although he is capable of earning his
wages and is also anxious to earn them.
3. Cyclical unemployment - This is the result of the trade cycle which is a part of the capitalist
system. In such a system, there is greater unemployment and when there is depression a large
number of people are rendered unemployed. Since such an economic crisis is the result of
trade cycle and unemployment is a part of it.
4. Seasonal unemployment - Certain industries and traders engage workers for a particular
season. This is also true with agriculture. When farming operations are high, employment is
generated. Seasonal unemployment means people are only employed for some period of a
year and they remain unemployed for the rest of the year. When the season of work ends the
workers are rendered unemployed. Sugar industry is an example of this type of seasonal
unemployment.

Student Project

Student Project

Make a study of employment and

unemployment seasonalities at
Sadivayal

What is MGNREGS? How does

it help in solving rural
unemployment?

74

5.3.4 PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL SECTOR

Two-thirds of Indias people depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Current agricultural
practices are neither economically nor environmentally sustainable and India's yields for many
agricultural commodities are much lower than in other countries. Poorly maintained irrigation
systems and almost universal lack of good extension services are among the factors responsible
this. Farmers' access to markets is hampered by poor roads, rudimentary market infrastructure,
and excessive regulation. Major problems in the agricultural sector are as under.
1. Low production and low productivity
2. Illiteracy, general socio-economic backwardness, slow progress in implementing land
reforms and inadequate or inefficient finance and marketing services for farm produce.
3. The average size of land holdings is very small (less than 20,000 m) and is subject to
fragmentation, due to land ceiling acts and in some
Student Project
cases, family disputes. Such small holdings are often
over-manned, resulting in disguised unemployment
Make a comparison of the
and low productivity of labour.
agricultural sector of India and
4. Inadequate adoption of modern agricultural practices
China
and use of technology
5. Impracticality of applying technology and scientific
practices in small land holdings.
6. Inadequate irrigation facilities.

5.3.5 HEALTH PROBLEMS

The health problems of the rural population can be
summarized as follows:
Student Project
1. Malnutrition - Deficiency of essential
Note on Water-borne diseases
components in diet leading to malnutrition,
protein calorie malnutrition and micronutrient
deficiencies (vitamin A, iron and iodine) are common. Goitre of various grades is also
endemic in some of the tribal areas.
2. Water borne and communicable diseases
3. Anemia
4. Alcoholism, smoking and consumption of other intoxicants
5. Superstitions particularly related to health problems.
6. Extreme poverty.

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5.3.6 WATER SUPPLY, SANITATION AND HYGINE IN INDIA

Water supply and sanitation in India continue to be inadequate, despite longstanding efforts by
the various levels of government and communities at improving coverage. The situation is
particularly inadequate for sanitation, since only one of three Indians has access to improved
sanitation facilities (including improved latrines). While the share of those with access to an
improved water source is much higher than for sanitation (86%), the quality of service is poor
and most users that are counted as having access receive water of dubious quality and only on an
intermittent basis. As of 2003, it was estimated that only 30% of India's wastewater was being
treated, with the remainder flowing into rivers or groundwater. The lack of toilet facilities in
many areas also presents a major health risk; open defecation is widespread even in urban areas
of India, and it was estimated in 2002 by the World Health Organisation that around 700,000
Indians die each year from diarrhoea. The level of investment in water and sanitation is relatively
high, but the local government institutions in charge of operating and maintaining the
infrastructure are weak and lack the financial resources to carry out their functions, partly due to
very low tariff
levels.
Water supply
None of the 35
Indian cities with
a population of
more than one
million distribute
water for more
than a few hours
per day, despite
generally
sufficient
infrastructure.
Owing
to
inadequate
World Water Map 2025
pressure people
struggle to collect water even when it is available. According to the World Bank, none have
performance indicators that compare with average international standards.
A 2007 study by the Asian Development Bank showed that in 20 cities the average duration of
supply was only 4.3 hours per day. No city had continuous supply. The longest duration of
supply was 12 hours per day in Chandigarh, and the lowest was 0.3 hours per day in Rajkot.

76

In Delhi residents receive water only a few hours per day because of inadequate management of
the distribution system. This results in contaminated water and forces households to complement
a deficient public water service at prohibitive 'coping' costs; the poor suffer most from this
situation. It is estimated that non-revenue water in Delhi is close to 60%, including physical and
commercial losses.
Jamshedpur, a city in Jharkhand with 573,000 inhabitants, is said to be one of the few cities in
India with continuous water supply. Its water system is being operated by the private company
Jamshedpur Utilities & Services Company (Jusco), a subsidiary of Tata Steel. Navi Mumbai
(formerly known as "New Bombay"), a planned city with more than 1m inhabitants, has
achieved continuous supply for about half its population as of January 2009. Badlapur, another
city in the Mumbai Conurbation with a population of 140,000, has achieved continuous supply in
3 out of 10 operating zones, covering 30% of its population.
Where there is no safe water supply, people either walk long distances in search of water, collect
it from polluted sources such as factory outflows or unprotected wells, or buy jerry cans of water,
often of dubious quality, from vendors at vastly inflated prices.
Often poor families pay much more per litre than the better off, who can secure piped
connections or afford to invest in their own wells. For example the poorest people from Dar es
Salaam, Tanzania, spend an average of 10% of their income on water from vendors.
Water scarcity means poor families are only able to use a small amount of water, which affects
their ability to wash themselves, their homes and their clothes. They are also hindered from
washing by the lack of privacy. The inability to wash furthers the spread of disease and
undermines dignity.
In areas with high population density there is increased chance of groundwater pollution, and so
hand-dug wells, commonly built in rural areas, are unsuitable. While tubewells that reach deeper
water sources can be a viable option, often the preferable solution is to negotiate with existing
piped water suppliers, usually the municipality, to extend services into unserved areas and
establish communal water points that the community can manage themselves. Nominal fees are
charged per bucket collected, which are paid into a fund used to pay the water bills and cover
maintenance.
Rural water supply: There are about a 100,000 rural water supply systems in India. At least in
some states responsibility for service provision is in the process of being partially transferred
from State Water Boards and district governments to Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI) at the
block or village level (there were about 604 districts and 256,000 villages in India in 2002,
according to Subdivisions of India. Blocks are an intermediate level between districts and
villages). Where this transfer has been initiated, it seems to be more advanced for single-village
77

water schemes than for more complex multi-village water schemes. Despite their professed role
Panchayati Raj Institutions currently play only a limited role in provision of rural water supply
and sanitation. There has been limited success in implementing Swajaldhara with low priority by
some state governments to support decentralization. Cost recovery is low and a majority of the
rural water systems are defunct for lack of maintenance. Some state governments subsidize rural
water systems, but funds are scarce and insufficient.
Sanitation: Most Indians depend on on-site sanitation facilities. Recently, access to on-site sanitation
has increased in both rural and urban areas. Sewerage, where available, is often in a bad state. In Delhi the
sewerage network has lacked maintenance over the years and overflow of raw sewage in open drains is
common, due to blockage, settlements and inadequate pumping capacities. The capacity of the 17 existing
wastewater treatment plants in Delhi is adequate to cater a daily production of wastewater of less than
50% of the drinking water produced. Some 700 million Indians do not have access to a proper toilet.
Open defecation is widespread even in urban areas of India. A lack of toilets means that people have no
option but to defecate openly, polluting the environment. Women are the worst sufferers in the society
when there are not sufficient sanitation facilities.
Rural sanitation: Communityled total sanitation (CLTS) is an innovative methodology for
mobilising communities to completely eliminate open defecation. CLTS is characterised by
participatory facilitation, community analysis and action, and no hardware subsidy. Communities
mobilise themselves to construct latrines and achieve total sanitation. CLTS is an entry point for
other livelihoods activities as it mobilises community members towards collective action and
empowers them to take further action in the future. Sanitation improvements have immediate
health benefits which quickly demonstrate the success of collective action in improving personal
and community wide wellbeing. CLTS outcomes illustrate what communities can achieve by
undertakingfurtherinitiativesfortheirowndevelopment.CLTSwasfirstpioneeredinBangladesh
in 1999 and has been widely adopted within that country and beyond, particularly within South
and Southeast Asia. CLTS is said to have great potential for contributing towards meeting the
MillenniumDevelopmentGoals,bothdirectlyinwaterandsanitation.

