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Electricmotor
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Anelectricmotorisanelectricalmachinethatconvertselectrical
energyintomechanicalenergy.Thereverseofthisistheconversionof
mechanicalenergyintoelectricalenergyandisdonebyanelectric
generator.
Innormalmotoringmode,mostelectricmotorsoperatethroughthe
interactionbetweenanelectricmotor'smagneticfieldandwinding
currentstogenerateforcewithinthemotor.Incertainapplications,such
asinthetransportationindustrywithtractionmotors,electricmotors
canoperateinbothmotoringandgeneratingorbrakingmodestoalso
produceelectricalenergyfrommechanicalenergy.
Foundinapplicationsasdiverseasindustrialfans,blowersandpumps,
machinetools,householdappliances,powertools,anddiskdrives,
Variouselectricmotors,comparedto
electricmotorscanbepoweredbydirectcurrent(DC)sources,suchas
9Vbattery.
frombatteries,motorvehiclesorrectifiers,orbyalternatingcurrent
(AC)sources,suchasfromthepowergrid,invertersorgenerators.
Smallmotorsmaybefoundinelectricwatches.Generalpurposemotorswithhighlystandardizeddimensions
andcharacteristicsprovideconvenientmechanicalpowerforindustrialuse.Thelargestofelectricmotorsare
usedforshippropulsion,pipelinecompressionandpumpedstorageapplicationswithratingsreaching100
megawatts.Electricmotorsmaybeclassifiedbyelectricpowersourcetype,internalconstruction,application,
typeofmotionoutput,andsoon.
Electricmotorsareusedtoproducelinearorrotaryforce(torque),andshouldbedistinguishedfromdevices
suchasmagneticsolenoidsandloudspeakersthatconvertelectricityintomotionbutdonotgenerateusable
mechanicalpowers,whicharerespectivelyreferredtoasactuatorsandtransducers.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Earlymotors
1.2 SuccesswithDCmotors
1.3 EmergenceofACmotors
2 Motorconstruction
2.1 Rotor
2.2 Stator
2.3 Airgap
2.4 Windings
2.5 Commutator
3 Motorsupplyandcontrol
3.1 Motorsupply
3.2 Motorcontrol
4 Majorcategories
5 Selfcommutatedmotor
5.1 BrushedDCmotor
5.1.1 ElectricallyexcitedDCmotor
5.1.2 PermanentmagnetDCmotor
5.2 Electroniccommutator(EC)motor
5.2.1 BrushlessDCmotor
5.2.2 Switchedreluctancemotor
5.3 UniversalACDCmotor

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Cutawayviewthroughstatorofinductionmotor.

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5.3 UniversalACDCmotor
6 ExternallycommutatedACmachine
6.1 Inductionmotor
6.1.1 Cageandwoundrotorinduction
motor
6.1.2 Torquemotor
6.2 Synchronousmotor
6.3 Doublyfedelectricmachine
7 Specialmagneticmotors
7.1 Rotary
7.1.1 Ironlessorcorelessrotormotor
7.1.2 Pancakeoraxialrotormotor
7.1.3 Servomotor
7.1.4 Steppermotor
7.2 Linearmotor
8 Comparisonbymajorcategories
9 Electromagnetism
9.1 Forceandtorque
9.2 Power
9.3 Backemf
9.4 Losses
9.5 Efficiency
9.6 Goodnessfactor
10 Performanceparameters
10.1 Torquecapabilityofmotortypes
10.2 Continuoustorquedensity
10.3 Continuouspowerdensity
11 Standards
12 Nonmagneticmotors
13 Seealso
14 Notes
15 References
16 Bibliography
17 Furtherreading
18 Externallinks

History
Earlymotors
Perhapsthefirstelectricmotorsweresimpleelectrostaticdevicescreated
bytheScottishmonkAndrewGordoninthe1740s.[2]Thetheoretical
principlebehindproductionofmechanicalforcebytheinteractionsofan
electriccurrentandamagneticfield,Ampre'sforcelaw,wasdiscovered
laterbyAndrMarieAmprein1820.Theconversionofelectricalenergy
intomechanicalenergybyelectromagneticmeanswasdemonstratedbythe
BritishscientistMichaelFaradayin1821.Afreehangingwirewasdipped
intoapoolofmercury,onwhichapermanentmagnet(PM)wasplaced.
Whenacurrentwaspassedthroughthewire,thewirerotatedaroundthe
magnet,showingthatthecurrentgaverisetoaclosecircularmagnetic
fieldaroundthewire.[3]Thismotorisoftendemonstratedinphysics
experiments,brinesubstitutingfortoxicmercury.ThoughBarlow'swheel

Faraday'selectromagnetic
experiment,1821[1]

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wasanearlyrefinementtothisFaradaydemonstration,theseandsimilarhomopolarmotorsweretoremain
unsuitedtopracticalapplicationuntillateinthecentury.
In1827,HungarianphysicistnyosJedlikstartedexperimentingwith
electromagneticcoils.AfterJedliksolvedthetechnicalproblemsofthe
continuousrotationwiththeinventionofthecommutator,hecalledhis
earlydevices"electromagneticselfrotors".Althoughtheywereusedonly
forinstructionalpurposes,in1828Jedlikdemonstratedthefirstdeviceto
containthethreemaincomponentsofpracticalDCmotors:thestator,rotor
andcommutator.Thedeviceemployednopermanentmagnets,asthe
magneticfieldsofboththestationaryandrevolvingcomponentswere
producedsolelybythecurrentsflowingthroughtheir
windings.[5][6][7][8][9][10][11]

SuccesswithDCmotors

Jedlik's"electromagneticself
rotor",1827(MuseumofApplied
Arts,Budapest).Thehistoric
motorstillworksperfectly
today.[4]

Aftermanyothermoreorlesssuccessfulattemptswithrelativelyweak
rotatingandreciprocatingapparatusthePrussianMoritzvonJacobicreatedthefirstrealrotatingelectricmotor
inMay1834thatactuallydevelopedaremarkablemechanicaloutputpower.Hismotorsetaworldrecord
whichwasimprovedonlyfouryearslaterinSeptember1838byJacobihimself.Hissecondmotorwas
powerfulenoughtodriveaboatwith14peopleacrossawideriver.Itwasnotuntil1839/40thatother
developersworldwidemanagedtobuildmotorsofsimilarandlateralsoofhigherperformance.
ThefirstcommutatorDCelectricmotorcapableofturningmachinerywasinventedbytheBritishscientist
WilliamSturgeonin1832.[12]FollowingSturgeon'swork,acommutatortypedirectcurrentelectricmotor
madewiththeintentionofcommercialusewasbuiltbytheAmericaninventorThomasDavenport,whichhe
patentedin1837.Themotorsranatupto600revolutionsperminute,andpoweredmachinetoolsanda
printingpress.[13]Duetothehighcostofprimarybatterypower,themotorswerecommerciallyunsuccessful
andDavenportwentbankrupt.SeveralinventorsfollowedSturgeoninthedevelopmentofDCmotorsbutall
encounteredthesamebatterypowercostissues.Noelectricitydistributionhadbeendevelopedatthetime.Like
Sturgeon'smotor,therewasnopracticalcommercialmarketforthesemotors.[14]
In1855,Jedlikbuiltadeviceusingsimilarprinciplestothoseusedinhiselectromagneticselfrotorsthatwas
capableofusefulwork.[5][11]Hebuiltamodelelectricvehiclethatsameyear.[15]
AmajorturningpointinthedevelopmentofDCmachinestookplacein1864,whenAntonioPacinotti
describedforthefirsttimetheringarmaturewithitssymmetricallygroupedcoilscloseduponthemselvesand
connectedtothebarsofacommutator,thebrushesofwhichdeliveredpracticallynonfluctuating
current.[16][17]ThefirstcommerciallysuccessfulDCmotorsfollowedtheinventionbyZnobeGrammewho,
in1871,reinventedPacinotti'sdesign.In1873,Grammeshowedthathisdynamocouldbeusedasamotor,
whichhedemonstratedtogreateffectatexhibitionsinViennaandPhiladelphiabyconnectingtwosuchDC
motorsatadistanceofupto2kmawayfromeachother,oneasagenerator.[18](Seealso1873:l'exprience
dcisive[DecisiveWorkaround].)
In1886,FrankJulianSpragueinventedthefirstpracticalDCmotor,anonsparkingmotorthatmaintained
relativelyconstantspeedundervariableloads.OtherSpragueelectricinventionsaboutthistimegreatly
improvedgridelectricdistribution(priorworkdonewhileemployedbyThomasEdison),allowedpowerfrom
electricmotorstobereturnedtotheelectricgrid,providedforelectricdistributiontotrolleysviaoverhead
wiresandthetrolleypole,andprovidedcontrolssystemsforelectricoperations.ThisallowedSpraguetouse
electricmotorstoinventthefirstelectrictrolleysystemin188788inRichmondVA,theelectricelevatorand
controlsystemin1892,andtheelectricsubwaywithindependentlypoweredcentrallycontrolledcars,which
werefirstinstalledin1892inChicagobytheSouthSideElevatedRailwaywhereitbecamepopularlyknown
asthe"L".Sprague'smotorandrelatedinventionsledtoanexplosionofinterestanduseinelectricmotorsfor
industry,whilealmostsimultaneouslyanothergreatinventorwasdevelopingitsprimarycompetitor,which
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wouldbecomemuchmorewidespread.Thedevelopmentofelectricmotorsofacceptableefficiencywas
delayedforseveraldecadesbyfailuretorecognizetheextremeimportanceofarelativelysmallairgapbetween
rotorandstator.Efficientdesignshaveacomparativelysmallairgap.[19][a]TheSt.Louismotor,longusedin
classroomstoillustratemotorprinciples,isextremelyinefficientforthesamereason,aswellasappearing
nothinglikeamodernmotor.[20]
Applicationofelectricmotorsrevolutionizedindustry.Industrialprocesseswerenolongerlimitedbypower
transmissionusinglineshafts,belts,compressedairorhydraulicpressure.Insteadeverymachinecouldbe
equippedwithitsownelectricmotor,providingeasycontrolatthepointofuse,andimprovingpower
transmissionefficiency.Electricmotorsappliedinagricultureeliminatedhumanandanimalmusclepowerfrom
suchtasksashandlinggrainorpumpingwater.Householdusesofelectricmotorsreducedheavylaborinthe
homeandmadehigherstandardsofconvenience,comfortandsafetypossible.Today,electricmotorsstandfor
morethanhalfoftheelectricenergyconsumptionintheUS.[21]

