Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
15892
'LAN
FR
NI
MARKET
TOKYO
KARACHI
NAIROBI
DAR ES SALAAM
BOMBAY CALCUTTA
HONG KONG
CAPE TOWN MELBOURNE
DELHI
KUALA LUMPUR
SINGAPORE
AUCKLAND
IBADAN
This volume is a product of the staff of the World Bank, and the
judgments made herein do not necessarily reflect the views of its Board
of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank
does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication
and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for any consequence of their
use. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information
shown on any map in this volume do not imply on the part of the
World Bank any judgment on the legal status of any territory
or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.
Foreword
Development Report 1996, the nineteenth
n this annual series, is devoted to the transition of countries with centrally planned econ-
Wiorld
cussing the institutions that make a market-based economy work. It describes how public agencies, legal systems,
financial institutions, and education and health systems
the cost of productivity, overall living standards, andimportantlythe environment, which has been severely
the institutions that help set and enforce the rules that
allow market transactions to proceed in a climate of
James D. Wolfensohn
President
The World Bank
This Report has been prepared by a team led by Alan Gelb with principal authors Nicholas Barr, Stijn Claessens,
Cheryl Williamson Gray, Peter Harrold, Francoise Le Gall (IMF), John Nellis, Zhen Kun Wang, and Ulrich
Zachau. The team was assisted by Annette Brown, Gregory Kisunko, Tatiana Proskuryakova, Sarbajit Sinha,
Stoyan Tenev, and Triinu Tombak. Gilles Alfandari and Laszlo Urban also contributed to the Report. Stephanie
Flanders was the principal editor. The work was carried out under the general direction of Michael Bruno.
Many others in and outside the World Bank provided helpful comments and contributions (see the
Bibliographical Note). The International Economics Department contributed to the data appendix and was
responsible for the Selected World Development Indicators. The production staff of the Report included Amy
Brooks, Kathryn Kline Dahl, Joyce Gates, Stephanie Gerard, Cathe Kocak, Jeffrey N. Lecksell, Brenda Mejia,
Hugh Nees, Beatrice Sito, and Michael Treadway. The design was by the Magazine Group. Rebecca Sugui served
as executive assistant to the team, and Daniel Atchison, Elizabeth V. De Lima, and Michael Geller as staff assistants. Maria D. Ameal served as administrative officer.
Preparation of the Report was greatly aided by background papers and by contributions from participants in
the consultation meetings. The names of these participants are listed in the Bibliographical Note.
iv
Introduction
PART ONE
Understanding Transition
viii
1
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
22
Chapter 3
44
Chapter 4
66
PART TWO
85
Chapter 5
87
Chapter 6
98
Chapter 7
110
Chapter 8
123
Chapter 9
132
CONCLUSIONS
141
142
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
148
171
177
PART THREE
Chapter 10
BOXES
1
2
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
5.1
5.2
5.3
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
7.1
8.1
9.1
4
10
16
19
21
24
24
27
31
33
38
40
46
48
50
51
54
57
59
67
72
74
79
81
83
89
91
96
100
101
103
105
119
128
139
TEXT FIGURES
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
vi
12
14
15
16
17
20
26
28
29
30
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
3.1
3.2
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
5.1
6.1
6.2
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
8.1
9.1
9.2
9.3
34
37
39
42
62
64
68
70
75
76
94
101
108
112
114
116
118
125
136
137
138
TEXT TABLES
1
1.1
1.2
2.1
2.2
2.3
3.1
3.2
4.1
4.2
8.1
2
18
21
31
33
36
52
53
69
79
126
APPENDIX TABLES
A.1
A.2
A.3
A.4
172
173
174
175
vii
more precisely.
Indicators.
FDI
GNP
GATT
GDP
IFC
IMF
NGO
NIS
Data notes
OECD
PPP
TVE
VAT
WTO
Unders ding
sition
1917 and 1950 countries containing onethird of the world's population seceded from the
market economy and launched an experiment in
Between
constructing an alternative economic system. First in the
former Russian Empire and Mongolia, then, after World
War II, in Central and Eastern Europe and the Baltic
states, and subsequently in China, northern Korea, and
Vietnam (with offshoots and imitators elsewhere), a massive effort was made to centralize control of production
and allocate all resources through state planning. This vast
Karl Marx had reasoned that socialism would replace capitalism first in the most industrialized capitalist countries.
Indeed, the first part of the twentieth century was a period
Constant revolutionizing of production, uninterrupted disturbance of all social conditions, everlasting uncertainty and agitation. . . All fixed, fast.
Indicator
income.'
Comparators
MiddleIndia
income
64
1,002
850
1,105
773
404
1,000
4.9
188
320
1,086
3.4
380
1,090
5.8
2,220
4,289
2.9
20,170
15,615
3.0
58
31
40
18
35
48
19
16
23
28
21
28
27
24
29
62
25
36
77
22
31
0.91
0.71
0.38
0.14
0.21
0.41
0.31
26
24
24
30
36
46
34
45
33
71
69
70
70
31
66
12
56
41
60
52
68
17
77
<5
53
100
75
25
19
33
46
41
78
331
1,828
1,822
464
87
12
101
Other NIS
and
Mongolia
Low-
China.
CEE
Russia
122
149
139
1,102
2,268
4,647
4,110
6,440
1.5
1.9
2,141
4,660
2.3
61
34
51
74
34
50
0.81
Vietnam.
OECD
Economic structure
Urban population as share of
Not available.
Note: All measures for country groups are averages, weighted by population.
All data for China are for 1978, and those for Vietnam for 1986, except where specifically noted otherwise (i.e., for GDP growth, energy use,
Gini coefficients, and life expectancy).
Excluding China and India.
Data are for 1991 for NIS and Mongolia.
Average annual real GDP growth rate at market prices; data are for 1980-89 for CEE and comparators, 1980-90 for NIS and Mongolia,
..
mass of centrally planned economies was far from monolithic. It was composed of countries with different histo-
25
20
15
10
5
1950
1960
1970
1980
Party had a strong rural base, so that economic improvement became a more urgent goal. The impetus to reform
was different again in Vietnam, struggling to recover from
forty years of war, and in Mongolia. Unlike China, both
had deep links with the Soviet Union and depended on
Soviet subsidies. Both needed to break out of isolation.
In response, most of these economies have rejected all
or much of central planning and have embarked on a pas-
sagea transitiontoward decentralized market mechanisms underpinned by widespread private ownership. Not
all follow the same path. Despite common features, the
lished market economies, poor maintenance and operating practices meant that they rarely operated at more
than a fraction of their design efficiency. Environmental improvement is likely to be a long process involving changes in managerial culture and enforcement of regulations.
The environmental liabilities created by haphazard
disposal of wastes are mostly unknown but could be
large. Some environmental damage may be irreversible:
the destruction of the Aral Sea is an ecological disaster
tions in detail. The first set, the subject of Part One, relates to the initial challenges of transition and how these
have been tackled by different countries and might be
tackled by others.
Do differences in transition policies and outcomes reflect different reform strategies, or do they reflect primarily country-specific factors such as history, the level
tization of state-owned firms, farms, housing, and commercial real estate. It analyzes why quite different
approaches to ownership change and divestiture can be
associated with positive economic results, and it draws out
the policy fundamentals that should prevail. The lessons of
transition to date are that new entry is vital, that privatization is important, and that the way it is done matters. But
public opinion. This interplay between choice and circumstance affects not merely the outcomes of the early
stages of transition, described in Chapter 1, but also
approaches to other dilemmas that have dogged reformers.
reform?
8, the inherited health and education systems need extensive reform to increase their effectiveness and flexibility.
Chapter 7 considers the problem of achieving fundamental changes in government, both in terms of how it
manages spending and revenue collection, and in terms
of how it apportions responsibilities among central and
local authorities. Both the range and the nature of government's activities must change, with the state more
often seeking to facilitate private sector activity than to
capital base?
adopted parts of the planning model. The process of transition is therefore of interest to a wide-ranging set of countries and peoples.
supplant it.
PART ONE
The Challenge of
Transition
COUNTRIES EMBARKED ON TRANSITION FROM VERY
is a second challenge (Chapter 3). Here, too, initial conditions matter. Some
transition countries will have a much more urgent need to privatize than
others. But there can be competing objectives and difficulties in creating an
effective and popular program.
A third major challengevital for social and political as well as economic reasonsis to relieve poverty and address the other ill effects of tran-
sition on particular groups (Chapter 4). Many gain from transition, and
depending again on the starting point and context for reforms, transition can
be accompanied by declining poverty from day one. But the vast adjustments
Patterns of
Reform, Progress,
and Outcomes
can governments approach the array of
assertion of President Vidal, Havel of the Czech Republic that "it is impossible to cross a chasm in two leaps."
How
Poland's rapid reform in 1990 and many of the programs launched elsewhere in GEE and, after 1992, in the
NIS have approximated this comprehensive model. East
Germany's exceptional "instant" transition following unification with West Germany comes closer still (Box 1.1).
Reformers wanted to minimize the duration of the inevitable pain and quickly sever the links between the state
10
priced, controlled segment of the economy to the highBox 1.1 East Germany: The instant transition
The result was mass unemployment, made politically palatable by social transfers that ensured that
the living standard of the unemployed was higher
than that of employees before unification. But for
early retirement and other programs, unemployment would have been over 30 percent.
The former German Democratic Republic is
starting to emerge from the trough of adjustment,
and the firms that have survived constitute a highly
competitive core. But few of the unemployed are
likely to find jobs. Transition has relegated an entire
generation to the economic sidelines.
Is the solution then a go-slow approach? Not necessarily. Governments need to push through a critical mass of
rapid reforms to build credibility and change the behavior
of people and firms, locking in these reforms and stimulating new ones. Also, in certain circumstances, reformers
to keep a tight grip on both the macro- and the microeconomy, supervising those activities still covered by the
plan and imposing stiff penalties for noncompliance.
The phased approachsummarized by Deng Xiaoping's phrase, "feeling the stones to cross the river"is
essentially the path followed by China. After the death of
Mao Zedong and the denunciation of the Cultural Revolution, China's initial reforms in 1978 opened the door to
1994 and 1995, particularly with regard to taxes, company law, and foreign trade.
starting points. .
might start with localized experiments, which are expanded as perceived successes emerge. A few repressed sectors such as agriculture are liberalized up front. After these
The fact that there are two model routes from a planned
economy to the market does not mean that all countries
are in a position to choose between them. As noted above,
to attempt a phased reform, governments need to be fairly
sure that its initial effects will be positive, and that they are
able to keep control of the economy in its partly liberalized state. Policymakers in most of CEE and the NIS were
in no position to deliver either.
First, earlier attempts at partial reform in these countries, including the Soviet Union, had failed to raise efficiency, largely because they were too limited to affect
incentives. Perhaps partial measures that shifted authority
from planners to enterprise managers, such as those proposed in the 1960s, would have succeeded had they been
implemented early and decisively enough, when the productivity crisis was just beginning to emerge. But the several CEE countries that did persistently seek a "third way"
11
12
Figure 1.1 Public attitudes toward political and economic reform in Central and Eastern
Europe and in Russia
Russia
CEE
Percent favorable
Percent favorable
100
100
80
80
60
60
40
40
20
20
Past
Present
Future
0 Political regime
Past
Present
Future
Economic regime
Note: Data are results of opinion surveys, taken in seven CEE countries in 1993 and Russia in 1994, seeking views on past (socialist), present,
and expected future (five years hence) regimes. Source: Rose 1995a, 1995b.
showed rising popular support for the currentand expandingmarket system. In the more advanced reformers
the political debate has moved toward entitlement programs, familiar political terrain in long-established market
economies. At least in GEE, politics are becoming normal.
for example, managers of state enterprises have used privatization to transform their control rights into property
rights, leaving ordinary citizens out in the cold. This has
deepened public cynicism about reform and undermined
the legitimacy of the postreform economic system. Polls
in December 1991 suggested that just over a quarter of
13
Progress of reform
eign trade and entry, the East Asian countries were less
liberalized than the more advanced reformers in GEE and
the NIS.
(Figures 1.3 and 1.4). Here, too, there has been great
regional equity. The power and administrative authority of central governments have diminished in some
the momentum of reform in the Asian planned economies. China's banks, for example, are less market-based
14
Countries have liberalized at different speeds and at different times, but the late starters are catching up.
Index
10
Group 1
Poland
Slovenia
Hungary
Croatia*
FYR Macedonia*
Czech Republic
Slovak Republic
Group 2
Estonia
Lithuania
Bulgaria
Latvia
Albania
Romania
Mongolia
Group 3
Kyrgyz Republic
Russia
Moldova
Armenia*
Georgia*
Kazakstan
Group 4
Uzbekistan
Ukraine
Belarus
Azerbaijan*
Mongolia
Tajikistan*
Turkmenistan
Vietnam
China
NiN4.
East Asia
Note: Bars indicate the extent to which policies supporting liberalized markets and entry of new firms prevailed in 1995 and on average over
1989-95. Asterisks indicate economies severely affected by regional tensions between 1989 and 1995. The index is a weighted average of
estimates of liberalization of domestic transactions (price liberalization and abolition of state trading monopolies), external transactions
(elimination of export controls and taxes, substitution of low to moderate import duties for import quotas and high tariffs, current account
convertibility), and entry of new firms (privatization and private sector, or nonstate, development). The weights on these components are 0.3, 0.3,
and 0.4, respectively. Initial estimates for the three components were based on comparative information in World Bank and other reports. These
were revised following consultation with country specialists as well as experts with a comparative perspective across a number of countries. For
the twenty-five countries in CEE and the NIS the transition indicators and accompanying text in EBRD 1994 and 1995 provided a further basis for
calibration. Nevertheless, any such index is judgmental and necessarily approximate. See also the De Melo, Denizer, and Gelb background paper.
15
Percent
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Group 1
Poland
Slovenia
Hungary
Croatia*
FYR Macedonia*
Czech Republic
Slovak Republic
Group 2
Estonia
Lithuania
Bulgaria
Latvia
Albania
Romania
Mongolia
Group 3
Kyrgyz Republic
Russia
Moldova
Armenia*
Georgia*
Kazakstan
Group 4
Uzbekistan
Ukraine
Belarus
Azerbaijan*
Tajikistan*
Turkmenistan
Vietnam nonstate
China
China nonstate
1111 1990
1995
Note: Firms are considered private if less than 50 percent state owned. For Vietnam, the nonstate sector excludes public-private joint
ventures. For China, the nonstate sector includes collectives and TVEs as well as private firms; agriculture is considered private in 1995,
although land is held through long-term leases. Asterisks indicate economies severely affected by regional tensions between 1989 and 1995.
Source: EBRD, IMF, and World Bank data; official data.
16
,y
Extent of
privatization
Nearly
complete
Half or more
Significant
Little or none
Agricultural land
Small firms
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Group 4
East Asia
Note: Data are for 1995 and are simple averages of estimates for the countries in each group (see Figure 1.2). Source: EBRD 1995; World Bank
staff estimates.
policies to cope with increased labor mobility, and, frequently, increased poverty within relatively tight budget
domestic legislation.
Many new states, however, have had to create mar-
17
Figure 1.5 Institutional and social policy reform by reform type and country group
Index
Social policy
Group 1
Note: Data are for 1995 and are simple averages for the countries in each group (see Figure 1.2). The laws and legal institutions index
measures the scope and quality of new legislation and development of judicial institutions: 1, little progress on either; 2, some progress
on laws, little on institutions; 3, some progress on both; 4, extensive progress on both. The banking sector index measures the
independence, skills, and credit allocation practices of the better segment of banks, as well as the functioning of supervision and
payments systems: 1, little change; 2, some initial progress; 3, system functioning fairly well but with limitations; 4, system functioning
fairly well and with a larger segment of better banks. The role and management of government index measures the market orientation of
government and the effectiveness of public sector management (see Figure 7.1 for specific indicators): 1, little change; 2, significant
reform; 3, substantial reform; 4, advanced reform. The social policy index measures progress in pension reform, reduction of subsidies,
streamlining and targeting of income transfers, and divestiture of social assets: 1, no reform; 2, limited reform; 3, modest reform; 4,
substantial reform. Source: EBRD 1994, 1995; World Bank staff estimates.
Three features stand out in the range of transitional outcomes to date. The first is the large variance in performance among three sets of countries: the more advanced
reformers in GEE and the NIS, the less advanced reformers in this region, and the East Asian reformers. Second,
and cutting across these differences, is the clear message
18
reformers, and most of these economies are still contracting. These countries have not yet managed to achieve the
critical policy mass needed for sustained macroeconomic
stability and a resumption of growth (Chapter 2).
Table 1.1 GDP growth, inflation, and social indicators during transition
Average GDP growth
(percent per year)
Country or group
Average inflation
(percent per year)
1989-95
1994-95
1989-95
-1.6
-4.2
-9.6
-6.7
4.3
4.0
-12.5
-11.4
106.0
149.2
466.4
809.6
406.8
1,176.5
-11.7
-7.5
929.7
1,328
11.0
7.9
114.8d
1994-95
18.7
59.0
Life expectancy
Infant mortality
0.7
-1.8
-1.8
-0.2
-4.4
-1.6
0.9
-1.9
0.5
-2.7
2.1.
-11.1.
1.7d
-5.4d
9.4.
Vietnam
7.1d
8.4.
20.6
13.2
Not available.
Note: All data for recent years are subject to revision. See Figure 1.2 for the countries in each group.
..
Data do not take into account a possible rise in measured infant mortality rates due to the shift to international methodology in the NIS
around 1993. Social indicators are population-weighted.
The countries asterisked in Figure 1.2 are taken out of Groups 1-4 and consolidated.
Data are for 1978-95.
Data are for 1986-95.
Source: IMF and World Bank data.
19
In addition, the previous pattern of trade and production in GEE and the NIS was highly inefficient.
policythe given rather than the chosen? Some countries, typically in GEE, started with more favorable macro-
20
Labor productivity is at new highs in some reforming countries, while others are behind the curve.
Recovered
1989 = 100
Recovering
1989 = 100
110
140
130
100
120
110
90
100
80
90
80
70
70
Poland
60
60
50
40
50
40
1989 1990
1991
1992
1993
1994 1995
Still falling
1989 = 100
1989
1990
110
1991
1992
1993
1994
Never fell
300
100
250
90
80
200
70
150
China
VietnaX
60
100
50
50
40
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
Source: Vienna Institute for Comparative Economic Studies 1995; VVorld Bank data.
of subsidies, agricultural output shrank by nearly onefourth between 1990 and 1994.
Despite the industrialization efforts of the 1950s and
1960s, China was very poor and largely rural at the start
21
re-
administrative controls remain pervasive. But its liberalization and stabilization measures were closer to those of
Eastern Europe than they were to those of China. Not all
East Asian reforms have been phased or gradual.
were often below inflation (Chapter 2). Prudent macroeconomic policies were key, holding inflation to modest
levels and helping maintain confidence in the currency.
Russia's economy, on the other hand, was already highly
monetized in 1990, with M2 equal to GDP. The huge
resources already provided to the planned economy. Liberalization of prices and the monetization of fiscal deficits
led to hyperinflation, which rendered these savings worthless. By 1994 the Russian money stock had dwindled to
only 16 percent of GDP.
Differences in initial conditions and structural characteristics therefore explain a good deal of the divergence of
transition outcomes and policies across countries. They do
not explain allthe sustained application of marketTable 1.2 Russia and China: Two very different
countries
China
Russia
Indicator
1990
1994
1978
1994
15
71
14
100
18
58
25
100
19
18
25
89
The agenda
100
6,440
16
2,650
4,610
oriented reform policies, within a broadly "right" macroeconomic environment, has been a crucial ingredient in
success. However, the right reform mix must reflect initial
conditions and so cannot simply be transplanted between
such starkly different countries as China and Russia.
4045
530
1,000' 2,510
The CEE countries and the NIS have not seen the spectacular growth of China and Vietnam, but many have turned
Liberalization,
Stabilization, and
Growth
the transition economies, extensive liberal-
Across
been vital for improving economic performance.
mechanismAdam Smith's invisible handmatches demand and supply. In most cases the outcome is efficient
(market failure is discussed in Chapter 7). Combined with
supporting institutions, competitive markets unleash powerful processes to force technological and organizational
change. Whereas planned economies experienced low or
negative overall productivity growth despite high capital
accumulation, at least half of output growth in advanced
market economies since World War II has resulted from
productivity gains. Creating markets is an investment in a
22
European transition economies in the relationships between liberalization, stabilization, and growth. In all
regions growth has largely resulted from the lifting of
restrictions on new entry and a surge of previously repressed activities, especially services and export industries
(and agriculture in Asia). Freeing prices and trade, reduc-
In market economies liberalization usually means eliminating price controls and relaxing trade protection in a
few heavily regulated or protected sectors. Liberalizers in
and making its currency convertible for current transactions all at once in January 1990. Albania, the Baltic
countries, the former Czechoslovakia, and the Kyrgyz
Republic followed this model of rapid and comprehensive
liberalization. Bulgaria initially did the same, but strong
interest group pressures for continued protection and state
support to enterprises later brought something of a reversal. In Romania price reforms advanced fitfully for three
years after half of all prices were freed in 1990, but liberalization has recently accelerated. Russia substantially liberalized prices and imports in January 1992, but extensive
export restrictions remained in place until 1995 (remaining export duties are set to be eliminated by mid-1996),
and many consumer prices are still subject to local gov-
N7 AND GROWTH
used for liberalizing prices, external trade, foreign exchange, and the enterprise sector (Box 2.2). This has
worked well, on balance, especially in agriculture. But it
has not been without significant costs, including forgone
benefits from a faster integration into world trade, rampant
corruption and rent seeking, and, more recently, growing
regional disparities. Partly in recognition of these costs, the
government is proposing to unify the country's trade and
tax regimes in the near future. Liberalization in Vietnam
was broader and faster (Box 1.4). But as in China, significant restrictions remain, especially on trade and entry, and
23
24
Box 2.1 Pricing energy and other household essentialsa case for phased liberalization?
indeed possible, although Hungary's circumstances differ from those in most other countries. A study of energy
pricing in Poland suggests that an 80 percent price increase for heat, gas, and electricityroughly to their eco-
mid- to late 1995. In Hungary they almost cover economic cost already, and they will be raised further by the
end of 1996, to permit foreign investors in the privatized
electricity distribution companies an 8 percent return on
China's price reforms began in late 1978, implementing a dual-track system in which the share of produc-
tion subject to state procurement continuously declined, and more and more prices were subjected to
varying degrees of market guidance. The reforms
began in agriculture and spread slowly, first to consumer goods and later to intermediate goods industries. In each case a free market developed in parallel
Although liberalization remained incomplete, dualtrack price reforms did improve efficiency, because
the price of the marginal unit reflected economic cost
and correctly signaled relative scarcity, and because the
25
lower than in China. Vietnamese output growth has averaged more than 7 percent a year since 1989 and close to 9
This triggered cuts in the industrial labor force by onethird during 1988-92 and a brief recession in the state
sector, followed by adjustment and improved performance. But industrial restructuring took place without
economic and social upheaval. One reason was that Vietnam's enterprises, unlike China's, did not provide extensive social benefits, but another was that the newly liberalized agricultural and private manufacturing and service
sectors, which account for 60 percent of GDP and 85 percent of employment, grew rapidly and were able to absorb
laid-off public sector workers.
although lower productivity in the still sizable state enterprise sector raises concerns for the future (see below and
26
Figure 2.1 Decline and recovery in GDP in selected transition economies and in
comparable historical episodes
10
20
30
40
50
60
90
80
70
100
liberalized
Poland
1991
Hungary
1993
Estonia
1993
Lithuania
1993
Romania
1992
Mongolia
1992
Russia
1_9,5
Moldova
Kazakstan
1994
11111111111111111111111111EM
Ukraine
1995
1995
United States
(Great Depression)
1933
1942
El 1995
Note: The base year for the transition economies is 1989; historical base years are 1929 for the United States and 1940 for the Soviet Union.
Transition economies are listed according to their average liberalization index scores for 1989-95 (see Figure 1.2). Source: Official data.
27
Box 2.3 Notes from underground: The growth and costs of unofficial economies
unofficially, limit its growth. Informalization also lowers government revenues and encourages capital flight.
And by its very nature it breeds corruption and undermines the credibility of formal market and government
institutions. Thus, a growing informal economy is no
substitute for a formal, open private sector, but in fact
eventually impedes its development.
and foreign exchange liberalization; tight macroeconomic policies; a sharp reduction of regulatory constraints; and more professional government adminis-
formal economy.
could develop. For example, many countries have discarded the old systems for allocating agricultural credit and
distributing farm output, but new wholesale and retail networks and market-based credit systems are not yet in place.
28
Stronger, more sustained liberalization spells a smaller output declineand a stronger recovery.
1994-95
AA
A
At
2
-10
1989-95
-15
-20
1
29
Group 1
0
5
10 15 20 -
Group 3
25
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
eralization is always possibleor preferable. When choosing how much and how fast to liberalize, governments are
constrained by initial conditions, and often the effects of
different strategies will be highly uncertain. But as noted in
Chapter 1, initial conditions still leave policymakers a fair
amount of choicethey influence but by no means predetermine economic performance. The fact that, when these
factors are controlled for, liberalization tends to pay off suggests that, on average, policymakers will maximize people's
incomes by liberalizing as much as possible within the range
left open by country-specific constraints.
New growth comes from letting exports and
services expand. . .
port promotion, with Vietnam relying more on the former and China on the latter. State trading now covers
30
After seven years, aggressive liberalizers in CEE and the NIS have come out ahead.
525
Croatia
500
Slovenia
475
Czech
0 Poland
IUVdC rcep.
<>Hungary
FYR Macedonia
Belarus
450
Uzbekistan
425
Turkmenistan
Mongolia
Tajikistan
Romania
Bulgaria
Estonia
Latvia
Azerbaijan
Kyrgyz Rep.
Armenia
Russiap
Ukraine
400
Moldova*
Albania *
375
Lithuania
Kazakstan
Georgia p
350
1
Note: Data are for all twenty-six CEE countries and NIS. See Figure 1.2 for details of the liberalization index. Cumulative GDP is the normalized
net present value of total GDP over 1989-95, discounted at 10 percent per year. It is adjusted to control for the impact of regional tensions in
some countries and differences in initial income per capita and the abundance of natural energy resources. Results are robust to changes in
the discount rate and to the inclusion of China and Vietnam. Source: Official data; World Bank staff calculations.
and created favorable conditions for export-oriented foreign investmentVietnam mainly through deregulation,
31
Table 2.1 Trade policy and export performance in CEE and the NIS
Export performance
Trade policy
Years of
in share
current
of CMEA
OECD,
OECD only,
1994
(percent
Country group
State
trading,
1994
Quantitative
restrictions,
1994
account
convertibility
by end-1995
or Soviet
exports
(percent)a
of GDPV)
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Group 4
Rg. tensions
Very small
Very smalld
Moderatee
Extensive
Extensive
No
4
2
-57.2
-43.9
-13.6
-14.2
-20.8
24.5
18.1
3.3
4.4
3.7
Nod
Yese
Yes
Yes
Mfg.
exports to
Change
0
0
Exports to
2.3
1.4
0.2
-0.1
Total
exports, last
year before
transition to
1994
2.1
-3.1
-11.2
-14.4
Total
exports,
first year of
transition to
1994
3.0
3.7
0.5
0.3
Not available. Mfg., manufacturing. Rg. tensions, group of countries severely affected by regional tensions (see Figure 1.2).
Note: Data are simple averages for each country group (see Figure 1.2).
For CEE countries, data are for 1989-94 CMEA exports; for NIS they are for 1990-94 Soviet exports.
For Albania, Mongolia, and Slovenia, data are for total exports.
The last year before transition was 1989 for Poland, 1990 for the other CEE countries, and 1991 for the NIS.
Mongolia was the only Group 2 country with significant state trading and quantitative export controls in 1994.
The Kyrgyz Republic was the only Group 3 country that had essentially eliminated export restrictions by 1994.
Source: Kaminski, Wang, and Winters 1996; IMF 1995a; EBRD 1995; World Bank staff calculations.
..
4
1
Box 2.4 Trade policy and performance: Estonia and Ukraine illustrate how close the link
41
Estonia and Ukraine have pursued diametrically different trade policies. Their trade performance has varied
accordingly.
Rapid trade liberalization pays off Estonia removed
virtually all export barriers, eliminated all quantitative
import restrictions, kept only a few low import tariffs,
and made its new currency fully convertible for current
liberalization introduced world relative prices for tradables. And radical export liberalization-a policy that
for imports. Ukraine's policies proved counterproductive. The intergovernmental agreements failed to stem
to Western quality standards, and boosted hardcurrency export revenues. More than half of Estonia's
exports now go to Western Europe, and close to twothirds of its imports come from there. Export growth
32
tionin parallel with domestic liberalization and stabilizationfar outweigh the potential costs. Establishing
essentially free trade (except, possibly, a modest and uni-
33
Country groupa
liberalization index,
1989-95a
Rg. tensions
China and Vietnam
Average of all
transition economies
Agriculture
Industry
Services
12
11
16
10
4
6.9
4.7
3.4
2.0
3.9
5.5
10
4.4
2
14
Normal
share')
Gap in
1989b
51
51
49
49
50
41
15
16
15
9
8
49
13
4
3
7
42
35
33
34
41
32
37
-1
Percentage of
1989 services
gap filled in
1994
173
68
25
80
66
38
Rg. tensions, group of countries severely affected by regional tensions (see Figure 1.2).
See Figure 1.2 for details of the liberalization index and the countries in each group.
The "normal" services shares of countries are shares predicted from a regression of sectoral shares on income per capita and population
size in a sample of 108 developing and industrial economies. The services "gap" is the difference between the actual and the normal share of
services in GDP.
Source: Syrquin and Chenery 1989; official data; World Bank staff calculations.
Box 2.5 Transition can help the environmentwith the right policies
Transition has reduced environmental damage in most
GEE countries and NIS, with pollution dropping as a
consequence of the fall in economic activity, especially
in industry. There are signs that the recovery in indus-
have stabilized levels of air pollutionthe most immediate environmental threat to human health.
34
times; in the volatile environment of transition it is impossible. Even firm-specific, performance-linked credits
and subsidies will inevitably assist many nonviable firms.
Such support wastes resources and discourages viable
firms from adjusting. Moreover, subsidies tend to go to
state enterprises. This tilts the playing field against new
private entrants, the main source of new jobs.
Experience across GEE and the NIS supports these
arguments. Hungary and Poland have sustained strong
liberalization and reduced enterprise subsidies, from 7 to
10 percent of GDP in the late 1980s to 2 to 3 percent in
the early 1990s. Enterprises there have adjusted, and their
performance has improved much more than that of their
counterparts in Bulgaria and Russia, where liberalization
has been less consistent and budgetary and central bank
subsidies to enterprises still averaged 6 to 7 percent of
GDP in 1993-94. Chinese state enterprise reforms included decentralized, although partial, liberalization from
the beginning; not coincidentally, enterprise productivity
and output growth have been higher in the more liberalized regions and sectors, where competition has been
stronger, and in the less regulated nonstate segments of
the economy (see Chapter 3).