5.3.7 NUTRITION
There are two types of nutritional problems; under-nutrition and over-nutrition. Under-nutrition
means too little food, too little care and too little health. Over-nutrition, means either too many
calories or the wrong types of calories such as saturated fats or highly processed sugar that lead
to obesity, vascular diseases, etc. Many developing countries have under-nutrition and those in
Europe and North America have over- nutrition problems. There is this in-between category with
countries like India that still have an enormous amount of under-nutrition and significant overnutrition problems. In India, for instance, around 50 per cent of its children under the age of five
are undernourished or malnourished. But in urban areas, the over-nutrition problem is shooting
up, thanks to the change in lifestyle and food habits. The point is that many countries in Asia

78

face the problem of having to deal with the over-nutrition and under-nutrition simultaneously. As
a result, their health systems are under huge stress.
There is a link between over-nutrition and under-nutrition that is not very obvious. When there is
malnutrition, there is a higher level of lower birth rate. One in three babies born in India weigh
significantly low because their mothers are undernourished. Some low-weight babies die and
some survive and those who survive adapt to malnutrition and scarcity. That is, the biological
adaptation is programmed to maximise every calorie the body gets. This adaptation that helped a
malnourished baby survive suddenly turns out to be a mal-adaptation when the baby becomes an
adult. The adult, who was malnourished in the past, gains extra weight even when he takes only
normal amount of food because of the biological adaptation.
Malnutrition is not just a medical problem, but it stems from social discrimination and inequality.
There are immediate causes and underlying causes for the malnutrition problems. Nonavailability of nutritious food can be termed as an immediate cause. The underlying causes, on
the other hand, include poverty, unclean water, and absence of democracy, good governance, and
economic growth. We are arguing that they should pay more attention to these basic, underlying
issues.
We have also been advocating that importance should be given to programmes of indirect
intervention like public distribution systems as much as the programmes of direct intervention
like Integrated Child Development Schemes (ICDS). Indias PDS system is not a nutrition
programme, but actually if it is well-targeted, very well designed for the poor, it will make a
quality impact on nutritional status of the citizens at a far less cost.
Tackling malnutrition problems in human rights perspective: The human rights perspective
involvecommunity in the process. Thailand had a very big success in the 80s in reducing undernutrition quite quickly. Thailands model is a community-based nutrition programme, whereby
locally elected village girl-volunteers (one for every 20 households) underwent high quality
training in assessing and understanding the cause of malnutrition. These volunteers engaged the
people in dialogue while attempting to spread awareness about the nutritional problems. They
visited the homes of severely malnourished people instead of expecting them to come to their
places. Creating awareness is as very important as nutrition education should be an integral part
of any successful nutrition programme.
NutritionpoliciesandprogrammesofIndia:The national food security may be politically important for
India, but it should understand that the household food security is even more important. If there is no food
in village households, it really doesnt matter if the national food security is commendable. What is also
important is getting the food to the child. Even if the child takes the food, his body cannot absorb it unless
you provide a clean environment and water.

79

5.3.8 HOUSING
Housing is one of the basic requirements for human survival. For a normal citizen owning a
house provides significant economic and social security and status in society. For a shelterless
person, a house brings about a profound social change in his existence, endowing him with an
identity, thus integrating him with his immediate social milieu. A housing programme for the
rehabilitation of refugees was taken up immediately after partition by the Ministry of Refugee
Rehabilitation and this lasted till around 1960. Approximately 5 lakh families were housed in
various centres mainly located in Northern lndia.
A Village Housing Scheme was also launched as part of the Community Development
Movement in 1957, in which loans to individuals and cooperatives were provided up to a
maximum of Rs. 5000/- per house. However only 67000 houses were built under this scheme by
the end of the Fifth Plan (1980). In 1972-73, the Estimate Committee of the Lok Sabha in its
37th Report pointed out that the Committee is distressed to note that although 83% of India's
population lives in villages and about 73% of the rural population reside in unsatisfactory kutcha
structures, the problem of rural housing has not received the close attention of the Government.
Following this, certain initiatives were undertaken by Government including the launching of the
House Sites cum Construction Assistance Scheme which began as a Central Scheme in the 4th
Plan and was transferred to the State Sector with effect from 1.04.1974 on the recommendation
of the National Development Council (NDC).
The genesis of the Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) can be traced to the programmes of rural
employment, which began in the early 1980s. Construction of houses was one of the major
activities under the National Rural Employment Programme (NREP), which began in 1980, and
the Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP), which began in 1983. There
was, however, no uniform policy for rural housing in the states. For instance some states
permitted only part of the construction cost to be borne from NREP/ RLEGP funds and the
balance was to be met by beneficiaries from their savings or loans obtained by them. On the
other hand, others permitted the entire expenditure to be borne from NREP/ RLEGP funds.
Further, while some states allowed construction of only new dwellings, others permitted
renovation of existing houses of beneficiaries. As per announcement made by the Government of
India in June 1985, a part of the RLEGP fund was earmarked for the construction of houses for
SCs/STs and freed bonded labourers. As a result, Indira Awaas Yojana (lAY) was launched
during 1985-86 as a sub-scheme of RLEGP. IAY was de-linked from JRY and made an
independent scheme with effect from 1st January 1996.
Since 1999-2000, number of initiatives has been taken to improve the Rural Housing (RH)
Programme by making provision for upgradation of unserviceable kutcha houses and by
providing credit with subsidy for certain sections of the poor. Emphasis has also been laid on
use of cost affective, disaster resistant and environment friendly technologies in rural housing.
80

5.4

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN RURAL EVELOPMENT

An institution of higher education has four broad foundations; these include i) infrastructure, ii)
students, iii) teachers/ researchers/ extension workers, and iv) stakeholders, especially farmers
and other population that live adjacent to the institution. Student population is a key element in
these. They need to get familiar with social realities and become sensitized to it. The teachers
and researchers of the institution possess the expertise with which they can involve in the local
society to identify and solve problems. Rural areas experience wide range of social, economic,
political and environmental problems. Health care and educational opportunities are less in the
rural areas.
Rural development is not only concerned with increase in income and standard of living, but it
should also include reduction and subsequent elimination of poverty, inequality and
unemployment. Rural development must be considered an overall economic development
strategy. Education is a primary means to promote social and economic development of citizens.
It is both a product of society as well as an important tool for bringing changes in the rural
community.
Educational institutions shape the knowledge, skills and attitudes of individuals and are prime
movers in the transfer of appropriate learning for rural development. Some of the critical roles
that an educational institution can play in rural development are given below.
1. Appraisal of problems in rural areas
2. Analysis of problems
3. Facilitation of participatory planning
4. Support in preparing projects/programmes
5. Provide technical support in implementing programmes
6. Build capacities of local institutions and train various stakeholder groups
7. Support in awareness campaigns and programmes
8. Support in local development planning
9. Improve and generate knowledge base on the local situation
10. Facilitate sensitization of students to rural problems, issues and realities

81

5.4
PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT TOOLS
5.5.1 Participatory Rural Appraisal. (PRA) Participatory rural appraisal is an approach which aims
to incorporate the knowledge and opinions of rural people in the planning and management of
development projects and programmes. It is also called Participatory Learning and Action

(PLA). When it evolved in 1970s, it was known as Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA)