EmergenceofACmotors
In1824,theFrenchphysicistFranoisAragoformulatedtheexistenceofrotatingmagneticfields,termed
Arago'srotations,which,bymanuallyturningswitchesonandoff,WalterBailydemonstratedin1879asin
effectthefirstprimitiveinductionmotor.[22][23][24][25]Inthe1880s,manyinventorsweretryingtodevelop
workableACmotors[26]becauseAC'sadvantagesinlongdistancehighvoltagetransmissionwere
counterbalancedbytheinabilitytooperatemotorsonAC.Thefirstalternatingcurrentcommutatorless
inductionmotorswereindependentlyinventedbyGalileoFerrarisandNikolaTesla,aworkingmotormodel
havingbeendemonstratedbytheformerin1885andbythelatterin1887.In1888,theRoyalAcademyof
ScienceofTurinpublishedFerraris'sresearchdetailingthefoundationsofmotoroperationwhilehowever
concludingthat"theapparatusbasedonthatprinciplecouldnotbeofanycommercialimportanceas
motor."[25][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38]
In1888,TeslapresentedhispaperANewSystemforAlternatingCurrentMotorsandTransformerstotheAIEE
thatdescribedthreepatentedtwophasefourstatorpolemotortypes:onewithafourpolerotorforminganon
selfstartingreluctancemotor,anotherwithawoundrotorformingaselfstartinginductionmotor,andthethird
atruesynchronousmotorwithseparatelyexcitedDCsupplytorotorwinding.
OneofthepatentsTeslafiledin1887,however,alsodescribedashortedwindingrotorinductionmotor.
GeorgeWestinghousepromptlyboughtTesla'spatents,employedTeslatodevelopthem,andassignedC.F.
ScotttohelpTeslahowever,Teslaleftforotherpursuitsin
1889.[25][32][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46]TheconstantspeedACinductionmotorwasfoundnotto
besuitableforstreetcars,[26]butWestinghouseengineerssuccessfullyadaptedittopoweraminingoperation
inTelluride,Coloradoin1891.[47][48][49]
Steadfastinhispromotionofthreephasedevelopment,MikhailDolivoDobrovolskyinventedthethreephase
cagerotorinductionmotorin1889andthethreelimbtransformerin1890.Thistypeofmotorisnowusedfor
thevastmajorityofcommercialapplications.[50][51]However,heclaimedthatTesla'smotorwasnotpractical
becauseoftwophasepulsations,whichpromptedhimtopersistinhisthreephasework.[52]Although
Westinghouseachieveditsfirstpracticalinductionmotorin1892anddevelopedalineofpolyphase60hertz
inductionmotorsin1893,theseearlyWestinghousemotorsweretwophasemotorswithwoundrotorsuntilB.
G.Lammedevelopedarotatingbarwindingrotor.[39]
TheGeneralElectricCompanybegandevelopingthreephaseinductionmotorsin1891.[39]By1896,General
ElectricandWestinghousesignedacrosslicensingagreementforthebarwindingrotordesign,latercalledthe
squirrelcagerotor.[39]Inductionmotorimprovementsflowingfromtheseinventionsandinnovationswere
suchthata100horsepower(HP)inductionmotorcurrentlyhasthesamemountingdimensionsasa7.5HP
motorin1897.[39]
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Motorconstruction
Rotor
Inanelectricmotorthemovingpartistherotorwhichturnstheshaftto
deliverthemechanicalpower.Therotorusuallyhasconductorslaidinto
itwhichcarrycurrentsthatinteractwiththemagneticfieldofthestator
togeneratetheforcesthatturntheshaft.However,somerotorscarry
permanentmagnets,andthestatorholdstheconductors.

Stator

Electricmotorrotor(left)andstator
(right)

Thestatoristhestationarypartofthemotorselectromagneticcircuit
andusuallyconsistsofeitherwindingsorpermanentmagnets.The
statorcoreismadeupofmanythinmetalsheets,calledlaminations.Laminationsareusedtoreduceenergy
lossesthatwouldresultifasolidcorewereused.

Airgap
Thedistancebetweentherotorandstatoriscalledtheairgap.Theairgaphasimportanteffects,andis
generallyassmallaspossible,asalargegaphasastrongnegativeeffectontheperformanceofanelectric
motor.Itisthemainsourceofthelowpowerfactoratwhichmotorsoperate.Theairgapincreasesthe
magnetizingcurrentneeded.Forthisreasonairgapshouldbeminimum.Verysmallgapsmayposemechanical
problemsinadditiontonoiseandlosses.

Windings
Windingsarewiresthatarelaidincoils,usuallywrappedarounda
laminatedsoftironmagneticcoresoastoformmagneticpoleswhen
energizedwithcurrent.
Electricmachinescomeintwobasicmagnetfieldpoleconfigurations:
Salientpolerotor
salientpolemachineandnonsalientpolemachine.Inthesalientpole
machinethepole'smagneticfieldisproducedbyawindingwound
aroundthepolebelowthepoleface.Inthenonsalientpole,ordistributedfield,orroundrotor,machine,the
windingisdistributedinpolefaceslots.[53]Ashadedpolemotorhasawindingaroundpartofthepolethat
delaysthephaseofthemagneticfieldforthatpole.
Somemotorshaveconductorswhichconsistofthickermetal,suchasbarsorsheetsofmetal,usuallycopper,
althoughsometimesaluminumisused.Theseareusuallypoweredbyelectromagneticinduction.

Commutator
AcommutatorisamechanismusedtoswitchtheinputofmostDC
machinesandcertainACmachinesconsistingofslipringsegments
insulatedfromeachotherandfromtheelectricmotor'sshaft.The
motor'sarmaturecurrentissuppliedthroughthestationarybrushesin
contactwiththerevolvingcommutator,whichcausesrequiredcurrent
reversalandappliespowertothemachineinanoptimalmannerasthe
rotorrotatesfrompoletopole.[54][55]Inabsenceofsuchcurrent
reversal,themotorwouldbraketoastop.Inlightofsignificant
advancesinthepastfewdecadesduetoimprovedtechnologiesin

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Atoy'ssmallDCmotorwithits
commutator
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electroniccontroller,sensorlesscontrol,inductionmotor,andpermanentmagnetmotorfields,
electromechanicallycommutatedmotorsareincreasinglybeingdisplacedbyexternallycommutatedinduction
andpermanentmagnetmotors.

Motorsupplyandcontrol
Motorsupply
ADCmotorisusuallysuppliedthroughslipringcommutatorasdescribedabove.ACmotors'commutationcan
beeitherslipringcommutatororexternallycommutatedtype,canbefixedspeedorvariablespeedcontrol
type,andcanbesynchronousorasynchronoustype.UniversalmotorscanrunoneitherACorDC.

Motorcontrol
FixedspeedcontrolledACmotorsareprovidedwithdirectonlineorsoftstartstarters.
VariablespeedcontrolledACmotorsareprovidedwitharangeofdifferentpowerinverter,variablefrequency
driveorelectroniccommutatortechnologies.
ThetermelectroniccommutatorisusuallyassociatedwithselfcommutatedbrushlessDCmotorandswitched
reluctancemotorapplications.

Majorcategories
Electricmotorsoperateonthreedifferentphysicalprinciples:magnetic,electrostaticandpiezoelectric.Byfar
themostcommonismagnetic.
Inmagneticmotors,magneticfieldsareformedinboththerotorandthestator.Theproductbetweenthesetwo
fieldsgivesrisetoaforce,andthusatorqueonthemotorshaft.One,orboth,ofthesefieldsmustbemadeto
changewiththerotationofthemotor.Thisisdonebyswitchingthepolesonandoffattherighttime,or
varyingthestrengthofthepole.
ThemaintypesareDCmotorsandACmotors,theformerincreasinglybeingdisplacedbythelatter.
ACelectricmotorsareeitherasynchronousorsynchronous.
Oncestarted,asynchronousmotorrequiressynchronismwiththemovingmagneticfield'ssynchronousspeed
forallnormaltorqueconditions.
Insynchronousmachines,themagneticfieldmustbeprovidedbymeansotherthaninductionsuchasfrom
separatelyexcitedwindingsorpermanentmagnets.
Afractionalhorsepower(FHP)motoreitherhasaratingbelowabout1horsepower(0.746kW),oris
manufacturedwithastandardframesizesmallerthanastandard1HPmotor.Manyhouseholdandindustrial
motorsareinthefractionalhorsepowerclass.
MajorCategories
by
TypeofMotorCommutation
[56][57][58][59][60][61]

SelfCommutated
Mechanical
CommutatorMotors
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ExternallyCommutated
Electronic
Commutator(EC)
Motors[61][b]

Asynchronous
Machines

Synchronous
Machines2
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AC[62][c]

DC

AC5,6

Electrically
excitedDCmotor: WithPMrotor:
*Universalmotor *Separately
*BLDCmotor
(ACcommutator excited

seriesmotor[60]or *Series
With
[59]
1
*Shunt
ferromagnetic
AC/DCmotor )
rotor:
*Repulsionmotor *Compound