Restructuring of production and output has involved
extensive adjustment in labor markets. Although registered unemployment has remained low in some countries,
especially in the NIS (see Chapter 4), analysis of econ-
1979
1983
1987
1991
1995
administrative controls, including ceilings on bank lending, direct prohibitions on investment, and price reregulation. Macroeconomic imbalances widened when reform
began in 1978 but were effectively controlled by govern-
Stabilization policy is an essential complement to liberalization in transition. Policies to contain inflation and impose hard budget constraints on firms are necessary for
market economies to grow and firms to restructure. But
the interaction between macroeconomic policies and other
reforms, including liberalization, is greatly affected by initial conditions. In this respect, China is a distinctive case.
35
in developing effective tax administration have contributed to large declines in government revenues (Chapter
7). As a result, the government shifted more and more of
its fiscal responsibilities to the banking system. The net
flow of resources from banks to enterprises has been large,
amounting to 7 to 8 percent of GDP in the late 1980s and
early 1990s. About half of this was refinanced by the central bank through quasi-fiscal operations. Moreover, bank
loans to enterprises and central bank loans to banks have
led to high inflation. But China has not been like most
THE COLD. In CEE and the NIS inflation came into the
36
parity (PPP) value, and the Russian ruble to about onetenth a "normal" level. Capital flight and long-repressed
demand for foreign goods placed continued pressure on
exchange rates, and this accelerated domestic inflation
through rising import prices.
In the NIS the lack of monetary policy coordination in
the ruble zone (the common currency area on the territory
of the Soviet Union after its disintegration) exacerbated
inflation and created severe payments problems for interstate trade. At the start of 1992 fifteen national banks, acting as new central banks, tried to outbid each other in
To ease budget pressures, many governments mandated that the banking system undertake quasi-fiscal
its to state enterprises to shore up past patterns of production and employment. Many enterprises found that
their cash balances had been severely devalued, and they
demanded additional credits. They received the backing
Average inflation
Country group
1992
1993
1992
1993
1994
31
110
276
1,171
25
28
65
170
1,112
28
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Group 4
China and Vietnam
58
554
1,273
829
11
27
169
1,163
2,390
9
19
78
723
1,547
15
60
473
33
Not available.
Note: Data are simple averages for the countries in each group (see Figure 1.2).
The definition of the money supply used for each country is the one that most closely approximates M2; its growth is measured from endyear to end-year.
Countries severely affected by regional tensions have been excluded.
Source: IMF and World Bank data.
..
37
government revenues. In GEE it was more modest, averaging 5 to 6 percent of GDP in Poland and Hungary in
Nonbank
financing
84%
Domestic
bank
financing
16%
Domestic
bank
financing
71%
Nonbank
financing
29%
tion below 40 percent. Governments need to build confidence in their currencies (in many cases new ones) and
credibility for their policies. Relatively high levels of inflation make this more difficult, by raising the probability
38
the prices of energy and some services are still far below
world levels and will therefore increase substantially in
coming years. A recent World Bank study on Russia indicates that prices for housing, transport, and telecommunications (relative to those for manufactured goods) would
have to increase roughly sixfold from their 1994 levels just
to reach 60 to 75 percent of their relative values in industrial market economies.
Large inflows of foreign capital, including some reversal
group. But there are others. Under the Soviet system, generous wage and pension benefits had been
used to encourage people to move to remote loca-
Category
Households
Enterprises
Financial sector
Government
Other NIS
Total
Losses
Gains
12
18
0
0
0
16
8
4
30
30
Net gain
12
2
+8
+4
+2
0
Note: Data are for the period from February 1992 to January
1993.
Source: Easterly and Vieira da Cunha 1994.
cally,
no solution: experience in Asia and Latin America suggests that such controls increase the cost of capital in the
short term and are ineffective in the long term.
39
1,000
Group 4
100
Group 2
10
Group 1
essential component of macroeconomic policy in transition economies, particularly as a substitute for strong
owners where unions are powerful, to limit cost-push
inflation from rising wages. A study of Poland found that
wage controls did inhibit pay increases, although wages
beyond the ceiling were paid. By and large, wage controls
seem rarely to have been binding during the early stages of
price liberalization, and they have not in themselves been
sufficient to restrain wages in countries without supporting fiscal and monetary restraint.
When should countries move toward flexible interest
rates? As market forces gain strength in transition economies, indirect monetary controls become more effective
40
rience shows that credible stabilization, including a consistent refusal to inject new credit, is the best way to combat
Moldova, and Ukraine, where energy debts reached between 5 and 8 percent of GDP by early 1995.
Box 2.7 Government's best response to interenterprise arrears? Strengthen financial discipline
Interenterprise credit typically rises rapidly in the
early stages of transition. This partly reflects an adjust-
41
of the tax system is not in jeopardy. Heroic efforts to collect taxes from severely distressed firms are unlikely to
yield much additional revenue. But tax forgiveness across
the board should be avoided since it encourages further
increases in arrears. Governments should instead handle
tax arrears through case-by-case debt workout schemes.
. .
ciency at the firm and the industry level. These are likely
to include reforms in ownership and allocation of investment. In China, for example, overall productivity in the
would be preferable for the government to take the greatest possible advantage of current rapid economic growth
to implement difficult but necessary state sector reforms.
What role is there for foreign saving and investment?
42
Figure 2.8 Saving rates and GDP growth during high-growth periods in selected economies
China
10
Japan
Fed. Rep. of
Germany
1961-73
1951-55
Botswana
9
1979-94
Rep. of Korea
Thailand
1987-94
Vietnam
1991-94
Greece
1961-73
Indonesia
0 1968-94
Chile
1987-94 0
*1978-94
1983-94
Singapore
1961-94
*Hong Kong
1961-94
Malaysia
1987-94
Portugal
1965-73
I
i
15
20
30
25
35
40
Note: Data are annual averages for the periods indicated. Source: IMF, various years (c); official data; World Bank staff estimates.
43
years). Most estimates based on actual conditions in Germany place the catch-up period for eastern Germany at
between ten and twenty years; by implication, the catch-
reduced to keep the debt burden sustainable. The government has therefore decided to use part of the one-off rev-
The agenda
output and productivity. China's contrasting initial conditions and strong macroeconomic control enabled it to take
a more gradual and phased approach to transition. But the
main engines of rapid growth in China have been the same
as in the successful GEE countries and NIS: rapid entry of
new firms, including in the service sector, and growth in
exports. China's major challenge for the future is to exploit
the large potential efficiency gains from further enterprise
and banking reforms and, as the supply of low-cost savings
falls with continuing reforms, to enable these funds to be
reallocated to more productive sectors. Advanced reformers
Property Rights
and Enterprise
Refo
At
up instantly. Managers, most of them production engineers, were judged in terms of output rather than client
satisfaction. Financial performance was irrelevant because
profits and losses were redistributed among firms. Lacking
a bottom line, managers combated frequent input shortages by hoarding labor and inventories. The plan allocated
44
45
prise liquidations, debt sales, and a new bank-led conciliation process (Box 3.1). Tax arrears, however, remain a
problem. In Poland, as elsewhere, these have proved the
most difficult "subsidy" to eliminate, in part because tax
administration is weak (see Chapter 7).
Russian reforms, although extensive, were neither as
coherent nor as credible. Total federal subsidies to enterprises (including directed credits) fell from 32 percent of
GDP in 1992 to about 6 percent in 1994, but tax arrears
and ad hoc tax exemptions increased significantly. Also,
local government subsidies to enterprises have increased.
Russian firms have begun to adjust, but less than those in
Central Europe and in a somewhat different mode. Formal
layoffs have been fewer. Employees remain on the books
in 1986 to 5 percent in 1992. Polish managers interviewed in 1990 had little doubt that if they failed to make
46
process
tors holding more than half the value of a firm's outstanding debt is sufficient to bind all creditors. More
than 400 such agreements have been successfully nego-
tion. The same is true in Poland: firms entering conciliation have higher average operating profits than
firms entering bankruptcy or liquidation. Equally important, both processes have stimulated critical institu-
output of state enterprises rose and revenues from enterprises climbed from 6 to 11 percent of GDP in just three
and workers went along with this rapid reform for three
reasons: firms retain their after-tax profits, distributing
much of it in bonuses and higher wages; most of the dismissed workers were absorbed into the rapidly growing
private sector; and state firms had never provided exten-
plans that have emerged from the reforms have provided relief from debt service but contain few if any
conditions on operational restructuring. Although a
good start, it will be some time before the new regimes
stimulate as much creditor-led restructuring as their
equivalents in established market economies.
der free entry and competition and bias state firms toward
capital-intensive production.
China has not taken equally dramatic steps to end the
47
involvement in infrastructure provision. Rather the concern is with cases where governments extend their reach
exchanges. Hundreds of smaller, unprofitable state enterprises have been closed or merged with other firms. The
efficiency of some state enterprises has risen, although by
how much is hotly debated. What is not disputed is that
the benefits have been largest where enterprises are most
exposed to competition and market incentives.
below-market interest rates, debt forgiveness, and protection from import competition. Similar policies have been
associated with good results in several high-growth Asian
economies, and it is natural for officials and observers in
ernment has announced new state enterprise reform programs suggests how difficult reform really is. This is not
become competitive.
Advocates claim that without state direction and assis-
ble and prudent macroeconomic policies, and a longstanding emphasis on export promotion and international
competitiveness. In their absence, a proactive industrial
policy runs the risk of continuing the costly subsidization
48
OR D DEVELOP
period eight have been liquidated (including a 5,000employee agricultural machinery plant that the government had regarded as strategic), two have been sold, six
more are for sale, eleven are being downsized in hopes of
rendering them salable, and two are still in the diagnostic
stage. So far the exercise has cost around $20 million, of
which half went to cover arrears on energy payments and
much of the remainder to provide severance payments for
more than 40,000 dismissed workers. Proponents argue
that both the information supplied by external consultants and the provision of money to pay for severance
costs have been crucial in persuading the Kyrgyz authorities to act. As always, however, the deciding factor is the
government's willingness to accept the painful reality that
downsizing and closures must occur (Box 3.2).
A 1995 study of the 400 to 500 largest firms in Bulgaria, the Czech and Slovak Republics, and Poland points
the difficulty of picking winners based on past performance. Variation in performance among firms in transition economies is much greater than that in established
market economies, and as Chapter 2 noted, neither the
past performance of a firm nor its inherited debt structure
is a good guide to future viability. Even more than elsewhere, transition governments that try to pick winners are
likely to choose poorly.
agers to transfer workers from unproductive to productive mines rather than having layoffs at one mine and
but all new investment would be financed from retained earnings and bank loans. A second element of
mines need to be closed in the next decade if the industry is to regain competitiveness. Coal enterprises provide a wide variety of social services, including kinder-
49
panies, although this may in part reflect the fact that the
better state firms were the first to be privatized.
Other research supports the positive effects of privati-
Is privatization necessag?
50
They did so because they recognized the intense difficulty of sustaining reforms over time. In time of cri-
financing on commercial capital markets without government guarantees. A new Ministry of State Enter-
ten of eleven companies examined. Even so, successive governments went on to privatize a number of
the companies and contemplated privatizing several
prises shared the ownership function with the Treasury, replacing the involvement of line ministries.
Together they appointed each firm's board of directors, drawing almost exclusively from the private sector. The board, in turn, appointed the top management of the firm and set and administered annual
performance targets. Managers who achieved their
and
approach than because continued state ownership preserves the ambiguous property rights that allow profit
shifting, tax evasion, and asset looting, largely for the benefit of incumbent managers.
Bulgaria's experience illustrates the point. A coalition
government liberalized extensively and early and implemented a determined stabilization program. Swift privatization was anticipated. But a new administration in 1991
diluted the emphasis on reform and blocked adoption of a
privatization program until mid-1995. During these four
years the Bulgarian state lost much of its capacity to mon-
and less desirable alternative is "spontaneous" privatization, in which managers purchase assets cheaply or seize
them outright, often in collusion with the political elite. In
many countries before the privatization process is formalized (such as Hungary and Russia in 1988-91), in several
where privatization has been accepted in theory but stalled
in practice (Belarus, Bulgaria, Ukraine), and even to some
extent in the East Asian transition economies that have
51
52
Method
Better
corporate
governance
Speed
and
feasibility
Better access
to capital
and skills
More
government
revenue
Greater
fairness
.1111.11
Management-employee
buyout
Equal-access voucher
privatization
Spontaneous privatization
changes in ownership will not change managerial behavior if the new owners lack the power, incentives, and capability to monitor the managers and ensure that they act in
the firm's best interest. Owners must also have the power
to change managers, since it often takes a shake-up at the
top to spur deep restructuring. For small firms such corporate governance is straightforward: usually the owners
are themselves the managers. It is with large firms that the
separation of ownership and management creates a need
for monitoring. Direct monitoring by shareholders is one
when performance is weak and let falling stock prices discipline managers. In the early stages of transition, direct
monitoring is likely to be particularly important, because
capital markets, legal systems, and business-related professions. By the same token, each approach to privatization
sets off a complex process of institutional and ownership
markets for capital and managerial labor are not sufficiently developed to exert strong competitive pressures on
managers.
Political feasibility is a sine qua non of any privatization
program. There is a profound tension between the need to
53
nomic outcomes that contribute to economic restructuring and institution building and reinforce the benefits of
reform in the public eye. Competition among stakehold-
Sales to outsiders
The former Czechoslovakia and the former East Germany, with their centralized power structures and welldeveloped administrative capacity, could design and
implement top-down privatization programs. Poland,
Slovenia, and Russia, with more decentralized power
structures, well-organized employees (in Poland and
Slovenia), and strong managers (in Russia), had no such
option. Yet accommodating stakeholder interests is risky
and often conflicts with longer-run economic and political goals. Newly privatized entities may fail to restructure
because of inappropriate corporate governance. Poorly
managed privatization, even if it delivers short-term rev-
Table 3.2 Methods of privatization for medium-size and large enterprises in seven transition economies
(percentages of total)
Management-Equal-access
Country
Czech Republic
By number')
By valued
Estoniae
By number
By value
Hungary
By number
By value
Lithuania
By number
By value
Mongolia
By number
By value
Poland
By number
Russiac
By number
Sale to outside
owners
32
employee
buyout
voucher
privatization
Still in
Restitution
Othera
22c
28
10
50
40
state hands
64
60
30
12
0
3
0
10
2
0
4
15
38
40
0
0
33
12
22
42
<1
<1
5
5
70
60
0
0
25
35
0
0
0
0
70
55
0
0
0
0
30
45
14
23
54
551
11
34
Note: Boxed numbers show the dominant method in each country. Data are as of the end of 1995.
Includes transfers to municipalities or social insurance organizations, debt-equity swaps, and sales through insolvency proceedings.
Number of privatized firms as a share of all formerly state-owned firms. Includes parts of firms restructured prior to privatization.
Includes assets sold for cash as part of the voucher privatization program through June 1994.
Value of firms privatized as a share of the value of all formerly state-owned firms. Data for Poland and Russia are unavailable.
Does not include some infrastructure firms. All management buyouts were part of competitive, open tenders. In thirteen cases citizens could
exchange vouchers for minority shares in firms sold to a core investor.
Source: Gray, background paper; World Bank data.
54
4,0A
55
unprofitable firms in need of restructuring. One disadvantage is that the benefits are unevenly distributed:
employees in good firms get valuable assets while those in
money-losers get little or nothing of value. Another is that
and share value. The bottom line is that managementemployee buyouts can lead to managerial and worker
entrenchment that blocks further reform.
although it used vouchers, was basically a managementemployee buyout program because of its preferential treat-
more broadly, the serious tensions between political feasibility and economic desirability. The extensive preferences
56
stark contrast to the experience of Mongolia, which forbade the entry of intermediary funds and ended up with
but has so far failed to carry it through effectively. Macroeconomic reforms have been slower than in Russia, and
minority stakes in certain firms. Hungary, FYR Macedonia, and Uzbekistan are among the few privatizing transition economies that have specifically rejected vouchers,
arguing that shares given away are perceived by recipients
to have no value, and that voucher programs merely delay
the arrival of "real" owners.
The Czech Republic's mass privatization program has
been the most successful to date. In two successive waves
(the first while part of Czechoslovakia), the Czechs transferred more than half the assets of state enterprises into
private hands. Citizens were free to invest their vouchers
directly in the firms being auctioned. However, to encourage more concentrated ownership and so create
incentives for more active corporate governance, the program allowed the free entry of intermediary investment
57
tries. These industries are typically large and capitalintensive. They are critical to the functioning of the
economy and hence often viewed as strategic. Parts of
some of them are natural monopolies in which compe-
Russiaare joining the worldwide trend toward infrastructure privatization. Others are considering doing
so. In the energy sector Hungary has gone the furthest
in privatizing through sales. It has adopted a regulatory
framework, raised average prices to near world levels,
and several power generation and gas and power distribution companies to strategic investors. This desire to
Introducing competition by separating the monopoly parts from the competitive parts, allowing new
firms to enter the competitive parts, and possibly
restructuring the monopoly parts
Establishing laws and institutions to regulate price
and quality in the monopoly parts
"Commercializing" the enterprises and
Attracting private sector participation through concession arrangements or privatization (whether sales
to strategic investors, mass privatization, or a mixture
of both).
58
were too large to be managed effectively. Like large stateowned industrial firms, they were kept alive through easy
access to bank credit and extensive subsidies to both farms
and consumers. Coexisting with these large farms was a
stunted private sector of small, individually owned farms
cient technology. Reforms in the early 1990s cut consumer subsidies and other transfers to agriculture. The
demise of the protected markets of the CMEA was an
additional severe blow. Demand plummeted, particularly
for meat and milk, and overall agricultural output fell by
transition economies have carried out substantial smallscale privatization, and Albania, the Baltic states, Croatia,
Chinese agriculture was collectivized in the 1950s, effectively stifling individual incentive. Agriculture was then
heavily taxed through price and marketing controls until
59
evolution and reorganization, since share trading on secondary markets is unlikely to develop.
The reorganization of farmholdings should concentrate on establishing and documenting individual ownership of land and nonland assets and on creating markets
through which owners can adjust farm size and capital
60
Commercial real estate was considered to have no productive value under central planning. In market economies, however, commercial real estate is a vast store of
wealth, often larger than industrial plant and equipment.
Real estate is also a critical factor in new business entry;
start-ups need access to premises or, equally important
(given the poor state of many existing buildings), access to
vacant land and permits to construct new buildings. Both
mercial real estate: no transition economy has yet embarked on a systematic program. What progress some
monopoly power to allocate scarce space (often at belowmarket rents) and to develop new space, to some extent
because of the irregular income that can be derived. Own-
The result of these partial efforts to privatize commercial real estate in most transition economies is a patchwork of confused property rights and continued widespread public ownership. Even in Bulgaria, the Czech and
ership is not their only source of power. Local governments also provide the services that make commercial
space usable, including power, water, sanitation, and fire
protection. They also regulate development. Some governments enter into direct competition with private businesses by developing land themselves or by setting up
joint ventures in commercial activities, using real estate as
61
this share has actually increased in recent years as local governments have transferred housing to enterprises. It may be
with it actually improves the fiscal position of governments. Rents for public housing were extremely low
under central planning, and governments and enterprises
bore most of the costs of construction, maintenance, and
utilities. Soviet local governments typically spent up to 15
percent of their budgets maintaining the municipal hous-
altered as well.
62
Percentage of total
Albania
China
Lithuania
Poland
Russia
1985 1995
1991 1995
1989 1995
1990 1995
Ukraine
100
80
60
40
20
1989
1995
ElPrivate
III Cooperative
MEnterprise
1992 1995
71 Local government
Note: "Enterprise" includes housing owned by government agencies other than local government, as well as state enterprise housing.
Source: Official data; World Bank 1995n; World Bank data.
velop efficient property tax regimes and condominiumtype laws, needed to allocate responsibility for common
areas of buildings. New owners will not appreciate the
value of their homes without active housing markets
through which to measure and realize that value. And
these markets will not develop unless owners have clear
and readily tradable rights to both structures and underly-
higher maintenance and utility costs in all housing, governments might consider offering housing allowances to
those hurt most by reforms, while at the same time raising
cash wages to replace forgone subsidies. The critical point
is
63
must, along with freedom from overregulation. New private firms must be able to set prices for outputs, search for
the best prices for inputs, change product lines, hire and
fire workers, and get the foreign exchange they need if they
by a Dutch businessman in 1991. The new owner invested heavily in technical and managerial training in such
areas as cost accounting, computers, marketing, total quality management, and English-language training. He provided the Polish firm with technical know-how and stateof-the-art equipment that not only increased productivity
but also reduced environmentally harmful emissions. He
then modernized the company's offices and facilities. The
results were startling. In three years the struggling company became a profitable and internationally competitive
enterprise. Sales per employee almost doubled from 1991
to 1994 and are expected to double again by 2000. Polish
64
Some transition economies have proved much more attractive to foreign investment.
15
10
20
25
30
35
40
Group 1
Poland
Slovenia
Hungary
438
10,634
Croatia*
FYR Macedonia*
Czech Republic
Slovak Republic
Group 2
Estonia
Lithuania
Bulgaria
Latvia
Albania
Romania
Mongolia
Group 3
Kyrgyz Republic
Russia
Moldova
36
3,996
483
646
73
397
323
186
1,101
38
25
3,900
86
Armenia*
Georgia*
Kazakstan
Group 4
Uzbekistan
Ukraine
Belarus
Azerbaijan*
Tajikistan*
Turkmenistan
Vietnam
Mongolia
719
250
950
52
110
25
351
China
121,704
East
Asia
Note: Data are the sum of inflows during 1989-95; those for Croatia, Georgia, and Turkmenistan are unavailable. Data for 1995 are
preliminary. Countries are ranked as in Figure 1.2. Asterisks indicate economies severely affected by regional tensions between 1989 and
1995. Source: World Bank 1996b; IMF and World Bank staff estimates.
AD
NTERPR SE REFORM
energy companies in Kazakstan and Russia. Unique historical and cultural factors, such as the presence of a large
diaspora, are also influential: Estonia has benefited from
close ties with Finland and other Scandinavian countries,
and most "foreign" investment in China has been made
all investors.
The agenda
and the NIS have shown the importance of, and effective
methods for, imposing financial discipline on state firms,
tralizedpreferably privateproperty rights and supporting institutions are needed to sustain financial discipline, to
65
People and
Transition
the end what matters is people. In the end a country's
/n
sustainability. This is especially true in transition countries, where policymakers may be unable to sustain vital,
growth-enhancing reforms if large parts of the population
feel that transition has left them behind.
How has transition affected living standards, and what
do these changes mean for employment and for redesigning income transfers? (The corresponding questions relat-
poverty in the short run, because some people or (especially in China and Russia) some regions inevitably benefit more than others. But the "losers" will not necessarily
be forced into poverty; it depends on whether the econ-
restructuring.
Older people have also been affected by the fall in output in CEE and the NIS. Like the rest of the population,
they have experienced a fall in their average living stan-
66
unemployment. Income transfers (for example, unemployment benefits) in transition countries therefore need
reform, not only to reduce poverty and contain costs but
also to assist mobility. This means, in particular, support-
dard. Unlike the young, they will reap few of the long-
67
cantly. The key to containing and reducing poverty, therefore, is resumed growth. However, for some people, such as
those with outdated skills, the elderly, or children in large
68
Gini coefficient
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Hungary
Czech
Slovenia
Poland
Republic
Bulgaria
Estonia
Russia
Kyrgyz
Republic
Note: For the NIS no reliable data exist for 1987-88 that would allow consistent comparison of income distributions over transition.
Levels for middle-income and OECD countries are simple averages. Source: Milanovic, forthcoming.
poverty. But after 1985, as reforms centered on the industrial sector, inequality rose markedly, mainly because of
increased urban-rural disparity (see below), and the number of poor stopped falling. Rural poverty is a continuing
problem. In Vietnam strong growth, due to the combined
69
Change from
Country
1993
1987-88
34
11
8
2
5
27
23
30
28
39d
about 50
48
Income')
Expenditure
(1993)
1987-88
(1993)
33
1
6
12
12
16"
23d'
76
38
21d,
57
35
9-33g
14-24g
1978-85
1985-93
East Asia
China
38h
Vietnam
34
24
+1'
.. Not available.
Note: All data, and especially those for the NIS, are subject to major statistical difficulties; changes in Gini coefficients and poverty head
counts should be regarded as only indicative. Any differences in Gini coefficients between this table and Table 5 in the World Development
Indicators are due to differences in samples, time periods, definitions, or other technical assumptions.
Percentage of population below the poverty line. Poverty estimates for CEE and the NIS are based on a common poverty line of $120 at
1990 international prices per capita per month for CEE and the NIS. This is high for the poorer NIS, such as the Kyrgyz Republic. Estimates
for the East Asian countries use much lower, country-specific poverty lines: $18 per capita per month for China, and for Vietnam a World
Bankdetermined poverty line based on a daily diet of 2,100 calories plus nonfood essentials.
Calculated from household survey data, adjusted upward where necessary to ensure compatibility with national income data.
For the NIS, no data exist that allow consistent comparison of income distributions over transition, and pretransition estimates of poverty
head counts are unreliable because of data deficiencies.
Data are for 1995.
Based on Goskomstat data for the beginning and household survey data for the end of the period (Goskomstat end-of-period data are not
available).
Calculated from 1993 PPP data for household size adjusted for equivalent adults.
The lower figure is based on Goskomstat data for both beginning and end of the period; the higher figure is based on Goskomstat data for
the beginning and household survey data for the end of the period.
Figure is for 1992.
70
Regional inequality, significant even before the reforms, increased in Russia, with poverty rates of 70 percent in the Altai territory of Russian Central Asia but less
than 10 percent in Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Murmansk. In June 1995 the richest 20 percent of territories
(predominantly areas rich in natural resources, plus
Percentage change
25
20
15
10
10
Poorest
Second
Middle
Fourth
Richest
The poverty estimates in Table 4.1 are based on a common poverty line for CEE and the NIS. This approach
allows comparison across countriesalthough results are
sensitive to a range of factors such as exchange rate fluctuationsbut means that fewer people will be counted as
poor in better-off countries like Slovenia than in poorer
countries like the Kyrgyz Republic. The Visegrad countries, apart from Poland, experienced the smallest rise in
poverty, but this does not mean that nobody in the Czech
Republic has become poorermerely that few Czechs fall
below the common poverty line. Nor does it mean that
Vietnam are farmers, who were taxed under the old system but now benefit from price liberalization.
How deep is poverty in transition, and is it transient or
enduring? Most poverty in CEE and the NIS is shallow.
In 1993 the average income of those below the common
poverty line fell roughly 25 to 30 percent below that level;
relative to country-specific poverty lines the poverty gap
value. Private land has been particularly important to wellbeing during transition. Survey evidence suggests that home
food production has increased in many countries, boosting
household consumption and sometimes income as well.
Political reforms have brought dramatic social liberal-
ticularly at risk.
Lacking access to assets. In particular, access to plots of
land has been a critical safety net for many households,
for example in Armenia and Ukraine.
71
72
0R
EV
targeted transfers.
norm. Wages bore little relation to individual performance: "Work was somewhere we went, not something
we did" Wage structures were rigid and varied little from
top to bottom; as much as half the compensation package
whether it has left them freer than before, or more constrained. So far, at least, the answer in many transition
countries appears to be the latter.
Under the previous regime women were expected
to work full-time, but the state provided day care and
burdensome domestic responsibilities or becoming discouraged workers. Survey data for several CEE coun-
job advertisements.
Many women have dropped out of the labor force.
during transition. In some countries the social pressures restricting women's choices have merely changed
73
employment and unemployment than a matter of changing the mix of household members' activities (Box 4.3).
Transition labor markets show three broad patterns of
adjustment. In the first, that typical of the GEE countries,
employment in the state sector declined sharply. In the
leading reformers labor shedding continued through the
whereas in Bulgaria and the Slovak Republic the state sector's decline was sharp and private sector growth weaker.
In almost all the GEE countries registered unemployment
rose sharply very early. It later declined, partly because of
tures, changing sectoral and regional employment patterns (including increased work in the informal sector),
and adjustment through unemployment.
WAGE ADJUSTMENT. Wages are starting to assist
reform by creating incentives to work hard and acquire
beginning to resemble that of a market economy. Evidence from Poland and the Czech Republic suggests an
ment of labor. For all these reasons the pool of the unem-
and the NIS made labor shedding from the state sector
unavoidable. Workers face four potential outcomes: staying in the state sector, moving to the new private sector,
becoming unemployed (and possibly undergoing training), or dropping out of the labor force altogether (for
example, through early retirement). But the employment
story is complicated, particularly in the NIS, by the tendency toward informal activity. Where a household works
74
Households also cope by relying on private income transfers. In Poland and Vietnam about twothirds of households either give or receive transfers
(see table). The amounts can be large: in the Kyrgyz
Kyrgyz Rep.
Poland
Russia
(1993)
(1992)
(1993)
Vietnam
(1993)
United States
(1979)
21.0
7.4
41.1
65.0
3.2
7.2
36.0
4.4
20.1
68.0
11.9
27.0
30
2
Source; Cox, Eser, and Jimenez, forthcoming; Cox, Fetzer, and Jimenez, forthcoming; Cox, Jimenez, and Jordan 1994; Cox, Jimenez, and
Okrasa 1995; Cox and Raines 1985; Gale and Scholz 1994.
speed transition in the NIS if such workers became explicitly unemployed, as in the CEE countries? Keeping people on the payroll may reduce pressures to restructure. But
if labor is immobile, as in Russia, increased unemployment does little to help match workers with jobs. Thus
the argument that the NIS should follow the CEE pattern
is not entirely clear-cut.
next section, income transfers have an important redistributive role. But their structure, in terms both of benefits and of contributions, has important implications for
the efficient operation of labor markets. In the early transition unemployment benefits were a large fraction of the
recipient's previous wage (often up to 75 percent, and in
Ukraine and Belarus 100 percent), and some countries set
no time limit on benefits. Not surprisingly, this reduced
incentives to find work. By 1995 benefits in all countries
were low, largely for fiscal reasons, and some countries,
75
Wages have fallen further in the NIS than in CEE, but more workers have kept their jobs.
Percent
1989 = 100
25
20
Czech Rep.
Russia
15
Latvia
Ukraine
Estonia
Belarus
10
Kazakstan
.1'.(`
\C\
\\k-
c,
4,"
e2.
<2,e'
; \2,
<6'
(6,.\
`),0
\%'''
II NIS
.(z9
co}
o<6. e
NIS
Note: Data are for 1994. Unemployment is measured by the registered unemployment rate; nominal wage data are deflated by the
country's consumer price index. Because of the ending of shortages and improvements in the quality of goods, changes in deflated wages
may not be a good index of changes in real purchasing power. The regression line is that for the regression of the wage index on countries'
rank by unemployment level. Source: Official data.