5.5.2

5.5.3

There three key words in PRA- Participatory Rural Appraisal. Of these, Participatory (P) =In
Participation with the People. There are various levels of Participation. These can be represented
as below.
Types of participation
1. Passive participation (lowest)
2. Participation to receive material benefits
3. Participation through consultation
4. Participation through working for benefits
5. Participation in planning
6. Functional participation
7. Participation by self-mobilisation (institution building, learning, decision making, solving
problems, control and ownership of processes) (highest level)
Principles of participation
Inclusion of all people, or representatives of all groups who will be affected by the
resultsofadecisionoraprocessforexampleadevelopmentproject.
EqualPartnershiprecognizingthateverypersonhasskill,abilityandinitiativeandhas
equalrighttoparticipateintheprocessregardlessoftheirstatus.
Transparency all participants must help to create a climate conducive to open
communicationandbuildingdialogue.
SharingPowerauthorityandpowermustbebalancedevenlybetweenallstakeholders
toavoidthedominationofoneparty.
Sharingresponsibilitysimilarly,allstakeholdershaveequalresponsibilityfordecisions
thataremade,andeachshouldhaveclearresponsibilitieswithineachprocess.
Empowerment participants with special skills should be encouraged to take
responsibility for tasks within their specialty, but should also encourage others to be
involvedtopromotemutuallearningandempowerment.
Cooperation cooperation is very important; sharing everybody's strength reduces
everybody'sweaknesses.
The second term is Rural. PRA is applicable not only in rural but in urban contexts as well.
However, when it was applied initially, it was applied in the rural context only and hence got
popular by the term, Participatory Rural Appraisal.
The third term is Appraisal, which essentially means, Estimation of Quality / Learning / Study /
Estimate the Worth; To set the price on / To value with a view to sale / Gold Appraisal at a bank
& Appraisal of property for loans. Therefore, Participatory Rural Appraisal is an approach by

82

which people or a community can learn about themselves and analyse their life situation which
will ultimately lead them to collective learning and collective action.
5.5.4

Definition: Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is used to describe new approaches and methods
in which rural people do much of the investigation, presentation, analysis, planning and
evaluation of findings.
Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) has been defined as a family of participatory approaches and
methods which emphasize local knowledge and enable local people to do their own appraisal,
analysis and planning. PRA uses group animation and exercises to facilitate information sharing,
analysis and action among stakeholders. (World Bank, 1995:175;) In the last 20 years since 1988,
PRA and similar tools have become the preferred methodology for participatory development,
and have been widely adopted by development agencies. They have been particularly popular
with NGOs, to which their accessibility and freedom from complex technical demands make
them especially attractive as outreach tools. However, the interest in PRA goes beyond as a
methodology. Its leading proponent, Robert Chambers, claims that it represents not just a set of
research techniques, but rather a whole new paradigm of development. PRA offers, he argues: a
new high ground, a paradigm of people as people. RRA fits a cybernetic model of fast feedback
in conditions of rapid change. Good PRA goes further, in empowering lowers. Its principles,
precepts and practices resonate with parallel evolutions in the natural sciences, chaos and
complexity theory, the social sciences and postmodernism, and business management On the
new high ground, decentralisation, democracy, diversity and dynamism combine (1997:188)

5.5.5

Origins and background of participatory rural appraisal

Background: PRA came about as a Research approach by late 1980s - The Term PRA was first
used in 1988. It is a continuation of Rapid Rural Appraisal - RRA. It is rapid, cost effective and
approximately correct method of research and learning. PRA arose in an effort to enquire into
the failures of development plans and programmes. Dr. Robert Chambers is considered the father
of Participatory Rural Appraisal. Questionnaire and survey methods were costly, time consuming
and did not bring forth qualitative information that was required. Similarly, evaluations and
studies were conducted by experts who were people outside the community. Instead of this expert
oriented approach, there began a search for a people oriented approach in which indigenous
technical knowledge (ITK) is considered prominent and the local people who have ITK are
considered knowledgeable.
The roots of PRA techniques can be traced to the activist adult education methods of Paulo
Freire1 and the study clubs of the Antigonish Movement2. In this view, an actively involved and
empowered local population is essential to successful rural community development. Robert
Chambers, a key exponent of PRA, argues that the approach owes much to "the Freirian theme
that poor and exploited people can and should be enabled to analyze their own reality."[1].
By the early 1980s, there was growing dissatisfaction among development experts with both the
reductionism of formal surveys, and the biases of typical field visits. In 1983, Robert Chambers, a
83

Fellow at the Institute of Development Studies (UK), used the term Rapid Rural Appraisal to
describe techniques that could bring about a 'reversal of learning'. Two years later, the first
international conference to share experiences relating to RRA was held in Thailand. This was
followed by a rapid growth in the development of methods that involved rural people in
examining their own problems, setting their own goals, and monitoring their own achievements.
By the mid 1990s, the term RRA had been replaced by a number of other terms including
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Participatory Learning and Action (PLA).
Chambers acknowledges that the significant breakthroughs and innovations that informed the
methodology were not his, but that development practitioners in India, Africa and elsewhere were
responsible for this. Practitioners such as James Mascarenhas, Parmesh Shah, Meera Kaul, John
Devavaram and others in India collaborated with Prof. Chambers to explore emerging techniques
and tools. These early pioneers were responsible for the spread of PRA to Africa and elsewhere.
In Africa, the methodology found enthusiastic advocates in Kenya (Charity Kabutha, Daniel
Mwayaya), South Africa (Kamal Laldas Singh and others), Zimbabwe (Sam Chimbuya, Saiti
Makuku), Ghana (Tony Dogbe). Prof. Chambers raised funds for South-South Exchanges which
were seminal to the internationalisation of the PRA community of practice. Kamal Laldas Singh
who joined Chambers at the IDS, helped catalyse the South-South and in-country networking that
attempted to encourage reflection and learning amongst practitioners. The rapid spread and
adoption of the methodology led to issues of abuse and quality.[4]
5.5.6

Evolution: the evolution of PRA resulted from a search for the following
Applied and Participatory Research
Decentralized Planning
Participatory Decision Making
Social Diversity & Diverse Participation
Sustainability
Empowerment
PRA has a strong interdisciplinary basis. It has borrowed heavily from other social disciplines
like Social Anthropology, Sociology, Psychology, Public Administration, Statistics and
Quantitative Analysis.

5.5.7

Relevance / Why PRA Emerged?

This is a critical juncture in development history: There is a development crisis around. There is
an accelerating rate of changes. The Poor find it difficult to cope with the changes. Mankind is
facing enormous challenges on an unprecedented scale. Poverty and Malnutrition increase. The
resource base that the humanity can rely on is limited. There is thus a very strong need to make
most of the least. The development crisis is also an environmental crisis. The present day
civilisation will find it almost impossible to survive with the current pattern of consumerist
culture. Further, it may be said that the present day civilisation is experiencing a structural crisis.
Government sponsored development efforts are stagnating all over the world. Effective nongovernmental and community initiatives are yet to emerge. There is great relevance for a local
initiative to come forth in finding an answer to the crisis. PRA is powerful tool in generating
84

quick information and helping the local community to analyse and plan for themselves.
Knowledge Crisis: The main line disciplines of agriculture, animal husbandry and forestry are all
developed to suit the needs of the rich than the poor. The view of knowledge has been a centre outwards view. There is a reversed view now. It is a view from the periphery to the core. (Outside
to centre view) The poor communities and the tribals have survived the economic affluence and
its intrusion into their life situations. There is now a renewed interest in the knowledge relating to
poor, rural and tribal communities and how they have survived. An environmental concern which
is widespread now is especially interested in the survival of indigenous communities. There is
also another aspect to the knowledge crisis. Some academic scholars might argue that there is
more knowledge about the poor than about the rich. Even if this can be a quantitative truth,
knowledge on the poor is produced by the rich and lacks the perceptions of the poor. The rich
would use such knowledge for advancing their interests. PRA can provide the user / community
a basic intellectual equipment required to defend their interests.
Professions have developed a narrow and inward looking tendency. (Inbreeding of professions).
PRA challenges this attitude and encourages people and organizations to challenge the normal
professionalism and consider the vastness and diversities of knowledge. PRA supports
communities to analyse their problems and situations. In such community reflections, it is also
possible that community researchers can and do emerge from such processes of collective
reflections, analysis and research. In the role reversal that is proposed in PRA, a researcher turns
into a facilitator, helps people to analyse and interpret their own situation and the process of
research begins to address problem of the community.
As pointed out by Prof. Chambers, there is a need for a recognition that We the experts are part
of the problem & They the people are part of the solution. Answer to the crisis faced by the
humanity today lie probably in putting together the efforts and resources of the various actors in
development, which among others include Govt/PRIs/ NGO/Local Community and PRA is a
linkage instrument in this context.
5.5.8

Core principles of RRA:

1. The Right Attitude. This is one of the core principles of PRA. Some of the right attitudes
include Openness, Humility Curiosity, Acceptance of the people and their capabilities,
Sensitivity to the people and Readiness to learn new things.
2. The Right Behaviour. Right behaviour is also related to the practitioner. These include
showing respect to people, Friendliness, Sharing of experience, knowledge and facilities
Patience in dealing with the people and Interaction instead of lecturing.
3. Flexibility in approach. PRA is a flexible approach. It allows even its methods to evolve
continuously. PRA is not sacrosanct and it can be played with by the users. One need not be
rigid about its methods and tools. Similarly, while conducting a participatory learning, one
may look for diversity, contradictions, anomalies and differences instead of uniform and
standard answers. Seeking the expression and analysis of complexity and diversity is
preferred instead of emphasizing variation over statistical averages and norms. Getting rid of

85

4.
5.