*SRM
PMDCmotor

Rectifier,
Moreelaborate
Simpleelectronics lineartransistor(s)
electronics
orDCchopper

AC6
Threephasemotors:
*WRSM
*PMSMor
Threephasemotors: BLACmotor[61]
*SCIM3,8
IPMSM
SPMSM
*WRIM4,7,8
*Hybrid

10

ACmotors:
ACmotors:10
*Capacitor
*Permanentsplit
*Resistance
capacitor
*Split
*Hysteresis
*Shadedpole
*Stepper
*SyRM
*SyRMPMhybrid
Mostelaborate
electronics(VFD),whenprovided

Notes:
1.RotationisindependentofthefrequencyoftheACvoltage.
2.Rotationisequaltosynchronousspeed(motorstatorfieldspeed).
3.InSCIMfixedspeedoperationrotationisequaltosynchronousspeedlessslipspeed.
4.InnonslipenergyrecoverysystemsWRIMisusuallyusedformotorstartingbutcanbeusedtovary
loadspeed.
5.Variablespeedoperation.
6.Whereasinductionandsynchronousmotordrivesaretypicallywitheithersixsteporsinusoidal
waveformoutput,BLDCmotordrivesareusuallywithtrapezoidalcurrentwaveformthebehaviorof
bothsinusoidalandtrapezoidalPMmachinesishoweveridenticalintermsoftheirfundamental
aspects.[63]
7.InvariablespeedoperationWRIMisusedinslipenergyrecoveryanddoublefedinductionmachine
applications.
8.Acagewindingisashortedcircuitedsquirrelcagerotor,awoundwindingisconnectedexternally
throughsliprings.
9.Mostlysinglephasewithsomethreephase.
Abbreviations:
BLACBrushlessAC
BLDCBrushlessDC
BLDMBrushlessDCmotor
ECElectroniccommutator
PMPermanentmagnet
IPMSMInteriorpermanentmagnetsynchronousmotor
PMSMPermanentmagnetsynchronousmotor
SPMSMSurfacepermanentmagnetsynchronousmotor
SCIMSquirrelcageinductionmotor
SRMSwitchedreluctancemotor
SyRMSynchronousreluctancemotor
VFDVariablefrequencydrive
WRIMWoundrotorinductionmotor
WRSMWoundrotorsynchronousmotor

Selfcommutatedmotor
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BrushedDCmotor
AllselfcommutatedDCmotorsarebydefinitionrunonDCelectricpower.MostDCmotorsaresmallPM
types.Theycontainabrushedinternalmechanicalcommutationtoreversemotorwindings'currentin
synchronismwithrotation.[64]
ElectricallyexcitedDCmotor
AcommutatedDCmotorhasasetofrotatingwindingswoundonan
armaturemountedonarotatingshaft.Theshaftalsocarriesthe
commutator,alonglastingrotaryelectricalswitchthatperiodically
reversestheflowofcurrentintherotorwindingsastheshaftrotates.Thus,
everybrushedDCmotorhasACflowingthroughitsrotatingwindings.
Currentflowsthroughoneormorepairsofbrushesthatbearonthe
commutatorthebrushesconnectanexternalsourceofelectricpowerto
therotatingarmature.
Therotatingarmatureconsistsofoneormorecoilsofwirewoundarounda
laminated,magnetically"soft"ferromagneticcore.Currentfromthe
brushesflowsthroughthecommutatorandonewindingofthearmature,
makingitatemporarymagnet(anelectromagnet).Themagneticfield
producedbythearmatureinteractswithastationarymagneticfield
producedbyeitherPMsoranotherwinding(afieldcoil),aspartofthe
motorframe.Theforcebetweenthetwomagneticfieldstendstorotatethe
motorshaft.Thecommutatorswitchespowertothecoilsastherotorturns,
keepingthemagneticpolesoftherotorfromeverfullyaligningwiththe
magneticpolesofthestatorfield,sothattherotorneverstops(likea
compassneedledoes),butratherkeepsrotatingaslongaspowerisapplied.

Workingsofabrushedelectric
motorwithatwopolerotorand
PMstator.("N"and"S"designate
polaritiesontheinsidefacesof
themagnetstheoutsidefaces
haveoppositepolarities.)

ManyofthelimitationsoftheclassiccommutatorDCmotorareduetotheneedforbrushestopressagainstthe
commutator.Thiscreatesfriction.Sparksarecreatedbythebrushesmakingandbreakingcircuitsthroughthe
rotorcoilsasthebrushescrosstheinsulatinggapsbetweencommutatorsections.Dependingonthe
commutatordesign,thismayincludethebrushesshortingtogetheradjacentsectionsandhencecoilends
momentarilywhilecrossingthegaps.Furthermore,theinductanceoftherotorcoilscausesthevoltageacross
eachtorisewhenitscircuitisopened,increasingthesparkingofthebrushes.Thissparkinglimitsthe
maximumspeedofthemachine,astoorapidsparkingwilloverheat,erode,orevenmeltthecommutator.The
currentdensityperunitareaofthebrushes,incombinationwiththeirresistivity,limitstheoutputofthemotor.
ThemakingandbreakingofelectriccontactalsogenerateselectricalnoisesparkinggeneratesRFI.Brushes
eventuallywearoutandrequirereplacement,andthecommutatoritselfissubjecttowearandmaintenance(on
largermotors)orreplacement(onsmallmotors).Thecommutatorassemblyonalargemotorisacostly
element,requiringprecisionassemblyofmanyparts.Onsmallmotors,thecommutatorisusuallypermanently
integratedintotherotor,soreplacingitusuallyrequiresreplacingthewholerotor.
Whilemostcommutatorsarecylindrical,someareflatdiscsconsistingofseveralsegments(typically,atleast
three)mountedonaninsulator.
Largebrushesaredesiredforalargerbrushcontactareatomaximizemotoroutput,butsmallbrushesare
desiredforlowmasstomaximizethespeedatwhichthemotorcanrunwithoutthebrushesexcessively
bouncingandsparking.(Smallbrushesarealsodesirableforlowercost.)Stifferbrushspringscanalsobeused
tomakebrushesofagivenmassworkatahigherspeed,butatthecostofgreaterfrictionlosses(lower
efficiency)andacceleratedbrushandcommutatorwear.Therefore,DCmotorbrushdesignentailsatradeoff
betweenoutputpower,speed,andefficiency/wear.
DCmachinesaredefinedasfollows:[65]
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ArmaturecircuitAwindingwheretheloadcurrentiscarried,suchthatcanbeeitherstationaryor
rotatingpartofmotororgenerator.
FieldcircuitAsetofwindingsthatproducesamagneticfieldsothattheelectromagneticinductioncan
takeplaceinelectricmachines.
Commutation:Amechanicaltechniqueinwhichrectificationcanbeachieved,orfromwhichDCcanbe
derived,inDCmachines.
TherearefivetypesofbrushedDCmotor:
DCshuntwoundmotor
DCserieswoundmotor
DCcompoundmotor(twoconfigurations):
Cumulativecompound
Differentiallycompounded
PMDCmotor(notshown)
Separatelyexcited(notshown).

A:shuntB:seriesC:compoundf=fieldcoil

PermanentmagnetDCmotor
APMmotordoesnothaveafieldwindingonthestatorframe,insteadrelyingonPMstoprovidethemagnetic
fieldagainstwhichtherotorfieldinteractstoproducetorque.Compensatingwindingsinserieswiththe
armaturemaybeusedonlargemotorstoimprovecommutationunderload.Becausethisfieldisfixed,itcannot
beadjustedforspeedcontrol.PMfields(stators)areconvenientinminiaturemotorstoeliminatethepower
consumptionofthefieldwinding.MostlargerDCmotorsareofthe"dynamo"type,whichhavestator
windings.Historically,PMscouldnotbemadetoretainhighfluxiftheyweredisassembledfieldwindings
weremorepracticaltoobtaintheneededamountofflux.However,largePMsarecostly,aswellasdangerous
anddifficulttoassemblethisfavorswoundfieldsforlargemachines.
Tominimizeoverallweightandsize,miniaturePMmotorsmayusehighenergymagnetsmadewith
neodymiumorotherstrategicelementsmostsuchareneodymiumironboronalloy.Withtheirhigherflux
density,electricmachineswithhighenergyPMsareatleastcompetitivewithalloptimallydesignedsinglyfed
synchronousandinductionelectricmachines.Miniaturemotorsresemblethestructureintheillustration,except
thattheyhaveatleastthreerotorpoles(toensurestarting,regardlessofrotorposition)andtheirouterhousing
isasteeltubethatmagneticallylinkstheexteriorsofthecurvedfieldmagnets.