76
Millions of people
700
600
500
400
300
200
therefore, municipalities have an important role in ensuring continued provision of key services, perhaps through
1978
1993
El Other urban
El TVEs
Other rural
77
ernments have a distinct role in setting the legal and regulatory frameworks within which trade unions and firms
ments also need to define minimum standards and prevent exploitation and discrimination. Successful labor
policies are those that work in harmony with the market
and avoid providing special protection and privileges to
some labor groups at the expense of the poorest.
particular relevance to GEE and the NIS regarding unemployment. Should governments continue to assist enterprises? And what should be the role of active labor market
policies (policies aimed at improving work opportunities)?
The speed and effectiveness of transition depend on the
pace of restructuring in state and privatized firms. Where
local unemployment is high and labor mobility severely
constrained, a case can be made for temporary employment subsidies for firms that may survive in the long run
or whose closure would devastate a region. But governments should ensure that such support is phased down on
an established schedule (Chapter 3) and that financing is
78
Inherited systems of income transfers in transition economies differ greatly but share some common tendencies:
support is poorly targeted, much administration is devolved
to enterprises, and some rural populations are neglected.
GEE AND THE NIS. Although relatively well adapted
to the old regime, the system of income transfers in these
(Table 4.2). Poland, for example, has 4.6 people of working age for each person aged sixty or more, but only 1.9 of
them contribute. Bulgaria has little more than one contributor per pensioner. Medium-term projections in many countries show that present arrangements are not sustainable.
79
may have helped prevent change in the income distrirates. These, coupled with limited enforcement capacity, increase incentives for evasion and informalization,
old age.
economic growth should continue to aid poverty reduction. And because the poor make up a relatively small
share of the rural population, the government should be
able to target relief to the very poorest communities.
The second set of problems relates to a blurring of the
Country
Persons of
working age per
person over 60
Europe
Albania
Bulgaria
Czech Republic
Hungary
Poland
Romania
7.9
2.9
3.5
3.2
Contributors per
pensioner
1.0
1.2
4.6
3.6
2.0
1.5
1.9
2.0
2.9
5.0
6.6
6.3
1.9
2.6
3.6
3.0
Memorandum:
OECD average, 1990
3.6
2.6
80
Policy directions
ferent incomes, administrative capacities, family structures, and social priorities. Some have much larger informal sectors than others, and some remain substantially
rural. Their systems of income transfers will therefore differ widely.
PRIVATE INSURANCE. Many people are poor only for
the number of pensionersfor instance, by raising pensionable age and stemming abuse of disability pensions. In
sions should be accompanied by development of a complementary system of private pensions (discussed below).
In China there is broad agreement that a unified system, including rules for adjusting benefits for inflation,
should cover all urban enterprises, state and private. For
the same reasons as in CEE and the NIS, benefit administration and delivery should be shifted away from enterprises, and the retirement age should be raised. Contributions by employers and the different levels of government
should be clearly delineated and, for the same reasons as
elsewhere, worker contributions introduced.
Countries will need additional ways to relieve poverty,
but that requires first identifying who is poor. There are
81
fixed budget, so that spending can be controlled. Discretion, however, is administratively demanding at both the
tages: the only people who participate are those for whom
sometimes possible to identify the poor through an indicator of poverty that is easier to measure than income.
With services such as child care being withdrawn, family
allowances are likely to be particularly well targeted in the
European transition economies. An income test for all
families with children is administratively costly, and the
larger the informal sector, the less accurate it would be.
structure such as roads. But the approach is hard to implement, and it may face political opposition.
CONCLUSION. The experience even of the advanced
reformers highlights the difficulties of targeting poverty
such commodities are few, and the list of subsidized commodities can be "hijacked" by the middle class. Another
approach is to offer subsistence cash payments in return
82
shrinking (as in CEE and the NIS), the parents' home will
have to be financed in some other way. Alternative ways
of funding pensions include taxation, asset sales, or borrowing. Introducing private pensions therefore needs to
reformers for the time being, since they are still some way
mature; it takes up to forty years for workers to accumulate enough to support themselves in old age, although
83
But the alternatives are not necessarily easier. Governments could instead sell the property for revenue, but
countries, which have long-established market systems, relatively sophisticated banking systems and capital markets,
and relatively stable prices (and Chile introduced its reform
84
PART
Two
allen of
Consolidatio
The
shape ownership in advanced market economiesboth concrete organizations and abstract rules of the gamelargely disappeared under central planning. As Part One showed, even in
this weak institutional setting, favorable policy reforms have
been able to spur economic growth. But a growing body of evidence on market economies suggests that, for the longer term,
Which institutions are most critical? First are good laws and effective
means for their enforcement (Chapter 5). These establish and apply the rules of
the game, lower transaction costs, increase commercial certainty, create incen-
tives for efficiency, and control crime and corruption so that businesses can
focus on productive activities. Second are strong financial institutions (Chapter
This demand will not spring up overnight, and it will often require deep
changes in incentives, attitudes, and experience. But it will emerge faster if
policymakers are vigilant in pursuing macroeconomic stability, open markets,
serve past achievements and to adapt to the needs of the market (Chapter 8).
Finally, openness to trade and foreign investment has proved an equally
robust predictor of strong economic performance across countries. Indeed, both
have already had a large positive impact in transition economies. Deeper integration into the institutions of the global economy carries obligations as well as
rights, and these can help integration serve a broader purpose: that of locking
in reforms against the emergence of pressure groups (Chapter 9).
Legal Institutions
and the Rule of Law
central planning, law was first and foremost
Under
the rules of the game and gives individuals the rights and
tools to enforce them. Where the rule of law is in force,
laws are applied fairly, transparently, and evenhandedly to
all; individuals can assert and defend their rights; and the
state's powers are defined and limited by law. People in
countries with a well-established rule of law rarely stop to
wonder where it comes from. But transition economies
need to start over, to replace arbitrary rule by powerful
individuals or institutions with a rule of law that inspires
the public trust and respect that will enable it to endure.
Developing the rule of law
88
As noted in Chapter 9, a strong commitment to international integration can also stimulate demand for law
and provide market-friendly models of legislation. The
desire of many European transition economies to join the
European Union has motivated them to adopt economic
laws that meet EU requirements in such areas as taxation,
trade, and competition policy. Trade agreements with the
United States and eventual membership in the WTO and
other international bodies can also encourage legal reform, as can a strong commitment to foreign direct investment. The point here is not that integration will push
but that it will fuel demand for certain types of law and
help policymakers design laws that foster links with the
outside world.
Property rights
marketand their reputation in it. Banks and other creditors, for example, will not take seriously their new rights
under collateral, debt collection, and bankruptcy laws
unless convinced that state bailouts are unavailable. They
89
ronmental or nuisance laws), but many transition economies still go well beyond what is normal in market settings.
vate nonresidential capital stock and about threequarters of corresponding gross investment. Yet private
90
Contracts
Freedom of contract is one of the great virtues of marketoriented legal systems, providing a decentralized way of
allocating resources to their best uses. Parties are free to
negotiate performance requirements and prices, to allocate risks of loss if conditions change, and to specify how
below.
draw and pay monetary compensation rather than continue to perform under the contract.
In centrally planned systems, by contrast, parties had
no freedom either to enter into or to exit from commercial contracts. Interenterprise contracts were mere instruments of the plan, and full performance was generally
required. The collapse of central planning put an end
represents a radical shift for transition country governments, from controlling to merely facilitating economic
activity. Company law has to walk a fine line between
two often-conflicting goals: flexibility and protection.
Company owners and managers need to be as free as possible to arrange their own activities, yet the public, includ-
91
Bankruptcy law
fill the ten steps typically required to register a new company (not including the additional licenses required for
many activities). Supposedly designed to protect the public, these requirements are burdensome for new entrants
particularly small entrepreneurs who may therefore choose
to remain in the informal sectorand are obvious sources
A well-designed bankruptcy lawgenerally including procedures for both liquidation and reorganization of prob-
Transition economies have weak and sometimes corrupt courts and regulators, undeveloped capital markets, and a shortage of trained lawyers and accountants.
It is difficult for potential investors to get information
on companies and to enforce laws against managers,
who may also be large shareholders. Hence the risk of
insider opportunism is high, which discourages muchneeded outside investment. Transition economies need
a corporate law that can work even in this setting.
Two broad Western models for protecting investors
through corporate law are available. So-called prohibitive corporate laws bar many kinds of behavior that are
open to abuse, such as self-dealing transactions and
cash mergers. This model was followed in nineteenthcentury U.S. and British codes and is to some extent
followed in European codes today. By contrast, the so-
board. By imposing these and other procedural requirements, the self-enforcing model tries to create
self-policing mechanisms and to reduce reliance on
companies greater freedom and depend more on market constraints and other civil and criminal laws (such
as antifraud statutes) to discipline managers and protect investors. The enabling model is almost certainly
weakness of these other constraints on insider opportunism. But the prohibitive model also has its costs.
Not only can its inflexibility inhibit legitimate business
behavior, but strong courts or administrative agencies
are needed to enforce its many rules.
An alternative approach, followed to a large extent
in the new Russian companies law, is a self-enforcing
corporate law. This model focuses on structural and
nies adopt them to develop a good reputation for honest behavior, to emulate their peers, or simply because
92
will either refuse to make loans or turn to the state for sup-
Many transition economies have adopted new bankruptcy laws. Those in Bulgaria, Estonia, Hungary, and
Slovenia are among the best designed. They provide, for
example, clear criteria for determining insolvency and
delineating claims, efficiency-enhancing priority rules
(most important, giving preference to secured creditors
As discussed in Chapter 3, transition economies, particularly in CEE and the NIS, inherited an industrial structure
with many monopolistic or oligopolistic firms, dominant
state ownership, and a strong tradition of state control.
But these efforts need to be complemented by regulation of natural monopolies and by antimonopoly law to
ensure efficiency and protect the public from the abuse of
competitors to fix prices or divide markets; vertical restraints include a wide range of restrictive agreements
between producers and distributors. These laws also empower the government to block anticompetitive mergers
and in some cases to break up monopolies.
The European Union and several member and nonmember countries (particularly Germany, the United
Kingdom, and the United States) have played important
roles in helping design these competition laws, pushing
for their adoption, and training staff for and otherwise
assisting antimonopoly offices. Because transition economies inherited such a legacy of state dominance and are
short on administrative capacity, however, antimonopoly
offices face somewhat different priorities than their EU
and U.S. counterparts. They must focus their scarce re-
93
activity require a strong and competent state. Yet well-functioning markets also need a clear sense of where the state's
role ends. The government must itself be ruled by law and
94
Government credibility
High
Russia 1995
Low
Note: The sample consists of twenty-eight economies plus Czech Republic and Russia. Growth data are annual averages for 1981-90,
and data on government credibility are based on public opinion surveys taken in late 1992 (which included retrospective questions),
except that data for Czech Republic and Russia are for 1995 on both measures. Source: Borner, Brunetti, and Weder 1994; World
Bank data.
95
Democratic reforms have led many transition economies to broaden the scope of judicial review to cover all
administrative acts and to give civil or commercial courts
clear oversight jurisdiction. In addition, all GEE countries
and some NIS have established constitutional courts with
the power to overturn laws and regulations that they find
unconstitutional. Thus, the procedural means to oversee
state actions is beginning to emerge. There is still, however, profound confusion about the division of authority
among various state actors, particularly in the NIS. The
distinction between the legislative authority of the parlia-
through reforms against defensive or undecided parliaments or local governments. Although this may speed
reform in the short run, in the long run it could under-
Controlling corruption
financial scandals undermine standards for official and private conduct alike. It is hard to punish one person for misconduct if the public perceives that everyone elseinclud-
ing high officialsis doing the same thing. This raises the
Corruption is by no means costless. Recent crosscountry analysis suggests a significant association with
96
tion, liberalization, and demonopolization of the economy can do much to reduce the scope for corruption and
restructure incentives. Higher salaries for public officials
reduce the attraction of bribes and raise the cost of dis-
Lithuaniaand clarifying property rights reduce opportunities for bribery and help firms survive without resort-
Box 5.3 Controlling corruption through overlapping jurisdictions: Examples from the United States
97
an efficient and law-abiding security apparatus and dispute resolution mechanisms that ensure due process. Gov-
Building a
Financial System
spur economic efficiency by allocating
resources to their best uses, in response to sup-
Markets
ply and demand. A good system of financial
markets and institutions is integral to this process, allocating savings to high-return investments. Worldwide experience confirms that countries with well-developed financial
systems grow faster and more consistently than those with
weaker systems and are better able to adjust to economic
shocks. Transition implies vast reallocations of resources
and ownership, a task at which effective financial systems
could help enormously. Yet financial systems in transition
lessons for future reform. Whichever approachor combination of the twocountries follow, one clear lesson is
that governments have a vital role in promoting the development of a stable financial sector and regulating it over
99
100
Together these events fueled an explosion in the number of Russian banks: from 5 in 1989 to 1,500 in 1992
and 2,500 in 1995.
Macroeconomic developments during this period
created a competitive advantage for these new banks
over the old state banks. Lack of fiscal and monetary
eral
and disclosure standards are still rudimentary, a welldeveloped auditing profession does not yet exist, and
banking supervision remains embryonic. These limitations open the door to fraud and imprudent investment
and undermine confidence in the financial system. To
address this problem the Russian government, with assistance from the World Bank and the European Bank for
Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), has introduced an international banking standards project. Some
of the best banks have been selected to on-lend World
Bank and EBRD funds to the private sector. In return,
the banks must submit to annual audits by international
accounting firms and adhere to prudential norms with
respect to capital adequacy, portfolio diversification,
banks have rapidly become the country's leading commercial banks, with balance sheets of $1 billion to $3
billion. They move quickly into new business lines and
countries. Comparison of countries according to the institutional capacity of the better segment of their banks shows
that, while the reformers with more entry generally had
much worse starting conditions, some have now caught up
101
Percentage of GDP
100
Currency
80
16
60
Deposits
40
73
17
67
20
25
81
18
12
0
CEE
NIS
China
Latin
America
OECD
. .
As we have seen, initial conditions are an important consideration in striking the balance between an entry and a
rehabilitation approach to banking reform. Some coun-
102
Large numbers of nonperforming loans and undercapitalized banks can undermine macroeconomic stability, lead
to high interest rates, and forestall a decentralized, caseby-case restructuring of enterprises. Some observers have
argued for early, comprehensive loan forgiveness to make
a clean break with the past. Canceling the nonperforming
debt of state enterprises to state banks has no impact on
either national or government wealth, or on bank profits
ited resources on addressing problem banks and nonbanks, screening entrants, and improving incentives for
banks to adopt prudent practices.
103
which deplete their capital. In China, for example, the profitability of state banks is depressed in part because interest
injecting cash or bonds, taking over bad loans, and providing other forms of fiscal supporthas been an important component of a rehabilitation strategy. But recapitalization is a wise use of taxpayers' money only if it quickly
restores the health of the financial system and improves
bad lending policies, resources are frequently squandered or used fraudulently, and recapitalizations often
are repeated again and again. Argentina, Chile, and the
United States have all undertaken repeated recapitalizations of their banking systems. Recapitalization poses
particularly large risks in transition countries. The adverse
incentives it gives to already poorly governed state banks
tend to be exacerbated by the fact that their privatizationa necessary complement to the rehabilitation
approachhas proved difficult, making the endpoint unclear (Box 6.3).
Instead of relying on recapitalizations and other forms of
government support, policies should promote self-help for
banks to encourage them to build up their capital base. Rel-
methods of sales, particularly to foreign buyers. Transferring ownership through vouchers has been somewhat
more successful. Large stakes in five banks in the Czech
and Slovak Republics were transferred in this way. It
credibly from ownership. Like their privatized counterparts in Chile and Mexico, several banks in transition
economies returned to state ownership when they ran
into problems.
104
744-
are funded by a combination of bonds (administratively placed with commercial banks), capital contributions from the government budget, and central bank
lending. The three banks' operations are already significant: all bank-financed government investment is
security for loans, but these are still the exceptions (see
easily turn out to be merely another layer of government, and one that perpetuates market segmentation
and the role of planning.
105
106
firms. The venture capital funds in which the International Finance Corporation (IFC) participates, for exam-
traditional bank loans, not least that it can work well even
where collateral laws are still extremely weak. In Romania
the existing civil law, although a century old, was used to
$500,000. Such funds can be particularly useful in transition economies, not simply because equity investments
offer some hedge against inflation, but also by providing
lined in this part of the Report, the trick to capital markets is not bringing them into being but nurturing them
broader process of transition. For capital markets, especially the more formal kind, that role is largely one of
facilitating the reallocation of property rights. Capital
107
The more formal, centralized type of securities exchange is not particularly difficult to set up. At least nineteen transition economies have done so. And almost all
countries in GEE, several NIS, and China and Vietnam
have adopted (or are adopting) supporting, comprehensive securities laws. Yet both market capitalization and
share turnover in these formal markets have tended to be
low by both developing and industrial country standards
(Figure 6.2). Accordingly, the new markets have raised
only limited funding. In GEE and the NIS only the best
firms have been able to raise any financing, altogether less
than $1 billion from 1991 to 1995. In China new equity
cies to raise saving, as well as the emergence of institutional investors such as private pension funds (see Chapter 4) and insurance companies. Policymakers will also
need to improve the protection of creditors and investors,
especially minority shareholders, and vigorously punish
fraud and other white-collar crimes. Enhanced disclosure
A bottom-up approach can have advantages. Experience in transition economies and elsewhere shows that
more-effective rules and institutions tend to develop when
they advance in step with demand and supply, rather than
own rules first, which were later absorbed into an overarching national regulatory framework.
Foreign demand can be particularly helpful in lifting
108
Market capitalization
Turnover
United Kingdom
Thailand
France
Nontransition
economies
Spain
Mexico
Brazil
Greece
Turkey
Czech Rep.
Slovak Rep.
China
Transition
economies
Russia
Hungary
Poland
Croatia
Lithuania
Romania
120
100
80
60
40
20
Percentage of GDP
20
40
60
80
100
Note: Capitalization is the market value of shares outstanding at the end of 1995. Turnover is the market value of shares traded during 1995.
Some economies with short histories of operating stock exchanges are not shown, as complete data are unavailable. Data do not cover all
stock exchanges or over-the-counter trading, and only the most liquid stocks are included. Source: International Finance Corporation and World
Bank staff estimates.
they demand good custody, trustee, audit, and bank payments systemsfiduciary functions missing in many transition economies. In Russia, for example, a British company acquired 20 percent of the shares of an aluminum
company, but its share ownership was later annulled by the
109
The agenda
ity, especially in formal markets. In many transition economies with mass privatization programs, investors have
in the Czech Republicas investors try to build up controlling stakes. Other countries show a similar tradeoff
between concentration of ownership and market liquidity.
Given the lack of sound corporate governance and scarcity
of financial skills, concentrated outside ownership (com-
the allocation of resources. Premature bailouts in particular have often undermined the credibility of reforms. Governments should instead encourage banks to be more self-
Toward Better
and Slimmer
Government
transition from plan to market calls for a whole-
The
shrink and change its nature. No longer the prime economic agent in most areas, it must instead facilitate private
activity. This chapter steps back from the many demands
on governments undergoing transitionthe array of economic and institutional reforms outlined in other chaptersto analyze the more fundamental issue of the role of
the state itself in the economy and how it should evolve
during transition. It goes on to analyze how the reinvention of government should proceed in practice, focusing on
the need to overhaul all aspects of the public finances. In
most transition economies reforms have sapped power and
111
112
Index of effectiveness of
public sector management
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Group 4
Countries
affected by
regional
East Asia
tensions
Note: The market orientation index is a composite measure of how much governments have imposed hard budgets on banks and enterprises,
shifted public spending away from the productive sector and toward social services and infrastructure, withdrawn from commercial
decisionmaking, divested enterprise social assets, and moved toward a targeted social security system. The index of management
effectiveness combines measures of the consistency of fiscal policy and overall economic strategy; the quality of public investment planning,
budget management, and tax administration; and the transparency of intergovernmental relations. Both indexes are constructed from relative
country rankings, estimated based on comparative information and consultations with country specialists. See Figure 1.2 for details of the
liberalization index and the grouping of countries. Source: De Melo, Denizer, and Gelb, background paper; World Bank staff estimates.
government as a whole is not vastly overstaffed or underpaid in most of these countries, and where total spending
remains high, this has little to do with excessive wage bills.
113
balance there are too few professional and too many clerical staff. Even where average education and skill levels are
high, government workers lack the accounting, tax, regu-
similar income.
There is no systematic relationship between changes in
114
Governments in most transition economies are shrinking, but many in Europe are still too big.
Figure 7.2 GDP per capita and ratios of government expenditure to GDP in
selected transition economies
60
Visegrad 1989
55
Visegrad 1994
Ukraine 1994A
50
CEE 1989
USSR 1989
Vi
CEE 1994
45
OECD 1994
OECD 1989
Russia 1994
Romania 1989 a
40
China 1978
35
A NIS 1994
Romania 1994
Baltics 1994
30
25
"Normal" size of
government in market
economies
Kazakstan 1994
20
15
0
320
1,000
3,200
10,000
32,000
Note: GDP per capita is at market exchange rates and plotted on a logarithmic scale. Government expenditure is all expenditure for central and
local government plus extrabudgetary operations (quasi-fiscal and state enterprise operations are excluded). The regression line is based on a
separate sample of forty-seven developing and industrial market economies. Data for country groups are simple averages. Source: IMF,
various years (c); official data; IMF and World Bank staff calculations and estimates.
in market economies; also, financing government programs is costlier and poses a greater risk of inflation.
Public spending is inefficient for several reasons. First,
most large governments in transition economies spend a
disproportionate share of public funds on programs with
little if any impact on productivity and economic growth,
such as subsidies and social transfers (see below). Since
115
rapid growth (Chapter 2). Third, the efficiency of government services such as health and education in many transition economies is undermined by entrenched spending
allocations within sectors, weak implementation capacities, and high staffing ratios (see Chapter 8). Increased private participation and cost recovery are urgent priorities.
sition economies. The biggest changeswhich are furthest advanced in the leading reformersrelate to spend-
ply their level, can help introduce economic considerations into the politics of budgeting, force a prioritization
of expenditures, and facilitate reform.
The restructuring of government expenditures toward
market economy patterns is well under way in most tran-
economies where the scope for domestic and external borrowing is limited and a large share of deficits can only be
financed by printing money (Chapter 2).
Setting new spending priorities
Changes in the role of government during transition trigger shifts in spending priorities. The aim is to make the
composition of expenditures consistent with the tasks of
government in a market economy and conducive to longrun growth. Indeed, robust empirical evidence supports
the view that government spending tends to be productive
and to promote economic growth where it corrects proven
tive transitional relief to vulnerable workers and households and do not delay necessary enterprise restructuring.
Several CEE and Baltic countries have demonstrated that
many subsidies can indeed be phased out abruptly. Where
subsidies have already come down, the main challenges
are to reduce any remaining subsidiesoften concentrated in agriculture, energy, and housingand recover a
greater share of the costs of some education, health, and
local transport services. Phasing out remaining subsidies
116
Percentage of GDP
70
Russia
Other
Capital investment
60
Ukraine
50
Middle-income comparators
High-income comparators
40
China
Baltics
Kazakstan
30
20
10
1990 1994
1991 1994
1992 1994
1992 1994
1991 1994
1978 1994
Average,
1983-90
Note: Data include central and local government plus extrabudgetary expenditures (quasi-fiscal and state enterprise expenditures are
excluded). For the high-income comparators (Australia, Canada, Germany, Israel, Luxembourg, United Kingdom, and United States) and the
middle-income comparators (Argentina, Chile, Malaysia, Panama, Republic of Korea, Swaziland, Turkey, and Zimbabwe), data are weighted
averages, and the bottom segment represents subsidies plus social transfers. Source: IMF, various years (a); official data; World Bank staff
estimates.
in the Visegrad countries. In Poland, for example, payments rose from 7 percent of GDP in the late 1980s to 16
percent in 1993-94. Permitting this cost explosion to
continue not only would further crowd out other expenditures but could jeopardize stabilization. Thus, pension
grad countries (see Chapter 4). Indeed, Leszek Balcerowicz, the main architect of Poland's economic reform pro-
117
off the previous year's budget. This practice is still followed in China and some other countries. During transi-
with incoming revenues rather than spending commitments. This crude and inefficient practice has often led to
arrears on suppliers' payments, wages of civil servants or
state enterprise employees, pensions, and so on. Government arrears bring a raft of problems: not only do they typically worsen an economy-wide arrears problem (see Chapter 2), but they impede private sector development, impose
high social costs, and breed cynicism about government
and market reforms overall. Instead, governments need to
move quickly to develop working cash-management and
treasury systemsa process now under way in the Baltics,
Croatia, and Kazakstan.
118
external financing of the budget deficit may be warrantedin the context of policy measures to reform the
Percentage of GDP
Other
70
Trade taxes
60
Visegrad
Corporate tax
countries
50
Russia
Middle-income comparators
Ukraine
Baltics
High-income comparators
40
China
30
Kazakstan
20
10
1990 1994
1991 1994
1992 1994
1992 1994
1991 1994
1978 1994
Average,
1983-90
Note: Data include central and local government plus extrabudgetary revenues (revenues from quasi-fiscal and state enterprise operations
are excluded). Data for the high-income and middle-income comparators are weighted averages (see Figure 7.3 for the countries in each
group). Source: IMF, various years (a); official data; World Bank staff estimates.
Er
food and consumer items, are exempt from value added tax
(VAT). And excise rates on alcohol and cigarettes in the
NIS are about 20 percentage points lower than in OECD
119
120
effort, discourage formal hiring, and push economic activity underground. The payroll tax base has indeed shrunk a
great deal in some transition countries. Third, and perhaps
most important, the many tax exemptions and special tax
rates described above often coexist with higher tax rates on
other activities, such as banking and insurance, and on the
private sector generally. Such variations in tax treatment
undermine revenue performance, complicate tax administration, and distort resource allocation.
Improving tax revenues in transition countries entails
reforming the structure and composition of taxes as well
enterprisesare tricky to tax at the best of times. Government might start by assigning identification numbers to all
taxpayers, focusing its efforts on the large taxpayers who
generate the bulk of revenue, and withholding wage taxes
at the source. Next in line should be improved monitoring
and follow-up action against those who fail to file returns
or make payments. Latvia, for example, has issued regulations for an improved taxpayers' register: every taxpayer
must register with the State Revenue Service; financial in-
121
lower levels of government create a need for intergovernmental transfersboth to close the fiscal gap at local
levels and to ensure minimum levels of public services
across local governments (equalization). Worldwide experience in tackling this issue yields four broad lessons for tran-
122
99
been passed, new taxes have replaced old ones, and subsidies have generally been cut sharply. But progress at fiscal
stabilization has been mixed, spending reallocations that
hinge on deep sectoral reforms are difficult and slow, and
Most transition economies are in the midst of a comprehensive reform of their governments. Crucial laws have
Investing in People
and Growth
healthy work force is essential for
economic growth. Here the transition economies
Awell-educated,
have a strong foundation on which to build. As
the Introduction noted, high quality of and good access to
basic education and health care were two of the proudest
achievements of central planning. Yet the health care and
education systems that transition governments inherited
is therefore needed, both to give workers more transferable, marketable skills and to develop informed citizens,
capable of participating actively in civil society. Reform of
124
In China a serious problem is provision of social services, which has stagnated in China's poorest regions.
areas nearly all the girls, do not attend school and will not
attain literacy. Only thirty of the seventy school-age children in a poor village in Tongxin County attend elementary school; in another village in the same county none of
the fifty children have attended school in the four years
since the local elementary school collapsed.
one hand, on teaching all students a uniform interpretation of history and national purpose, and on the other, on
mastery of fixed, specialized bodies of knowledge to be
applied in narrowly defined jobs. Education therefore
emphasized conformity for all and specialist expertise for
each. This philosophy rendered socialist education systems inadequate to the needs of a market economy in at
least three ways. First, although basic education was in
many ways superior to that in many Western countries,
subsequent training was too specialized from too early an
age. Poland's secondary technical schools taught about
300 occupational skills to meet the specific and fairly static demands of the central plan. In Germany, by contrast,
about sixteen broad apprenticeship programs are available
to sixteen- to eighteen-year-olds. Second, adult education
and training, essential for job mobility in a market economy, was neglected because workers were expected to
remain in their first occupation throughout their working
lives. Third, subjects such as economics, management sci-
ences, law, and psychologyall of which feature prominently in market economieswere deemed irrelevant and
ignored or underemphasized.
Liberal market economies also use education to transmit cultural, political, and national values as well as
knowledge and skills. In sharp contrast with education
solving skills.
125
Figure 8.1 Science and mathematics test performance of children in selected transition
and established market economies
Score
10
Israel
Canada
France
Hungary
United Kingdom
Slovenia
Mean for
19 countries
2
Awareness of facts
Application of facts
Use of knowledge
in an unanticipated
circumstance
Note: Data are deviations from the overall mean, for a sample of nineteen countries, of test results of nine- and thirteen-year-olds on the
second International Assessment of Educational Progress, conducted in 1991. The countries shown are those whose performance was
above the sample mean. Source: Kovalyova 1994; for technical details see Education and Testing Service 1992a, 1992b.
tition and thus efficiency; and diversification of educational practice, to enhance individual choice. These initiatives, however, require a major change in the role of the
126
Knowledge
Objective
Preserve the achievements of the old system but rectify the earlier underemphasis on social sciences
and law.
Skills
Assist the movement from specific skills to broader and more flexible skills better able to meet the
continually changing demands of a market economy.
Strengthen the ability to apply knowledge in new and unforeseen circumstances.
Attitudes
Strengthen the idea that the initiatives of workers and of others are rewarded.
Assist the understanding that employing workers (subject to suitable regulation) is not exploiting them
but giving them an opportunity to earn a living.
Assist the understanding that business has its place in society and hence that profits are needed to
provide an engine of growth.
Values
In line with the changed relationship between the citizen and the state, encourage the understanding
that citizens need to take responsibility for their actions, including their choices about education,
work, and lifestyle.
Foster the understanding that freedom of expression is an essential and a constructive component of
a pluralist society governed by consent.
The state sector, and its secondary vocational and technical training programs in particular, responded slowly to
the arrival of a market economy. As a consequence many
graduates now feed the lines of unemployed. On the positive side, new institutions have sprung up (many of them
private), especially in the teaching of social sciences and
business administration, partly because of rising returns to
127
By the late 1980s Hungarian men aged fifteen to fiftynine stood a greater risk of dying than their counterparts
tors influence a person's health: income, lifestyle, environmental pollution and occupational risks, and the quality of
128
Male life expectancy and death rates from injury and cardiovascular disease in Russia
Life expectancy
Death rates
Years
66
1,200
64
1,000
62
800
60
600
58
400
56
200
Cardiovascular
disease
Injury
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
1970
1975
1980
Note: "Injury" includes deaths caused by accident, assault, poisoning, and suicide. Source: World Bank data.