6.

7.
8.

9.
10.
11.

12.
13.
5.5.9

survey slavery - Questionnaire packages: The search for cost effectiveness - recognizing
trade-offs between depth, breadth, accuracy and timeliness
Reversal of learning: learning from local people, not just mere transmission of knowledge to
them.
Critical self awareness and responsibility. It is always the responsibility of the practitioner
to not to make the mistake and s/he shall ensure this through continuous self critical
reflection. Welcoming error as an opportunity to do better is thus a prominent feature of PRA.
To collect and analyse correct information is considered a personal responsibility and it
reminds us of use your own best judgment at all times.
Optimal ignorance: While undertaking participatory studies, one must ask oneself: How
much information do I really need? One needs to collect only what is essentially needed for
the study.
Approximate precision. When the people conduct an enquiry into their life, it is better to be
approximately right than being precisely wrong.
On the sport analysis. Collect data and do the analysis then and there with the people. Also,
diagnosis and solution is followed. No study is complete unless it diagnoses problems and
seek solutions to the problem.
Learning by doing
Triangulation: learning from several sources and disciplines;
Offsetting biases: particularly the centralist biases of rural development tourism; (spatial /
seasonal/ person/ project) Isolation & insulation (out of date experience of senior and
powerful decision makers)
De-schooling unlearning what one already knows and preparing mind to learn afresh
Respecting the views of others and accepting the creativity of the people

ORIGIN OF PRA / PLA

Negative

+Positive

Activist participatory research

RuralDevelopmentTourism

Social anthropology
Surveyslavery

RRA
Collectsinformation

Farming system research

PRA
PRA
PLA
PLA

Agro-ecosystem analysis

Generatesinformation

Generatinginformationleadsto
learningandaction
86

5.5.10

Activist Participatory Research (APR)

Activist Participatory Research (APR) in general include approaches and methods that use
dialogue & participatory research to enhance peoples awareness, confidence and action. Paulo
Frier - in Latin America practiced it and exposed the technique in his book Pedagogy of the
Oppressed (1968). APR considers it possible that the poor and exploited people can conduct their
own analysis of their own reality. The poor should be enabled to do so. APR gives importance to
dialogue with the people and people participatory research. The confidence of the people and
their capability needs to be enhanced. There are two sub-schools- Participatory Research &
Participatory Action Research in APR. Three concepts stand out in Activist Participatory
Research.

That the poor people are creative and capable. They can and should do much of their own
investigation.
That Outsiders have only roles as conveners, catalysts and facilitators
That the weak and marginalized can and should be empowered.

The Concept and Theory of PRA is drawn mainly from APR.

5.5.11 Social Anthropology
Social Anthropology is the study of man and society. Attitudes, behavior and approach that are
applied in PRA have mainly been contributed by Social Anthropology. These include among
other things;
Learning from the rural set up
Field based learning
Participatory observations
Conversation as a method of learning
Flexible learning methods
Attitude & behaviour given importance in the dealings with the people
Rapport creation with the people
Validity of indigenous technical knowledge (ITK)
5.5.12 Agro-ecosystem analysis
Agro-ecosystem analysis contributed more towards the Tools and Techniques in PRA, especially
as it applies to the time, spatial and relationship (force) dimensions).
Analyzing system & system properties and its patterns
Space learning (spatial) Mapping and Transect walks
Time Learning Time line & Local History Seasonality, Trend
Flow Learning Flow of Nutrients & Resources
Decisions
Decision Trees & Diagrams
5.5.13 Farming System Research
Complexity & Diversity of Farming Systems
Risk Taking in Farming Systems
87

Farm Based Research & Ability to conduct Experiments at farmer level

Knowledge / Professionalism/ Rationality of small farmers

5.5.14 Three Pillars of PRA

PRA is erected on three pillars of strength. These are i) attitudes and behavior, ii) sharing and iii)
tools and techniques. These may be illustrated as given below.

Pillars of PRA

Semi-structured interview
Time line & local history
Mapping
Chappathi diagram
Daily routine analysis
Scoring and ranking
Seasonal calendar and
Diagrams
Livelihood analysis
Flow and impact diagrams
Wealth ranking
Interviews & discussions
Direct observation
Diagrammatic presentation

Participation
De schooling
Accepting the Creativity of the people
Respecting the views of others
Listen more and speak less
Embracing error
Building rapport with the people
Openness, objectivity, critical self evaluation

Attitudes &
Behaviour

Tools &
Techniques

Sharing

The attitude of sharingfood, residence,

information, knowledge,
experience

5.5.15 PRA as a research methodology

Research Methodology

Quantitative Method

Qualitative Method

Employs numerical information: Whatever data are

collected are quantified and analysed with the help of
statistical techniques to test hypotheses.

Employs qualitative information.

Based on deductive logic: The researcher has a theoretical

perspective in mind, makes a hypothesis, collects data using
a fixed tool (Survey questionnaire) that measures these predetermined concepts, analyses the data, tests the hypothesis,
draws inferences on the basis of which the theory is
modified.

Rooted in Inductive Logic: within the broad area of interest,

the researcher makes as few pre-conceptions as possible.
The researcher goes to the field and attempts to grasp the
phenomena in terms of the subjects indigenous concepts,
definitions language, terminology and understanding. These
specificities are made and evidence is presented.
Subjectivity cannot be overcome, argues the Qualitative
school; It can only be minimised. Moreover, subjective
perceptions of the researcher and the subject are analysed in
detail and generalizations built up on them. Theory is
assessed in this way rather than hypothesis testing.
However, arguments are valued and incorporated in to the
research design.

88

5.5.16 Various Kinds of PRA

Kinds of PRA

PRA for Research

Exploratory PRA

Topical PRA

PRA as a Development Approach

Planning and
Implementation

Monitoring and
Evaluation

There are two broad categories of PRA. It may be employed as a research methodology and it may
also be employed in the development interventions.
A

PRA for Research

i)

Exploratory PRA

The objective of exploratory PRA is to gather general information on a broadly defined problem;
Background information needed to focus on priority issues are brought out
A PRA exercise can be undertaken to understand the broad patterns and trends in a community. Such
exercises will bring out important aspects of rural life and suggest issues to be pursued. It can form a
basis for further probing in to areas which appear important and useful. A theme for further analysis
can emerge out of such exploratory PRA. On the basis of such exploratory PRA exercise, a deeper
PRA exercise itself could be undertaken or it can form the basis for framing a survey questionnaire.
The exploratory PRA will in all likelihood throw up a preliminary hypothesis and guidance for further
research. Examples of this include studies on the agro-eco-systems of a particular zone and
identification of priority areas of concern to the inhabitants.
ii)

Topical PRA

The objective of topical PRA is to deepen knowledge on a particular topic, often one, which has been
identified as important in the exploratory study. This has to do with a particular topic, which either
constitutes the area of investigation by the outsiders or has been suggested by the community.
Different dimensions of a theme can be investigated in depth, using PRA tools and techniques. In a
way a Topical PRA can be a logical continuation of an Exploratory PRA. The latter places the topic in
the relevant context, while the former investigates it, either by forming a hypothesis or without. A
topic can be probed across different groups in a community, across gender, caste, age groups and the
community as a whole over time. Its objective is to generate as much information as possible on a
particular topic. It is intensive in its approach. Results of topical PRA often generate more specific
hypothesis, perhaps with recommendation for intervention. Examples include a study of health issues
in a particular area; a study of the villagers knowledge of and interest in Agroforestry.
Deductive PRA: There may be sensitive issues which need to be probed. But the issue cannot be
mentioned as such directly to the people. Use a general PRA which will give you information on a
wide range of issues. It will also provide information on the root causes of some of the key problems
or issues that are to be probed. (Eg. Communal Violence, Forest depletion, Corruption etc) the topics
that need to be probed are related to different aspects of village life. A wide range of Information is
generated and it will positively provide information on the topics that we are particularly interested in
as well.