Electroniccommutator(EC)motor
BrushlessDCmotor
SomeoftheproblemsofthebrushedDCmotorareeliminatedintheBLDCdesign.Inthismotor,the
mechanical"rotatingswitch"orcommutatorisreplacedbyanexternalelectronicswitchsynchronisedtothe
rotor'sposition.BLDCmotorsaretypically8590%efficientormore.EfficiencyforaBLDCmotorofupto
96.5%havebeenreported,[66]whereasDCmotorswithbrushgeararetypically7580%efficient.
TheBLDCmotor'scharacteristictrapezoidalbackemfwaveformisderivedpartlyfromthestatorwindings
beingevenlydistributed,andpartlyfromtheplacementoftherotor'sPMs.Alsoknownaselectronically
commutatedDCorinsideoutDCmotors,thestatorwindingsoftrapezoidalBLDCmotorscanbewithsingle
phase,twophaseorthreephaseanduseHalleffectsensorsmountedontheirwindingsforrotorposition
sensingandlowcostclosedloopcontroloftheelectroniccommutator.
BLDCmotorsarecommonlyusedwhereprecisespeedcontrolisnecessary,asincomputerdiskdrivesorin
videocassetterecorders,thespindleswithinCD,CDROM(etc.)drives,andmechanismswithinoffice
productssuchasfans,laserprintersandphotocopiers.Theyhaveseveraladvantagesoverconventionalmotors:
ComparedtoACfansusingshadedpolemotors,theyareveryefficient,runningmuchcoolerthanthe
equivalentACmotors.Thiscooloperationleadstomuchimprovedlifeofthefan'sbearings.
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Withoutacommutatortowearout,thelifeofaBLDCmotorcanbesignificantlylongercomparedtoa
DCmotorusingbrushesandacommutator.Commutationalsotendstocauseagreatdealofelectrical
andRFnoisewithoutacommutatororbrushes,aBLDCmotormaybeusedinelectricallysensitive
deviceslikeaudioequipmentorcomputers.
ThesameHalleffectsensorsthatprovidethecommutationcanalsoprovideaconvenienttachometer
signalforclosedloopcontrol(servocontrolled)applications.Infans,thetachometersignalcanbeused
toderivea"fanOK"signalaswellasproviderunningspeedfeedback.
Themotorcanbeeasilysynchronizedtoaninternalorexternalclock,leadingtoprecisespeedcontrol.
BLDCmotorshavenochanceofsparking,unlikebrushedmotors,makingthembettersuitedto
environmentswithvolatilechemicalsandfuels.Also,sparkinggeneratesozonewhichcanaccumulatein
poorlyventilatedbuildingsriskingharmtooccupants'health.
BLDCmotorsareusuallyusedinsmallequipmentsuchascomputersandaregenerallyusedinfansto
getridofunwantedheat.
Theyarealsoacousticallyveryquietmotorswhichisanadvantageifbeingusedinequipmentthatis
affectedbyvibrations.
ModernBLDCmotorsrangeinpowerfromafractionofawatttomanykilowatts.LargerBLDCmotorsupto
about100kWratingareusedinelectricvehicles.Theyalsofindsignificantuseinhighperformanceelectric
modelaircraft.
Switchedreluctancemotor
TheSRMhasnobrushesorPMs,andtherotorhasnoelectriccurrents.
Instead,torquecomesfromaslightmisalignmentofpolesontherotor
withpolesonthestator.Therotoralignsitselfwiththemagneticfieldof
thestator,whilethestatorfieldwindingsaresequentiallyenergizedto
rotatethestatorfield.
Themagneticfluxcreatedbythefieldwindingsfollowsthepathof
leastmagneticreluctance,meaningthefluxwillflowthroughpolesof
therotorthatareclosesttotheenergizedpolesofthestator,thereby
magnetizingthosepolesoftherotorandcreatingtorque.Astherotor
turns,differentwindingswillbeenergized,keepingtherotorturning.
SRMsarenowbeingusedinsomeappliances.[67]

6/4poleswitchedreluctancemotor

UniversalACDCmotor
Acommutatedelectricallyexcitedseriesorparallelwoundmotorisreferredtoasauniversalmotorbecauseit
canbedesignedtooperateonACorDCpower.AuniversalmotorcanoperatewellonACbecausethecurrent
inboththefieldandthearmaturecoils(andhencetheresultantmagneticfields)willalternate(reversepolarity)
insynchronism,andhencetheresultingmechanicalforcewilloccurinaconstantdirectionofrotation.
Operatingatnormalpowerlinefrequencies,universalmotorsareoftenfoundinarangelessthan1000watts.
Universalmotorsalsoformedthebasisofthetraditionalrailwaytractionmotorinelectricrailways.Inthis
application,theuseofACtopoweramotororiginallydesignedtorunonDCwouldleadtoefficiencylosses
duetoeddycurrentheatingoftheirmagneticcomponents,particularlythemotorfieldpolepiecesthat,forDC,
wouldhaveusedsolid(unlaminated)ironandtheyarenowrarelyused.
AnadvantageoftheuniversalmotoristhatACsuppliesmaybeusedonmotorswhichhavesome
characteristicsmorecommoninDCmotors,specificallyhighstartingtorqueandverycompactdesignifhigh
runningspeedsareused.Thenegativeaspectisthemaintenanceandshortlifeproblemscausedbythe
commutator.Suchmotorsareusedindevicessuchasfoodmixersandpowertoolswhichareusedonly
intermittently,andoftenhavehighstartingtorquedemands.Multipletapsonthefieldcoilprovide(imprecise)
steppedspeedcontrol.Householdblendersthatadvertisemanyspeedsfrequentlycombineafieldcoilwith
severaltapsandadiodethatcanbeinsertedinserieswiththemotor(causingthemotortorunonhalfwave
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rectifiedAC).Universalmotorsalsolendthemselvestoelectronicspeed
controland,assuch,areanidealchoicefordeviceslikedomestic
washingmachines.Themotorcanbeusedtoagitatethedrum(both
forwardsandinreverse)byswitchingthefieldwindingwithrespectto
thearmature.
WhereasSCIMscannotturnashaftfasterthanallowedbythepower
linefrequency,universalmotorscanrunatmuchhigherspeeds.This
makesthemusefulforappliancessuchasblenders,vacuumcleaners,
andhairdryerswherehighspeedandlightweightaredesirable.They
arealsocommonlyusedinportablepowertools,suchasdrills,sanders,
circularandjigsaws,wherethemotor'scharacteristicsworkwell.Many
vacuumcleanerandweedtrimmermotorsexceed10,000rpm,while
manysimilarminiaturegrindersexceed30,000rpm.

ExternallycommutatedACmachine
ThedesignofACinductionandsynchronousmotorsisoptimizedfor
operationonsinglephaseorpolyphasesinusoidalorquasisinusoidal
waveformpowersuchassuppliedforfixedspeedapplicationfromthe
ACpowergridorforvariablespeedapplicationfromVFDcontrollers.
AnACmotorhastwoparts:astationarystatorhavingcoilssupplied
withACtoproducearotatingmagneticfield,andarotorattachedtothe
outputshaftthatisgivenatorquebytherotatingfield.

Modernlowcostuniversalmotor,
fromavacuumcleaner.Field
windingsaredarkcoppercolored,
towardtheback,onbothsides.The
rotor'slaminatedcoreisgray
metallic,withdarkslotsforwinding
thecoils.Thecommutator(partly
hidden)hasbecomedarkfromuseit
istowardthefront.Thelargebrown
moldedplasticpieceinthe
foregroundsupportsthebrushguides
andbrushes(bothsides),aswellas
thefrontmotorbearing.

Inductionmotor
Cageandwoundrotorinductionmotor
AninductionmotorisanasynchronousACmotorwherepoweris
transferredtotherotorbyelectromagneticinduction,muchlike
transformeraction.Aninductionmotorresemblesarotating
transformer,becausethestator(stationarypart)isessentiallythe
primarysideofthetransformerandtherotor(rotatingpart)isthe
secondaryside.Polyphaseinductionmotorsarewidelyusedinindustry.
InductionmotorsmaybefurtherdividedintoSquirrelCageInduction
Large4,500HPACInductionMotor.
MotorsandWoundRotorInductionMotors.SCIMshaveaheavy
windingmadeupofsolidbars,usuallyaluminumorcopper,joinedby
ringsattheendsoftherotor.Whenoneconsidersonlythebarsandringsasawhole,theyaremuchlikean
animal'srotatingexercisecage,hencethename.
Currentsinducedintothiswindingprovidetherotormagneticfield.Theshapeoftherotorbarsdeterminesthe
speedtorquecharacteristics.Atlowspeeds,thecurrentinducedinthesquirrelcageisnearlyatlinefrequency
andtendstobeintheouterpartsoftherotorcage.Asthemotoraccelerates,theslipfrequencybecomeslower,
andmorecurrentisintheinteriorofthewinding.Byshapingthebarstochangetheresistanceofthewinding
portionsintheinteriorandouterpartsofthecage,effectivelyavariableresistanceisinsertedintherotor
circuit.However,themajorityofsuchmotorshaveuniformbars.
InaWRIM,therotorwindingismadeofmanyturnsofinsulatedwireandisconnectedtoslipringsonthe
motorshaft.Anexternalresistororothercontroldevicescanbeconnectedintherotorcircuit.Resistorsallow
controlofthemotorspeed,althoughsignificantpowerisdissipatedintheexternalresistance.Aconvertercan
befedfromtherotorcircuitandreturntheslipfrequencypowerthatwouldotherwisebewastedbackintothe
powersystemthroughaninverterorseparatemotorgenerator.
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TheWRIMisusedprimarilytostartahighinertialoadoraloadthatrequiresaveryhighstartingtorqueacross
thefullspeedrange.Bycorrectlyselectingtheresistorsusedinthesecondaryresistanceorslipringstarter,the
motorisabletoproducemaximumtorqueatarelativelylowsupplycurrentfromzerospeedtofullspeed.This
typeofmotoralsoofferscontrollablespeed.
Motorspeedcanbechangedbecausethetorquecurveofthemotoriseffectivelymodifiedbytheamountof
resistanceconnectedtotherotorcircuit.Increasingthevalueofresistancewillmovethespeedofmaximum
torquedown.Iftheresistanceconnectedtotherotorisincreasedbeyondthepointwherethemaximumtorque
occursatzerospeed,thetorquewillbefurtherreduced.
Whenusedwithaloadthathasatorquecurvethatincreaseswithspeed,themotorwilloperateatthespeed
wherethetorquedevelopedbythemotorisequaltotheloadtorque.Reducingtheloadwillcausethemotorto
speedup,andincreasingtheloadwillcausethemotortoslowdownuntiltheloadandmotortorqueareequal.
Operatedinthismanner,thesliplossesaredissipatedinthesecondaryresistorsandcanbeverysignificant.
Thespeedregulationandnetefficiencyisalsoverypoor.
Torquemotor
Atorquemotorisaspecializedformofelectricmotorwhichcanoperateindefinitelywhilestalled,thatis,with
therotorblockedfromturning,withoutincurringdamage.Inthismodeofoperation,themotorwillapplya
steadytorquetotheload(hencethename).
Acommonapplicationofatorquemotorwouldbethesupplyandtakeupreelmotorsinatapedrive.Inthis
application,drivenfromalowvoltage,thecharacteristicsofthesemotorsallowarelativelyconstantlight
tensiontobeappliedtothetapewhetherornotthecapstanisfeedingtapepastthetapeheads.Drivenfroma
highervoltage,(andsodeliveringahighertorque),thetorquemotorscanalsoachievefastforwardandrewind
operationwithoutrequiringanyadditionalmechanicssuchasgearsorclutches.Inthecomputergamingworld,
torquemotorsareusedinforcefeedbacksteeringwheels.
Anothercommonapplicationisthecontrolofthethrottleofaninternalcombustionengineinconjunctionwith
anelectronicgovernor.Inthisusage,themotorworksagainstareturnspringtomovethethrottleinaccordance
withtheoutputofthegovernor.Thelattermonitorsenginespeedbycountingelectricalpulsesfromtheignition
systemorfromamagneticpickupand,dependingonthespeed,makessmalladjustmentstotheamountof
currentappliedtothemotor.Iftheenginestartstoslowdownrelativetothedesiredspeed,thecurrentwillbe
increased,themotorwilldevelopmoretorque,pullingagainstthereturnspringandopeningthethrottle.
Shouldtheengineruntoofast,thegovernorwillreducethecurrentbeingappliedtothemotor,causingthe
returnspringtopullbackandclosethethrottle.