1985
1990
1995
NG
health services in CEE and the NIS retain most of the inefficiencies inherited from central planning. In the NIS people can admit themselves to hospitals, and many enter for
long stays for nonclinical reasons (in Russia 21 percent of
the population spent time in the hospital in 1993, compared with 16 percent in the industrial market economies
and around 10 percent in middle-income countries). Hos-
pitals have too many doctors, who are poorly paid and
often poorly trained. Rigid budgeting systems give managers neither the incentive nor the freedom to use resources
efficiently. For example, funding of hospitals is related to
PEOP E AN
GROWTH
129
managers therefore have an incentive to keep a large number of beds, preferably empty ones. Public health programs
are poorly structured, and modern methods of quality con-
130
ical spending about 17 percent of U.S. citizens below retirement age were uninsured in 1994, yet total medical
spending that year absorbed over 14 percent of GDP, a
much higher fraction than in any comparable country (the
figure for the United Kingdom is 7 percent). To contain
costs and promote access, the industrial market economies
have increasingly financed health care through taxation,
social insurance, or a mixture of the two.
Many of the transition economies, including Croatia,
ments have lost control of spending, because contributions and expenditure are determined separately by a more
or less autonomous health insurance fund.
lems in CEE and the NIS, not the least of which is runaway expenditures. In 1992 the Czech Republic introduced fee-for-service payment without the necessary
regulatory structure to cap medical spending, resulting in
an entirely predictableand entirely predictedspending overrun. Most countries have yet to sort out the
proper relationship between the public and the private
sector. The private sector will supply health services only
for a profit, and this raises questions about the extent to
which public funding should be a source of private profit.
its own hospital but its own medical school. This ties
workers to enterprises. In rural areas, as discussed earlier,
the major problem is to finance health care in a way that
assists access to medical care.
Health finance in Vietnam also faces severe problems.
131
The
past fifteen years, while total inflows of foreign direct
investment (FDI) to developing countries have increased
sixfold in just ten. Meanwhile a common set of overarching rules and institutions, including most prominently the new, 110-member World Trade Organization
(WTO), has evolved to support even faster integration
and to resolve disputes. Developing countries, many of
which have recently made their own highly successful, if
less comprehensive transitions toward more outwardlooking economic policies, play an increasingly active part
plyrather than at the behest of a central plannerfueling faster growth in productivity, trade volumes, and
national income. At the same time integration helps lock
countries onto the path toward more-open trade, while
membership in international institutions spurs domestic
institution building.
Chapters 2 and 3, respectively, discussed the domestic
importance of opening trade and of foreign investment.
This chapter looks at transition economies' interactions
with the rest of the world: trade flows to and from these
countries and the consequences thereof for world trade;
rapid and full-fledged membership in the WTO and rele-
133
134
since the 1970s. None of these preferences will be seriously eroded by the emergence of the GEE countries as
EU trade partners. It is fair to say that their arrival on
the scene may have deprived Mediterranean exporters of
whatever geographical advantage in EU markets they previously enjoyed. But in fact the market share of nonoil
exports of Mediterranean countries in the EU market has
been stable. Mediterranean nations and CEE countries
naturally have very different relative strengthsrevealed
the fact that rapidly growing GEE countries are themselves another potential market for the exports of the
Mediterranean and African countries.
The GEE countries enter the international arena with
relatively highly skilled labor, although some reorientation
in educational priorities is needed, as discussed in Chapter
8. Because FDI brings not only capital and equipment but
also managerial skills and ties to a trade network, in the
longer run the GEE countries would be expected to compete in medium- or high-skill-intensive products rather
ing 3 million to 4 million workers, are engaged in subcontracting for Hong Kong companies. The tigers, meanwhile, have moved up the development ladder to produce
more capital- and skill-intensive products.
Without the emergence of China, would other developing countries have captured larger markets as the tigers
135
The OECD countries have taken significant steps to normalize trade relations with transition economies. They
have granted transition economies most-favored-nation
status and eliminated quantitative restrictions that applied
only to "state trading countries," and some have granted
trade preferences that put the transition economies on a
par with developing countries already enjoying such preferences. But normalization is not yet complete. Transition
economies still face certain quantitative restrictions and
differential treatment in antidumping actions in OECD
countries, and only a few are formally protected by WTO
rules and procedures. Six transition countriesthe Czech
Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, the Slovak Republic, and Sloveniaare members of the WTO.
WTO membership is an important step for transition
countries, and virtually all have applied to join. The WTO
provides a firm institutional basis for the application and
enforcement of multilaterally agreed trade rules on goods
and services and on the protection of intellectual property
rights. Each \VT member undertakes commitments to
cap (bind) tariffs on imports and enjoys corresponding
rights for its exports to member countries. No member
may normally increase tariffs above bound levels without
at least providing compensation. The WTO constrains
various trade procedures to acceptable standards. For a
country assuming obligations negotiated under WTO auspices, the requirement to maintain access to its market or
enhance the political feasibility of achieving and maintaining liberal trade regimes at home, in the face of the
strong sectoral interests that are inevitably emerging.
0*
136
former East Germany (see Box 1.1), GEE and the NIS
have not absorbed a great deal of foreign capitaleither
Sub-Saharan
Africa
China
13%
9%
South
Asia
7%
Latin America
and the Caribbean
26%
capital flows...
Between them the countries of GEE and the NIS absorbed
15 percent of total capital flows to developing and transi-
still
all but
Or of foreign assistance?
inflows and thus help them restructure toward international competitiveness. Annual net flows of official devel-
N0mY
Official assistance for transition economies has not been at Africa's expense.
Billions of dollars
35
30
25
20
15
10
1990
1991
1992
1993
Sub-Saharan Africa
1994
1995
Other developing
economies
Note: Official development finance consists of official development assistance (grants and concessional lending) plus nonconcessional
lending. Data for 1995 are preliminary. Source: World Bank 1996b.
est rates of rising demand for foreign capital from transition economies would be small compared with that already
137
138
ORLD
EVE OPMEN
percent of their combined GDP in 1991-93. UnderReforming governments receive the most
external assistance.
Dollars
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Group 4
ate levels, external assistance may be neededwithin limitsto help some countries bridge a transitional fiscal gap.
Whereas government spending as a share of GDP still
exceeds reasonable limits in some countries, other transition governments are small relative to their core functions.
Some governments have been forced to cut social protection and public investment, probably to levels below those
needed to sustain reforms. Some, with limited capacity for
administering taxes, end up imposing distortionary taxes
to meet their spending needs, at huge cost to economic
efficiency (Chapter 7). Meanwhile a number of governments are themselves in arrears, undermining hard budget
constraints elsewhere in the economy (Chapter 2). These
problems merit close attention by assistance agencies.
However, budget support should always be conditional
on policy reforms, notably in the areas of tax policy and
administration, budget management, targeted poverty programs, and human resource development.
received more official assistance in relation to their population as well as to GDP than, for example, did Belarus.
regions and social costs that may have political implications. In these areas assistance can speed recovery, for
example through funding severance pay and extraordinary
demands on local goverqments in distressed regions, as
well as possible environmental costs associated with plant
the GEE economies, which have generally progressed furthest in their reforms, accounted on average for about 2.7
139
trated and overbuilt industries, such as Ukraine's coal sector (see Box 3.2). Here again, support needs to carefully
international financial institutions have also engaged heavily in this kind of institution building, across a wide range
of areas, in addition to transferring financial resources.
Building institutions takes time and sometimes involves restoring entire professions in areas essential to a
well-functioning market economy. For example, although
considerable support has been given to privatization and
the drafting of new legislation, more needs to be allocated
for the training of judges and other legal professionals and
for the upgrading of judicial facilities (Chapter 5). Technical assistance should encourage local capacity building
through, among other things, more involvement of local
participants. Far greater stress is needed on economic education in the broad sense as well as hands-on training in
key marketable skills (Chapter 8).
Box 9.1 Business skills training is good for businessfor trainers and trainees
mixed record. But two programs show how to overcome the pitfalls and create valuable follow-on effects.
In early 1992 the World Bank's Economic Development Institute launched a training program to sup-
helping local talent and stakeholders to help themselves. The 180 trainees recruited since the program
began
140
might be tempting to think that the ability to replace official capital flows with private capital flows is a function of
the level of income. In fact, it owes much to government
policies. China, one of the poorest transition economies,
relies mostly on private capital.
The agenda
private capital. A key purpose of official financial assistance must be to bring down, decisively and sustainably,
the barriers to committing external and domestic private
capital, especially private equity investments. Some countries have passed through this phase very quickly. The
European Union and the international financial institutions, it will mean careful consideration of how to help
transition countries in ways that support rather than delay
long-term reform. Speeding the removal of existing trade
barriers, along with further direct efforts toward integration, will bring perhaps the largest and most immediate
benefits for transition countries. But more-direct forms of
support, such as short-term financial assistance and, critically, helping countries acquire much-needed skills and
institutions, are also important. Finally, the integration
process must be buttressed, on both sides, by determined
efforts to allay fears about the costs of greater global competition and to persuade those diffident of integration that,
in the long term, all they stand to lose is their isolation.
Condusionsand the
Unfinished Agenda
economies have made great strides in
liberalizing their domestic markets and foreign
Transition
trade regimes and in freeing up entry into private
business. Many are trying to define property rights more
growth in previously repressed sectors (services in particular) and the penetration of new export markets.
The turnaround in the more successful reformers has
included substantial adjustment, even by state enterprises.
clearly and to privatize, to create or renew essential institutions to support efficient markets, and to reshape social
services and the social safety net to conform to the needs
of a market system. Taken together, these measures con-
as well.
ON
cult choice. Dedicated and audacious leaders have mattered a great deal, but transition is not just a matter of
intelligent leaders choosing the right policy package or
tion often precedes the legitimization of a private economy, but it accelerates thereafter. An ownership vacuum
delays the restructuring of drifting firms, for which nobody is fully responsible and which cannot tap external
143
144
resources. It can create or prolong macroeconomic problems, because it produces strong incentives for enterprise
managers to show poor financial performance and then
snap up their firms (or additional shares) at an artificially,
low price. It can also be inequitable and induce corruption, which can undermine the authority of government.
An initial assignment of property rights is only the first
step. The broader goal is to develop an efficient secondary
trading process in which ownership claims can be reorga-
ity to raise finance from outside the community. Countries need to beware of dead ends in the evolution of ownership: some transitional arrangements, such as the closed
joint-stock corporations in Ukraine or the highly dispersed individual ownership seen in Mongolia, promise to
become obstacles to reorganization, essentially because
they entrench incumbent workers and managers. In contrast, besides sales (where feasible), the Czech approach,
which creates strong external institutional investors and
stimulates trading among them, appears to have many
advantages.
Institutional developmentof legal and financial systems and of a retooled governmentnormally takes years,
if not decades. It therefore trails early macroeconomic
145
punish high-level corruption. Like corruption, organized crime thrives when property rights are unclear,
legal procedures ineffective, and risks low. Effective
action against organized crime also requires that the
state be reasonably free of internal corruption.
enable it to provide the skills needed in a changing market economy. Incorporating private provision of education services, particularly in higher and adult education,
and providing education vouchers as part of retraining
assistance could help introduce demand-led restructuring.
institutional change is also closely related to the comprehensiveness and duration of macroeconomic and ownership reforms. Market-oriented reforms create demand for
reforms.
crises occur.
146
Third, in addition to short-term support for stabilization programs, a case can sometimes be made for temporarily plugging a public finance gap while tax systems
and budget management are overhauled. Marginal tax
rates are high in many countries, encouraging informalization of the economy. Some governments now exceed
reasonable size limits, but others lack revenues for essential functions. Public investment has virtually disappeared
in many countries, and the maintenance backlog is large
and growing. Transition involves costs, with economic
decline in some regions and large losses for the banking
sector, and it may be necessaryand desirableto cushion the impact on certain groups. However, support needs
to target these transitional issues and losses carefully.
What reforms are most urgently needed to sustain transition? The answer differs for each country according to the
stage it has reached.
With macroeconomic stabilization and liberalization
largely accomplished, institutional reform and managing
the realignment of the state are now priority areas for the
leading reformers in GEE. Public finance has emerged as a
critical focus. On the spending side this involves, in particular, reforming costly social programs, especially pensions
and health. Action here will assist reform of currently very
distortionary tax systems; in particular it should allow high
ing recentralization of the budget in China, is one priority. So are raising capacity in the banking and legal systems
combine abundant labor, a tradition of high rates of saving, and large opportunities to increase the efficiency with
which these resources are allocated. A successful transition
147
Bibliographical
Note
Report has drawn on a wide range of World
Bank reports and on numerous outside sources.
World Bank sources include ongoing research as
well as country economic, sector, and project work. These
and other materials are listed alphabetically by author in
the bibliography. The background papers, some of which
will become available through the Policy Research Working Paper series, synthesize relevant literature and Bank
work. The views they express are not necessarily those of
the World Bank or of this Report.
In addition to the principal authors listed, many people, both inside and outside the World Bank, helped with
the Report. The core team wishes to thank, in particular,
Leszek Balcerowicz, Saul Estrin, Nicholas Lardy, Justin
Yifu Lin, Peter Murrell, Mario Nuti, Andrei Poletayev,
This
148
Vincent Koen, Marie Lavigne, Sten Luthman, HansJoachim Maak, Satish Mishra, Alberto Moreno, Joaquin
Muns, Alena Nesporova, Mario Nuti, Joan Pearce, Martin
Raiser, Mark Schankerman, Dieter Schulze-Vornhagen,
Pekka Sutela, and Pavel Tepulukhin. A meeting in Toronto
provided a valued opportunity to share views with members
of Canada's business community who have ethnic roots as
well as business interests in transition countries. Participants
included Tonu Altosaar, Charles Bassett, John Coleman,
James L. Darroch, Dezso J. Horvath, Joseph Kairys, Kenneth E. Loucks, Gene Luczkiw, Hy Van Luong, Bohdan S.
Onyschuk, Alina Pekarsky, Frank Potter, Andrew Sarlos,
149
Rose.
ments, often on many chapters. They include Wafa Abdelati, Arvil Adams, Harold Alderman, Ritu Anand, Robert
E. Anderson, Paul Armington, Mark Baird, Ian Bannon,
1995, Lin, Fang, and Zhou 1996, Sapir 1990, and White
1995. The most detailed appraisal of the Soviet economy
prior to its dissolution is from the IMF and others 1991.
Easterly and Fischer 1995a and 1995b review estimates of
150
Freund and Wallich 1995. China's dual-track price reforms (Box 2.2) are discussed by, among others, Gang
1994, and World Bank 1993b. Murphy, Shleifer, and
Vishny 1992 present the theoretical case against partial
price reforms. The data on China's long-run productivity
and growth patterns are from Kraay 1995 and World
Bank 1996b. The output decline across GEE and the NIS
has been the subject of a lively and controversial debate in
1995, Dervis and others 1995, EBRD 1994 and 1995, Fis-
APHIC
TE
overviews
The socialist legacy draws on Gelb and Gray 1991. Further references are found in the note to Chapter 1 above.
Gray, and Hashi 1995, Belka and others 1994, Commander, Fan, and Schaffer forthcoming, Cuadernos del Este
1995, Dolgopyatova and Yevseyeva 1994a and 1994b,
Estrin, Gelb, and Singh forthcoming, and Grosfeld and
Roland 1995. Box 3.1 summarizes the findings in Gray
and Holle forthcoming and Gray, Schlorke, and Szanyi
Sachs 1995c, Sachs and Lipton 1992, and Willet and others 1995. Box 2.7 draws on Easterly and Vieira da Cunha
1993 deal with the mix of direct and indirect instruments of monetary policy. Banerjee and others 1995,
Calvo and others 1993, Calvo, Sahay, and Vegh 1995,
Gomulka 1995, and Sahay and Vegh 1995a discuss
exchange rate policy, capital inflows, and their impact on
inflation, competitiveness, and growth in transition econ-
Broadman 1995, Cao, Gang, and Woo 1995, Gelb, Jefferson, and Singh 1993, and Reidel and Corner 1995.
Ideas on government intervention and isolation exercises
draw in part on Selowsky and Vogel 1995 and World
Bank 1993a and 1995b. The 1995 study of 400 to 500
firms is described in Pohl, Djankov, and Anderson forthcoming. Box 3.2 draws from a World Bank project being
developed in Ukraine.
The discussion of private versus public enterprise performance in market economies draws on Galal and others
1994, Kikeri, Nellis, and Shirley 1992, Megginson, Nash,
and van Randenborgn 1994, Millwood 1982, Vickers and
151
152
ski 1994, Orazem, Vodopivec, and Wu 1995, M. Rutkowski 1995, J. Rutkowski forthcoming, and World Bank
1995r. Active labor market policies are discussed by Burda
and Lubyova 1995 and in OECD 1995a and 1995b, and
regional unemployment by Scarpetta and Worgotter 1995.
The Western backdrop is surveyed by Atkinson and Mick-
The inheritance, especially as it affects human resources, is discussed by Estrin 1994a. The general prob-
B B JOGRAPHI AL NOTE
legal frameworks for private sector development and judicial institutions are based primarily on Gray and Associates
and Pohl and Claessens 1994. Box 6.2 draws on Baer and
Gray 1996, Bakker 1993, and the Gray background paper.
The Claessens background paper compares the progress in
institutional capacity building in transition economies and
the relationship between bank quality and the structural
characteristics of these economies. The paper was based on
sition economies draws on the general references mentioned above. Box 6.1 draws on Pohl 1995a and 1995b
Chapter 6
The discussion on the legacies in the financial system in
centrally planned economies is based on many sources but
draws in particular on Bonin and Mizsei 1995, Gorton
General references on financial reform in transition economies, used in various places throughout the chapter, are
Bonin and Szekely 1994, Borish, Long, and Noel 1995,
deposit insurance draws on Caprio and Vittas forthcoming and Glaessner and Mas 1995. The discussion of the
Calari and Pinto 1995, Caprio 1995, Caprio, FolkertsLandau, and Lane 1994, Dittus 1994a and 1994b, Pohl
and Claessens 1994, Saunders and Walter 1991, and
Varhegyi 1995. General macroeconomic developments
affecting the financial system are discussed in the De
Melo, Denizer, and Gelb background paper.
General background on the importance and role of the
financial system is provided in World Bank 1989. Evidence on the relationships between financial system devel-
153
154
on Aoki and Kim 1995, Calari and Pinto 1995, Morgenstern and Hay 1995, and Pohl, Jedrzejczak, and Anderson
1995. Data come from IFC 1996 and IMF various years.
Chapter 7
Recent overviews of public finance issues across transition
economies, especially the widening deficits in many coun-
The role of the state in market economies is an extensively discussed issue. Works that synthesize some of
the literature include Barr 1994 (Chapter 2), Krueger
1990, Stiglitz 1986, World Bank 1988, World Bank 1991
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Selected][
for Er notmes
Transition
appendix contains selected statistical indicators
and Asia. These data, particularly for later years, are provisional and subject to revision. Data are taken from the
World Bank statistical data base except where otherwise
indicated. The sources and methods used in the calculation of these indicators may be found in the Technical Notes to the Selected World Development Indicators in this Report. Updates to these data will be made
available in the annually published World Development
Indicators.
171
172
GNP per
Secondary school
enrollment (percent
of age group)
Population
capita
Country
(millions),
mid-1994
(dollars),
1994
1971-80
1981-90
1991-93
1994
1994
1980
1990
Albania
3.2
380
52.0
35.0
32.1
31.0
68.7
71.2
72.5
72.8
67
78
Bulgaria
8.4
1,250
23.7
15.8
16.1
15.3
71.3
71.4
71.0
71.2
84
73
68
Croatia
4.8
2,560
14.9
11.6
10.9
71.0
72.9
73.5
77
83
Czech Republic
10.3
3,200
18.2
12.8
9.6
7.9
70.3
71.1
72.4
73.0
Hungary
10.3
3,840
29.6
18.2
14.2
11.6
69.7
69.6
69.3
69.6
70
79
81
2.1
820
54.2
42.9
27.7
23.8
71.3
72.1
72.7
61
53
54
Poland
38.5
2,410
24.5
18.1
14.3
15.1
70.7
70.9
70.9
71.7
77
81
84
Romania
22.7
1,270
34.3
26.0
23.1
23.9
69.5
69.6
69.8
69.5
71
92
Slovak Republic
5.3
2,250
22.8
15.6
12.1
11.2
70.3
70.9
71.2
72.3
89
Slovenia
2.0
7,040
18.3
12.2
7.9
6.5
70.1
71.5
73.2
73.6
89
Armenia
3.7
680
26.2
23.4
17.8
15.1
71.8
70.5
70.5
71.1
85
Azerbaijan
7.5
500
30.4
28.2
26.3
25.2
68.4
69.6
69.8
69.4
Belarus
10.4
2,160
16.3
13.9
12.3
13.2
70.3
71.1
69.8
69.3
Estonia
1.5
2,820
18.2
14.4
15.0
14.5
69.5
70.0
69.6
70.1
Georgia
5.4
29.1
22.3
14.8
18.3
70.7
71.4
72.6
73.0
Macedonia, FYR
1971-80
1981-90
1991-93
1993
86
88
98
93
92
92
16.8
1,160
32.7
29.2
27.3
27.4
66.6
68.2
69.0
68.3
Kyrgyz Republic
4.5
630
46.1
38.6
31.0
29.1
65.5
65.8
67.9
67.8
Latvia
2.5
2,320
21.7
15.7
16.5
15.5
69.2
69.8
68.8
68.1
87
Lithuania
3.7
1,350
21.5
15.8
15.6
14.1
70.7
71.4
70.0
68.7
78
Moldova
4.4
870
36.1
27.9
19.9
22.6
66.5
66.8
67.7
68.3
148.4
2,650
24.6
19.9
18.6
18.7
67.1
68.8
67.2
64.0
5.8
360
58.1
47.5
44.5
40.6
64.8
69.0
68.1
66.6
Kazakstan
Russia
Tajikistan
69
96
94
88
94
93
80
53.6
52.5
45.5
46.4
61.9
64.9
65.8
66.3
Ukraine
51.9
1,910
21.2
14.9
14.3
14.3
69.1
70.0
69.8
67.9
Uzbekistan
22.4
960
47.0
42.7
35.0
28.2
67.3
68.1
69.3
69.8
1,190.9
530
48.8
37.6
31.0
29.9
65.2
68.3
69.0
69.3
46
48
2.4
300
90.0
71.2
58.9
53.0
55.7
60.5
63.6
64.5
91
86
78
72.0
200
70.1
49.2
43.9
42.0
61.0
65.2
67.0
67.5
42
33
35
Turkmenistan
China
Mongolia
Vietnam
.. Not available.
4.4
90
94
55
173
,J*
Country
1971-80
1981-89
(average
annual)
(average
annual)
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1980
1990
1994
-10.0
-9.1
-27.7
-11.7
-9.7
-6.0
11.0
7.4
34.5
34.0
1.8
- 1.2
- 15.1
- 14.2
- 12.8
- 6.4
- 3.2
- 0.5
0.0
1.8
1.8
-2.5
-4.3
-12.4
-2.3
-12.0
2.5
6.0
3.0
2.0
5.0
2.0
-5.7
-4.0
..
2.6
3.8
1.3
5.5
2.4
7.0
4.8
4.0
7.0
26.4
39.8
37.3
28.9
25.6
13.4
28.6
25.4
32.0
25.6
30.2
33.5
16.9
13.5
-4.2
47.1
27.8
27.4
30.2
10.2
22.5
37.6
28.7
25.7
31.2
42.6
23.8
40.1
24.0
30.1
23.4
40.0
27.5
32.2
Albania
1.7
Bulgaria
4.9
Croatia
Czech Republic
Hungary
4.6
2.6
-11.6
-7.7
-9.8
-7.0
1.0
2.7
- 5.6
- 12.9
- 13.8
-2.5
-14.6
-6.2
-5.7
-4.1
-9.3
-7.2
-11.7
-2.8
-7.1
-14.8
-4.6
-8.8
-0.7
-1.5
-22.1
-20.1
-6.8
-52.3
-35.2
-10.1
-21.6
-40.3
-13.0
-14.8
-23.1
-9.0
-6.6
-31.6
-15.6
6.9
- 1.2
- 9.1
- 8.1
- 15.8
- 35.0
3.0
3.3
-3.3
-1.5
-3.6
-2.4
-13.1
-18.6
-5.0
-8.7
-39.3
-25.0
-14.5
-30.0
4.0
0.8
- 5.0
- 5.4
-3.8
-12.0
-0.5
-12.5
-11.1
Macedonia, FYR
Poland
Romania
7.6
Slovak Republic
Slovenia
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Estonia
Georgia
Kazakstan
Kyrgyz Republic
Latvia
Lithuania
14.5
21.5
6.6
5.1
6.8
4.4
4.4
4.7
4.6
3.5
2.9
5.0
0.2
1.2
2.0
4.0
3.7
1.8
Moldova
1.0
2.6
7.0
30.7
5.0
3.0
7.0
28.5
-21.9
-21.5
-17.0
-12.0
23.3
19.5
28.5
6.0
4.0
-28.2
-25.0
-5.0
-9.0
- 16.3
- 14.9
- 26.5
- 6.0
0.0
1.0
-16.2
2.0
-8.8
-8.7
3.0
2.0
-27.6
-22.1
-12.6
-15.0
-4.0
-12.0
- 5.0
22.4
30.0
28.5
-7.2
-2.4
-24.3
-4.5
-12.0
-2.0
31.6
Turkmenistan
6.5
4.9
4.0
Ukraine
..
Uzbekistan
6.2
3.4
China
5.5
11.1
3.9
8.0
13.6
13.4
11.8
10.2
35.2
5.7
4.4
-2.0
-9.9
-7.6
-1.3
3.3
46.2
4.5
6.0
8.6
8.1
8.6
6.3
9.5
Russia
Tajikistan
Mongolia
Vietnam
..
2.0
20.8
13.8
20.4
21.5
18.0
15.9
26.9
17.1
20.8
34.3
34.8
42.3
13.0
7.7
27.0
23.3
42.1
20.9
24.2
Not available.
a. GDP growth rates for 1990-94 are from the IMF, and those for 1995 from EBRD 1995. Data may differ from those available at
the time of writing of the main text of this Report.
174
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
Albania
0.0
22.0
135.6
10.8
29.0
120.5
586.0
5.1
10.8
549.7
35.5
333.5
249.5
56.7
34.2
229.7
70.3
174.5
61.2
117.7
225.9
82.0
938.2
11.1
22.9
1,925.2
43.0
210.9
10.1
201.0
85.0
72.8
1,516.0
20.8
22.5
248.0
35.3
256.0
23.0
32.0
28.0
89.0
98.0
10.2
19.0
65.0
32.2
131.0
14.0
19.8
8.0
62.0
4.1
9.1
28.2
50.0
27.8
32.3
9.9
12.6
10.3
7.8
3.0
10.5
8.4
4.2
100.0
105.6
83.5
210.6
78.5
91.0
85.0
124.4
224.7
98.0
5.6
4.0
4.6
4.0
3.1
92.7
111.6
102.5
91.2
82.2
825.0
616.0
969.0
1,069.0
913.0
1,610.0
854.6
951.2
1,020.3
1,276.0
1,353.0
1,157.0
492.9
1,210.0
645.0
3,732.0
833.0
1,188.0
89.0
3,126.0
1,760.0
1,208.7
109.0
390.2
789.0
896.0
2,195.0
3,102.0
4,735.0
534.0
5,458.0
1,500.0
2,200.0
48.0
18,000.0
1,980.0
280.0
36.0
72.0
327.0
303.0
452.0
2,400.0
842.0
746.0
175.0
412.0
800.0
29.0
160.0
180.0
45.0
25.0
35.0
30.0
190.0
635.0
1,800.0
375.0
315.0
1.6
0.0
67.5
3.0
208.6
67.6
5.4
321.0
17.5
13.0
183.0
5.2
21.7
145.0
8.0
17.0
75.0
17.0
Bulgaria
Croatia
Czech Republic
Hungary
Macedonia, FYR
Poland
Romania
Slovak Republic
Slovenia
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Estonia
Georgia
Kazakstan
Kyrgyz Republic
Latvia
Lithuania
Moldova
Russia
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
China
Mongolia
Vietnam
4.5
23.1
3.3
4.2
a. Data are percentage increases in the consumer price index. Data for 1990-94 are from the IMF, and
data for 1995 from EBRD 1995, except for Croatia and Tajikistan, which are from the World Bank. Data
may differ from those available at the time of writing of the main text of this Report.
175
1971-80
1981-90
Albania
2.2
Bulgaria
0.4
Croatia
Hungary
0.4
0.5
0.4
Macedonia, FYR
1.5
Poland
Slovenia
0.9
0.9
0.9
1.0
2.1
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.3
0.7
0.7
0.4
Armenia
2.0
Azerbaijan
1.7
Belarus
0.6
Estonia
0.8
Czech Republic
Romania
Slovak Republic
Georgia
Kazakstan
Kyrgyz Republic
Latvia
Lithuania
0.8
Moldova
Russia
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
China
Mongolia
Vietnam
.. Not available.
1.7
2.8
2.3
0.6
0.5
1.3
1.5
0.6
0.6
0.7
1.2
1.9
0.5
0.9
0.9
0.6
2.9
2.5
0.4
2.5
1.5
2.8
2.1
1991-94
1980
1990
1994
-0.6
-0.8
33.8
61.2
50.1
63.6
57.0
53.5
58.2
49.0
51.6
48.1
36.6
67.7
59.8
64.9
62.1
57.8
62.5
53.3
56.6
59.0
37.0
70.4
63.5
65.0
64.0
59.0
64.2
55.1
58.0
63.0
65.7
52.8
56.5
69.7
51.7
54.0
67.5
54.4
66.9
71.8
56.0
57.6
38.2
71.2
68.8
47.8
73.8
32.2
44.9
67.5
40.6
68.5
55.5
70.3
72.8
58.0
59.3
38.8
72.6
71.4
50.9
73.2
32.2
44.9
69.7
41.2
26.4
58.0
19.9
27.5
60.3
20.7
0.0
0.1
-0.3
0.9
0.3
-0.5
0.3
-0.1
1.4
1.0
0.2
- 1.2
-0.2
0.1
0.4
- 1.5
0.0
-0.1
0.0
2.0
4.6
0.0
2.2
38.3
68.3
61.2
39.9
69.8
34.3
47.1
61.7
40.8
1.9
19.4
52.1
2.1
19.2
1.2
Selected
World
Development
Indicators
180
Key
184
Tables
Summary of socioeconomic development indicators
Basic indicators
Table 1
Table 2
Table 3
Macroeconomic indicators
External economic indicators
188
190
192
Human resources
Table 4
Table 5
Table 6
Table 7
Environmental sustainability
Commercial energy use
Table 8
Land use and urbanization
Table 9
Table 10 Forests and water resources
194
196
198
200
202
204
206
Economic performance
Table 11
Table 12
Table 13
Table 14
Table 15
Table 16
Table 17
Table la.
208
210
212
214
216
218
220
222
Technical notes
223
Data sources
237
Classification of economies
238
Introduction to Selected
World Development
Indicators
nearly two decades since the World Development Indicators (WDI) were first issued have seen
dramatic changes not only in the global economy
but in the way in which we assess and measure develop-
The
same three development themes: people, the environment, and the economy. The layout of the seventeen
tables retains the tradition of presenting comparative
socioeconomic data for more than 130 economies for the
most recent year for which data are available and for an
earlier year. An additional table presents basic indicators
for seventy-six economies with sparse data or with populations less than 1 million.