89

B)

PRA as a Development Approach

i)

PRA for Planning and Implementation

The objective of PRA being employed in development is mainly to involve the people in planning and
implementing projects / programmes or reviewing actions which affect them. PRA can be conducted
for designing projects and implementing them. All stages of a project cycle can be based on PRA.
The Campaign for Decentralized Planning now being experimented in Kerala can be entirely based on
PRA. Projects, programmes and Plans can be formed on the basis of PRA. There is a general belief
today that a development project can be made sustainable with peoples participation. PRA is a tool
for the people to participate in the development process. Such employment of PRA can result in a
programme or plan of activities which has been researched and designed by the local people.
Examples include participatory exercises to devise a natural resource management plan for an area or
a Participatory exercise to devise a plan for community health management during a natural calamity
like drought, flood or earthquake.
ii)

PRA for Monitoring and Evaluation

The objective of PRA being employed in development as a monitoring and evaluation approach is to
evaluate the result of a programme or project (intervention). Monitoring and Evaluation are closely
associated with development projects. The problems faced by the community or village in
implementing a project can be identified through monitoring and evaluation. If the people know how
to monitor and what to monitor, it will enhance the confidence of the people and improve the
sustainability of the project. Before and after comparison of the projects can be undertaken using
PRA techniques. It may be in the case of projects that are formulated on the basis of PRA or
otherwise. Monitoring through PRA based tools can bring out several aspects and areas that were not
considered earlier. Development of appropriate indicators by the user / beneficiary / stakeholder
community is a must for monitoring. PRA can help a lot in developing Indicators. This will result in
generating participatory evaluation and learning report; Reconsideration of prior hypothesis in the
light of experiences and possible readjustment of programme. Examples include evaluation of a
technology which has been introduced and review the impact of a social agroforestry programme.
5.6

Overview of PRA techniques

Hundreds of participatory techniques and tools have been described in a variety of books and
newsletters, or taught at training courses around the world. These techniques can be divided into four
categories:
Group dynamics, e.g. learning contracts, role reversals, feedback sessions
Sampling, e.g. transect walks, wealth ranking, social mapping
Interviewing, e.g. focus group discussions, semi-structured interviews, triangulation
Visualization e.g. venn diagrams, matrix scoring, timelines
To ensure that people are not excluded from participation, these techniques avoid writing wherever
possible, relying instead on the tools of oral communication like pictures, symbols, physical objects
and group memory. Efforts are made in many projects, however, to build a bridge to formal literacy;
for example by teaching people how to sign their names or recognize their signatures. Yet another
way of categorizing the PRA tools are;
1. COMMON TOOLS
Review of Secondary sources
Semi structured Interview
Focus Group Discussions
Direct Observation/ Participant Observation
90

2. SPATIAL DIMENSION
Mapping Social, Resource, Watershed, Mobility, Historical and other Thematic Mapping
Farm Profiles
Transect Walk Vertical, Horizontal, Combing, Zigzag etc.
Modeling
3. TIME DIMENSION
Time Line
Local History
Ethno History
Thematic Time Lines
Seasonality Calendar
Daily Routine Analysis
Trend Analysis
Future Visioning
4. Relationship or Force dimension
Socio Economic Dimension Ranking
Wealth Ranking
Performance Ranking
Resource Access and Control Matrix
Food Path Analysis
Pair wise Ranking
Matrix Ranking
Resource Inflow and Outflow analysis
Venn Diagram
Coverage Matrix
Collaboration Matrix
Institutogram
Livelihood Analysis
Decision Matrix
Participation Matrix
Flow Diagram
Resource Inflow and Outflow analysis
Impact Diagram
5. Tools for Analysis
Problem Tree Analysis
Force Field Analysis
Fish Bone Analysis
SWOT Analysis
Malady Remedy Analysis
IOM Analysis
Causal Analysis
Environment Impact Analysis
Gender Impact Analysis
91


5.7

Case Study Analysis

Advantages & Disadvantages of PRA

Advantages

Disadvantages

Enhancing peoples awareness on problems facing them Raises Expectations of the Villagers
Village Profiling and Visual Sharing help Local
Planning,
Production of Knowledge through PRA leads to
Empowerment of People

Receiving Mentality Develops

Quick identification of Problems

Quick rapport building with villagers

Creates Frustration
Going too quickly may lead to superficiality

More involvement &Participation of the villagers

Difficulty of finding the right team of

practitioners

People become suspicious of frequent visits

Local Resources used in PRA

People are not mere respondents in PRA, they are
players, performers and presenters

92

5.8 Some Common Tools and Techniques Used in PRA

1
Semi Structured Interview (SSI)
Description
Application
This is guided interviewing and
Most powerful
listening in which only some of
and important
the questions and topics are pre- tool throughout
determined. Questions arise
the PRA
during the course of the
exercises/
interview. These interviews
Qualitative
appear conversational and
Research. SSI is
informal, but are carefully
a support tool for
guided, facilitated and structured all the other tools
by the interviewer, so that it
in PRA.
does not appear it is
Therefore it
predetermined and structured.
serves the
purposes of all
A multi disciplinary team poses
the other tools
open questions and probes
and at the same
responses and answers as they
time makes it
arise. New questions arise as the effective in
interview progresses.
gathering
information all
Key Informant Interviews : in
by itself.
which experts or key informants
are selected and interviewed

How To Do It
Prepare checklist for Interview
Probe every information
Examine whether a statement is a fact /
rumour / opinion
Listen carefully and take a neutral
attitude
Pay attention to non verbal facts
Record the interview by taking detailed
notes
Use a good mixture of informants (from
all walks / areas)
Record the names of the informants
Be open-minded about the interview. If
the interview is going badly, conclude it
politely and leave the place
Dont ask questions that contain more
than one queries
Dont let the informant feel cross
examined
Dont ask sensitive questions infront of a
group
Most Important: use six helpers in SSI.
WHO/WHAT/WHY/WHERE /WHEN /HOW

Is it a Fact? Or an Opinion /A Rumour

Suppose
But why
Please tell me more about it
Anything else
Do spend time preparing a comprehensive interview guide or checklist. Write it out and keep it
for guidance during the interview
Do remember that the interview is structured and is for a purpose. So care must be taken not to get
deviated from the central theme and purpose
Be relaxed and intense
Explain who you are and what the purpose of the visit is
Let each member finish his line of questioning before the other team member can interrupt
Do not interrupt each other
Dont accept the first answer / probe it with six helpers / Triangulate it
Dont ask leading questions
Dont try to dominate the proceedings through inappropriate and non verbal behaviour
Dont show disapproval or distaste for local conditions, facilities food or other things offered
Dont indicate disbelief / criticism or disapproval
Check list - 1 Agriculture
Crops, Rainfall Pattern, Crop Condition /Crop Rotation, Crop Pattern between years,
Intercropping, Seed Selection, Pests and Diseases, Home stead gardens, Irrigation & Drought
Resistance of crops, Storage and Processing, Fertilizers / Manures, Cash Crops / Food Crops,
Returns & Prices
Group Interviews: Groups
convened to discuss particular
topics. (Focus group interviews)

93

2
Mapping
Description
There are basically two
types of maps; Social
Map and Resource Maps.
Social
map
is
a
reconstruction of the
village living area using
locally available and
other
appropriate
materials. chalk, charcoal,
rangoli powder, leaves
and flowers etc can be
used . A map may be
constructed
on
the
floor/ground. The village
lay out showing the main
features such as houses,
places
of
worship,
workshops,
stores,
business establishments,
schools
and
other
institutions
can
be
marked symbolically.
It is possible to build
other items of interest on
to it. Animal census,
education, health land
holdings, land fertility,
irrigation facilities etc can
be brought in the map.