Synchronousmotor
AsynchronouselectricmotorisanACmotordistinguishedbyarotorspinningwithcoilspassingmagnetsat
thesamerateastheACandresultingmagneticfieldwhichdrivesit.Anotherwayofsayingthisisthatithas
zeroslipunderusualoperatingconditions.Contrastthiswithaninductionmotor,whichmustsliptoproduce
torque.OnetypeofsynchronousmotorislikeaninductionmotorexcepttherotorisexcitedbyaDCfield.Slip
ringsandbrushesareusedtoconductcurrenttotherotor.Therotorpolesconnecttoeachotherandmoveatthe
samespeedhencethenamesynchronousmotor.Anothertype,forlowloadtorque,hasflatsgroundontoa
conventionalsquirrelcagerotortocreatediscretepoles.Yetanother,suchasmadebyHammondforitspre
WorldWarIIclocks,andintheolderHammondorgans,hasnorotorwindingsanddiscretepoles.Itisnotself
starting.Theclockrequiresmanualstartingbyasmallknobontheback,whiletheolderHammondorganshad
anauxiliarystartingmotorconnectedbyaspringloadedmanuallyoperatedswitch.
Finally,hysteresissynchronousmotorstypicallyare(essentially)twophasemotorswithaphaseshifting
capacitorforonephase.Theystartlikeinductionmotors,butwhenslipratedecreasessufficiently,therotor(a
smoothcylinder)becomestemporarilymagnetized.ItsdistributedpolesmakeitactlikeaPMSM.Therotor
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material,likethatofacommonnail,willstaymagnetized,butcanalsobedemagnetizedwithlittledifficulty.
Oncerunning,therotorpolesstayinplacetheydonotdrift.
Lowpowersynchronoustimingmotors(suchasthosefortraditionalelectricclocks)mayhavemultipolePM
externalcuprotors,anduseshadingcoilstoprovidestartingtorque.Telechronclockmotorshaveshadedpoles
forstartingtorque,andatwospokeringrotorthatperformslikeadiscretetwopolerotor.

Doublyfedelectricmachine
Doublyfedelectricmotorshavetwoindependentmultiphasewindingsets,whichcontributeactive(i.e.,
working)powertotheenergyconversionprocess,withatleastoneofthewindingsetselectronicallycontrolled
forvariablespeedoperation.Twoindependentmultiphasewindingsets(i.e.,dualarmature)arethemaximum
providedinasinglepackagewithouttopologyduplication.Doublyfedelectricmotorsaremachineswithan
effectiveconstanttorquespeedrangethatistwicesynchronousspeedforagivenfrequencyofexcitation.This
istwicetheconstanttorquespeedrangeassinglyfedelectricmachines,whichhaveonlyoneactivewinding
set.
Adoublyfedmotorallowsforasmallerelectronicconverterbutthecostoftherotorwindingandsliprings
mayoffsetthesavinginthepowerelectronicscomponents.Difficultieswithcontrollingspeednear
synchronousspeedlimitapplications.[68]

Specialmagneticmotors
Rotary
Ironlessorcorelessrotormotor
Nothingintheprincipleofanyofthemotorsdescribedaboverequires
thattheiron(steel)portionsoftherotoractuallyrotate.Ifthesoft
magneticmaterialoftherotorismadeintheformofacylinder,then
(exceptfortheeffectofhysteresis)torqueisexertedonlyonthe
windingsoftheelectromagnets.Takingadvantageofthisfactisthe
corelessorironlessDCmotor,aspecializedformofaPMDC
motor.[64]Optimizedforrapidacceleration,thesemotorshavearotor
thatisconstructedwithoutanyironcore.Therotorcantaketheformof
awindingfilledcylinder,oraselfsupportingstructurecomprisingonly
themagnetwireandthebondingmaterial.Therotorcanfitinsidethe
Aminiaturecorelessmotor
statormagnetsamagneticallysoftstationarycylinderinsidetherotor
providesareturnpathforthestatormagneticflux.Asecond
arrangementhastherotorwindingbasketsurroundingthestatormagnets.Inthatdesign,therotorfitsinsidea
magneticallysoftcylinderthatcanserveasthehousingforthemotor,andlikewiseprovidesareturnpathfor
theflux.
Becausetherotorismuchlighterinweight(mass)thanaconventionalrotorformedfromcopperwindingson
steellaminations,therotorcanacceleratemuchmorerapidly,oftenachievingamechanicaltimeconstantunder
onems.Thisisespeciallytrueifthewindingsusealuminumratherthantheheaviercopper.Butbecausethere
isnometalmassintherotortoactasaheatsink,evensmallcorelessmotorsmustoftenbecooledbyforced
air.OverheatingmightbeanissueforcorelessDCmotordesigns.Modernsoftware,suchasMotorCAD,can
helptoincreasethethermalefficiencyofmotorswhilestillinthedesignstage.
Amongthesetypesarethediscrotortypes,describedinmoredetailinthenextsection.