Because the World Bank's primary business is provid-
ing lending and policy advice to its low- and middleincome member countries, the issues covered in this pub-
evolving role of the state. Its companion CD-ROM product will reflect these changes and include time-series data
and a more extensive guide to data sources and statistical
issues.
180
181
income: $726 to $8,955 (57 economies); and highincome: $8,956 or more (25 economies). Economies are
further classified by region, exports, and indebtedness. For
a list of economies in each group, see the tables on classification of economies at the back of the book.
Data sources and methodology
available data are deemed to be too weak to provide reliable measures of levels and trends or do not adequately
182
Table layout
Technical notes
except that those for which no such figure can be calculated are italicized and listed in alphabetical order at the
end of the group deemed appropriate. This order is used
in all tables. Economies in the high-income group
marked by the symbol t are those classified by the United
million and those with sparse data are not shown separately in the main tables but are included in the aggregates. Basic indicators for these economies may be found
in Table la. The alphabetical list in the Key shows the
reference number for each economy; here, too, italics indicate economies with no current estimates of GNP per
capita.
Groups of economies
Low-income economies
Middle-income economies
High-income economies
For this map, economies are classified by income group, as they are for the tables that follow.
Low-income economies are those with a GNP per capita of $725 or less in 1994; middle-income,
$726$8,955; high-income, $8,956 or more. Six middle-income economiesAmerican Samoa (US),
Fiji, French Polynesia (Fr), Kiribati, Tonga, and Western Samoaand Tuvalu, for which income data are
not available, are not shown on the map because of space constraints.
=.,
,5.
Greenland
Men,
Faeroe lslands
Norwa
Iceland
nland
Netherlands.
Russian federation
Canada
LEarv?a'a
Lithuania
Ireland)
09
..
lPoland Belarus
Belgium
Ukraine
Kazakstan
Moldova
Luxembourg
Liechtenstein'
Mongolia
Romania
Bulgana
Uzbekistan
Azdzraga,
-,:urkey,Al:aGefaliaerba'lan
Greece
C(.1rbl'asPon
RreaPb- Iraq
Israel, Jordan
West Bank and Gaza
Libya
Pakistan
Kuwait
Algeria
Fortrer
Arab
Reb
of Egypt
Mali
L Macao (Port)
N. Mama
Costa Rica
C6. Ghana
Sierra Leone
Mars.
Federated States
r: of Micronesia
SoAialia
Cameroon Republic
talandoca
Palau
Maldives
Equatorial Guinea,
Uganda Kenya
Nauru
Congo
Ecuador
GUM (US)
P_annka
Central African
Libbba
Philippines
Ethiopia
Nigeria
islands (iS)
Verna'
Cambodia
Suriname
French Guiana (Fr)
Thailand
Yelnig
Sudan
Burkina
Faso Bonin
GLa,
Myanma
Niger
St.' tb.
Guinea-Bissau
Colombia
Lao People's
Bangladesh Dem. Rep.
Chad
'
Guyana
India
Oman
Mauritania
The Gambia T
Venezuela
Nodal Bhutan
Saudi Arabial''Oaaintar,
United Arab
Emirates
PeopIt
Rep.
China
'Maita
Morocco
Panama
Dem.
, Rep. of Kane
Turkmenistan TankiatanMon
Gibraltar (UK),
Cape Verde
Kyrgyz
Rwanda
Zaire
Tanzania
Brazil
71.;
Indonesia
oua
Comoros,Seroities
Peru
'sok,
ew
mc'n
Angola
Zambia
Malawi m.o.
Vanuatu
Bolivia
Mozambique
Zimbabwe f
Dominican
Republic
Puerta
Rico (US)
Namibia
Botswana
Paraguay
Poland
ua and Barbuda
laSnriFsi Wig )
'Stift
Netherlands
Antilles (Neth)
Germany
-:,Guadeloupe (Fr)
and Nevis
Chile
Dominica
Argentina
Austria
CruguaY
ceartinique (Fr)
Slovenia
(11/ebb
ti Barbado
San
Marino
:..-Grenada
Italy
Trinidad
and Tobago
Venezuela
I'leunion (Fr)
Australia
Caledonia
Swaziland
Slovak Republic
Lesotho
South Africa
Hungary
Romania
Croatia
St. Lucia
Aruba
Ukraine
Czech Republic
Madapscar
New
Bosnia and
Bulgaria
I
Herzegovina
Fed. Rep. of
Yugoslavia
Zealand
PAR
Macedonia
Albania
Greece
Anla-
ca
----
countries included in the Selected World Development Indicators and additional information on
the sources of demographic data for the 133 countries
included in the main statistical tables. In each statistical
The
Albania
Algeria
Argentina
Armenia
Australia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Bangladesh
Belarus
Belgium
Benin
Bolivia
Botswana
Brazil
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cameroon
Canada
Central African Republic
184
46
114
126
36
13
77
123
30
52
88
92
62
21
5
47
119
31
Population
census
Population
1989
1987
1991
1989
1991
Official
World Bank 3
Official 2
World Bank 3
Official 2
1991
1989
1991
1989
1991
Official 2
Official 2
Total
fertility rate
Official
Survey 1992
Infant
mortality rate
Official
Survey 1992
Official
Official
Official
Official
Survey 1994
Official
Official
Official
Official
Official
Official
Survey 1994
Official
Official
World Bank
U.N. Pop. Div.
World Bank 2
World Bank 1
World Bank
U.N. Pop. Div.
Survey 1988
U.N. Pop. Div.
Official 2
Official
Official
Survey 1992
World Bank
U.N. Pop. Div.
Survey 1991
Official
Survey 1991
Official
World Bank 2
Official 2
Official 2
1992
1992
1991
1991
1992
World Bank 2
1985
1990
1987
1991
1988
World Bank 3
World Bank 3
World Bank
Official 2
World Bank
Official 2
Survey 1988
EL
TE
WORLD
EVELOPMENT INDICATORS
Population
Total
fertility rate
mortality rate
1993
1992
1990
1993
1984
World Bank 2
Official 2
Official
Official
Survey 1990
Official
Survey 1991
Survey 1990
80
42
84
95
130
1984
1988
World Bank 3
World Bank 3
1991
1991
1991
Official 2
Official 2
Official 2
World Bank
U.N. Pop. Div.
Survey 1994
World Bank
World Bank
U.N. Pop. Div.
Survey 1994
World Bank
Official
Official
Official
Official
65
64
48
67
89
1993
1990
1986
1992
1989
World Bank
World Bank 3
World Bank 2
World Bank
Survey 1994
Survey 1992
Survey 1994
Survey 1992
Official 2
Official
Official
1994
1990
1990
1993
1993
World Bank 3
Survey 1990
Official
Official
Official
Official
Survey 1993
Official
Official
Official
Survey 1993
Official
World Bank 3
Chad
Chile
97
39
72
43
China
Colombia
Congo
Costa Rica
Cote d'Ivoire
Croatia
Czech Republic
Denmark
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
Egypt, Arab Rep.
El Salvador
Estonia
Ethiopia'
Finland
France
Gabon
Gambia, The
Georgia
Germany b
Ghana
Greece
Guatemala
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Haiti
Honduras
t Hong Kong
Hungary
India
Indonesia
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Ireland
t Israel
Italy
Jamaica
Japan
Jordan
Kazakstan
Kenya
Korea, Rep. of
t Kuwait
Kyrgyz Republic
Lao PDR
Latvia
Infant
census
116
124
100
26
Population
World Bank 3
World Bank 2
World Bank 2
Official 2
Official 2
World Bank'
World Bank 2
World Bank 3
Official
Official
50
127
33
106
60
1989
1984
1991
1994
World Bank 3
38
16
1983
1991
1982
1988
1991
World Bank
World Bank 2
Official'
Official
Official
99
23
55
90
112
1990
1991
Official 2
Official
Survey 1993
Survey 1994
113
117
69
131
14
40
120
68
59
17
108
118
44
24
79
Official 2
Official 2
Official 2
1
World Bank'
Official 2
Official
Official
Survey 1993
Survey 1994
Official
Official
1983
1991
1991
1990
1994
Official 2
Official 2
Official
Official
Official
Official
World Bank 3
World Bank
Official 2
World Bank 2
Official
Official
Official
Survey 1990
1989
1989
1990
1985
1989
World Bank 3
World Bank 2
Official
Official
Survey 1993
Official
Official
Survey 1993
Official
Official 2
World Bank 3
Official
Official
1985
1989
World Bank'
Official 2
Official
Official
1990
1991
1991
World Bank 2
World Bank 2
World Bank 2
185
186
Lesotho
Lithuania
Macedonia, FYR
Madagascar
Malawi
49
66
53
Malaysia
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
35
94
Mexico
Moldova
Mongolia
Morocco
Mozambique
Myanmar
Namibia
Nepal
Netherlands
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Niger
Nigeria
Norway
Oman
Pakistan
Panama
Papua New Guinea
Population
census
Population
1986
1989
World Bank 3
1991
1993
1987
World Bank 3
World Bank 2
World Bank 2
Survey 1991
Official
Official
Survey 1992
Survey 1992
96
1991
World Bank'
18
1987
1988
1990
1990
World Bank 2
World Bank 3
World Bank 3
World Bank 2
Survey 1987
Survey 1987
10
7
101
54
22
58
2
51
75
11
121
110
27
15
19
129
103
34
1989
1989
1994
1980
1983
1991
1991
1971
1991
1971
1988
1991
1990
1993
1981
Official 2
Official
Official
World Bank
World Bank 2
World Bank 1
World Bank 1
World Bank 2
World Bank 2
Survey 1995
Survey 1995
Survey 1992
Survey 1992
Official 1
Official 2
Official
Official
Official
Official
World Bank 1
World Bank 2
World Bank 2
Survey 1992-93
Survey 1992
Survey 1990
Survey 1992-93
Survey 1992
Survey 1990
Official 2
Official
Survey 1989
Official
Survey 1989
World Bank
U.N. Pop. Div.
U.N. Pop. Div.
Survey 1990
Survey 1991-92
Survey 1993
World Bank
U.N. Pop. Div.
U.N. Pop. Div.
Survey 1990
Survey 1991-92
U.N. Pop. Div.
Official
Official
Official
Official
Survey 1992
Official
Official
Official
Official
Survey 1990
Survey 1992-93
Survey 1990
Survey 1992-93
Official
Official
Official
Official
Official
Official
Official 2
Official 2
Official
Survey 1987
Official
Official
Survey 1987
Official
Official 2
Official 2
Official
Official
Official
Official
World Bank 3
World Bank 2
World Bank 3
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
70
76
56
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russian Federation
Rwanda
Saudi Arabia
81
1988
109
63
86
1991
1991
105
41
6
122
78
1992
1988
1985
1990
1991
Official 2
104
93
1991
1991
1991
1981
Official 2
World Bank 1
Official 2
t Singapore
Slovak Republic
Slovenia
South Africa
Spain
Sri Lanka
Sweden
Switzerland
Tajikistan
Infant
mortality rate
Survey 1991
Official
Official
Survey 1992
Survey 1992
Official 2
1990
1989
1992
1993
1990
Senegal
Sierra Leone
Total
fertility rate
85
61
111
45
125
132
29
1992
1989
1990
1990
1989
World Bank'
World Bank 3
World Bank 2
Official 2
Official 2
Official 2
Official 2
World Bank 3
World Bank 2
World Bank 2
World Bank 2
World Bank 1
Official'
187
Tanzania
Thailand
Togo
Trinidad and Tobago
Tunisia
Turkey
Turkmenistan
Uganda
Ukraine
t United Arab Emirates
United Kingdom
United States of America
Uruguay
Uzbekistan
Venezuela
Vietnam
Yemen, Rep. of
Zambia
Zimbabwe
74
133
115
128
102
57
87
12
20
28
37
census
mortality rate
Survey 1987
Survey 1987
Official
Survey 1991
Official
Population
1988
1990
1981
1990
1994
World Bank 1
1990
1989
1991
World Bank'
1991
Official 2
World Bank 1
World Bank'
World Bank 1
World Bank2
World Bank 2
World Bank 3
World Bank 2
Infant
Total
fertility rate
Population
Official
Survey 1991
Official
Survey 1987
1990
1985
1989
1990
Official 1
Official 2
Official
Official
Official
Official
World Bank 3
World Bank 3
Official
Official
Official 2
1989
1994
1990
1992
World Bank 3
World Bank 2
World Bank 1
World Bank 2
Survey 1995
Survey 1995
Survey 1991-92
Survey 1987
Survey 1994
1980
1991
Survey 1991-92
U.N. Pop. Div.
Survey 1994
Note: Economies with sparse data or with populations of more than 30,000 and fewer than 1 million are shown separately only in Table la;
however, they are included in the country group totals and weighted averages in the main tables. For data comparability and coverage, see the
Technical Notes.
In all tables, data for Ethiopia after 1991 exclude Eritrea unless otherwise noted.
In all tables, data refer to the unified Germany unless otherwise noted.
Population
Official
Published by a National Statistical Office, or another official country source, such as Central Bank, Ministry of Planning, etc.
Reported as an official estimate by Eurostat, Council of Europe, U.N. Statistical Office, South Pacific Commission, or similar international organization.
World Bank
Based on the U.N. Population Division's latest estimates and projections for 1990 and 1995.
Based on a projection from the latest census.
Based on a projection from the latest available official estimate.
World Bank
Estimated from other sources, including Bank economic and sector reports, other country studies, and level and trends in other indicators.
188
Low-income economies
Excluding China and India
1
Rwanda
2
Mozambique
Ethiopia
3
4
Tanzaniae
Burundi
5
Sierra Leone
6
Malawi
7
8
Chad
Uganda
9
10
Madagascar
11
Nepal
12
Vietnam
13
Bangladesh
Haiti
14
15
Niger
16
Guinea-Bissau
17
Kenya
18
Mali
Nigeria
19
20
Yemen, Rep.
Burkina Faso
21
22
Mongolia
23
India
24
Lao PDR
25
Togo
Gambia, The
26
27
Nicaragua
28
Zambia
29
Tajilcistanf
30
Benin
31
Central African Republic
32
Albania
Ghana
33
Pakistan
34
Mauritania
35
36
Azerbaijanf
37
Zimbabwe
38
Guinea
China
39
40
Honduras
41
Senegal
42
Cote d'Ivoire
Congo
43
Kyrgyz Republicf
44
45
Sri Lanka
46
Armeniaf
47
Cameroon
48
Egypt, Arab Rep.
49
Lesotho
Georgia f
50
51
Myanmar
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
52
Bolivia
53
Macedonia, FYR
3,182.2 t
1,077.7 t
7.8
15.5
54.9
28.8
6.2
4.4
9.5
6.3
18.6
13.1
20.9
72.0
117.9
7.0
8.7
1.0
Area
(thousands
of sq. km)
40,391 t
27,543 t
26
1,7
08902
945
28
72
118
1,284
236
587
141
332
144
1,26
278
4.7
4.0
36
580
1,240
924
528
274
1,566
3,288
237
57
1.1
11
4.2
9.2
5.8
5.3
3.2
3.2
16.6
126.3
2.2
7.5
10.8
6.4
1,190.9
5.8
8.3
13.8
2.6
4.5
17.9
3.7
13.0
56.8
130
753
143
113
623
29
239
796
1,026
87
391
246
9,561
112
197
322
342
198
66
30
475
1,001
1.9
5.4
30
70
677
26.0
9.5
108.0
14.8
10.1
2.4
913.6
45.6
1,569.9 t
1,096.9 t
7.2
61,263 t
59994 t
40,594
2.1
4.3
190.4
26
34
1,905
Dollars
1994
33680
80
90
100
140
Avg. ann.
growth (%)
1985-94
3.4 w
-1.1 w
-6.6
3.8
. .
0.8
US=100
1987
3.8
2.7
2.0
2.6
1.3
3.3
1.7
2.4
2.7
2.7
2.5
2.8
5.4
2.5
4.8
160
160
170
180
190
200
200
200
220
-0.7
-0.4
-0.7
3.4
0.7
2.3
2.7
5.0
-1.7
3.1
2.3
4.4
230
230
240
250
250
280
280
300
300
320
-5.0
320
320
330
340
350
360
370
370
380
410
430
480
500
500
520
530.1
600
600
610
620
630
640
680
680
720
720
1,426341000:c
..
..
..
5.1
1,330c
930d
770d
820d
1,310c
1,91
-2.1
2.2
0.0
1.0
1.2
3.6
3.0
3.2
5.1
2.0
4.6
34w
46w
..
40
60
46
49
51
50
40
44
48
42
52
54
68
57
57
46
38
59 59
49
52
..
..
..
..
53
3.5
3.1
800d
..
..
..
2.9
4.4
1,280c
..
..
4.9
..
..
49
64
62
52
-2.7
6.0
4.8
4.4
4.3
7
3.3
3.7
6.3
4.5
1:i1030d
d
0.5
-6.1
-1.4
-11.4
-0.8
-2.7
..
1.4
1.3
0.2
-12.2
-0.5
1.3
7.8
0.5
-0.7
-4.6
-2.9
-5.0
2.9
-13.0
-6.9
1.3
0.6
13
4.1
12.1
7.0
5.4
..
73
8.5
6.4
21.7
8.7
32
65
69
44
52
38
..
73
6
62
55
86
45
22
69
43
81
..
48
43
48
61
67
47
67
34
22
1,9673001c
50
63
1,160d
..
49
73
40
..
7.9
8.2
22,01530;
58
6.1
1,570d
51
36
62
62
5.8
7.9
1:05100!
69
..
58
15
44
69
66
64
..
..
9.7
7.5
6.1
5.3
7.3
6.7
12.2
8.3
7.5
14.4
6.7
1c
60
56
51
..
2,51011
1,940
1,580"
ii,:800395070c
1,730g
3,160c
2,160g
1,950"
3,720c
1,730d
..
19
27
67
60
25
68
72
71
57
10
..
62
37
49
61
29
73
58
17
67w
67w
-1.2w
1.7
55
45
65
..
5.8
8.1
7.3
8.3
11.2
13.5
10.7
26.5
15.0
14.4
6.6
1,100d
1,800d
860c
Adult
illiteracy (%)
1995
63w
56w
-0.1
-3.2
..
1:6580
650c
720d
4.9
6.2
3.8
2.9
5.7
2.3
4.3
-0.1 w
407
700'
..
..
11
3.1
3.1
330c
860d
430c
620c
700d
2.0
2,520w
1,590w
770
820
870
880
950
960
1,140
1,160
1,200
1,240
1,250
1,270
1,280
1,330
1,350
1,360
1,440
1,540
1994
Current int'l $
1994
Life
expectancy at
birth (years)
1994
8.9
9.3
2,400'
60
73
17
..
..
..
..
68
6.0
13.9
10.6
63
16
65
70
65
68
65
57
4,380)
4,090)
71
3.9
11.1
1.0
13.7
10.9
13.3
10.4
16.9
15.8
16.2
14.5
12.7
9.3
15.8
13.1
13.7
3,600'
2,740c
2,3701
3,470c
2,8101
3,440'
2,680'
-5.6
10.0
10.4
12.5
13.1
24.2
13.5
9.1
23.5
22.7
15.9
13.9
33.8
8.4
25.4
-2.5
..
..
2.4
19.0
1,670
Colombia
72
Note: For other economies see Table la. For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
20.6
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
Moldova f
Indonesia
Philippines
Uzbekistant
Morocco
Kazakstanf
Guatemala
Papua New Guinea
Bulgaria
Romania
Ecuador
Dominican Republic
Lithuania f
El Salvador
69
70
Jordan
Jamaica
Paraguay
71
Algeria
68
67.0
22.4
26.4
16.8
10.3
4.2
8.4
22.7
11.2
7.6
3.7
5.6
4.0
2.5
4.8
27.4
36.3
2,47434407770
109
463
111
238
284
49
65
21
89
2:133892
1.7
-2.3
1.2
-6.5
0.9
2.2
-2.7
-4.5
0.9
2.2
-8.0
2.2
9.2
13.4
4,190'
3,760'
3,290)
2,410'
4,100d
3,400k
3,550'
5,330'
70
69
70
69
67
70
74
68
69
70
56
44
28
10
18
..
29
13
15
8
38
9
189
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
Tunisia
Ukraine'
Namibia
Peru
Belarus"
Slovak Republic
Latvia"
Population
(millions)
mid-1994
Area
(thousands
8.8
51.9
164
1.5
23.2
10.4
5.3
2.5
3.3
38.5
58.0
60.8
4.8
2.6
148.3
of sq. km)
604
824
1,285
208
49
64
Dollars
1994
1,790
1,910
1,970
2,110
2,160
2,250
2,320
2,400
2,410
2,410
Avg. ann.
growth (%)
1985-94
2.1
-8.0
3.3
-2.0
-1.9
-3.0
-6.0
US=100
1987
1994
18.5
20.4
17.0
18.0
25.1
19.4
10.1
16.7
13.9
16.7
Life
expectancy at
birth (years)
1994
Adult
illiteracy (%)
1995
5,020c
2,620)
68
33
4,320d
3,610i
4,320j
59
65
Current int'l $
1994
..
..
..
24.1
12.4
3,220)
68
69
72
68
77
72
69
67
73
73
64
11
Costa Rica
..
..
2.8
..
51
5
Poland
313
21.2
21.4
..
0.8
5,480)
82
513
Thailand
16.4
26.9
8.6
6,970c
6
Turkey
20.9
18.2
18
83
2,500
1.4
4,710j
779
84
Croatia
2,560
..
..
..
57
..
85
Panama
76
26.6
22.1
2,580
-1.2
5,730i
9
86
Russian Federation'
17.8
2,650
-4.1
..
17,075
30.6
4,610)
21.2
912
0.7
87
Venezuela
2,760
9
33.7
30.0
7,770'
71
88
Botswana
1.4
582
2,800
15.4
20.1
6.6
68
5,210c
30
89
Estonia'
1.5
45
2,820
-6.1
29.9
17.4
4,510)
70
90
Iran, Islamic Rep.
62.5
1,648
28
68
91
Turkmenistan'
4.4
488
..
..
66
..
Upper-middle-income
472.8 t
4,640 w
20,669 t
1.4 w
69 w
13 w
92
Brazil
159.1
8,512
20.9
2,970
-0.4
24.2
17
5,400j
67
40.5
South Africa
1,221
3,040
93
-1.3
23.9
19.8
18
64
5,130d
94
Mauritius
1.1
2
3,150
17
5.8
49.1
12,720c
39.4
70
10.3
Czech Republic
95
79
-2.1
44.1
..
3,200
34.4
8,900)
73
Malaysia
23.5
32.6
96
19.7
330
3,480
8,440k
17
5.6
71
14.0
Chile
6.5
97
757
24.8
34.4
8,890'
3,520
72
5
1.3
Trinidad and Tobago
5
-2.3
33.5
98
40.9
72
2
3,740
8,670d
10.3
Hungary
6,080)
99
-1.2
28.9
23.5
93
70
3,840
..
100
Gabon
1.3
268
..
54
3,880
..
37
-3.7
..
101
Mexico
4,180
27.8
27.2
88.5
0.9
71
10
1,958
7,040k
102
Uruguay
4,660
3.2
177
2.9
28.1
29.8
3
7,710
73
2.1
103
Oman
212
0.5
70
5,140
34.7
33.2
8,590'
104
Slovenia
2.0
20
24.1
74
33.3
6,230)
7,040
..
105
Saudi Arabia
17.8
-1.7
45.7
2,150
36.6
9,480'
70
7,050
37
106
Greece
10.4
132
1.3
42.1
42.2
7,700
78
10,930)
Argentina
34.2
107
8,110
2.0
32.1
33.7
72
2,767
8,720'
4
108
44.5
Korea, Rey.
99
8,260
27.3
m
7.8
39.9
10,330c
71
Low- and middle-income
4,752.2 t
101,655 t
1,090w
0.7w
64w
29w
Sub-Saharan Africa
571.9 t
24,274 t
460 w
-1.2w
52w
43w
East Asia and Pacific
1,734.7 t
860 w
16,367 t
6.9 w
68w
17w
South Asia
1,220.3 t
320
w
5,133 t
61w
2.7w
50w
Europe and Central Asia
487.4 t
24,354 t
2,090w
-3.2w
68w
266.7
t
Middle East and N. Africa
11,021 t
1,580w
-0.4 w
66w
39w
Latin America and Caribbean
470.9 t
3,340w
20,505 t
0.6 w
68w
13w
High-income economies
849.9 t
23,420 w
31,824 t
1.9 w
77w
109
Portugal
9.9
92
4.0
41.3
46.3
9,320
75
11,970)
110
New Zealand
0.7
271
63.2
61.3
76
3.5
13,350
m
15,870)
Spain
111
2.8
13,440
13,740)
39.1
53.1
505
50.2
77
112
Ireland
3.6
40.6
52.4
m
70
13,530
76
5.0
13,550)
113 t Israel
5.4
21
14,530
2.3
..
59.1
15,300'
77
56.5
114
Australia
18,000
m
17.8
1.2
69.9
70.0
7,713
18,120)
77
115
United Kingdom
1.3
58.4
245
18,340
76
69.4
m
70.7
17,970)
18,850
116
Finland
5.1
-0.3
72.1
62.4
m
16,150)
76
338
m
117
Italy
301
19,300
57.1
1.8
71.3
18,460)
70.9
78
118 t Kuwait
1.6
19,420
1.1
84.3
95.6
24,730'
21
18
76
119
m
Canada
29.2
0.3
77.1
19,960)
78
19,510
83.2
9,976
120 t Hong Kong
6.1
1
21,650n
. .
8
78
..
5.3"
. .
m
121
Netherlands
37
22,010
1.9
78
15.4
70.0
72.4
18,750)
2.9
1
21,900d
9
122 t Singapore
22,500
6.1
60.2
84.6
75
10.1
2.3
m
123
Belgium
31
22,870
76
78.3
74.6
20,270)
57.9
19,670i
124
France
23,420
1.6
76.0
m
552
75.9
78
17,130)
125
Sweden
8.8
78
450
23,530
-0.1
66.2
m
76.1
126
Austria
m
8.0
84
24,630
19,560)
2.0
75.6
72.8
77
81.5
m
127
Germany
25,580
19,480)
357
76
..
.. 75.3
1.3
100.0
100.0
United States
260.6
25,880
25,880)
77
m
128
9,364
4.3
m
129
Norway
1.4
78.1
20,210/
324
26,390
77.7
78
19,880)
130
Denmark
1.3
m
5.2
43
27,970
76.8
75
76.6
21,140)
m
131
Japan
125.0
81.7
34,630
3.2
378
74.7
79
25,150)
132
41
104.5
97.2
m
Switzerland
0.5
78
7.0
37,930
75
21
2.4
84
..
0.4
133 t United Arab Emirates
5,601.3 t
World
133,478 t
4,470w
0.9 w
67 w
tEconomies classified by the United Nations or otherwise regarded by their authorities as developing. a. Atlas method; see the technical notes. b. Purchasing power parity;
see the technical notes. c. Extrapolated from 1985 ICP estimates. d. Based on regression estimates. e. In all tables, GDP and GNP cover mainland Tanzania. f. Estimates
for economies of the former Soviet Union are preliminary; their classification will be kept under review. g. Extrapolated from 1990 ICP estimates. h. World Bank estimate. i. Extrapolated from 1980 ICP estimates. j. Extrapolated from 1993 ICP estimates. k. Extrapolated from 1975 ICP estimates. m. According to UNESCO, illiteracy is less than 5 percent. n. Data refer to GDP.
81
190
WORLD
1980
Low-income economies
Excluding China and India
1
Rwanda
2
Mozambique
3
Ethiopia
4
Tanzania
5
Burundi
6
Sierra Leone
Malawi
7
8
Chad
9
Uganda
10
Madagascar
11
Nepal
12
Vietnam
13
Bangladesh
14
Haiti
15
Niger
16
Guinea-Bissau
17
Kenya
18
Mali
19
Nigeria
20
Yemen, Rep.
21
Burkina Faso
22
Mongolia
23
India
24
Lao PDR
25
Togo
26
Gambia, The
27
Nicaragua
28
Zambia
29
Tajikistan
30
Benin
31
Central African Republic
32
Albania
Ghana
33
1994 198544
3.5
-5.5
5.4
-1.3
..
..
35.0
..
. .
8.5
13.5
..
20.6
11.0
1.2c
..
56.4
21.4
18.0
-2.7
20.5
10.9
9.8
20.5
33.7
..
-2.5
7.6
23.7
21.2
..
..
..
..
11.2c
14.2
15.3
18.4
24.0
5.1
1.0
13.3
35.0
43.0
14.6
8.2
10.0
6.2
..
62.9
18.9
5.3
23.3
..
14.1
..
29.8
17.9
23.8
32.2
20.0
8.2
13.8
..
0.5
3.7
..
..
0.0
-1.8
16.9
34.7
38.4
..
20.0
23.9
45.2
13.2
25.3
23.8
23.2
10.8
-3.3
2.6c
-0.4
-1.4
..
25.0
8.1
10.0
13.5
15.0
..
14.3
11.5
12.0
11.0
16.7
11.0
10.8
39.0
..
27.3
31.0
17.5
..
1984-94
6.4
4.5
53.2
33.3
5.4
67.3
18.8
1.7
75.4
15.8
14.0
12.1
11.3
102.6
6.6
..
14.4
..
13.2
7.8
28.7
14.5
168
..
36.3
5.8
..
6.2
5.3
7.8
10.6
14.5
8.4
168
20.5
0.2
65.7
11.7
3.4
29.6
14.5
168
1.6
.. 233.6
46.0
9.7
24.2
3.3
6.2
13.1
12.0
7.0
48.5
-1.2
15.2
-1.6
-8.7
-0.9
-2.9
73.3
29.0
21.1
24.5
28.4
..
..
9.5
17.1
25.0
4.2
18.9
18.6
15.8
42.3
11.5
21.7
5.5
-2.0
..
..
38.4
1.8
-2.1
15.3
8.7
16.2
38.7
20.5
..
..
..
20.7
35.2
25.8
9.4
85.5
25.3
3.1
. .
23.7
18.2
1.1
33.2
21.1
26.6
26.7
14.8
18.6
24.6
16.2
16.5
4.8
14.5
15.0
163
24.0
17.5
25.0
.. 20.1
9.5 113.3
6.2
5.5
7.8
8.1
19.8
23.1
..
34.9
22.0
5.0
11.0
165
24.7
14.5
14.5
11.0
168
168
17.5
-0.3
..
13.0
100.9
11.0
138.6
14.5
10.5
168
17.5
23.7
19.0
..
3.5
..
5.4
10.6
6.2
6.2
6.5
5.0
12.0
10.0
..
..
..
26.8
18.0
11.0
11.6
7.8
7.8
17.5
8.1
..
..
..
..
..
-3.0
16.5
28.5
30.5
14.5
15.3
19.0
..
..