Application
Useful for Planning /
Implementation
of
development projects
Appeal of a visual
image of the area is
great and it has great
educative value.
Useful for outsiders to
learn about a place
Maps can be used to
take a census
To understand the
present situation and to
reconstruct the past

How To Do It
Mark the meeting place /discussion point on
the ground
Set out the boundaries - roads , streams and
rivers etc
Mark / place the landmarks/ milestone
institutions or structures in the village
construct the map social or resource
Use appropriate materials to symbolise
various landmarks
Give a legend
Triangulate the map details with other
knowledgeable people of the village
Make changes if required

Even futuristic
mapping can be done
Resource depletion and
the changes that have
taken place can be
brought out through
resource mapping.

Copy the final and accepted version of the

map to the paper
Reconstruct the map of an area which is as it
was say, 25 to 30 years back.

Resource Map can be

constructed to locate the
resources of the village,
such
as
forests,
watersheds, rivers or
streams, wells, ponds,
paddy fields etc.
Some Examples of maps prepared in connection with the campaign for the IX Five Year Plan for
Parathode Panchayath in Kottayam District
1

Resource Map to show Land use / crop combinations ( common land, play grounds, house
sites, roads, water bodies and forests etc) Also, the difference in land use that has taken place
over the years can be captured by attempting a series of maps of land use in the historical
perspective.
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2
3
4

6
7

9
10

11

12

13
14
15
16
17
18

Animal Husbandry - Milk Collection societies, Processing centres, ICDP centres, Slaughter
house
Industries: Traditional &Modern Industries / Industrial Workshops, Cooperatives, Private and
Public concerns, Rural Employment centres.
Energy: Electricity Lines, Transformers, Sub stations, Feeder Line, Gas Agencies, Potential
electricity generation centres. Houses Electrified can be marked on a separate sub map.
Similarly, houses having biogas plants.
Transportation Map of the Panchayath - Show the Roads (NH, SH, PWD and Panchayath
Roads, Tarred & Mud Roads) Culverts and bridges within the Panchayath Limits, Roads on
which vehicular traffic is possible
Markets of the Panchayath: Shops and Establishments, Tea Shops / Hotels
Housing Map of the Panchayath: Housing Colonies - completed & Proposed / Puramboke
settlements / detailed housing type map especially to enable the Panchayath to assess building
tax of the houses in the Panchayath Limits. Houses identified in the Map by number, type,
square feet area, floors, concrete, tiled, thatched, huts and tenements
Drinking Water Map of the Panchayath: Public / Panchayath Wells. Existing drinking water
systems / infrastructure- Pumping - Storage tanks- Pipe Lines - Taps - those functioning well
and those that are leaking and broken / Private wells of the Panchayath - Wells that go dry and
wells that are perennial / Areas that experience scarcity of drinking water / How the scarcity
of water can be overcome
Water Resources Map of the Panchayath - Rivers / Streams / Ponds/ Wells / Those streams
and rivers that are stone embanked and those having riparians forests
Public Health Infrastructure Map of a Panchayath: PHC / Sub PHCs / Dispensaries - both
public and private in the Panchayath- Family Welfare Centres - Hospitals with bed facilities /
Specialisation facilities in the Hospitals / OP clinics / Traditional Medicine practitioners /
Medical Shops / Disease prone / infectious disease prone areas of the Panchayath / Places
where garbage / is heaped in the Panchayath or stagnant dirty water creates problems can be
marked.
Educational Map of the Panchayath : Schools / Colleges Malayalam and English Medium
schools / Government and Privately managed schools / Schools which has an excess number
of students and those schools that do not have sufficient number of students and hence
threatened with division fall and transfer of teachers / Which are the locations from where the
teachers come to the schools / Parallel colleges and Regular colleges / Vocational and
Technical Training centres / Anganwadies and Nursery schools
Cultural Map of the Panchayath: Cultural centres in the Panchayath / Reading Rooms and
Libraries / Public Radios and Televisions
Houses that have Radios and TV sets. Houses where there is satellite TV connections.
Women related Institutions: Educational Institutions exclusively meant for the girls / Mahila
Samajams / Creches in the Panchayath
SC / ST Related Map of the Panchayath: Harijan and Girijan Colonies of the Panchayath
Cooperative Sector in the Panchayath: Production oriented / Marketing / Service Coop
societies
Financial and Banking Sector of the Panchayath: Banks / Cooperative Banks / Other Financial
institutions
Special Organizations / Institutions in the Panchayath: (NGOs)
Environmental Map of the Panchayath: water scarcity / Soil Erosion / Land Slide prone areas
/ Drought & Pollution prone areas

95

3
Transect Walks
Description
Transect walk is a simple
technique for exploring the
spatial differences of an area
under study. This might be a
region, catchment, village, field
or even a large building. The
transect team walks to the
periphery, exploring differences
in land-use, vegetation, soils,
cultural practices, infrastructure,
trees, livestock, water
availability etc.
Transects are observatory walks
through the village living area
or surroundings of the village
such as fields, hillocks, forests,
grazing lands etc. This exercise
is done with farmers as guides.
It helps not only to locate and
pin point various physical
aspects of the village
watersheds, but also to
understand and discuss with the
people the backgrounds of these
physical features. For Example
the cause of deforestation, soil
erosion, water scarcity, soil and
water management practices,
crop changes etc.
Historical Transects are useful
to study the changes that have
taken place in a village over a
period of time. The changes in
resource use, cropping patterns,
livestock and population
pressure etc can be
reconstructed as a result of
transect walks.

Application
Transects are
used as pre
requisites for
mapping
exercises.
Ecological /
Geographical
zone
categorization is
possible with
Transects. It is
possible to
identify an area
in a village
which needs to
be taken up for
special
development
intervention such
as water and soil
management.

How To Do It
It is advisable to go as a team for the
transect walk. The team as far as possible
must be multi-disciplinary so that it can
understand various aspects in depth.

To understand
the changes that
have taken place
in the specific
aspects / areas

The transect line shall be cutting across the

village. (not on the road.) But as far as
possible, every effort must be made to walk
to the periphery. Do not walk in a straight
line. Zig -zag , circular or curved transects
are advisable. But do not follow contours
and ridges always.

The team members may be given specific

tasks of observing particular items during
the transect walk. These specific aspects
may be such as landscape, soil, vegetation,
water sources, livestock, ecological
problems, cropping pattern, industrial and
processing activities
The team members may keep papers / note
books and other writing materials with
them. They shall record what they observe
as they walk. The team shall desirably have
guides, who shall be residents of the
locality. The team shall ask farmers and
local people as they walk about various
aspects related to their respective area of
observation.

Look carefully and listen. One may even

use contrast comparisons. (1) Ask at place
B that how it is different from A. When you
get to A ask how it is different from B This
is one way of triangulating the findings.

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4
Time Line (Agro Historical Transect / Historical Profiles / Local History/ Ethnography)
Description
Application
How To Do It
Time line is a
chronology or sequence
of events that have
taken place in a village
or community over a
period of time. These
may pertain to the
general history of a
village or specific
subjects or sectors such
as health, education,
agriculture, animal
husbandry etc. A
history of major
recollected events with
approximate dates. An
ice-breaker/ entry point
in PRA exercise in the
field

Historical transect may

also be done to capture
the trends and changes
over a period of time in
specific areas such as
food habits, agriculture,
occupations etc. Such
changes can be
captured in periods of
ten years as given
below.
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
Today

The time line exercise can

be applied to find out the
background of a village or
the evolution of specific
activities or programmes
such as health, education,
and other social amenities
such as transport, water
supply etc.

Ask the elders of the community / ask men

and women.
To describe the changes that have taken
place in respective fields since they were
young. How did such changes influence
life in their locality?
Record the events and the possible dates
which they can easily recall. Record it in a
chronological order

The time line of a specific

topic should include
related aspects as well. For
eg, Agriculture should
include occurrences of
droughts and other natural
calamities, introduction of
new seeds, fertilizer usage
and crop failures. Trends
over a period of time may
be captured.