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VibratormotorsforcellularphonesaresometimestinycylindricalPMfieldtypes,buttherearealsodisc
shapedtypeswhichhaveathinmultipolardiscfieldmagnet,andanintentionallyunbalancedmoldedplastic
rotorstructurewithtwobondedcorelesscoils.Metalbrushesandaflatcommutatorswitchpowertotherotor
coils.
RelatedlimitedtravelactuatorshavenocoreandabondedcoilplacedbetweenthepolesofhighfluxthinPMs.
Thesearethefastheadpositionersforrigiddisk("harddisk")drives.Althoughthecontemporarydesigndiffers
considerablyfromthatofloudspeakers,itisstillloosely(andincorrectly)referredtoasa"voicecoil"structure,
becausesomeearlierrigiddiskdriveheadsmovedinstraightlines,andhadadrivestructuremuchlikethatof
aloudspeaker.
Pancakeoraxialrotormotor
Aratherunusualmotordesign,theprintedarmatureorpancakemotorhasthewindingsshapedasadisc
runningbetweenarraysofhighfluxmagnets.Themagnetsarearrangedinacirclefacingtherotorwithspace
inbetweentoformanaxialairgap.[69]Thisdesigniscommonlyknownasthepancakemotorbecauseofits
extremelyflatprofile,althoughthetechnologyhashadmanybrandnamessinceitsinception,suchas
ServoDisc.
Theprintedarmature(originallyformedonaprintedcircuitboard)inaprintedarmaturemotorismadefrom
punchedcoppersheetsthatarelaminatedtogetherusingadvancedcompositestoformathinrigiddisc.The
printedarmaturehasauniqueconstructioninthebrushedmotorworldinthatitdoesnothaveaseparatering
commutator.Thebrushesrundirectlyonthearmaturesurfacemakingthewholedesignverycompact.
Analternativemanufacturingmethodistousewoundcopperwirelaidflatwithacentralconventional
commutator,inaflowerandpetalshape.Thewindingsaretypicallystabilizedbybeingimpregnatedwith
electricalepoxypottingsystems.Thesearefilledepoxiesthathavemoderatemixedviscosityandalonggel
time.Theyarehighlightedbylowshrinkageandlowexotherm,andaretypicallyUL1446recognizedasa
pottingcompoundinsulatedwith180C,ClassHrating.
TheuniqueadvantageofironlessDCmotorsisthatthereisnocogging(torquevariationscausedbychanging
attractionbetweentheironandthemagnets).Parasiticeddycurrentscannotformintherotorasitistotally
ironless,althoughironrotorsarelaminated.Thiscangreatlyimproveefficiency,butvariablespeedcontrollers
mustuseahigherswitchingrate(>40kHz)orDCbecauseofthedecreasedelectromagneticinduction.
Thesemotorswereoriginallyinventedtodrivethecapstan(s)ofmagnetictapedrivesintheburgeoning
computerindustry,whereminimaltimetoreachoperatingspeedandminimalstoppingdistancewerecritical.
Pancakemotorsarestillwidelyusedinhighperformanceservocontrolledsystems,roboticsystems,industrial
automationandmedicaldevices.Duetothevarietyofconstructionsnowavailable,thetechnologyisusedin
applicationsfromhightemperaturemilitarytolowcostpumpandbasicservos.
Servomotor
Aservomotorisamotor,veryoftensoldasacompletemodule,whichisusedwithinapositioncontrolor
speedcontrolfeedbackcontrolsystemmainlycontrolvalves,suchasmotoroperatedcontrolvalves.
Servomotorsareusedinapplicationssuchasmachinetools,penplotters,andotherprocesssystems.Motors
intendedforuseinaservomechanismmusthavewelldocumentedcharacteristicsforspeed,torque,andpower.
Thespeedvs.torquecurveisquiteimportantandishighratioforaservomotor.Dynamicresponse
characteristicssuchaswindinginductanceandrotorinertiaarealsoimportantthesefactorslimittheoverall
performanceoftheservomechanismloop.Large,powerful,butslowrespondingservoloopsmayuse
conventionalACorDCmotorsanddrivesystemswithpositionorspeedfeedbackonthemotor.Asdynamic
responserequirementsincrease,morespecializedmotordesignssuchascorelessmotorsareused.ACmotors'
superiorpowerdensityandaccelerationcharacteristicscomparedtothatofDCmotorstendstofavorPM
synchronous,BLDC,induction,andSRMdriveapplications.[69]
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Aservosystemdiffersfromsomesteppermotorapplicationsinthatthepositionfeedbackiscontinuouswhile
themotorisrunningasteppersystemreliesonthemotornotto"misssteps"forshorttermaccuracy,although
asteppersystemmayincludea"home"switchorotherelementtoprovidelongtermstabilityofcontrol.[70]For
instance,whenatypicaldotmatrixcomputerprinterstartsup,itscontrollermakestheprintheadsteppermotor
drivetoitslefthandlimit,whereapositionsensordefineshomepositionandstopsstepping.Aslongaspower
ison,abidirectionalcounterintheprinter'smicroprocessorkeepstrackofprintheadposition.
Steppermotor
Steppermotorsareatypeofmotorfrequentlyusedwhenprecise
rotationsarerequired.Inasteppermotoraninternalrotorcontaining
PMsoramagneticallysoftrotorwithsalientpolesiscontrolledbyaset
ofexternalmagnetsthatareswitchedelectronically.Asteppermotor
mayalsobethoughtofasacrossbetweenaDCelectricmotoranda
rotarysolenoid.Aseachcoilisenergizedinturn,therotoralignsitself
withthemagneticfieldproducedbytheenergizedfieldwinding.Unlike
asynchronousmotor,initsapplication,thesteppermotormaynotrotate
continuouslyinstead,it"steps"startsandthenquicklystopsagain
fromonepositiontothenextasfieldwindingsareenergizedandde
energizedinsequence.Dependingonthesequence,therotormayturn
forwardsorbackwards,anditmaychangedirection,stop,speedupor
slowdownarbitrarilyatanytime.

Asteppermotorwithasoftironrotor,
withactivewindingsshown.In'A'
theactivewindingstendtoholdthe
rotorinposition.In'B'adifferentset
ofwindingsarecarryingacurrent,
whichgeneratestorqueandrotation.

Simplesteppermotordriversentirelyenergizeorentirelydeenergize
thefieldwindings,leadingtherotorto"cog"toalimitednumberof
positionsmoresophisticateddriverscanproportionallycontrolthepowertothefieldwindings,allowingthe
rotorstopositionbetweenthecogpointsandtherebyrotateextremelysmoothly.Thismodeofoperationis
oftencalledmicrostepping.Computercontrolledsteppermotorsareoneofthemostversatileformsof
positioningsystems,particularlywhenpartofadigitalservocontrolledsystem.

Steppermotorscanberotatedtoaspecificangleindiscretestepswithease,andhencesteppermotorsareused
forread/writeheadpositioningincomputerfloppydiskettedrives.Theywereusedforthesamepurposeinpre
gigabyteeracomputerdiskdrives,wheretheprecisionandspeedtheyofferedwasadequateforthecorrect
positioningoftheread/writeheadofaharddiskdrive.Asdrivedensityincreased,theprecisionandspeed
limitationsofsteppermotorsmadethemobsoleteforharddrivestheprecisionlimitationmadethem
unusable,andthespeedlimitationmadethemuncompetitivethusnewerharddiskdrivesusevoicecoilbased
headactuatorsystems.(Theterm"voicecoil"inthisconnectionishistoricitreferstothestructureinatypical
(conetype)loudspeaker.Thisstructurewasusedforawhiletopositiontheheads.Moderndriveshavea
pivotedcoilmountthecoilswingsbackandforth,somethinglikeabladeofarotatingfan.Nevertheless,likea
voicecoil,modernactuatorcoilconductors(themagnetwire)moveperpendiculartothemagneticlinesof
force.)
Steppermotorswereandstillareoftenusedincomputerprinters,opticalscanners,anddigitalphotocopiersto
movetheopticalscanningelement,theprintheadcarriage(ofdotmatrixandinkjetprinters),andtheplatenor
feedrollers.Likewise,manycomputerplotters(whichsincetheearly1990shavebeenreplacedwithlarge
formatinkjetandlaserprinters)usedrotarysteppermotorsforpenandplatenmovementthetypical
alternativesherewereeitherlinearsteppermotorsorservomotorswithclosedloopanalogcontrolsystems.
Socalledquartzanalogwristwatchescontainthesmallestcommonplacesteppingmotorstheyhaveonecoil,
drawverylittlepower,andhaveaPMrotor.Thesamekindofmotordrivesbatterypoweredquartzclocks.
Someofthesewatches,suchaschronographs,containmorethanonesteppingmotor.
CloselyrelatedindesigntothreephaseACsynchronousmotors,steppermotorsandSRMsareclassifiedas
variablereluctancemotortype.[71]Steppermotorswereandstillareoftenusedincomputerprinters,optical
scanners,andcomputernumericalcontrol(CNC)machinessuchasrouters,plasmacuttersandCNClathes.
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Linearmotor
Alinearmotorisessentiallyanyelectricmotorthathasbeen"unrolled"sothat,insteadofproducingatorque
(rotation),itproducesastraightlineforcealongitslength.
Linearmotorsaremostcommonlyinductionmotorsorsteppermotors.Linearmotorsarecommonlyfoundin
manyrollercoasterswheretherapidmotionofthemotorlessrailcariscontrolledbytherail.Theyarealsoused
inmaglevtrains,wherethetrain"flies"overtheground.Onasmallerscale,the1978eraHP7225Apenplotter
usedtwolinearsteppermotorstomovethepenalongtheXandYaxes.[72]

Comparisonbymajorcategories

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Type

ElectricmotorWikipedia

Advantages

Comparisonofmotortypes
Disadvantages
Typicalapplication

Typicaldrive,output

Selfcommutatedmotors
Maintenance
Simplespeed
(brushes)
BrushedDC control
Mediumlifespan
Lowinitialcost Costlycommutator
andbrushes

Steelmills
Papermaking
Rectifier,lineartransistor(s)or
machines
Treadmillexercisers DCchoppercontroller.[73]
Automotive
accessories

Brushless
DCmotor
(BLDC)
or
(BLDM)

Longlifespan
Low
maintenance
Highefficiency

Higherinitialcost
RequiresEC
controllerwith
closedloopcontrol

Rigid("hard")disk
drives
CD/DVDplayers
Electricvehicles
RCVehicles
UAVs

Switched
reluctance
motor
(SRM)

Longlifespan
Low
maintenance
Highefficiency
Nopermanent
magnets
Lowcost
Simple
construction

Mechanicalresonance
possible
Highironlosses
Appliances
Notpossible:
ElectricVehicles
*Openorvector
Textilemills
control
Aircraftapplications
*Paralleloperation
RequiresEC
controller[71]

Universal
motor

Maintenance
(brushes)
Highstarting
Shorterlifespan
torque,compact, Usuallyacoustically
highspeed.
noisy
Onlysmallratingsare
economical

Handheldpower
tools,blenders,
vacuumcleaners,
insulationblowers

Synchronoussinglephaseor
threephasewithPMrotorand
trapezoidalstatorwinding
VFDtypicallyVSPWM
invertertype.[69][73][74]

PWMandvariousotherdrive
types,whichtendtobeusedin
veryspecialized/OEM
applications.[71][75]

VariablesinglephaseAC,half
waveorfullwavephaseangle
controlwithtriac(s)closed
loopcontroloptional.[73]

ACasynchronousmotors

AC
polyphase Selfstarting
squirrelcage Lowcost
or
Robust
woundrotor Reliable
induction
Ratingsto1+
motor
MW
(SCIM)
Standardized
or
types.
(WRIM)

ACSCIM
splitphase
capacitor

Highpower
highstarting
torque

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Fixedspeed,
traditionally,SCIM
theworld'sworkhorse
especiallyinlow
performance
applicationsofall
types
Variablespeed,
Highstartingcurrent
traditionally,low
Lowerefficiency
performancevariable
duetoneed
torquepumps,fans,
formagnetization.
blowersand
compressors.
Variablespeed,
increasingly,other
highperformance
constanttorqueand
constantpoweror
dynamicloads.

Fixedspeed,lowperformance
applicationsofalltypes.
Variablespeed,traditionally,
WRIMdrivesorfixedspeed
V/HzcontrolledVSDs.
Variablespeed,increasingly,
vectorcontrolledVSDs
displacingDC,WRIMand
singlephaseACinduction
motordrives.