5.7
0.2
-3.3
18.5
19.1
8.1
9.6
65
19.9
52.2
..
13.0
13.3
11.0
17.5
16.5
14.1
97.2
31.4
7.5
8.3
-4.6
..
..
0.7
.
3.9
0.8
-2.7
Bolivia
. .
. .
. .
. .
23.9
1.5
9.0
46.7
..
..
10.0
4.1c
8.9
1.9c
23.5
20.3
..
..
..
0.5
5.7
13.8
16.2
45.1
18.0
..
7.2
13.2
1980
1994
1980
1994
-13.3
-20.7
-69.1
-71.4
6.7
1.1
-4.8,
-6.9
4.0b
5.9
-9.7
..
..
-16.6
-19.9
-27.4
-2.1
..
1994
28.0
55.6
..
-1.4
-9.4 -6.8
-17.3 -7.1
-48.9 -15.6
-13.7
-0.5
-14.5 -10.6
5.7
-6.4
1.5
7.9
0.6
1.6
..
3.9
58
..
..
222
2.1
2.5
3.4
80
-11.1
..
6.9
..
..
..
33.4
20.2
15.2
17.8
23.5
. .
1.0c
2.2
3.6c
3.0
8.4
44.7
41.0
33.8
..
0.2
..
..
-0.4c
0.8c
3.5c
21.2
10.9
32.3
37.8
14.6
31.9
28.0
36.4
..
104.5
..
32.8
19.8
53.3
40.0
24.7
46.4
19.8
9.5
..
15.1
7.0
10.0
9.7
11.0
5.1
11.1
54.5
22.9
9.2
64.1
..
..
33.6
..
9.0
44.0
27.4
13.6
3.2
36.4
23.1
..
15.6
62.3
19.0
9.0
49.5
32.5
161
0.6
5.7
-17.5
-8.2
-0.9
-8.5
1.5
-3.1
-5.1
-67.7
1.4
8.0
.
6.8
1.6
1.0
31
38
24
40
98
59
6.7
2.0
3.5
1.2
..
..
0.4
2.2
6.7
9.2
-1.4
-4.9
-37.6
-12.9
-9.0
-3.9
-14.4
..
..
..
-4.8
-5.7
2.7
3.1
3.1
3.6
84
92
2.4
1.3
..
32
25
5.0
0.9
27
135
6.1
..
3.9
3.5
0.9
707
157
25
56
52
45
63
42
162
3
3.2
-9.7
1.5
-9.4
-13.3
0.2
0.1
0.9
1.2
1.3
0.7
0.5
69
60
16
97
65
282
382
-18.7
-8.1
1.5
4.4
13
41
-3.8
-1.3
-26.6
1.1
0.1
16.4
14.0
-5.8
-2.0
-17.8
3.1
10.7
228.3
26.5
-5.3
-0.5
5.6
3.5
1.3
20.0
..
..
..
..
-1.6
-13.4
1.4
4.9
5.9
-18.1
-18.7
-15.2
..
..
-1.8
-7.3
..
..
-4.9
-1.6
-4.5
-6.2
109.1
..
0.0
5.0
150.2
-8.6
19.5
-2.5
-22.6
-2.5
-4.0
-6.0
3.9
42.2
62.0
47.5
28.9
102.3
15.5
9.2
27.6
26.2
22.0
25.6
2.9
.. 40.5
17.1
29.4
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes. Figures in italics are for years other than those specified.
1.6
-7.9
-18.0
10.5
..
3.3
-4.6c
-4.7
-16.4
-51.4
-26.0
-14.5
8.9
10.0
9.0
-6.4c
..
20.2
23.4
30.2
..
-1.7
20.4
4.9
20.5
32.9
-15.5
-24.9
6.0
58.4
..
48
8.9
..
14.0
2.9
-6.7
..
..
38.5
23.3
8.5
3.0
8.0
0.6
..
..
12.3
..
..
..
1.4
1.7
-18.5
-6.1
..
41.2
0.8
-44.0
8.5
78
331
68
167
50
138
73
43
-15.5
-5.1
..
20.7
..
3.2
18.4
14.3
..
2.1
15.9
11.8
8.4
16.3
..
..
9.6
10.1
1,311.2
92.0
104.3
2.9
2.6
32.7
28.6
8.8
7.2
122.8
19.7
18.6
8.4
13.0
2.9
0.2
..
..
-0.9c
-9.1
7.8
12.6
11.7
-2.9c
0.2
72
Net present
Gross
value of
international
official transfers reserves (months external debt
(% of GNP)
of import coy.)
(% of GNP)
..
7.8
92.3
7.2
6.2
5.0
. .
4.0
71
..
11.6
4.0
7.5
1.9
Cote d'Ivoire
Congo
Kyrgyz Republic
Sri Lanka
Armenia
Cameroon
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Lesotho
69
70
1994
..
7.1
42
43
44
45
46
63
64
65
66
67
68
1980
Current account
balance before
..
2.0
3.1
59
60
61
62
7.9
5.5
6.8
. .
1.8
58
5.0
11.5
20.0
12.7
18.2
21.9
Senegal
56
57
..
4.0
2.5
9.2
..
Guinea
China
Honduras
Macedonia, FYR
Moldova
Indonesia
Philippines
Uzbekistan
Morocco
Kazakstan
Guatemala
PaRua New Guinea
Bulgaria
Romania
Ecuador
Dominican Republic
Lithuania
El Salvador
Jordan
Jamaica
Paraguay
Algeria
Colombia
6.3
..
41
52
53
54
55
1980 1994
-2.2
Azerbaijan
Zimbabwe
Georgia
44.4
30.7
-1.9c
36
37
38
39
40
Myanmar
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
..
13.6
1.9
-5.1c
Mauritania
51
rate
..
Pakistan
48
49
50
1994
inflation (%)
(GDP deflator)
Lending
Deposit
rate
Average
annual
32w
60w
34
35
47
1980
..
8.5
..
5.8
1.2
..
4.1
2.6
3.2
4.6
3.1
..
1.7
5.6
64
..
14
4.2
3.6
3.0
19
0.6
46
100
17
85
1.9
..
..
..
-1.0
-6.2
-2.5
2.0
4.2
4.9
4.4
0.9
2.9
3.4
5.0
1.5
..
-3.7
1.5
.
-5.6
-0.4
..
3.6
6.3
0.8
6.7
0.8
-4.5
5.8
0.1
.. -12.5
29 w
36 w
66
6.0
5.1
-5.6
-11.0
8
86
52
26
56
3.1
4.5
5.8
53
12
50
53
37
7
20
87
94
22
61
28
1980
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
Tunisia
Ukraine
Namibia
Peru
Belarus
Slovak Republic
Latvia
Costa Rica
Poland
Thailand
Turkey
Croatia
Panama
Russian Federation
Venezuela
Botswana
Estonia
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Turkmenistan
er-middle-income
South Africa
Mauritius
Czech Republic
95
Malaysia
96
Chile
97
98
Trinidad and Tobago
Hungary
99
100
Gabon
Mexico
101
102
Uruguay
Oman
103
104
Slovenia
105
Saudi Arabia
106
Greece
Argentina
107
108
Korea, Rep.
Low- and middle-income
Sub-Saharan Africa
East Asia and Pacific
South Asia
Europe and Central Asia
Middle East and N. Africa
Latin America and Caribbean
High-income economies
109
Portugal
110
New Zealand
Spain
111
112
Ireland
113 t Israel
114
Australia
115
United Kingdom
116
Finland
117
Italy
118
t Kuwait
Canada
119
121
t Hong Kong
Netherlands
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
World
f Singapore
Belgium
France
Sweden
Austria
Germany
United States
Norway
Denmark
Japan
Switzerland
t United Arab Emirates
1994 1985-94
3.5
10.2
%)nnu
Lending
inflation (%)
rate
(GDP deflator)
1994
1980
1994
1980
37.6
44.3
2.5
..
7.2
..
..
..
..
250.3
..
208.6
9.2
22.3
2.1c
9.3
31.7
17.7
30.6
..
..
14.6
55.9
25.0
33.0
32.8
14.4
..
..
33.0
2.2c
469.4
16.5
15.3
-0.5
. .
..
..
69.3
30.4
24.8
94.8
20.1
70.2
38.8
57.0
34.5
17.2
..
..
..
-0.9
-2.3
-1.0
-0.1
66
3.2
-2.1
4.6
-3.7
..
0.3
60
..
-5.7
..
..
7.4
11.6c
2.7
23.3c
35.0
20.6
28.7
28.2
..
..
23.6
54.4
-6.1
..
8.6
10.5
916.8
21.7
21.0
32.8
9.6
30.8
40.0
4.6
-7.7
-1.9
4.1
..
3.4
..
..
7.4
6.9
25.4
8.9
46.1
4.9
14.8
26.2
3.8
18.2
..
3.9
2.2
8.9
-0.4
18.3
31.7
74.2
21.9
12.0
8.0
..
8.5
87.8
18.3
64.8
13.7
6.5
6.1
24.0
26.4
23.8
37.2
39.0
10.4
11.5
..
5.0
1994
17.1
53.6
69.8
18.2
97.8
7.1
..
13.1
..
7.8
47.1
10.0
7.6
20.3
3.1
18.5
16.0
..
27.4
12.5
28.1
17.5
6.5
19.4
3.3
40.0
66.6
95.1
8.6
39.3
66
..
434
..
15.3
13.0
3.0
7.5
49.3
75.5
..
..
5.3
13.8
-14.3
15.1
14.5
18.9
21.2
27.4
161
79.6
8.1
..
10.1
4.9
311.1
18.8
50.5
19.0
29.0
30.2
34.0
30.4
29.2
52.4
53.2
20.6
50.3
5.6
25.2
31.2
13.8
40.6
19.5
8.5
18.0
8.5
..
..
..
9.7
41
3.1
30
6
42
37
42
44
..
0.3
3.3
1.7
4.3
13.9
23.1
..
6.6
1.2
8.5
6.2
37.7
..
..
6.7
12.2
1.3
-6.5
-3.1
-5.9
36.4
11.7
77.3
23.4
58.6
11.0
..
..
46.6
..
52
..
..
1994
..
5.8
-2.6
9.2
..
-1.2
-0.6
-6.0
-9.7
900.3
14.3
8.8
11.8
37.0
4.3
27.9
..
1.6
124.3
..
..
..
0.0
15.6
18.9
13.3
2.3
..
..
8.1
1994
2.1
..
9.5
6.9
20.3
1980
-2.7
65.8
11.1
15.1
1994
-5.0
..
5.0
5.5
115.0 5,175.0
1980
22.9
10.2
27.1
-0.3
-6.0
6.3
297.0
10.6
492.2
136.7
9.8
..
..
..
..
8.0
18.0
21.0
4.9
1984-94
Net present
Gross
international
value of
official transfers reserves (months external debt
(% of GNP)
of import coy.)
(% of GNP)
Current account
balance before
-14.8
-6.9
-7.0
-6.2
50.4
70.1
74.1
83.9
34.9
..
2.9
36.5
..
annual
rate
1980
0.7
Average
Deposit
..
Brazil
92
93
94
120
9.4
2.5
15
104
23
59
..
-22.5
5.3
2.7
2.8
5.3
3.4
..
..
1.5
9.3
9.3
4.4
.
13
-1.7
3.8
-2.8
18.0
-5.6
4.9
-11.1
..
1.0
-7.8
-0.2
-0.2
-6.8
-0.0
-6.6
-2.4
4
33
9.2
26
2.3
3.7
8.5
1.3
..
1.9
3.9
4.2
4.5
10.3
2.3
35
..
4.7
5.9
11.3
28
33
41
47
66
5.9
5.6
-2.2
-9.4
8.8
..
0.7
0.9
-8.1
1.5
1.0
73.8
-5.4
-7.7
15.4
-2.8
-10.4
..
0.1
3.2
39.4
..
..
3.9
..
..
2.8
15.5
317.2
6.8
30.2
-10.9
-6.3
-3.6
5.0
3.7
5.0
2.2
2.2
2.1
8.2
7.0
6.1
25
-1.1
1.3
2.6
14
..
-5.5
-6.3
-9.5
5.1
110
32
31
28
15
..
30w
50w
28w
26w
25w
32w
39w
-2.8
-1.7
-2.1
1.5
0.4
-1.4
-5.9
-17.4
-2.1
-1.6
0.6
2.0
-2.6
-4.9
-11.0
-6.3
-8.5
-1.2
60.3
-2.4
16.5
21.0
11.8
11.3
22.0
12.6
16.3
7.2
7.9
2.9
9.2
..
..
..
1.2
10.1
-2.2
13.7
-3.0
-3.9
5.8
14.9
5.5
2.2
-4.2
-11.7
3.2
-2.6
0.6
-1.6
7.2
8.3
4.4
-0.4
-0.3
-2.2
4.5
-1.4
-1.2
-3.2
-4.7
0.7
-10.5c
..
..
-8.9c
..
6.3
4.7
6.4
4.7
4.3
69.9
..
75.4
43.5
19.9
36.5
29.8
39.8
70.9
33.1
45.1
60.7
67.1
57.7
45.0
71.7
54.0
72.6
..
77.1
75.7
79.2
49.6
38.4
58.2
19.0
11.0
8.4
13.1
12.0
6.7
0.3
..
12.2
8.6
..
..
14.1
3.4
58.5
9.0
6.4
18.8
12.6
16.9
16.0
176.9
10.6
16.2
9.8
19.0
15.0
12.0
9.7
8.9
4.6
..
12.7
3.3
4.8
80.2
58.3
9.2
71
9.2
12.9
5.6
14.3
..
..
84.2
83.6
..
61.4
47.5
89.3
62.5
60.5
63.6
61.5
58.7
51.6
42.6
83.4 112.1
.. 120.7
19.0
12.0
4.1
5.5
7.9
11.2
5.4
4.2
6.2
7.9
6.9
..
48.0
3.1
-3.3
8.3
5.9
1.6
3.9
-0.7
-4.4
-0.5
-10.2
9.4
3.2
2.9
5.8
-2.9
-0.2
3.0
3.0
4.9
4.6
4.9
2.3
13.5
4.5
5.0
5.2
3.8
1.7
3.6
12.0
15.3
12.6
17.2
8.3
11.5
7.1
8.4
5.6
10.8
5.5
8.8
9.5
-3.1
-1.5
17.4
6.0
9.4
7.7
7.3
11.2
5.0
7.9
13.1d
4.6,
-1.9
6.5
2.0
18.0
6.1
11.7
18.0
12.5
15.2
-3.8
-4.2
-2.4
7.9
10.6
-14.2
-11.3
-2.2
1.5
-3.1
-2.2
-2.8
-5.5
2.3
-8.4
-3.7
0.4
1.0
2.5
15.4
0.6
6.0
2.8
3.6
2.5
2.0
1.6
6.4
6.2
2.3
8.8
2.4
4.7
1.9
2.4
2.5
1.5
3.9
2.7
4.4
0.8
..
..
3.8
4.6
3.5
..
..
70
3.6
5.3
2.0
6.4
5.5
6.2
3.0
1.2
1.9
2.0
2.9
3.5
7.7
1.8
1.2
-0.8
..
..
0.3
0.3
2.2
-2.1
8.3
3.3
3.0
2.9
4.1
5.5
1.3
-4.5
-0.4
4.2
4.1
3.0
3.7
0.2
69
12.1
a. Refers to current budget balance excluding grants. b. Includes Eritrea. c. Data are for budgetary accounts only. d. Certificate of deposit rate.
3.1
1.7
3.8
3.4
2.5
2.0
5.1
191
192
WORLD DEVELOPMENT
Low-income economies
Excluding China and India
I
Rwanda
2
Mozambique
Ethiopia
3
4
Tanzania
5
Burundi
6
Sierra Leone
7
Malawi
8
Chad
Uganda
9
10
Madagascar
11
Nepal
12
Vietnam
13
Bangladesh
14
Haiti
Niger
Guinea-Bissau
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
Kenya
Mali
Nigeria
Yemen, Rep.
Burkina Faso
Mongolia
India
Lao PDR
Togo
Gambia, The
Nicaragua
Zambia
Tajikistan
Benin
Central African Republic
Albania
Ghana
1994
136
113
119.
126
133
109
99
99
149
124
75
124
74
83
52
89
87
103
..
126
89
94
52
91
101
91
92
124
100
167
131
103
80
0.326
0.201
0.738
0.557
0.340
0.578
0.943
0.663
0.541
103
86
84
103
100
..
..
139
137
90
111
111
95
89
85
0.183
0.345
0.461
0.520
0.454
0.844
111
109
110
91
0.428
0.452
..
..
64
84
40
41
Senegal
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
Cote d'Ivoire
Congo
Kyrgyz Republic
Sri Lanka
Armenia
Cameroon
Egypt, Arab Rep.
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
Kazakstan
Guatemala
Dominican Republic
Lithuania
El Salvador
Jordan
..
(% of GNP)
1980
106
..
113
147
106
91
105
73
107
..
..
0.544
0.207
0.622
..
0.295
0.952
..
0.401
0.311
1994
98.4
8.8
8.1
5.5
15.7
3.4
9.7
8.7
..
0.561
0.285
0.519
0.308
0.246
0.266
0.305
6.5
..
13.5
5.2
12.9
1980
Official development
assistance
(% of GNP)
1994
-12
4.7
12
-3
-1
-7
38
30
-1
12.4
12.8
8.5
12.6
22.9
30.3
32.2
21.4
37.0
24.1
0
54
131
0
0
-11
2
-3
11
272
47
20
199
-22
18
301
-272
44
1,885
..
145
99
99
..
114
94
..
9.9
7.3
6.8
56.6
5.6
16.6
0.0
10
..
..
0.623
8.4
0.0
15.9
14.4
0.140
1.4
2.4
..
13.0
11.3
13.9
0
83
21
27.4
-26
14.8
11.5
12.9
16.0
9.1
175
0
-4
10
..
6.4
13.9
24.2
6.4
20.5
3.7
6.7
-26
35.0
0.289
0.787
..
0.465
0.228
0.605
..
0.329
..
0.076
0.457
0.258
0.368
0.636
13.8
14.6
..
7.2
10.7
..
4.1
5.4
29.4
4.2
..
1.0
11.7
9.0
11.7
35.5
..
..
..
0.456
0.232
10.6
..
..
..
79
0.479
0.475
9.6
0.361
14.2
10.5
..
0.282
4.7
9.6
9.6
14.7
13.8
28.0
9.1
5.9
5.7
7.0
9.5
6.2
7.3
9.0
0.2
0.540
0.318
..
..
79
114
107
..
93
90
14.1
0.499
0.298
0.284
0.194
0.293
0.160
2.5
3.9
..
7.4
..
0.310
0.495
0.219
0.465
..
-12
0.0
5,497
1.3
22.3
22.5
0.8
13.4
12.2
20.9
41.6
22.3
3.2
15.7
60
..
8.3
6
36
24.4
10.9
8.9
45
838
1,657
2
26.2
..
4.0
-70
3.1
10.1
10.8
230
27
0
22
80
..
5.1
2.5
25.9
21
..
18
-9
936
440
-130
0.0
4.2
9.0
2.2
6.0
10
..
129
213
9.8
0
59
409
..
3.9
6.5
14.9
1,131
7
1,006
10
..
29
34
5.4
14
-5
-15
5.1
5.4
6.9
0.2
3.9
4.4
987
840
23
7,408
..
1.7
0.1
111
..
..
..
4.3
143
115
82
144
0.616
0.430
0.467
0.383
7.4
5.3
7.1
1.0
..
..
..
..
1.8
3.2
0.238
1.9
0.557
4.4
0.331
..
0.335
1.9
Jamaica
0.462
0.406
12.3
2.3
101
0.468
0.362
Paraguay
3.6
71
Algeria
83
0.534
0.546
3.4
3.1
71
0.238
2.3
72
Colombia
0.505
2.9
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes. Figures in italics are for years other than those specified.
89
118
105
4,107
7.8
11.1
46,555
66
30
19.9
4.3
1,731
136
203
-0.5
22.0
0.6
..
9.0
1.9
6.9
37.8
25.5
74.2
10.2
12.5
-2.4
2.8
16.8
18.3
16.0
10.8
5.2
1.3 w
69
100.1
12
0.6 w
..
..
5.8
8.3
694
97
4
0
868
66
122
127
89
110
173
124
4.9
9.0
5.7
88
107
26
100
16.5
93
95
123.4
0.9
12.7
2.7w
7.0w
13.3
8.4
12.1
0.491
1994
32
14
0
90 m
88 m
130
1980
0.934
0.318
0.796
81
106.1
73.8
18.2
22.7
28.1
21.5
24.3
19.4
12.9
12.2
8.0
6.5
5.9
37.2
19.2
29.3
1.6
0.586
0.704
..
128
9.3
3.8
8.2
16.4
..
..
92
100
120
109
118
107
109
150
59
60
61
62
63
0.557
0.248
..
Zimbabwe
Guinea
China
Honduras
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
52
Bolivia
53
Macedonia, FYR
54
Moldova
55
Indonesia
Philippines
56
57
Uzbekistan
58
Morocco
0.622a
0.359
0.776
0.391
0.530
0.617
0.932
0.466
0.237
..
Azerbaijan
51
0.505
98
..
Lesotho
Georgia
Myanmar
0.811
0.274
58
82
85
101
38
39
1992
Net private
capital flows
(millions $1
2.1w
4.3w
..
Mauritania
1984
Aggregate net
resource flows
90 m
89 m
93
112
110
Pakistan
Export
concentration
index
5.9
0.6
9.8
17.4
26.2
31.2
5.8
4.6
6.9
10.7
6.4
8.3
8.4
0.2
0.5 w
1.1 w
10.3
..
1.4
1.3
0.9
1.0
1.6
52
550
877
394
84
4.9
0.1
2.1
..
0.3
0.9
-231
13.1
1.7
6.5
1.6
0.5
0
91
105
0
-376
0.0
1,360
594
132
0
787
705
0.4
1.4
113
13
1.9
0.7
-17
2.8
28
-40
-159
9
120
123
135
5.1
896
688
424
1,860
..
..
..
0.7
0.4
0.3
1.4
3.9
6.4
2.9
1.3
1.0
0.2
gvEL
LO
Terms of trade
(1987=100)
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
Tunisia
Ukraine
Namibia
Peru
Belarus
Slovak Republic
Latvia
Costa Rica
Poland
Thailand
Turkey
Croatia
Panama
Russian Federation
Venezuela
Botswana
Estonia
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Turkmenistan
Upper-middle-income
92
Brazil
South Africa
93
94
Mauritius
Czech Republic
95
96
Malaysia
Chile
97
Trinidad and Tobago
98
99
Hungary
100
Gabon
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
Mexico
Uruguay
Oman
Slovenia
Saudi Arabia
Greece
Argentina
Korea, Re,.
Low- and middle-income
Sub-Saharan Africa
East Asia and Pacific
South Asia
Europe and Central Asia
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
Portugal
New Zealand
Spain
Ireland
t Israel
Australia
United Kingdom
Finland
Italy
t Kuwait
Canada
f Hong Kong
Netherlands
t Singapore
Belgiumb
France
Sweden
Austria
German),
Aggregate net
resource flows
Export
concentration
index
193
Net private
capital flows
(millions $)
(% of GNP)
Official development
assistance
(% of GNP)
1985
1994
1984
1992
1980
1994
1980
1994
1980
1994
123
93
0.414
0.209
7.2
2.8
0.9
336
2.7
80
424
..
..
-67
0.0
3,214
1.0
0.7
0.4
5.9
0.9
0.6
0.6
0.9
0.9
2.0
0.4
86
111
..
111
95
103
82
0.247
166
97
1.8
7.7
..
1.6
0.0
6.6
5.2
0.3
3.8
3.3
1.0
0.3
8.4
0.8
0.9
..
..
..
..
92
109
105
0.352
0.303
9.2
5.5
6.5
3.7
109
..
..
0.182
0.159
0.343
0.090
0.119
0.108
0.422
..
..
0.652
0.555
2.6
20.3
..
104
0.260
86
..
82
152
..
4.1
. .
176
90
0.965
0.880
-0.3
..
o
0
0
248
10
1,465
660
105
..
577
222
29
1,244
4,138
1,530
96
633
658
70
0.0
5.5
0
65
o
1,825
114
0
-2.1
-178
-1,579
1.0
13
-0.5
101
102
121
0.126
0.457
0.656
0.089
0.378
0.332
..
..
..
..
114
92
94
0.276
0.324
0.546
0.156
0.308
0.422
0.790
0.534
0.239
0.435
0.743
0.153
0.176
0.824
0.083
0.776
0.118
0.153
0.109
91
138
103
154
145
91
182
175
96
123
94
90 m
92 m
87 in
91 m
97 in
83 m
84 m
100 m
87
90
82
96
99
110
104
88
84
165
99
118
101
108
93
89
92
92
84
86
99
90
92
112
77
92
99
120
102
0.887
0.127
0.194
0.193
..
..
. .
..
8.3
0.0
8.7
8.7
6.3
3.3
3.5
7.8
10.2
8.2
8.9
7.3
2.5
4.6
3.3
4.5
2.4
49
124
1,913
2,447
258
596
2,642
6,661
4,300
343
2,717
-93
-128
8,182
479
34
17,394
378
395
368
3.3
..
..
..
..
4.6
4.0
3.2
3,476
1,782
8,214
8,132
2.1
..
1.3
0.6
0.5
. .
0.0
11,871
. .
108
112
92
113
98
105
94
104
88
97
87
101
91
101
106
105
93
97
101
0.144
0.212
0.120
0.161
0.208
0.180
0.152
0.210
0.100
0.570
0.225
0.310
0.137
0.238
0.115
0.085
0.151
0.078
0.136
0.110
0.345
0.087
0.209
0.119
0.1
2.2
0.9
0.2
0.1
0.1 w
0.2 w
0.0
0.1
2.9
0.0
0.6
0.0
..
0.4
0.4
0.1
0.0
1.4
0.0
0.3
0.5
0.5
5.6
0.1
0.1
3.1
0.6
0.9
0.1
. .
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.2
1.1 w
0.0
3.4 w
0.7 w
12.4 m
0.8 m
1.4 v,
0.3 m
2.4w
1.0w
104
0.1
..
. .
5,655
5.3
1.3
1.7
211
1.8
4.8
0.0
-50
2.8
-1.9
..
1.4
0.0
11.8
93 m
101
101
77
..
0.1
0.1
0.0
1.1
1.1 w
1.6 vk
0.3 w
0.3 IA
4.1
1.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.106
0.174
0.142
0.125
0.256
0.196
0.063
0.230
0.056
0.742
0.125
0.152
0.061
0.183
0.106
0.064
0.110
0.061
0.084
0.080
0.366
0.077
0.140
0.102
0.691
101
United States
141
Norway
97
91
102
Denmark
128
73
Japan
85
64
Switzerland
0.801
181
93
f United Arab Emirates
93 In
World
a. Includes Eritrea. b. Includes Luxembourg. c. Data prior to 1990 refer to the Federal Republic of Germany before unification.
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11
L-
a,
labor force
Population
Avg. annual
Total
(millions)
1980
Tunisia
74
Ukraine
Namibia
75
Peru
76
77
Belarus
78
Slovak Republic
Latvia
79
80
Costa Rica
81
Poland
82
Thailand
Turkey
83
84
Croatia
Panama
85
86
Russian Federation
87
Venezuela
88
Botswana
89
Estonia
90
Iran, Islamic Rep.
91
Turkmenistan
Upper-middle-income
92
Brazil
South Africa
93
94
Mauritius
95
Czech Republic
Malaysia
96
Chile
97
Trinidad and Tobago
98
99
Hungary
100
Gabon
101
Mexico
102
Uruguay
103
Oman
104
Slovenia
105
Saudi Arabia
Greece
106
107
Argentina
109
1,,,,, 1,-,
Low- and middle-income
Sub-Saharan Africa
East Asia and Pacific
South Asia
Europe and Central Asia
Middle East and N. Africa
Latin America and Caribbean
High-income economies
Portugal
109
110
New Zealand
Spain
111
112
Ireland
73
50
52
17
23
10
10
36
47
44
5
139
15
2.5
0.4
2.7
2.2
0.6
0.6
0.5
1.9
Age 15-64
(millions)
1980
3
1994
Total.
Avg. annual
(millions)
1980
51
16
16
35
1.5
47
2.3
35
29
46
47
35
-0.1
2.6
0.0
38
41
30
33
48
60
25
29
16
26
27
64
53
16
26
14
33
15
12
0.3
23
26
25
39
19
19
0.1
1.0
24
61
2.0
0.0
25
37
19
2.3
0.4
34
28
2.6
2.9
0.2
2.1
1.9
3.1
148
21
0.6
2.6
3.5
0.6
0.0
2.3
3.1
0.2
3.4
3.4
0.4
3.8
2.3
99
76
77
13
20
32
12
20
..
206 t
293 t
99
140 t
2
199 t
48 '
71
11
16
19
16
44
28
42
27
20
3.1
3.2
50
46
63
46
10
-0.4
51
51
15
14
24
46
39
41
39
36
34
37
31 w
37
31
27
37
21 w
23
14
17
43
24
24
47
36
13
11
41
27
31
21
19
36
11
11
18
65
1.3
-0.1
..
0
6
2.3
0.1
0.1
14
20
2.6
2.4
11
2.8
2.7
11
14
1.5
2.7
2.2
1.7
1.3
1.2
1.2
2.1
11
10
-0.3
-0.3
-0.8
-0.1
3.2
2.0
0.6
4.5
2.6
1.9
22
35
2.9
1.0
31
44
44
32
40
4.0
7
44
13
45
15
12
43
19
16
36
30
40
31
23
13
12
29
34
37
18
3.5
2.0
0.6
4.6
0.5
18
5.2
10
10
0.5
28
34
44
67
89
38
3,652 t 4,752 t
380 t
572 t
1,398 t 1,735 t
903 t 1,220 t
437 t
487 t
175 t
267 t
471 t
359 t
776 t
850 t
35
53
1.2
1.5
1.2
17
21
11
13
1.3
2.5
0.7
2.0
1.2
0.9
2.3
1.9
28
28
39
2.2 w
2.8 w
2.3 w
2.1 w
0.6 w
1.9 w
41 w 42 w
62w 58w
2.7w
43w 44 w
72 w
1.5 w
43w 45 w
14w 16w
2.3w
0.6w
3.6w
35 w 33w
72 w 69w
70 w 64w
47w 46w
27w
37w 37w
26w
28w
2.0w
3.0w
2.7w
1.6w
1.4 w
2.2 w
0.9 w
3.1 w
2.0w
0.6 w
1.7w
1.9w
0.4 w
2.8 w
1.8 w
0.7 w
0.0
0.9
0.2
31
16
24
21
1,902 t 2,892 t 1,682 t 2,259 t
296 t
197 t
171 t 251 t
822 t 1,134 t
719 t 967 t
511 t
83 t
87 t
202 t
497 t
6
715 t
315 t
146 t
286 t
569 t
389 t
219 t
53 t
130 t
352 t
525 t
238 t
85 t
194 t
408 t
14
17
1.3
1.0
0.4
1.5
2.3
2.3
0.6
3.6
United Kingdom
Finland
56
58
0.2
0.4
36
38
0.4
Italy
56
57
0.1
0.5
0.2
36
39
4.4
-6.8
25
1.2
1.3
17
20
29
6
1.2
1.5
14
15
0.6
1.7
0.1
0.7
2.0
78
228
4
82
261
117
125
1.5
27
115
1.1 w
0.4
2.0
2.5 w
0.9 w
0.4
7
27
2
23
58
9
3.2w
3.0w
0.3
24
54
24
12
10
16
29
28
22
43
10
12
28
15
39
Belgium
France
Sweden
Austria
51
43
45
23
25
31
38
37
3
4
123
23
32
0.8
0.4
0.3
36
17
50
24
35
28
56
19
25
39
43
10
17
-l. Singapore
1.9
23
28 w 27 w
..