Reconstruct the local history on the basis

of oral traditions
From a general history of the locality,
specific histories need to be constructed on
specific topics, such as climate, soil,
agriculture, forest, population pressure,
food habits, occupations, employment
opportunities and technology history.
Consult secondary sources at the local
level to cross-check findings.
How did the name of locality originate?
Important and prominent families of the
locality and their histories may be looked
into.
Inscriptions in churches, temples etc
Records such as the death and birth
registers
Title deed documents may be studied to
know the land ownership / holding history.
Triangulate the oral history.

Time lines and local

histories bring out the
constraints and
opportunities of an area
over a period of time and
these can be used in
planning for the future.

Visual History: historical profiles of a

watershed or a village or a common
grazing land can be taken to show the
difference over a period of time. This can
be very powerful in communicating to the
people as well as to outsiders

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5
Seasonal Calendars
Description
Used to describe the seasonal
patterns in rural life as related to
rainfall, farming practices,
festivals, employment, health
problems and natural calamities
etc
An attempt is made to determine
the seasonal calendar as
understood and practiced by the
villagers. This is either in terms
of festivals such as Ugadhi,
Deevali or Shankaranthi. This
can be then adjusted to the
English Calendar.
I Say to the father of my child,
Father of Podi Sinho, I say,
there is no kurakkan in the
house, there is no millet and no
pumpkin, not even a pinch of
salt. Three days now and I have
eaten nothing but jungle leaves.
There is no milk in my breasts
for the child. Then I get foul
words and blows. Does the rain
come in August? He says, Can
In make the Kurakkan flower in
July? Hold your tongue, you
fool. August is the month in
which the children die, What can
I do
The Village in the Jungle by
Leonard Woolf Quoted in G. J.
Gill Seasonality and Agriculture in
the Developing World: a problem of
the poor and the powerless,
Cambridge University Press 1991

Application
To understand the
local livelihood
systems

How To Do It
Determine the area / subject matter / aspect
of which the seasonal calendar is to be
prepared

To understand the
relationship between
seasons for villagers

Use information from several interviews and

combine it in to one diagram

To understand
problems and
opportunities of
various groups and
communities and even
individuals. For eg,
the problems of
women, children and
elders as well as
farmers and other
employees in various
seasons
A seasonal calendar
brings out the pulse of
rural / community life
Every activity is
governed by this
calendar; the
monsoons, water
availability, water
demand, fodder
availability, income,
savings, credit and
debt, expenditure,
labour migration,
illnesses, harvesting
all have a definite
relationship to
seasons.

Choose a starting point / end of a season /

beginning of a season
List the activities as applicable to the area /
subject
Find out the variations / more and less
Prepare diagrammatic representation of the
seasonal calendar.
Use locally available materials to prepare
the diagram, sticks, twigs or leaves etc;
Copy it on to the paper later
Try to arrive at correct figures etc if the
PRA exercise is done with an educated
community.
Compare seasonal calendars produced by
different groups in a community. For eg;
Calendar for men and women / crop
calendars of the poor and the wealthy
Dont assume that information gained from
one interview represents the general
situation and affect all the families
Ask the informants what the seasonal
calendar of an unusual year is like.

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6
Time Disposal Analysis /Daily Routine Analysis / Activity Profiles
Description
Application
How To Do It
Time Disposal analysis is an To know the work Draw A Pie Diagram
important tool to analyze the burden and difference in Construct it as a clock having 24
activity profiles. The details work burden of men and hours
of activity and time spent for women, boys and girls Trace the activities on an hour to
the same are captured here. at home, young and old hour basis
Symbolize the activities
by
There may be considerable etc.
pictures, so that it becomes
difference in the activity
profiles of women and men, The work burden can be appealing
young, old and children etc. compared to the income Construct separate Pie diagrams
The time disposal pattern can earning
pattern
of for men and women
be linked to the income people.
The activity profile shall be done
earning pattern as well.
To know the difference by concerned people themselves
Explore daily patterns of in time disposal and the
activity. What activities are purpose of time disposal Ask the men and women to draw
routine activities and how do between
men
and such pie diagrams showing the
they differ between men and women, the extent of activities of their partners.
women
leisure enjoyed by men
and women and the cost Construct Activity Profiles for
The extent of time taken for of such leisure etc can men and women for different
the activity, nature of effort be found out.
seasons.
required to carry out the
activity and the location of
activity etc are important.
There can be differences in
the activity profile from
season to season. The
seasonality of activity profiles
will be different for men and
women.

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7
Venn Diagram
DESCRIPTION
Named after John
Venn, Mathematician
(1834-1923). He
devised a diagram in
which sets and their
relationships are
represented by circles
or other figures. In
PRA this is used to
show relationships of
various institutions,
organizations,
programmes or
individuals with each
other and with the
village as perceived
by the villagers

APPLICATION
In general, this is used
to establish a total
picture in terms of the
villagers relationship
with different
institutions such as
Banks, Govt Offices,
Cooperatives,
Panchayaths and
Hospitals
It can in a way show the
time disposal pattern of
an individual or a
community
It can bring out the kind
of services which the
community receive or
do not receive as much
as they desire.

HOW TO DO IT
Facilitate the people to prepare a list of
institutions, organizations, groups of people
etc with which they have some relationship
and they consider important in their life at
one point of time or the other.
The institutions may be prioritised
Circles of Paper or leaves may be made to
symbolise the institutions/ organizations
These may be arranged on the ground
Facilitate by asking the people why certain
institutions are important and some others
not so important. Why people relate
themselves more to some institutions and
less to others. These reason given by the
people may be noted down.
Let the people discuss the importance and
relationship aspects of the institutions and
organizations and let them move the circles,
arguing, counter arguing and triangulating
in the process.

To find out how things

have changed in the last
10 - 25 years. What is
added and what has
disappeared.
To find out the
overlapping of
institutions
A Futuristic Venn
diagram can be
constructed in which the
people can say what
they want and how
much they want of the
institutions and
organisations etc.

100

Scoring & Ranking: - A) Preference Ranking & B ) Matrix Ranking

DESCRIPTION
APPLICATION
HOW TO DO IT
Scoring and Ranking exercises To find out the local A pair of items is placed before
are undertaken to know the preferences
the local people to know their
local preferences to various To help the local people preferences. They are asked
to take decisions
issues / aspects of local life.
whether A or B is better and
why >A= is better than >B=.
In Preference ranking, several
This reason or answer is
items are placed before the
recorded. Later on these
people to get their preferences.
answers become the basis for
These preferences are made pair
matrix ranking. These are
wise. Therefore, this is also
selected as criteria for scoring
called pair wise ranking.
and ranking.
Elicit criteria as
ranking is done.

preference

Matrix Ranking: is another

tool which is a logical
continuation of pairwise /
preference ranking. Matrix
Ranking is done on the basis of
criteria which are developed
during the Preference or Pair
wise ranking.

To find out the local

preferences as well as to
help the local people to
take decisions
The decision on the basis
of a Matrix ranking is
likely
to be more
scientific as it is based on
criteria

Do not mix the criteria of the

researcher to the informants=
criteria
All the criteria must be either
negative or positive
There are two ways to do it.
Give random score to the items
which are subjected to matrix
ranking. Or find out the total
score that can be given to a
criteria and divide it among the
items to be compared. The
second method is slightly
advantageous over the first
method.
The units compared must be
homogenous or identical
Construct a large matrix on the
ground
to
construct
a
participatory matrix. Seeds or
stones or beads may be used to
show scores and preferences.

101

Wealth Ranking
Description
Wealth Ranking is an exercise
done by the people to classify /
categorise the people on the
basis of their wealth or well
being.
The
community
members= own perceptions of
wealth are taken here to do
wealth ranking.