Speedslightlybelow
Appliances
synchronous
StationaryPower
Startingswitchor
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capacitor
start

torque

Moderatepower
Highstarting
ACSCIM
torque
splitphase
Nostarting
capacitor
switch
run
Comparatively
longlife
ACSCIM
Moderatepower
splitphase,
Lowstarting
auxiliary
torque
startwinding
AC
induction
Lowcost
shadedpole Longlife
motor

Startingswitchor
relayrequired

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Tools

Speedslightlybelow
Industrialblowers
synchronous
Industrialmachinery
Slightlymorecostly
Speedslightlybelow
Appliances
synchronous
Stationarypower
Startingswitchor
tools
relayrequired

Fixedorvariablesinglephase
AC,variablespeedbeing
derived,typically,byfullwave
phaseanglecontrolwith
triac(s)closedloopcontrol
optional.[73]

Speedslightlybelow
synchronous
Fans,appliances,
Lowstartingtorque
recordplayers
Smallratings
lowefficiency
ACsynchronousmotors

Synchronous
speed
Woundrotor
Inherently
synchronous
moreefficient Morecostly
motor
inductionmotor,
(WRSM)
lowpower
factor

Hysteresis
motor

Accuratespeed
control
Lownoise
Novibration
Highstarting
torque

Industrialmotors

Verylowefficiency

Fixedorvariablespeed,three
phaseVFDtypicallysixstep
CSloadcommutatedinverter
typeorVSPWMinverter
type.[73][74]

Clocks,timers,sound
SinglephaseAC,twophase
producingor
recordingequipment, capacitorstart,capacitorrun
harddrive,capstan
motor[76][77]
drive

Equivalentto
SCIM
exceptmore
robust,more
Synchronous efficient,runs
Appliances
Requiresacontroller
reluctance cooler,smaller
Electricvehicles
Notwidelyavailable
motor
footprint
Textilemills
Highcost
(SyRM)
Competeswith
Aircraftapplications
PMsynchronous
motorwithout
demagnetization
issues

VFDcanbestandardDTC
typeorVSinverterPWM
type.[78]

Specialtymotors
Pancake
oraxial
rotor
motors[69]

Compactdesign
Mediumcost
Simplespeed
Mediumlifespan
control

OfficeEquip
Drivescantypicallybe
Fans/Pumps,fast
brushedorbrushlessDC
industrialandmilitary
type.[69]
servos

Stepper
motor

Precision
positioning
Highholding
torque

Positioninginprinters NotaVFD.Stepperpositionis
andfloppydisc
determinedbypulse
drivesindustrial
counting.[79][80]
machinetools

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Somecanbecostly
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Electromagnetism
Forceandtorque
Thefundamentalpurposeofthevastmajorityoftheworld'selectricmotorsistoelectromagneticallyinduce
relativemovementinanairgapbetweenastatorandrotortoproduceusefultorqueorlinearforce.
AccordingtoLorentzforcelawtheforceofawindingconductorcanbegivensimplyby:

ormoregenerally,tohandleconductorswithanygeometry:

Themostgeneralapproachestocalculatingtheforcesinmotorsusetensors.[81]

Power
WhererpmisshaftspeedandTistorque,amotor'smechanicalpoweroutputPemisgivenby,[82]
inBritishunitswithTexpressedinfootpounds,
(horsepower),and,
inSIunitswithshaftangularspeedexpressedinradianspersecond,andTexpressedinnewtonmeters,
(watts).
Foralinearmotor,withforceFexpressedinnewtonsandvelocityvexpressedinmeterspersecond,
(watts).
Inanasynchronousorinductionmotor,therelationshipbetweenmotorspeedandairgappoweris,neglecting
skineffect,givenbythefollowing:
,where
Rrrotorresistance
Ir2squareofcurrentinducedintherotor
smotorslipie,differencebetweensynchronousspeedandslipspeed,whichprovidestherelative
movementneededforcurrentinductionintherotor.

Backemf
Sincethearmaturewindingsofadirectcurrentoruniversalmotoraremovingthroughamagneticfield,they
haveavoltageinducedinthem.Thisvoltagetendstoopposethemotorsupplyvoltageandsoiscalled"back
electromotiveforce(emf)".Thevoltageisproportionaltotherunningspeedofthemotor.Thebackemfofthe
motor,plusthevoltagedropacrossthewindinginternalresistanceandbrushes,mustequalthevoltageatthe
brushes.ThisprovidesthefundamentalmechanismofspeedregulationinaDCmotor.Ifthemechanicalload
increases,themotorslowsdownalowerbackemfresults,andmorecurrentisdrawnfromthesupply.This
increasedcurrentprovidestheadditionaltorquetobalancethenewload.[83]
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InACmachines,itissometimesusefultoconsiderabackemfsourcewithinthemachinethisisofparticular
concernforclosespeedregulationofinductionmotorsonVFDs,forexample.[83]

Losses
Motorlossesaremainlyduetoresistivelossesinwindings,corelossesandmechanicallossesinbearings,and
aerodynamiclosses,particularlywherecoolingfansarepresent,alsooccur.
Lossesalsooccurincommutation,mechanicalcommutatorsspark,andelectroniccommutatorsandalso
dissipateheat.

Efficiency
Tocalculateamotor'sefficiency,themechanicaloutputpowerisdividedbytheelectricalinputpower:
,
where isenergyconversionefficiency,

iselectricalinputpower,and

ismechanicaloutputpower:

where isinputvoltage, isinputcurrent, isoutputtorque,and isoutputangularvelocity.Itispossibleto

deriveanalyticallythepointofmaximumefficiency.Itistypicallyatlessthan1/2thestalltorque.
Variousregulatoryauthoritiesinmanycountrieshaveintroducedandimplementedlegislationtoencouragethe
manufactureanduseofhigherefficiencyelectricmotors.

Goodnessfactor
ProfessorEricLaithwaite[84]proposedametrictodeterminethe'goodness'ofanelectricmotor:[85]

Where:
isthegoodnessfactor(factorsabove1arelikelytobeefficient)
arethecrosssectionalareasofthemagneticandelectriccircuit
arethelengthsofthemagneticandelectriccircuits
isthepermeabilityofthecore
istheangularfrequencythemotorisdrivenat
Fromthis,heshowedthatthemostefficientmotorsarelikelytohaverelativelylargemagneticpoles.However,
theequationonlydirectlyrelatestononPMmotors.

Performanceparameters
Torquecapabilityofmotortypes
Alltheelectromagneticmotors,andthatincludesthetypesmentionedherederivethetorquefromthevector
productoftheinteractingfields.Forcalculatingthetorqueitisnecessarytoknowthefieldsintheairgap.
OncethesehavebeenestablishedbymathematicalanalysisusingFEAorothertoolsthetorquemaybe
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calculatedastheintegralofallthevectorsofforcemultipliedbytheradiusofeachvector.Thecurrentflowing
inthewindingisproducingthefieldsandforamotorusingamagneticmaterialthefieldisnotlinearly
proportionaltothecurrent.Thismakesthecalculationdifficultbutacomputercandothemanycalculations
needed.
Oncethisisdoneafigurerelatingthecurrenttothetorquecanbeusedasausefulparameterformotor
selection.Themaximumtorqueforamotorwilldependonthemaximumcurrentalthoughthiswillusuallybe
onlyusableuntilthermalconsiderationstakeprecedence.
Whenoptimallydesignedwithinagivencoresaturationconstraintandforagivenactivecurrent(i.e.,torque
current),voltage,polepairnumber,excitationfrequency(i.e.,synchronousspeed),andairgapfluxdensity,all
categoriesofelectricmotorsorgeneratorswillexhibitvirtuallythesamemaximumcontinuousshafttorque
(i.e.,operatingtorque)withinagivenairgapareawithwindingslotsandbackirondepth,whichdetermines
thephysicalsizeofelectromagneticcore.Someapplicationsrequireburstsoftorquebeyondthemaximum
operatingtorque,suchasshortburstsoftorquetoaccelerateanelectricvehiclefromstandstill.Alwayslimited
bymagneticcoresaturationorsafeoperatingtemperatureriseandvoltage,thecapacityfortorquebursts
beyondthemaximumoperatingtorquedifferssignificantlybetweencategoriesofelectricmotorsorgenerators.
Capacityforburstsoftorqueshouldnotbeconfusedwithfieldweakeningcapability.Fieldweakeningallows
anelectricmachinetooperatebeyondthedesignedfrequencyofexcitation.Fieldweakeningisdonewhenthe
maximumspeedcannotbereachedbyincreasingtheappliedvoltage.Thisappliestoonlymotorswithcurrent
controlledfieldsandthereforecannotbeachievedwithPMmotors.
Electricmachineswithoutatransformercircuittopology,suchasthatofWRSMsorPMSMs,cannotrealize
burstsoftorquehigherthanthemaximumdesignedtorquewithoutsaturatingthemagneticcoreandrendering
anyincreaseincurrentasuseless.Furthermore,thePMassemblyofPMSMscanbeirreparablydamaged,if
burstsoftorqueexceedingthemaximumoperatingtorqueratingareattempted.
Electricmachineswithatransformercircuittopology,suchasinductionmachines,inductiondoublyfed
electricmachines,andinductionorsynchronouswoundrotordoublyfed(WRDF)machines,exhibitveryhigh
burstsoftorquebecausetheemfinducedactivecurrentoneithersideofthetransformeropposeeachotherand
thuscontributenothingtothetransformercoupledmagneticcorefluxdensity,whichwouldotherwiseleadto
coresaturation.
Electricmachinesthatrelyoninductionorasynchronousprinciplesshortcircuitoneportofthetransformer
circuitandasaresult,thereactiveimpedanceofthetransformercircuitbecomesdominantasslipincreases,
whichlimitsthemagnitudeofactive(i.e.,real)current.Still,burstsoftorquethataretwotothreetimeshigher
thanthemaximumdesigntorquearerealizable.
Thebrushlesswoundrotorsynchronousdoublyfed(BWRSDF)machineistheonlyelectricmachinewitha
trulydualportedtransformercircuittopology(i.e.,bothportsindependentlyexcitedwithnoshortcircuited
port).[86]Thedualportedtransformercircuittopologyisknowntobeunstableandrequiresamultiphaseslip
ringbrushassemblytopropagatelimitedpowertotherotorwindingset.Ifaprecisionmeanswereavailableto
instantaneouslycontroltorqueangleandslipforsynchronousoperationduringmotoringorgeneratingwhile
simultaneouslyprovidingbrushlesspowertotherotorwindingset,theactivecurrentoftheBWRSDFmachine
wouldbeindependentofthereactiveimpedanceofthetransformercircuitandburstsoftorquesignificantly
higherthanthemaximumoperatingtorqueandfarbeyondthepracticalcapabilityofanyothertypeofelectric
machinewouldberealizable.Torqueburstsgreaterthaneighttimesoperatingtorquehavebeencalculated.