0.1
122
3.2
2.7
23
3.2
0.6
10
121
2.2w
41
-0.1
10
t Kuwait
Canada
f Hong Kong
Netherlands
2.7w
34
3.5
1.6
4.1
0.3
6.5
132
133
18
131
14
16
33
49
27
3.2
2.8
1990
10
10
24
1.1
129
130
71
71
17
1.5
Germany
United States
Norway
Denmark
Japan
Switzerland
t United Arab Emirates
30
10
1.7
2.2
1.8
128
45
2.5
1.6
0.5
1.9 w
2.0
2.4
0.9
2.9
4.6
1.7 w
126
127
-0.1
1980
20
47
32 w
28
35
26
47
34
26
32
43
45
27
3.5
2.5
18
125
40
32
40
27
36
21
15
124
12
51
Australia
116
117
118
119
120
14
38
36
42
23
38
2.8
0.5
14
114
-I Israel
20
-0.8
1.8
41
18
26
0.9
1.9
58
159
18
40
24
50
45
39
29
36
2.6
3.0
121
15
40
2.3
3.2
0.4
0.9
0.2
3.8
473 t
15
48
40
28
48
48
366 t
49
50
40
56
-0.1
39
-0.2
63
33
20
26
39
30
34
1
-1.2
28
30
..
39
25
29
2.1
1990
3.0
industry (%)
1980
2.6
-1.2
Agriculture (%)
2.8
0.2
0.3
1994
26
0
0.0
Female (%)
1980
0.5
3.7
113
2.8
0.7
195
9
29
3
25
1.6
0.3
0.2
0.4
39 w
39
34
28
28
34
36
39
46
0.6
0.8
5.9
-2.3
13
12
15
1.9
1.1
1.6
0.8
40
34
11
0.7
31
1.0
37
34
38
24
26
2.0
1.7
0.2
0.3
33
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.5
3
9
2
6
34
0.6
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.1
0.6
52
56
37
40
0.6
0.5
0.8
0.3
0.5
0.2
0.9
1.0
151
171
110
131
1.3
1.1
0.4
0.0
0.6
0.6
4.7
1.7 w
0.6
0.3
0.3
3
3
0.9
0.7
-0.1
79
87
1.1
0.6
57
3
66
1.0
1.7
1.0
40
42
40
44
38
37
2.9
4.4
1.8
2.0 w
1.7w
0.4
0.7
40
44
40
28 w
33 w
43 w
14
44
68 w
23 w
27
17 w
9w
13 w 16w
34 w 26w 25 w 24 w
18
36
11
10
18
12
19
14
38
42
43
47
37
33
44
36
39
37
40
44
47
40
33
37
34
32
32
12
13
41
45
45
5w
35 w 31 vv
7w
26
43
44
36
33
27
24
46
20
27
32
35
18 w
9w
34
25
33
29
29
26
38
35
38
32
33
50
31
42
35
35
..
..
10
41
38
7
3
45
31
38
28
2
7
..
29
31
31
25
25
37
26
36
28
29
29
46
31
40
40
11
35
13
39
38
25
28
34
35
27
41 w
42
20 w
20 w
53 w
49 w
196
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
Bangladesh
Haiti
Niger
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
Mali
Nigeria
Yemen, Rep.
Burkina Faso
Mongolia
India
Lao PDR
Togo
Gambia, The
Nicaragua
Zambia
Highest
10%
Lowest
10%
Lowest
20%
quintile
Third
quintile
quintile
1983/85,1'
28.9
4.2
9.7
13.2
16.5
21.6
1993,1'
38.1
2.9
6.9
10.9
15.3
21.5
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
1992,b
1993.1'
1984/85,d
1993,b
1992,b
40.8
43.4
30.1
35.7
28.3
3.0
2.3
4.0
3.5
4.1
6.8
10.3
9.9
12.9
11.4
13.5
14.4
14.0
16.7
15.4
17.2
20.4
20.3
21.8
21.4
22.0
48.1
50.0
39.5
33.4
34.9
25.0
29.0
23.7
..
..
1992,b
1991,b
36.1
56.2
57.5
3.0
0.5
..
..
1992/93,1,
37.5
1.3
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
1992a,b
1992a,b
33.8
30.4
3.7
4.2
8.5
9.6
12.1
12.9
15.8
16.3
21.1
21.0
42.6
40.2
28.4
26.4
..
..
..
..
1993,b
1993,b
50.3
46.2
1.6
4.2
3.9
8.0
8.0
12.6
13.8
20.0
23.8
55.2
50.4
39.8
31.3
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
1992a,b
1991a,b
19885,1
33.9
31.2
42.4
3.4
3.4
0.7
7.9
8.4
3.6
12.0
12.9
10.6
16.1
16.9
16.2
42.2
39.7
46.5
27.3
25.2
30.4
..
..
..
..
..
21.8
22.2
23.0
..
..
..
1990a,b
1.8
0.9
2.6
1.5
1.4
2.8
4.0
3.0
6.2
3.8
3.5
6.8
6.3
8.3
10.5
7.4
7.0
11.2
10.0
14.6
15.8
12.0
11.6
15.8
17.4
23.9
23.6
19.4
19.3
22.2
62.3
50.2
43.9
57.4
58.6
44.1
46.9
31.7
26.8
41.9
42.8
28.5
3.8
8.9
13.1
16.9
21.7
39.3
25.2
year
Low-income economies
Excluding China and India
1
Rwanda
2
Mozambique
Ethiopia
3
4
Tanzania
5
Burundi
6
Sierra Leone
Malawi
7
8
Chad
9
Uganda
10
Madagascar
11
Nepal
12
Vietnam
Highest
20%
Gini
index
Survey
Second
..
1992a,b
Fourth
39.1
24.2
45.4
30.2
..
1.2
..
5.8
9.1
7.8
9.4
..
..
..
..
..
..
7.5
2.1
3.4
11.8
6.5
21.1
20.6
17.0
44.1
58.9
62.1
29.3
42.4
6.7
15.5
12.0
10.7
47.7
..
..
..
8.9
14.4
23.4
49.3
31.3
4.0
..
1.5
44.0
37.9
..
Taj ikistan
Benin
Central African Republic
Albania
Ghana
Pakistan
Mauritania
Azerbaijan
Zimbabwe
Guinea
41
Senegal
1991,1)
42
43
44
45
46
47
Cote d'Ivoire
Congo
Kyrgyz Republic
Sri Lanka
Armenia
Cameroon
Egypt, Arab Rep.
1988,3
56.8
46.8
37.6
52.7
54.1
36.9
1990ab
30.1
..
..
..
1991,1)
Lesotho
Georgia
Myanmar
1986/87,1,
32.0
56.0
3.9
0.9
8.7
2.8
12.5
6.5
16.3
11.2
21.4
19.4
41.1
60.1
26.7
43.4
1990,d
42.0
2.3
5.6
9.7
14.5
22.0
48.2
31.7
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
34.4
31.7
40.7
2.7
3.9
2.8
6.9
8.7
6.5
11.9
12.3
10.1
16.7
16.3
14.4
23.1
22.1
41.5
40.7
47.8
25.8
25.6
32.1
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
39.2
32.7
59.6
2.8
3.1
0.6
6.6
7.5
10.5
12.3
5.8
15.0
16.9
10.5
21.7
22.9
18.6
46.3
40.4
63.0
30.5
24.9
46.6
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
30.8
25.5
46.6
50.5
33.6
3.3
3.8
2.3
13.0
14.4
8.9
1.6
8.3
9.2
5.4
4.2
3.4
8.1
12.3
17.0
18.4
13.2
12.5
16.2
22.3
23.2
19.9
19.7
21.3
39.3
34.8
52.6
55.7
42.1
24.7
20.2
37.6
39.6
28.0
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
43.4
5.9
5.8
9.8
10.2
13.9
14.9
20.3
21.6
50.1
41.1
2.4
2.4
34.7
31.9
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
2.8
1.3
6.9
3.6
11.0
15.1
7.6
12.6
20.9
20.4
46.1
55.8
31.5
39.5
49
50
51
China
Honduras
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
Bolivia
52
Macedonia, FYR
53
Moldova
54
Indonesia
55
Philippines
56
Uzbekistan
57
Morocco
58
1991,1,
1992c,d
1992c,c1
1992,d
19935,1'
19885,b
1990/91a,b
1993,d
1989,d
60
Kazakstan
Guatemala
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
Bulgaria
1992,1
Romania
Ecuador
Dominican Republic
Lithuania
El Salvador
Jordan
Jamaica
Paraguay
1992c,d
1994a,b
Algeria
1988ab
59
1989,d
1993,d
1991a,b
1991a,b
38.7
Colombia
1991,d
51.3
72
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
71
2.1
7.9
21.2
47.5
197
Tunisia
Ukraine
Namibia
Peru
Belarus
77
78
Slovak Republic
79
Latvia
80
Costa Rica
81
Poland
82
Thailand
83
Turkey
84
Croatia
85
Panama
86
Russian Federation
87
Venezuela
88
Botswana
89
Estonia
90
Iran, Islamic Rep.
91
Turkrnenistan
Upper-middle-income
92
Brazil
South Africa
93
94
Mauritius
Czech Republic
95
Malaysia
96
Chile
97
98
Trinidad and Tobago
Hungary
99
100
Gabon
101
Mexico
102
Uruguay
103
Oman
104
Slovenia
Saudi Arabia
105
106
Greece
107
Argentina
108
Korea, Rep.
Low- and middle-income
Sub-Saharan Africa
East Asia and Pacific
South Asia
Europe and Central Asia
73
74
75
76
Third
quintile
Highest
20%
Highest
quintile
22.1
22.9
46.3
35.4
30.7
20.8
Fourth
Survey
year
Gini
Lowest
index
10%
1990,1)
1992,,d
40.2
25.7
2.3
4.1
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
1994a,b
44.9
21.6
1.9
4.9
14.1
4.9
11.1
1.2
11.9
9.6
4.0
4.0
2.5
9.3
5.6
21.4
22.2
22.2
22.6
21.9
22.6
20.0
50.4
32.9
31.4
36.7
50.7
36.6
52.7
34.3
19.4
5.1
9.2
15.3
15.8
13.6
59.8
53.8
58.4
42.2
38.7
42.7
46.3
31.3
1993,d
1992,,
1993,d
1989,d
1992a,b
1992a,b
19.5
27.0
46.1
27.2
46.2
4.3
Lowest
20%
Second
5.9
9.5
10.4
14.1
quintile
9.1
13.8
8.7
15.3
18.1
18.5
18.8
17.5
14.3
17.7
13.0
10%
18.2
22.1
34.1
22.1
37.1
..
..
..
..
..
..
56.6
49.6
53.8
0.5
1.2
6.3
8.5
1.4
2.0
3.7
3.6
7.1
11.6
13.5
11.7
20.3
20.4
19.3
..
..
..
..
..
1993,4
39.5
2.4
6.6
10.7
15.1
21.4
. .
..
1993,d
35.8
2.7
6.7
11.4
16.3
22.8
42.8
26.9
1989,d
63.4
58.4
0.7
2.1
3.3
4.9
8.9
9.8
16.8
17.7
67.5
63.3
51.3
47.3
1989,d
1993a,b
1990,'
..
1993a,b
1993,d
1989,d
1994c,d
1.4
5.8
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
26.6
48.4
56.5
4.6
10.5
1.9
1.4
4.6
13.9
8.3
6.6
16.9
13.0
10.9
21.3
20.4
37.4
53.7
61.0
23.5
37.9
46.1
3.5
..
1993.'13
..
27.0
4.0
9.5
14.0
..
1992a.b
50.3
1993,d
28.2
18.1
..
..
..
17.6
22.3
36.6
..
..
..
55.3
39.2
37.9
23.8
1.6
4.1
7.8
12.5
20.2
4.1
9.5
13.5
17.1
21.9
22.6
..
..
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
Portugal
New Zealand
Spain
Ireland
t Israel
Australia
United Kingdom
Finland
Italy
t Kuwait
Canada
t Hong Kong
Netherlands
t Singapore
Belgium
France
Sweden
Austria
Germany
United States
..
..
..
..
..
..
5.1
16.2
8.3
10.8
13.7
23.2
23.4
44.7
36.6
28.7
21.8
..
..
..
..
..
..
6.0
4.4
4.6
6.3
6.8
12.1
11.1
17.8
17.5
16.8
18.4
16.7
24.5
24.8
24.3
25.5
23.5
39.6
42.2
44.3
37.6
41.0
23.5
25.8
27.8
21.7
25.3
..
..
..
..
1987,f
1980,f
1988,f
1982183,,
1978/79,f
1989,f
1981,f
5.7
5.4
8.2
11.8
10.8
13.1
9.9
13.7
11.8
13.2
17.7
15.2
18.1
14.6
18.6
17.2
17.4
24.6
21.6
23.7
21.4
23.8
23.5
24.5
40.2
47.0
36.9
48.9
36.0
41.9
36.9
24.1
31.3
21.9
33.5
21.5
26.1
20.8
..
..
..
..
..
..
1988,f
7.0
4.7
6.2
5.4
8.7
5.2
11.8
11.0
12.8
12.0
13.2
11.7
17.1
23.9
25.0
25.3
25.6
23.1
22.1
40.3
41.9
36.7
38.6
37.5
44.6
24.4
25.0
21.2
22.3
22.4
29.8
1981/82,,
1988,,
1979e,f
1985e,
1988,f
1981,f
1986,f
1985,'
5.1
7.9
5.6
8.0
10.0
12.1
12.0
18.1
17.4
18.9
Norway
1979e,
18.4
Denmark
1981,f
17.5
1979e1
Japan
16.4
1982,f
Switzerland
t United Arab Emirates
World
a. Refers to expenditure shares by fractiles of persons. b. Ranked by expenditure per capita. c. Refers to income shares by fractiles of persons. d. Ranked by income per
capita. e. Refers to income shares by fractiles of households. f. Ranked by household income.
198
Table 6. Health
Infant mortality
rate (per 1,000
live births)
1980
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
Tanzania
Burundi
Sierra Leone
Malawi
Chad
Uganda
Madagascar
Nepal
Vietnam
Bangladesh
Haiti
Niger
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
Mali
Nigeria
Yemen, Rep.
Burkina Faso
Mongolia
India
Lao PDR
Togo
Gambia, The
Nicaragua
Zambia
Tajikistan
Benin
Central African Rep.
Albania
Ghana
Pakistan
Mauritania
Azerbaijan
Zimbabwe
Guinea
China
Honduras
Senegal
1980
1993
Sanitation
1980
1993
1980
87w
Low-income economies
Excluding China and India
1
Rwanda
2
Mozambique
3
Ethiopia
4
5
6
7
Safe water
1993
118w
60
.
72
. .
55
93
80
26
40
26
..
49
25
20
50
29
64
22
18
52
37
43
51
..
10
21
..
10
66
58
12
86
48
..
70
27
67
21
10
15
45
75
..
..
80
74
30
30
.
20
40
16
67
3
6
..
78
19
..
42
59
25
15
65
35
24
37
29
28
..
30
49
15
36
49
40
41
33
40
..
63
51
..
90
50
55
90
10
40
. .
46
5
13
55
53
59
..
73
..
16
55
62
23
12
100
..
..
65
25
85
49
39
56
..
..
26
27
13
28
66
64
..
5
55
11
58
14
71
. .
. .
..
35
36
17
64
34
60
45
..
72
184
99
141
116
127
110
71
21
..
..
47
4
20
82
159
90
90
58
122
117
47
100
124
120
30
82
28
..
23
27
119
..
122
90
95
23
32
70
45
84
27
42
81
120
138
168
16
28
28
150
..
..
146
120
84
99
163
134
86
..
66
58w
86w
113
154
49
142
57
132
..
..
67
..
42
128
157
155
104
121
190
169
147
116
138
1994
Prevalence of Contraceptive
malnutrition
prevalence
(% under 5)
rate (%)
1989-95
1989-95
59
13
..
17
23
49
40
18
4
22
33
125
..
81
43
30
6
10
..
102
128
53
70
92
81
128
10
63
43
40
..
..
12
51
108
41
12
44
27
15
96
3.6
100
15
31
..
..
74
92
27
40
20
12
98
25
..
54
16
161
131
18
..
42
70
30
47
64
90
17
19
83
4.8
47
7
40
43
49
103
20
17
..
Cote d'Ivoire
83
110
11
Congo
20
9
112
124
..
Kyrgyz Republic
53
43
29
37
67
61
34
Sri Lanka
60
90
16
38
Armenia
..
26
15
..
26
..
Cameroon
57
20
94
14
16
Egypt, Arab Rep.
86
70
100
99
.
75
52
47
120
9
Lesotho
84
23
17
12
44
21
46
Georgia
18
25
3.1,1
51
25
20
;16
Myanmar
30
33
109
80
Middle-income economies
40 w
63 w
Lower-middle-income
66 w
36 w
42
52
Bolivia
46
44
18
118
71
13
45
..
53
Macedonia, FYR
54
24
..
..
54
..
50
Moldova
..
35
23
..
32
55
23
55
55
Indonesia
42
90
53
39
72
56
54
Philippines
81
75
52
40
30
40
18
57
47
Uzbekistan
28
..
58
Morocco
62
63
99
56
50
9
59
..
Kazakstan
..
..
33
27
59
60
50
44
Guatemala
71
31
60
30
75
16
61
Papua New Guinea
33
15
25
67
65
..
..
62
Bulgaria
. .
20
15
..
100
. .
..
63
100
50
49
Romania
29
24
57
37
64
Ecuador
58
43
54
45
58
67
57
65
Dominican Rep.
60
60
10
62
15
76
38
56
66
..
..
Lithuania
..
20
14
..
..
67
El Salvador
41
35
72
81
42
22
53
68
Jordan
90
86
70
70
99
41
32
17
35
69
Jamaica
13
72
74
21
10
67
70
4
Paraguay
25
33
30
50
34
48
..
98
35
71
Algeria
9
51
72
61
56
Colombia
88
45
20
10
72
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the key and technical notes. Figures in italics are for years other than those specified.
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
4.4 w
6.2 w
8.3
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.5
7.6
5.9
7.2
6.5
6.4
5.0
1994
Maternal
mortality ratio
(per 100,000
live births)
1989-95
3.3 w
5.1 w
..
6.6
7.5
5.8
6.7
6.5
6.7
5.9
7.1
6.0
5.3
3.1
..
1,512a
1,528a
748.
1,327a
800
620b
1,594a
550
660
.
105
6.1
3.6
887a
5.2
7.4
6.0
7.8
6.6
4.8
6001,
7.4
6.0
593,,
4.9
646a
7.1
5.6
7.4
1,249a
1,027
1,471a
6.9
3.4
3.3
6.6
6.5
5.4
4.9
6.0
4.4
939.
6.9
7.9
6.5
5.3
5.0
6.7
6.6
6.5
6.2
7.0
5.6
6.5
5.8
3.6
6.5
7.0
6.3
3.2
6.8
6.1
2.5
6.5
6.7
7.4
6.0
4.1
3.5
2.3
6.5
6.1
5.7
2.7
5.3
5.4
5.2
2.5
4.0
6.5
1.9
4.7
5.8
6.5
6.7
3.3
2.4
2.0
5.7
..
240
437
660
626.
1,050
. .
229
39
2,500
649a
742.
. .
800
29
80
880
115e
221
510
822a
887a
43
30
35
511
5.1
3.5
5.6
2.2
5.1
4.7
2.2
4.0
3.8w
3.8w
2.8w
2.7w
5.5
2.5
4.7
2.2
..
24
2.1
34
4.3
4.8
4.8
5.4
2.9
6.5
5.7
2.0
2.4
5.0
4.2
2.0
5.3
6.8
3.7
4.8
6.7
3.8
2.7
3.8
3.8
3.5
2.3
5.2
4.9
. .
598a
55
518a
373',
. .
208b
43
..
53
464a
700
1.5
1.4
3.3
2.9
1.5
3.8
4.8
2.5
4.5
3.7
2.6
29
132a
. .
180
140
107.
1980
1993
1980
95
90
64
Tunisia
Ukraine
Namibia
Peru
Belarus
Slovak Republic
Latvia
Costa Rica
Poland
Thailand
Turkey
Croatia
Panama
Russian Federation
Venezuela
Botswana
Estonia
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Turkmenistan
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
Safe water
1993
Sanitation
1980
1993
46
50
72
49
36
45
..
54
58
36
50
77
100
30
59
66
94
100
..
92
63
83
89
10
52
89
Brazil
South Africa
Mauritius
Czech Republic
Malaysia
Chile
Trinidad and Tobago
Hungary
Gabon
Mexico
Uruguay
Oman
Slovenia
Saudi Arabia
Greece
Argentina
Korea, Rep.
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
75
100
99
88
96
99
100
..
80
85
98
78
51
74
86
96
100
58
78
..
80
..
15
57
..
50
75
89
94
85
98
84
95
100
64
78
100
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
Portugal
New Zealand
Spain
Ireland
t Israel
Australia
United Kingdom
Finland
Italy
Kuwait
Canada
t Hong Kong
Netherlands
t Singapore
Belgium
France
Sweden
Austria
Germany
United States
Norway
Denmark
Japan
Switzerland
t United Arab Emirates
49
95
109
36
62
68
19
11
28
20
22
19
41
63
32
34
55
97
100
100
100
100
14
60
92
54
73
54 w
74
47
46
36 w
56
50
100
94
83
..
67
32
16
30
33
35
65
26
..
18
89
100
35
32
23
87 w
99
..
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
41
99
..
99
100
60
..
..
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
80
99
85
85
85
98
100
100
100
..
100
85
100
..
75
100
96
90
1.5
41
6.1
16
18
..
4.9
3.9 w
3.9
4.9
2.7
2.0
4.2
23
2.8
3.3
1.9
4.5
4.5
2.7
2.1
1.3
7.3
6.3
1.4
2.6
1.8
49w
41w
7w
1.9w
24
13
2.2
2.1
2.2
3.2
3.2
11
6
6
12
8
60
15
27
10
11
9
12
6
5
6
5
12
11
10
14
85
12
13
..
100
85
100
95
9
55
6
16
14
55
200
404a
112
34"
438a
. .
36
184
108a
. .
140
30
3.1 w
5.9 w
2.2 w
3.6 w
1.9 w
4.5 w
2.9 w
1.7 w
1.4
2.1
1.2
1.9
2.4
1.9
1.9
1.6
1.6
5.3
1.7
1.9
1.8
1.9
1.3
2.0
1.6
1.7
1.2
1.6
1.7
1.9
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.8
1.7
1.5
155a
183e
1.6
9.9
95w
60w
12w
79
4.7
3.9
2.8 W
2.8
3.9
2.0
1.4
3.4
2.5
2.5
5.5
3.2
2.2
7.1
73 w
23 w
..
100
100
3.2
4.5
6.7
2.0
51w
85
52
200
220a
119 w
34 w
11
100
..
1.4
58w
92w
35w
15
96
2.7
1.9
4.1
12
70
1.8
1.5
2.2
3.3
2.6
4.2 w
6.6 w
3.1 w
5.3 w
2.5 w
6.1 w
4.1 w
12
2.9
1.9
3.7
19
18
6
97
25
89
35
7
7
6
5.1
3.1
1.6
1.7
1.4
139a
33
2.0
3.2
63
69
12
12
14
12
2.0
3.7
2.2
1.5
Maternal
mortality ratio
(per 100,000
live births)
1989-95
3.5
4.3
13
75
78
82
75
79
90
66
..
2
17
23
116
53
37
41
15
55
51
95
13
17
115 w
100
3.0
87
29
59
1994
5.2
2.0
5.9
4.5
15
76
100
16
1980
21
..
70
81
..
56
..
90
14
57
48
1989-95
16
..
70
83
40
rate (%)
1989-95
20
20
Upper-middle-income
92
71
17
(% under 5)
2.3
60
..
1994
2.0
56
50
1980
11
71
52
Prevalence of Contraceptive
malnutrition
prevalence
13
91
50
Infant mortality
16
21
51
..
90
TE
3.0
18
1.9
1.8
1.6
1.6
1.9
1.5
1.2
2.0
1.8
1.5
1.9
1.8
1.5
1.5
5.4
4.1
20.
3.8 w 2.9 w
81 w
53 w
World
a. UNICEF/World Health Organization estimate. b. Based on indirect estimation using survey data. c. Based on a study covering thirty provinces. d. Refers to chil-
dren three years of age and younger. e. Based on sample surveys. f. Based on civil registration.
199
200
Table 7. Education
Percentage
of cohort reaching
grade 4
Secondary
Female
1980
Low-income economies
Excluding China and India
1
Rwanda
2
Mozambique
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
Ethiopia a
Tanzania
Burundi
Sierra Leone
Malawi
Chad
Uganda
Madagascar
Nepal
Vietnam
Bangladesh
Haiti
Niger
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
Mali
Nigeria
Yemen, Rep.
Burkina Faso
Mongolia
India
Lao PDR
Togo
Gambia, The
Nicaragua
Zambia
Tajikistan
Benin
Central African Republic
Albania
Ghana
Pakistan
Mauritania
Azerbaijan
Zimbabwe
Guinea
China
Honduras
41
Senegal
42
43
44
45
46
47
ate d'Ivoire
48
49
50
Congo
Kyrgyz Republic
Sri Lanka
Armenia
Cameroon
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Lesotho
Georgia
51
Myanmar
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
Bolivia
52
Macedonia, FYR
53
54
Moldova
55
Indonesia
56
Philippines
57
Uzbekistan
58
Morocco
59
Male
1993
64 w
60
67 w
84
23
86
51
21
43
48
50
19
69
63
.
77
85 w 82 w
1980
55w
3w
30 w
4w
0
76
61
. .
72
27
71
..
133
72
49
106
46
70
85
56
139
117
99
75
129
1980
27 w
4
3
3
6
2
2
83
1993
42w
69
38
1980
21 w
15 w
50
43
1993
26w 42w
66
114
44
99
32
84
80
1993
1980
74
11
9
11
12
4
20
6
9
.6
17
14
46
. .
67
12
33
44
26
. .
14
..
23
..
48
89
83
55
. .
. .
40
18
21
33
:35
43
94
120
34
135
..
9
13
3
2
16
10
23
23
10
28
85
12
12
77
14
27
27
32
2
o
110
19
104
91
24
82
14
107
30
67
91
104
91
35
102
83
92
81
61
105
47
98
123
146
67
96
97
113
123
122
84
20
38
16
16
19
12
13
45
44
..
101
109
91
87
92
88
92
95
41
44
51
51
111
71
97
70
49
62
87
116
89
114
30
116
112
65
48
57
25
103
99
37
63
100
. .
89
61
120
.
51
47
..
50
121
98
56
58
95
. .
83
80
76
91
123
61
120
111
..
101
7
63
31
8
4
.
..
39
25
59
31
51
16
34
0
2
25
. .
39
22
39
..
..
24
106
..
87
..
107
84
85
78
..
90
..
13
105
90
39
69
21
31
. .
. .
100
112
..
93
107 w 105 w
87
77
112
..
92
115
113
..
. .
23
69
80
85
20
..
86
77
66
98
89
17
102
119
87
124
51
67
Bulgaria
98
101
116
84
86
122
99
90
80
95
108
..
75
105
103
41
86
101
81
53
33
83
91
70
. .
85
48
32
..
..
..
..
97
87
53
55
82
47
76
74
24
50
. .
. .
20
78
27
27
77
70
10
33
17
45
83
96
80
73
..
81
40
90
90
91
83
35
93
94
91
87
91
81
16
2
17
83
77
81
64
49
51
57
30
2
. .
74
. .
80
33
47
35
. .
87
77
. .
. .
67
81
85
80
97
..
94
85
88
50
50
10
27
57
50
.
98
97
13
. .
..
..
..
..
..
65 w
20 w
24 w
23 w
24 w
16
23
16
55 w 64w
42
..
72
39
..
67
28
29
35
48
. .
. .
61
96
24
30
53
. .
81
. .
48
25
97
84
75
92
61
36
61
74
38
19
22
11
24
10
22
6
10
5
69
43
92
.
80
87
84
69
53
29
10
20
89
25
42
15
15
85
73
66
83
2
16
12
53
54
35
..
30
76
49
39
27
15
52
27
19
62
36
7
8
23
10
70
82
56
23
79
30
94
73
54
109
71
24
70
38
26
55
43
. .
34
..
26
79
63
110
96
107
108
114
111
118
25
. .
. .
65
32
12
82
.
89
85
56
85
95
97
84
..
..
90
85
..
66
..
51
67
77
68
37
90
98
93
93
94
78
76
.
. .
88
85
33
40
32
91
95
95
79
35
10
26
52
50
18
.
..
. .
55
95
97
52
95
100
. .
. .
81
96
74
74
92
42
38
19
. .
12
10
74
6
11
40
66
91
72
123
46
126
120
41
16
Colombia
68
40
57
9
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes. Figures in italics are for years other than those specified.
Algeria
14
61
88
51
. .
21
90
26
6
53 w
55
102
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
. .
116
32
86
78
61
75
102
104
. .
48 w 63 w
49 w 62 w
60
65
88
78
79
. .
63
79
79
32
30
..
71
89
. .
21
81
82
96
82
28
24
61
14
2
10
3
3
84
73
21
33
..
83
52
29
52
84
73
73
79
60
17
..
..
57
4
51
14
17
60
27
44
29
51
17
60
. .
29
63
82
63
25
. .
12
64
79
71
59
24
..
80
46
. .
86
9
74
58
93
58
30
77
98
25
15
30
. .
55
19
11
63
. .
89
83
13
2
17
67
. .
73
74
31
20
54
29
55
28
38
26
. .
62
3;
37
82
58
65
50
68
66
56
63
75
33
44
51
55
21
51
62
51
31
43
78
31
75
57
28
24
. .
87
78
52
88
42
90
83
31
..
. .
87
76
..
70
.
30
42
2
3
21
11
1995
48
77
47
11
105
40
105
93
101 w 102 w
11
85
..
89
105
10
37
..
. .
97
..
105
23
107
99
88
27
26
92
38
Male
1995
73
67
64
128
26
Female
. .
74
76
82
. .
1988
73
111
1980
75
60
..