Application
Wide variety of
applications.
To
categorise
the people on
the basis of
their
wealth
/well being

How To Do It
Initiate a discussion with the local
people on what is wealth and what are
the wealth criteria in the context of the
village.
Get the people to prepare indicators of
wealth in the local conditions.
Exhibit the Indicators and the respective
score against each
Prepare Cards on which the names of
the people to be categorised are written.
(Use local names)
Provide cards to the people who are
ready to do the wealth classification.
Provide a card with details such as
Name of the Household head, Indicator
No. Provision to write the score may be
included.
Either the owners of the card or those
who know the members of the
community can do the wealth
classification and ranking.
Add up the score on the card
Wealth classes can be derived on the
basis of total score.
This method of wealth ranking can
generate lot of other information as
well. These shall be based on the
indicators used and the relationship of
the household to the indicator. In a
limited sense, it can give the beneficial
results of a quick questionnaire survey

102

Steps in doing a Wealth Ranking (conventional method)

No Steps
1
Identify the Unit to be classified ( Compound, Family, Household)
2
Find out the names of each head of the unit to be ranked
3
Prepare cards/ write the name of the household head on the card & number the cards
4
Identify an informant and explain the exercise. There shall be a team of informants.
Desirably have 3 members in it. Remove the informants card from the pile.
5
Discuss the concept of wealth and find out how the informant defines wealth
6
Ask the informant to classify cards in to piles of comparable wealth. The informant
may decide how many piles (Rich, Middle, Poor, Very Poor etc)
7
Certify the piles with the informant to make sure there are no changes
8
Discuss what factors characterize each group
9
Ask other questions which may help to understand wealth issues in the community
10 Thank your informant and explain to make sure that you were not interested in the
individual details of wealth
11 Repeat steps - 4 to 10 with two other groups
12 Transcribe the information from the cards to a recording sheet (Recording Sheet - 1)
13 Calculate the score for each family (Record sheet -2)
14 Note the significant discrepancies in ranking
15 Arrange the score in the ascending order (Recording Sheet - 3)
16 Do the classification of wealth categories
Socio-economic dimension ranking using indicators and scoring System
Score No
Indicator-2 (Sources of Income)
No
Indicator-1 (Salary/ Monthly

Score

Income of Hh in Rs)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
2
3
4
5

1
2
3
4
5

8000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
500
Less than 500
Indicator 3 Land holding
Above 3 Acres
Between 2 & 3
Between 1 & 2
50 cents to One Acre
Less than 50 cents
Indicator 5 No of Working People
5
4
3
2
1

10
8
7
6
5
4
3
1
0.5
10
8
6
4
2

10
8
6
4
2

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Salary/Business / Farming/ AH
Business / Farming/ AH
Farming / AH / Daily wage work
Farming / AH
Farming / Daily Wage Work
Animal Husbandry
Daily Wage Work

10
8
6
5
4
3
2

1
2
3
4
5
6

Indicator 4-Occupation Details

Mason
Carpenter
Quarry Worker
Logging
Daily Wage Work
Rubber Tapping

10
9
8
7
5
4

1
2
3
4
5

Indicator -6 Housing and Amenities

Concrete H/Well/Latrine/ Electrified
Tiled /Well/Latrine/Electrified
Tiled H / Latrine / Well
Tiled House
Thatched house

10
8
6
5
4

103

Indicator 7 Furniture And Assets

Wooden Cot

Table

Desk

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

Bench
Chair
Cup Board
Telephone
Fan
Fridge
Radio
Tape Recorder
Mixer / Grinder
Vehicle - Two wheeler
Vehicle - Four Wheeler
Other / Specify

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

4
5
6

Indicator9 Product from Own Land

Coconut, Pepper, Banana, Coffee,
Cocoa, Vegetables, Tubers & Rubber
Coconut, Pepper, Banana, Coffee,
Cocoa, Vegetables, Tubers &
Pepper, Banana, Coffee, Cocoa,
Vegetables, Tubers
Banana,, Vegetables, Tubers
Rubber only
No Product from Land

10
8
6
4
2
0

104

10
Livelihood Analysis
Description
Livelihood Analysis
diagrams are used to help
interpret the behaviour,
decision, and copping
strategies of households
with different socio
economic characteristics.
For example a, female
headed household with
irregular income is likely
to have different problems
and needs on spending
patterns, than the
household of a rich
merchant or a government
employee. They may adopt
different copping strategies
in case of a crisis.
Variables for a Livelihood
analysis may include the
following.
Household Size &
Composition
Number of Labourers at
home / Migrant Labourers
Livestock
Land Owned
Proportion of income by
source
Expenditures by different
heads
Seasonality of income and
expenditures
Credit and Debt

Application
To understand the
behaviour,
decision, and
copping strategies
of households
with different
socio economic
characteristics

How To Do It
Steps in doing a Livelihood analysis
Define the household
Choose variables to be recorded (
Household size, No of animals, sources
of income, type/size of house etc)
Choose basis of socio - economic
stratification- (Size of household,
amount of land owned, main source of
income)
Devise data collection table
Prepare copies of the data table for each
member
Obtain information through SSI with
community members
Select informants on a stratified basis
through wealth ranking
Obtain qualitative data
Obtain quantitative data
Interview at least 8 members of the
community
Cross check information through
observation of key indicators
Prepare livelihood analysis diagram
Ask community members to draw their
own diagram. For eg, a Pie chart; a circle
is formed on the basis of the diagram.
The circle can be on the ground or on
paper or in a plate covered with grain.
Invite people to draw lines on this. The
segments thus formed can represent
percentages.

105

11

Flow & Impact Diagrams

DESCRIPTION
Flow and impact diagrams are
drawn by the informants to
understand the linkage between
different components of the topic
being investigated, such as nutrient
cycles, impact of an intervention,
financial and labour resource
flows. Flow diagrams can be very
useful in identifying development
constraints and potential.

APPLICATION
Impact
assessment
to understand the
flow process

HOW TO DO IT
Find out the initiators / First activity
points
Proceed by tracing the aftereffects
of the initiator
What are the outputs
What is the result /s
What are the linkages / mark them

Impact diagrams on the other hand

show the linkage between various
components as a result of an
intervention or an activity

RAPID RURAL APPRAISAL (RRA)

Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) methodology owes much of its early development to Farming
Systems Research and Extension as promoted by the Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research Centers (CGIAR). RRA was developed in response to the disadvantages
of more traditional research methods, including: the time taken to produce results, the high cost
of formal surveys and the low levels of data reliability due to non-sampling errors. RRA is a
bridge between formal surveys and unstructured research methods such as depth interviews,
focus groups and observation studies. In developing countries, it is sometimes difficult to apply
the standard marketing research techniques employed elsewhere. There is often a paucity of
baseline data, poor facilities for marketing research (e.g. no sampling frames, relatively low
literacy among many populations of interest and few trained enumerators) as well as the lack of
appreciation of the need for marketing research. The nature of RRA is such that it holds the
promise of overcoming these and other limitations of marketing research.
RRA Definition
Unfortunately, there is no generally accepted definition of RRA. RRA is more commonly
described as a systematic but semi-structured activity out in the field by a multidisciplinary team
and is designed to obtain new information and to formulate new hypotheses about rural life. A
central characteristic of RRA is that its research teams are multidisciplinary.

106

Beyond that, the distinction between RRA and other research methodologies dependents upon its
multidisciplinary approach and the particular combination of tools that in employs. A core
concept of RRA is that research should be carried out not by individuals, but by a team
comprised of members drawn from a variety of appropriate disciplines. Such teams are intended
to be comprised of some members with relevant technical backgrounds and others with social
science skills, including marketing research skills.
Rapid Rural Appraisal consists of a series of techniques for "quick and dirty" research that are
claimed to generate results of less apparent precision, but greater evidential value, than classic
quantitative survey techniques. The method does not need to be exclusively rural nor rapid, but it
is economical of the researcher's time. It is essentially extractive as a process: the agenda is still
that of the outside researcher.
RRA (and analogs) emerged in the 1970s as a more efficient and cost-effective way of learning
by outsiders, particularly about agricultural systems, than was possible by large-scale social
surveys or brief rural visits by urban professionals.
It drew on many of the insights of field social anthropology of the 1930s-1950s, emphasized the
importance and relevance of situational local knowledge, and the importance of getting the big
things broadly right rather than achieving spurious statistical accuracy. It developed a style of
listening research, and a creative combination of iterative methods and verification, including
"triangulation" of data from different sources - using two different methods to view the same
information. It was usually conducted by a multi-disciplinary team, and its chief techniques
included:

Review of secondary sources, including aerial photos, even brief aerial observation
Direct observation, foot transects, familiarization, participation in activities
Interviews with key informants, group interviews, workshops
Mapping, diagramming
Biographies, local histories, case studies
Ranking and scoring
Time lines
Short simple questionnaires, towards end of process
Rapid report writing in the field.

107