Continuoustorquedensity
Thecontinuoustorquedensityofconventionalelectricmachinesisdeterminedbythesizeoftheairgaparea
andthebackirondepth,whicharedeterminedbythepowerratingofthearmaturewindingset,thespeedofthe
machine,andtheachievableairgapfluxdensitybeforecoresaturation.Despitethehighcoercivityof

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neodymiumorsamariumcobaltPMs,continuoustorquedensityisvirtuallythesameamongstelectric
machineswithoptimallydesignedarmaturewindingsets.Continuoustorquedensityrelatestomethodof
coolingandpermissibleperiodofoperationbeforedestructionbyoverheatingofwindingsorPMdamage.

Continuouspowerdensity
Thecontinuouspowerdensityisdeterminedbytheproductofthecontinuoustorquedensityandtheconstant
torquespeedrangeoftheelectricmachine.

Standards
Thefollowingaremajordesign,manufacturing,andtestingstandardscoveringelectricmotors:
AmericanPetroleumInstitute:API541FormWoundSquirrelCageInductionMotors375kW(500
Horsepower)andLarger
AmericanPetroleumInstitute:API546BrushlessSynchronousMachines500kVAandLarger
AmericanPetroleumInstitute:API547GeneralpurposeFormWoundSquirrelCageInductionMotors
250HpandLarger
InstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineers:IEEEStd112StandardTestProcedureforPolyphase
InductionMotorsandGenerators
InstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineers:IEEEStd115GuideforTestProceduresfor
SynchronousMachines
InstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineers:IEEEStd841StandardforPetroleumandChemical
IndustryPremiumEfficiencySevereDutyTotallyEnclosedFanCooled(TEFC)SquirrelCage
InductionMotorsUptoandIncluding370kW(500Hp)
InternationalElectrotechnicalCommission:IEC60034RotatingElectricalMachines
InternationalElectrotechnicalCommission:IEC60072Dimensionsandoutputseriesforrotating
electricalmachines
NationalElectricalManufacturersAssociation:MG1MotorsandGenerators(http://www.nema.org/Stan
dards/Pages/InformationGuideforGeneralPurposeIndustrialACSmallandMediumSquirrelCageIn
ductionMotorStandards.aspx)
UnderwritersLaboratories:UL1004StandardforElectricMotors

Nonmagneticmotors
Anelectrostaticmotorisbasedontheattractionandrepulsionofelectriccharge.Usually,electrostaticmotors
arethedualofconventionalcoilbasedmotors.Theytypicallyrequireahighvoltagepowersupply,although
verysmallmotorsemploylowervoltages.Conventionalelectricmotorsinsteademploymagneticattractionand
repulsion,andrequirehighcurrentatlowvoltages.Inthe1750s,thefirstelectrostaticmotorsweredeveloped
byBenjaminFranklinandAndrewGordon.Todaytheelectrostaticmotorfindsfrequentuseinmicroelectro
mechanicalsystems(MEMS)wheretheirdrivevoltagesarebelow100volts,andwheremoving,chargedplates
arefareasiertofabricatethancoilsandironcores.Also,themolecularmachinerywhichrunslivingcellsis
oftenbasedonlinearandrotaryelectrostaticmotors.
Apiezoelectricmotororpiezomotorisatypeofelectricmotorbaseduponthechangeinshapeofa
piezoelectricmaterialwhenanelectricfieldisapplied.Piezoelectricmotorsmakeuseoftheconverse
piezoelectriceffectwherebythematerialproducesacousticorultrasonicvibrationsinordertoproducealinear
orrotarymotion.Inonemechanism,theelongationinasingleplaneisusedtomakeaseriesstretchesand
positionholds,similartothewayacaterpillarmoves.
Anelectricallypoweredspacecraftpropulsionsystemuseselectricmotortechnologytopropelspacecraftin
outerspace,mostsystemsbeingbasedonelectricallypoweringpropellanttohighspeed,withsomesystems
beingbasedonelectrodynamictethersprinciplesofpropulsiontothemagnetosphere.[87]

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Seealso
Electricgenerator
Goodnessfactor
Motorcapacitor

Notes
a.GanotprovidesasuperbillustrationofonesuchearlyelectricmotordesignedbyFroment.[19]
b.Theterm'electroniccommutatormotor'(ECM)isidentifiedwiththeheating,ventilationandairconditioning
(HVAC)industry,thedistinctionbetweenBLDCandBLACbeinginthiscontextseenasafunctionofdegreeof
ECMdrivecomplexitywithBLDCdrivestypicallybeingwithsimplesinglephasescalarcontrolledvoltage
regulatedtrapezoidalcurrentwaveformoutputinvolvingsurfacePMmotorconstructionandBLACdrivestending
towardsmorecomplexthreephasevectorcontrolledcurrentregulatedsinusoidalwaveforminvolvinginteriorPM
motorconstruction.[61]
c.TheuniversalandrepulsionmotorsarepartofaclassofmotorsknownasACcommutatormotors,whichalso
includesthefollowingnowlargelyobsoletemotortypes:Singlephasestraightandcompensatedseriesmotors,
railwaymotorthreephasevariousrepulsionmotortypes,brushshiftingseriesmotor,brushshiftingpolyphase
shuntorSchragemotor,FynnWeichselmotor.[62]

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84.Laithwaite,E.R.(Feb1975)."LinearelectricmachinesApersonalview".ProceedingsoftheIEEE.63(2):250
290.doi:10.1109/PROC.1975.9734.
85.Patterson,D.J.Brice,C.W.Dougal,R.A.Kovuri,D.(14June2003)."The"Goodness"ofSmallContemporary
PermanentMagnetElectricMachines"(PDF).ElectricMachinesandDrivesConference,2003.IEMDC'03.vol.2.
IEEE.pp.11951200.doi:10.1109/IEMDC.2003.1210392.
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86.Klatt,FrederickW.(Sep2012)."SensorlessRealTimeControl(RTC):BrushlessWoundRotor[Synchronous]
DoublyFedMachine".SensorlessControlforElectricalDrivesSLED2012.IEEE.
doi:10.1109/SLED.2012.6422811.
87."TethersUnlimited".

Bibliography
Fink,DonaldG.Beaty,H.Wayne,StandardHandbookforElectricalEngineers,'14thed.,McGrawHill,1999,
ISBN0070220050.
Houston,EdwinJ.Kennelly,Arthur,RecentTypesofDynamoElectricMachinery(https://archive.org/details/recentt
ypesdyna00kenngoog),AmericanTechnicalBookCompany1897,publishedbyP.F.CollierandSonsNewYork,
1902
Kuphaldt,TonyR.(20002006)."Chapter13ACMOTORS".LessonsInElectricCircuitsVolumeII.Retrieved
20060411.
Rosenblatt,JackFriedman,M.Harold,DirectandAlternatingCurrentMachinery,2nded.,McGrawHill,1963

Furtherreading
Bedford,B.D.Hoft,R.G.(1964).PrinciplesofInverterCircuits.NewYork:Wiley.ISBN0471061344.
Bose,BimalK.(2006).PowerElectronicsandMotorDrives:AdvancesandTrends.AcademicPress.ISBN9780
120884056.
Chiasson,John(2005).ModelingandHighPerformanceControlofElectricMachines(Onlineed.).Wiley.ISBN0
47168449X.
Fitzgerald,A.E.Kingsley,Charles,Jr.Umans,StephenD.(2003).ElectricMachinery(6thed.).McGrawHill.
pp.688pages.ISBN9780073660097.
Pelly,B.R.(1971).ThyristorPhaseControlledConvertersandCycloconverters:Operation,Control,and
Performance.WileyInterscience.ISBN9780471677901.
Stlting,H.D.(2008).Kallenbach,E.Amrhein,W.,eds.HandbookofFractionalHorsepowerDrives(Onlineed.).
Springer.ISBN9783540731283.

Externallinks
SparkMuseum:EarlyElectricMotors(http://www.sparkmuseum.
WikimediaCommonshas
com/MOTORS.HTM)
mediarelatedtoElectric
TheInventionoftheElectricMotor1800to1893(http://www.eti.
motors.
kit.edu/english/1376.php),hostedbyKarlsrusheInstituteof
Technology'sMartinDoppelbauer
ElectricMotorsandGenerators(http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/HSCmotors.html),aU.ofNSW
Physclipsmultimediaresource
IEA4EEfficientElectricalEndUseEquipment(http://www.iea4e.org/).
iPESRotatingMagneticField(http://www.ipes.ethz.ch/ipes/2002Feldlinien/feld_dreh.html),animation
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