10
14
1988
45w 24w
55w 37w
6
11
Male
Female
105
60
69
70
71
1993
Kazakstan
Guatemala
Romania
Ecuador
Dominican Republic
Lithuania
El Salvador
Jordan
Jamaica
Paraguay
1980
Tertiary
Male
Female
8
18
..
30
99
98
21
11
19
79
97
9
51
9
26
72
27
7
9
201
Percentage
Secondary
Male
Female
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
Tunisia
Ukraine
Namibia
Peru
Belarus
Slovak Republic
Latvia
Costa Rica
Poland
Thailand
Turkey
Croatia
Panama
Russian Federation
Venezuela
Botswana
Estonia
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Turkmenistan
lipperimiddle-income
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
Brazil
South Africa
Mauritius
Czech Republic
Malaysia
Chile
Trinidad and Tobago
Hungary
Gabon
Mexico
102
Uruguay
103
Oman
104
Slovenia
105
Saudi Arabia
106
Greece
107
Argentina
108
Korea, Rep.
Low- and middle-income
Sub-Saharan Africa
East Asia and Pacific
South Asia
101
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
Portugal
New Zealand
Spain
Ireland
t Israel
Australia
United Kingdom
Finland
Italy
t Kuwait
Canada
t Hong Kong
Netherlands
t Singapore
Belgium
France
Sweden
Austria
of cohort reaching
grade 4
Tertiary
Male
Female
Female
Male
1980
1988
1980
1988
1995
1995
11
90
93
94
93
45
21
42
46
..
65
17
1980
1993
1980
1993
1980
1993
1980
1993
1980
88
113
87
118
123
87
20
49
34
55
65
..
17
3
40
89
87
39
44
..
17
84
45
39
44
45
30
75
82
21
18
30
44
38
13
..
138
111
134
117
104
99
97
90
101
82
105
97
..
..
. .
. .
..
80
96
90
90
49
87
28
37
24
..
48
86
..
91
101
83
106
98
98
106
100
100
102
..
87
..
98
107
87
105
102
107
108
102
107
65
97
104
97
95
25
100
120
83
113
84
109
20
32
97
104
83
101
103 w
97
..
101
92
108
100
97
110
106
100
93
98
94
94
..
136
..
121
110
108
122
107
69
91
..
107
36
..
49
103
106
111
89 w
82
97
73
. .
107
102
99 w
64 w
105 w
..
102 w 104 w
123
111
109
100
36
74
107
99
93
99
94
94
132
114
109
87
97
78
103
106
109
108
100
..
93
110
98
96
104 w 110 w
108 w
103 w 104 w
63
49
..
46
56
62
67
.
..
58
..
21
23
88
84
46
45
..
41
55
95
18
17
29
21
29
83
98
96
58
43
38
52
49
87
74
..
15
23
..
11
12
..
.
31
60
88
61
70
78
82
. .
122
40
111
105
102
104
30
5
99
77
17
15
48
81 w
31 w
..
..
11w
97 w
90
98
73
96
26
13
50
29
..
..
93
98
. .
4
b
100
..
..
50w
28w
12w
14 w
37 w
15 w
53 w
14 w
..
18
34
100
100
97
83
35
42
98
70
29
25
97
100
91
110
19
37
32
27
63
37
99
81
16
103
81
94
73
93
99
11
..
84
130
82
60
83
22
9w
66
105
70
76
89
65
90
59
92
92
93
87
92
98
94
96
64w 37w
94
100
98
65
. .
35 w
97
93
97
13
58
41
82
21
..
24w
23
94
99
6w
11
85
60
11
103
84
87
104
..
63
..
120
95
56
126
52
10
29
..
90
77
83
98
96
103
104
99
109
26
25
107
100
104
100
97
114
115
100
27
23
112
104
103
107
101
85
97
..
72
93
99
22
8w
52w
40w
108
41
..
74
99
96
20
12w
95
99
97
63
40
17
18
85
3
14
22
3w
5w
112
103
107
100
103
61w
55w
107
113
105
100
103
98
106
70
93
59 w
51w
36w
110
103
96
100
100
99
106
101
106
103
110
97
98
99
20 w
76
100
14
17
99
10
17
18
98
98
76
96
95
96
..
57
14 w
96
82
17
94
98
89
96
79
103
91
85
34
82
85
91
78
95
..
84
95
..
98
. .
21
97
99
45
100
98
100
81
. .
50
95
95
31
38
100
22
26
43
36
97
98
100
.
. .
92
97
97
94
97
.6
.1,;
. .
..
91
99
98
99
99
99
97
101
99
b
b
b
98
b
b
..
85
94
100
97
99
18
95
25
b
99
78
93
99
92
96
12
b
14
b
4
b
..
100
b
b
b
b
b
..
98
97
b
81
b
107
.
100
101
..
. .
56
United States
98
26
54
100
99
..
b
99
92
118
100
96
100
99
Norway
98
41
. .
98
b
105
112
28
.
98
104
95
97
Denmark
96
100
100
100
100
b
95
102
101
102
30
131
101
94
97
92
31
Japan
31
92
b
94
100
93
18
102
89
132
Switzerland
93
20
11
3
94
84
112
88
108
49
94
55
133 t United Arab Emirates
90
World
89w 100w 104w 109w 38w 57w 49w 65w 13w 18w
a. Data for 1980 include Eritrea. b. According to UNESCO, illiteracy is less than 5 percent. c. Data before 1990 refer to the Federal Republic of Germany before
unification.
German),
..
95
97
..
98 w
10
99
90
82
45 w
84
14
52
99
81
8
28
27
..
28
96
99
4
12
4
14
97
103
106
16
..
97
104
18
54
87
92
98
13
1
88
110
100
65
74
79
64
104
120
110
91
86
100
105
99
107
99
109
104
112
96
99
71
58
85
56
65
51
61
19
84
89
95
100
99
..
75
92
86
93
36
38w 53w
18w 35w
90w
..
32w 51w
41 w ..
124
50
49
60
72
80
98
43
32 w 50 w
10 w 23 w
101
. .
..
57
90
118
51
..
90
13w 20w
48w
.
85
97
16
..
26
19
27
64
84
. .
Male
83
..
58
80
46
62
23
77
60
74
74
84
111
94
91 w 77 w
103w 115w 117w 119w
60w 87w 91w 110w
97 w
..
97w
..
74w 91w 98w 104w
69w
51
47w
106 w
. .
49
54
96
95
..
..
95
61
1993
Female
b
b
b
b
b
b
21
wo.t.o0 RT
202
1980
Low-income economies
652,586 t
..
Excluding China and India
..
1
Rwanda
2
1,123
Mozambique
Ethiopia
624
3
Tanzania
4
1,023
5
Burundi
6
Sierra Leone
7
Malawi
8
Chad
9
Uganda
10
..
Madagascar
11
Nepal
174
12
Vietnam
4,024
13
Bangladesh
2,809
14
Haiti
Niger
15
..
16
Guinea-Bissau
23
Kenya
Mali
Nigeria
Yemen, Rep.
Burkina Faso
Mongolia
India
24
Lao PDR
25
Togo
26
Gambia, The
Nicaragua
Zambia
1,685
Tajikistan
..
Benin
149
..
Central African Republic
Albania
3,058
Ghana
1,303
Pakistan
11,698
..
Mauritania
17
18
19
20
21
22
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
205
17,503
3,165
160
2,550
222,262
93,907
40
41
Senegal
42
43
44
Cote d'Ivoire
Congo
Kyrgyz Republic
Sri Lanka
Armenia
Cameroon
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Lesotho
Georgia
51
Myanmar
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
Bolivia
52
53
Macedonia, FYR
54
Moldova
Indonesia
55
56
Philippines
57
Uzbekistan
58
Morocco
59
Kazakstan
60
Guatemala
61
Papua New Guinea
62
Bulgaria
63
Romania
64
Ecuador
65
Dominican Republic
66
Lithuania
67
El Salvador
68
Jordan
Jamaica
69
70
Paraguay
71
Algeria
72
Colombia
2,797
..
..
875
1,435
262
1,938
1,411
774
15,176
4,474
..
93
17
55
25,028
13,406
..
4,927
76,799
1,443
..
28,476
63,846
4,209
..
11,353
.
1,710
2,169
550
12,078
13,972
21
6.4
34
-0.7
-968
..
100
-484
-406
11.6
0.3
1.3
..
100
21
20
..
..
..
..
23
75
32
105
65
7.2
4.0
9.0
16.4
8.3
5.8
..
..
4.6
..
37
37
107
22
162
214
..
..
..
3.3
3.6
4.6
1.9
9.4
..
..
..
..
..
4.8
1.8
16
..
241
140
137
294
11.2
47
2.9
7.8
6.9
..
..
.
-3.0
2.3
2.3
642
. .
43
18
-1.4
-2.3
9.4
..
1,145
29
422
-1.0
-12.0
1,511
121
91
1.6
32,247
229
10,545
4,654
418
770,000
969
840
2,350
379
3,197
1,979
2,500
1,077
34,538
142
255
103
1,414
432
8.0
0.5
6.4
0.5
3.4
2.0
..
2,433
399
..
65
421
647
..
169
102
170
147
158
175
157
534
96
89
371
..
3,098
882
1,921
990
23,500
39,782
5,807
2,591
8,164
1,236
4,024
2,776
1,251
715
111
..
..
5.2
5.5
-18.8
..
..
0.7
1.9
..
..
5.6
4.0
0.5
..
..
-1.5
3.4
17.9
7.3
2.9
7.5
7.1
0.8
1.6
0.6
0.9
0.5
6.5
..
..
3,326
..
784
1,017
175
28,244
647
22,271
501
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
15
8.4
-19
5.4
6.0
1.8
2.7
0.6
15.7
9.4
32
100
100
84
29
55
1.3
3.6
1.6
4.5
0.3
57
1.2
8.1
28
0.7
3.4
4.6
2.9
4.2
0.9
5.9
-4
..
-1
..
93
-239
0.5
. .
76
0.1
. .
28
64
38
100
7.4
2.4
31.7
0.6
-41
..
26
87
9.7
0.9
1,489.2
38
100
87
-1,193
-113
71
100
82
-2,492
2.1
2.8
4.7
0.4
1.1
0.2
5.3
0.4
96.5
10.1
0.6
9.3
769.4
0.3
0.7
0.2
2.5
2.5
4.0
0.6
0.2
4.0
3.8
71.9
2.9
63.9
18.7
1.0
2,668.0
3.1
2.8
3.4
6.3
4.0
15.4
5.0
..
0.06
0.19
0.20
0.64
0.29
..
0.71
0.12
0.07
1.24
0.24
0.60
1.36
8.71
1.82
0.17
2.29
0.56
0.36
0.49
1.64
3.42
0.29
1.14
0.18
1.54
0.14
0.05
2.77
0.23
0.38
0.39
.
1.39
0.21
1.52
0.56
0.50
0.57
0.23
..
..
1.5
. .
0.7
-5
81
. .
13.8
..
4.4
5,370.8 t
0.14
3.23 w
-1.7
-12.2
0.12
0.13
0.51
0.45
0.31
0.15
0.06
0.23
0.25
0.72
0.62
2.2
84.0
91
0.06
0.07
0.05
0.08
0.03
0.10
0.07
0.04
0.05
0.08
0.07
0.21
0.22
0.05
0.95
0.73
0.06
4.08
0.87
4.2
1.0
0.23
1.11
4.8
. .
1.7w
..
1,540w
4,009.3 t
4.4
1.8
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
4.5
6.6
0.84
0.96
4.1
..
1.99
99
..
-275
-101
79
70
94.6
36.5
0.00
0.64
0.76
3.26
1.00
0.77
5.74
87
95
16.0
-16
..
84
70
-150
74
63
19
27
-223
4.5
1.8
74.9
191.4
13.4
6.4
14.2
184.6
49.7
123.3
27.3
298.0
5.7
2.3
54.4
122.1
18.9
10.2
22.0
3.6
11.3
8.0
2.6
79.2
61.5
7.4
2.6
9.3
8.3
3.1
..
..
..
3.6
3.6
0.3
4.3
2.4
.
3.8
-10.8
9.2
.
5.5
-2.6
-8.8
0.7
0.0
2.8
..
..
..
3.0
-19.6
0.3
0.3
2.6
..
..
5.8
-0.3
6.8
6.2
3.7
5.0
2.3
9.6
4.7
1.3
0.9
2.3
2.6
0.5
3.8
0.3
6.7
5.5
0.4
0.8
2.9
4.0
0.6
6.6
..
-156
89
80
..
58
2.1
97
-2
.
1.5
100
1.2
8.3
1.5
99
100
4.7
8.4
6.3
88
1.5
-452
3.0
-141
-273
-103
66.2
39.3
3.5
2.4
2.54
0.10
3.52 w
-90
1.1 w
2.5
-107
-0.6
..
3,213
2,876
529
70
83
100
82
80
..
572
962
393
364
1,886
307
3,710
186
236
2,786
1,750
517
340
2,194
219
997
1,112
261
1,030
613
..
31
1.3
21.5
17.2
0.8
3.9
45.2
3.0
..
..
17.0
7.6
0.8
0.6
0.1
6.2
0.4
68.1
3.3
0.4
6.7
350.1
0.2
0.6
0.2
2.0
3.5
-525
-67
9.7
307
254
5,153
209
..
-55
1.6
0.5
0.05
0.26
0.05
0.10
0.03
0.18
0.12
0.05
0.05
0.18
0.04
0.32
0.09
0.14
0.10
0.17
0.37
0.06
0.96
0.39
0.06
4.03
-1.2
320
169
95
0.6
0.7
0.2
0.6
1992
0.91 w 1.30w
0.40 w 0.45 w
-269
-120
3.5
7.2
..
277
32
60
0.1
1980
6.9
1.2
..
83
608
1,593 w
..
..
91
97
100
59
100
58
83
84
Per capita
(metric tons)
76
83
87
2.9
667
2.9
2.1
0.2
0.4
0.7
0.3
1.0
0.9
92
37
139
160
1.8
1.9
91
3.5
7.0
2.6
3.5
9.1
9.4
4.0
8.3
2.1
3.4
5.0
4.7
6.2
2.5
9.1
2.0
1992
4,012.9 t
575.5 t
83
4.1
1980
0.5
1.0
0.3
3.2
78
..
..
..
4.2
. .
-15
0.9
2.9
..
120
1.9 w
2.8
2.4
CO2 emissions.
Total
2,195.1 t
355.8 t
74
86
12
60
4,185
74,794
24,428
42,209
8,107
62,368
1994
1.8
23
1,001
1,292
2,501,145 t
1,689,117 t
2,220
1980
5.8
73
39
16
..
..
174 w
. .
27
-5.8
40
23
..
1,713
1,079
243
38
46
56
3,695
97
93
1,350
Avg. annual
growth rate (%)
271 w 384w
182
183
413,130
48
49
50
1980
39
..
9,879
1,364
China
Honduras
46
47
486
7,549
7,700
326
327
2,792
15,001
45
1,156
975
143
323
370
100
425
479
1,991
Azerbaijan
Zimbabwe
Guinea
37
38
39
1994
1,222,928 t
230,666 t
209
614
Per capita
(kg)
Net
energy imports
as % of energy
consumption
1.5
0.82
..
0.65
0.60
8.45
8.62
1.69
1.12
1.08
17.55
0.58
0.56
6.37
5.36
..
1.76
1.40
5.88
0.47
2.17
3.96
0.47
3.55
0.66
3.03
3.29
0.58
3.02
1.41
1.76
Net
Per capita
(kg)
1980
1994
5,204
170,910
Tunisia
3,083
108,290
Ukraine
Namibia
..
Peru
8,139
Belams
77
78
Slovak Republic
79
Latvia
80
Costa Rica
..
81
Poland
124,500
82
Thailand
12,093
83
Turkey
31,314
..
84
Croatia
Panama
85
1,376
750,240
86
Russian Federation
Venezuela
87
35,011
88
Botswana
Estonia
..
89
Iran, Islamic Rep.
90
38,347
Turkmenistan
91
7,948
475,209 s
Upper-middle-income
72,141
Brazil
92
South Africa
93
60,511
Mauritius
..
94
95
29,394
Czech Republic
96
Malaysia
9,522
7,743
97
Chile
98
Trinidad and Tobago
3,863
Hungary
28,322
99
100
Gabon
759
101
Mexico
97,434
102
Uruguay
2,208
103
Oman
1,346
104
Slovenia
105
Saudi Arabia
35,496
106
Greece
15,973
Argentina
107
39,669
108
Knrea Ren
41,426
Low- and middle-income
Sub-Saharan Africa
104,833 t
East Asia and Pacific
566,538 t
South Asia
112,057 t
Europe and Central Asia
Middle East and N. Africa
143,540 t
73
74
75
76
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
Portugal
New Zealand
Spain
Ireland
t Israel
Australia
United Kingdom
Finland
Italy
t Kuwait
Canada
t Hong Kong
Netherlands
t Singapore
Belgium
France
Sweden
Austria
Germany
United States
10,291
9,202
68,692
8,485
8,616
70,399
201,200
24,998
139,190
9,500
193,170
5,628
65,106
6,049
46,122
190,660
40,992
23,449
359,170
1,801,000
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
19,488
130
Denmark
Japan
131
347,120
20,840
Switzerland
132
8,558
133 t United Arab Emirates
World
6,711,356
Norway18,865
483
2,164
590
3,292
4.0
6.9
3.4
2.8
-9.8
..
3.0
0.5
-0.5
3.1
2.5
6.1
..
0.7
..
..
471
351
..
..
..
..
2,692
3,499
259
705
2,563
770
955
1,057
566
4,038
2,331
380
3,552
1,565
3,198
4,469
1,843
98,800
44,655
58,100
5,051
1,479
599,027
49,355
549
5,325
97,891
14,090
810,681 t
110,000
91,349
431
40,324
33,662
13,200
5,891
25,191
676
139,600
1,971
4,924
2,995
85,326
23,300
47,850
133.374
3,716,470 t
155,832 t
1,162,092 t
269,625 t
1,329,092 t
333,267 t
453,021 t
4,392,058 t
18,100
15,200
94,500
11,200
15,151
92,300
219,200
30,300
154,800
12,337
228,000
13,822
70,100
19,210
51,500
222,400
49,200
26,300
334,000
2,060,400
23,100
20,800
478,000
25,200
24,017
t 8,035,058 t
..
703
5,397
2,354
.
980
2,778
..
1,755
558
..
2,873
692
695
3,570
2,645
942
1,453
758
1,223
..
3,787
1,656
1,411
1,087
691
2,253
387
3,902
1,711
943
4,549
2,455
520
1,577
623
2,347
1,506
4,744
2,235
1,399
3.000
782w
276w
1994
1980
1992
-99
-7
9.5
-1
43
13.6
611.3
..
..
-36
23.5
..
..
..
..
89
-0.4
0.2
0.5
9.5
5.8
10.0
2.7
2.7
1.8
..
..
4.5
0.9
3.2
2.3
2.8
4.7
0.6
4.6
2.0
1.2
..
..
8.9
2.4
7.3
0.9
0.7
-29.9
..
..
-1.7
6.6
4.2
-8.9
1.5
. .
7.5
25.0
4.9 w
4.3
3.6
..
3.5 w
2.6
.
..
3.2
3.3
0.0
1.3
..
73.7
9.4
3.9
3.9
0.8
-4.5
1.0
11.2
4.3
2.6
3.6
-3.6
5.6
2.3
-0.9
2.0
2.7
12.4
5.8
2.0
4.6
4.4
..
..
5.8
3.6
1.1
8.5
-0.4
-3.4
1.6
0.8
5.6
..
88
41
96
45
59
56
28
83
1.3
97
0
-280
-118
-101
5.0
1.3
7.9
0.9
2.1
3.9
0.8
1.6
42
0.4
-127
-116
116.1
65
38
-33
92
13
-29
-58
-66
50
66
-240
-89
49
44
..
6.1
4.4
1.2
3.5
10.2
2.5
1.5
68
5.8
5.9
..
19
..
1.4
-1,361
-435
3.3
5.9
2.8
77
63
-21
77
85
5.9w
7.0w
6.4 w
2.5 w
6.2 w
898w 962w
2.7w
4,822w 5,168 w
1.5 w
1,054
1,828
2,956
1,837
2,495
2,222
4,792
3,572
5,230
2,466
6,909
7,854
1,117
4,601
2,651
4,684
3,539
4,933
3,105
4,587
7,908
4,611
3,804
2,972
3,298
8,205
4,352
2,414
3,136
2,815
5,173
3,754
5,954
2,710
7,615
7,795
2,280
4,558
6,556
4.7
4.5
2.6
1.4 w
2.6
2.2
2.8
2.4
4.8
3.3
86
39
3.1
5.1
77
69
4.6
78
98
70
-22
-91
-9
72
62
5,091
3,839
5,603
3,276
4,097
7,905
5,326
3,996
3,825
3,603
12,795
1,516w 1,434w
1.3
1.5
1.0
0.6
2.4
2.6
2.3
2.7
2.3
1.3
2.1
1.4
4.1
1.6
-0.1
3.3
11.7
3.0
2.2
7.7
1.4
7.0
1.0
1.2
2.6
7.2
10.5
1.9
1.3
1.9
1.2
2.6
3.5
6.7
2.1
1.5
0.2
0.2
5.1
3.1
-0.4
-1.5
3.3
1.3
1.9
1.8
1.5
1.5
3.1
0.5
3.4
2.1
8.8
2.4
2.3
0.2
4.4
2.7w
0.3w
1.6
0.5
2.4
3.1
4.9
3.5
..
1.3 w
1.5 w
0.8 w
1.5 w
500.5 t
857.6 t
9,835.0 t
3.7w
4.7w
5.1
3.6
4.6
3.2
6.6
2.0
2.4
9.5
4.7
3.6
4.4
6.0
4.0
7.5
90
86
81
-739
-711
27.1
17.6
200.0
25.1
21.1
202.8
588.3
55.1
372.1
24.7
-7
-46
430.2
100
16.4
152.8
30.1
127.7
484.1
71.4
52.2
1,068.3
96
67
100
9
100
77
47
36
65
6.1
49
58
3.2
4.7
7.0
9.6
10.3
14
19
-195
-636
97
88
66
27
82
59
-996
-470
3.3w
130.8
51.4
107.5
125.7
6,378.8 t
356.8 t
1,979.2 t
395.2 t
124w
2.1
4.5
2.1
..
28.0
27.0
16.7
82.0
4.8
260.1
-801
405 w 670 w
1,358.3 t
183.6
213.4
0.6
89
3.2 w
5.1 w
..
-1,024
1.5w
1.9w
1.0w
5.4w
3.6
1.0
-1,106 -2,268
-49
-55
89.6
5.8
2.7
7.9
2.4
4.7
1.9
2.5
459.6
40.0
76.0
55
-14
.
..
-52
-245
2.8w
-10
100
83
75
61
Per capita
(metric tons)
1980
272 w
221 w
2,727 w
821 w 1,250 w
CO2 emissionsa
Total
..
..
1,297w 1,715 w
595
2,074
8,159
27,881
1980
Avg. annual
growth rate (%)
energy imports
as % of energy
consumption
4,623.2
40.0
63.2
933.9
40.9
36.3
1980
1.48
..
..
..
22.3
102.0
37.0
14.8
3.8
341.9
112.5
145.5
16.2
4.2
2,103.1
116.4
2.2
20.9
235.5
42.3
1,907.7 t
217.1
290.3
1.4
135.6
70.5
34.7
20.6
59.9
5.6
332.9
5.0
10.0
5.5
220.6
73.9
117.0
289.8
9,849.7 t
1.36
1992
1.60
11.72
..
1.00
9.89
6.97
5.62
1.08
12.92
0.86
1.20
8.91
1.98
1.71
2.49
3.39
..
1.86
.
6.03
1.10
0.28
2.97
..
1.68
14.14
5.75
1.60
13.53
3.97
10.48
3.71 w 4.17 vv
1.51
1.41
7.31
0.61
7.49
1.26
13.15
2.03
2.42
15.41
7.66
5.93
3.88
1.98
5.33
..
13.95
5.33
3.82
3.30
3.76
2.55
16.28
5.80
4.50
3.92
1.61
5.24
2.76
13.11
7.16
3.50
6.64
1.75 w 2.14w
0.94w 0.88 w
1.42w 2.18w
0.44w 0.74w
478.6 t
3,682.4 t
866.5 t
860.2 t
2.86w 3.40 w
1,047.0 t
2.39w 2.31 w
10,087.4 t 12.67w 12.03 vv
4.78
47.2
2.77
26.2
7.60
5.65
5.72
223.2
5.35
30.9
7.37
8.69
41.6
5.45
8.13
267.9
13.80
15.33
9.76
566.2
10.44
41.2
11.53
8.17
407.7
6.59
7.17
16.0
11.42
17.99
409.9
14.36
17.49
5.01
29.1
3.26
9.16
139.0
10.80
49.8
13.19
17.67
101.8
12.97
10.13
6.31
362.1
8.99
8.60
6.55
56.8
6.91
7.15
56.6
10.89
878.1
13.64
4,881.3 20.30
19.11
60.2
14.06
9.78
10.42
12.34
53.9
8.00
8.79
1,093.5
6.48
6.36
43.7
70.6 34.77
39.74
15,659.9, 18,821.8
3.54 w
3.46w
203
204
Cropland
Low-income economies
Excluding China and India
1
Rwanda
2
Mozambique
3
Ethiopia
4
Tanzania
Burundi
5
6
Sierra Leone
Malawi
7
8
Chad
Uganda
9
10
Madagascar
11
Nepal
12
Vietnam
13
Bangladesh
14
Haiti
Niger
15
16
Guinea-Bissau
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Kenya
Mali
Nigeria
Yemen, Rep.
Burkina Faso
Mongolia
India
Lao PDR
1980
11 w
6w
54
4
1
53
25
18
41
34
17
22
17
13
79
5
3
Senegal
42
43
Cote d'Ivoire
Congo
Kyrgyz Republic
Sri Lanka
Armenia
Cameroon
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Lesotho
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
Georgia
51
Myanmar
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
52
53
54
Bolivia
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
Macedonia, FYR
Moldova
Indonesia
Philippines
Uzbekistan
Morocco
Kazakstan
Guatemala
Papua New Guinea
Bulgaria
Romania
Ecuador
Dominican Republic
Lithuania
El Salvador
Jordan
Jamaica
Paraguay
71
Algeria
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
17
61 w
34
40
47
56
36
33
46
89
86
31
84
20
36
40
60
46
40
9
41
15
1
15
21
18
92
90
49
90
50
51
49
76
23
70
39
34
55
22
89
36
99
39
93
57
6
17
5
5
4
3
45
..
4
9
46
40
25
11
18
48
0
10
11
41
7
6
17
3
40
..
16
..
7
7
12
7
23
14
0
10
..
65
19
78
27
49
7
29
20
12
..
14
15
..
10 w
11 w
2
25 w
17 w
43
26
67
..
17
21
11
39
43
26
11
15
29
30
..
46
35
4
4
4
3
10
3
5
0
17
21
39
37
36
34
34
31
28
29
53
52 w
47 w
46
49
22
76
65
37
54
40
22
38
35
22
66
41
52
56
31
29
29
47
42
43
58
39
22
69
13
44
45
22
52
58
24
26
61 w
56 w
58
59
41
41
54
37
51
34
53
41
48
59
..
31
17
52
99
84
60
99
44
12
49
47
50
70
55
58
64
61
71
42
60
47
42
43
64
45
43
77
27
..
35
29
7
29
36
82
70
47
36
35
88
20
3
40
24
54
94
15
13
87
56
40
84
72
75
Colombia
39
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
35
67 w
71 w
73
8
0
62
43
32
74 w
83 w
54
44
. .
28
53
40
34
32
69
..
47
70
23
..
44
70
13
52
23
27
20
92
24
57
84
4
52
..
18
22
22
27
26
38
33
25
60
27
31
40
21
13
17
16
18
81
87
50
11
13
31
41
38
22
26
24
70
46
64
55
47
27
95
11
15
21
12
19
36
36
19
26
19
9
18
6
19
11
47
69
72
47
82
25
17
31
13
19
..
75
96
98
86
23 w
18 w
24
35
22
66
29
24
4.7
6.8
6.9
5.0
6.1
3.4
4.9
5.7
8.0
2.5
5.9
3.9
7.5
3.5
7.5
5.1
5.8
7.0
10.0
3.9
3.2
6.2
5.3
6.0
3.9
4.2
2.3
5.2
3.0
2.9
4.3
4.5
80
24
5
13
24
79
92
59
59
13
29
47
10
15
4
70
62
51
9.1
53
60
4.9
..
38
26
56
82
14
56
4.4
7.4
3.2
6.4
6.7
4.9
5.7
3.5
5.6
5.7
7.4
3.0
4.9
4.0
6.9
4.3
33
53
64
3.8w
4.4w
13
61
41
16
71
55
52
55
72
1990-94
4.2 w
4.4 w
13
18
67
14
16
41
28 w
29 w
73
43
22
43
1994 1980-90
48
6
40
3
10
17
12
12
22 w
23 w
30
25
30
14
65
39
10
30
59
1980
21
15
..
growth rate MI
13
22
23
7
population
23
15
Avg. annual
52
23
11
62
9
67
19
..
21
26
15
3
31
74
80
82
59
63
2
2
2
30
8w
8w
3
53
68
79
73
62
62
62
57
65
8
2
14
12
69
77
41
68 w
18
56
41
31
China
Honduras
35
37
13
79
14
56 ,
13
Tajikistan
Benin
40
41
10
6
13
1993
62w
3
13
29
30
38
39
29
62
1980
31 w
30 w
36
28
Azerbaijan
Zimbabwe
Guinea
3
12
27w
1993
33
Gambia, The
Nicaragua
Zambia
36
37
75
33
28 w
38
37
25
44
30
22
80
26
27
35
20
1980
Other
38
48
22
44
28
48
10
3
2
Togo
34
13 w
8w
47
4
13
4
25
32
33
1993
Urban population
As % of total
7.6
1.9
6.0
5.7
4.8
5.4
4.0
5.4
5.9
6.1
5.7
5.3
8.4
11.5
2.9
2.9
6.4
4.8
6.5
4.2
3.6
2.0
4.9
3.5
1980
32 w
29 w
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
27
46
32
46
13
17
56
0
0
32
28
0
5
0
6
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
8
0
10
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
23
0
28
9
0
0
0
0
9
55
23
27
0
25
0
35
0
0
0
0
0
0
42
23
30
39
27
52
5.5
1.6
48
0
44
0
77
26
25
0
12
22
35
0
55
45
10
0
18
15
23
0
0
50
0
0
0
0
34
34
19
52
36
16
51
23
23
0
42
27
0
25
8
5.0
5.7
4.1
4.9
4.0
65
41
0
49
44
0
0
0
1.6
1.5
3.8
0
33
4.4
33
2.6
3.0
0.9
4.0
3.7
0.0
0.2
3.6
28
26
4.1
2.1
1.9
5.1
2.3
4.8
4.8
2.8
0
0
4.2
4.7
1.5
4.2
-0.4
2.3 w
3.2
1.3
0
0
0
3.0 w
4.2
3.4
3.6
1.0
44
0
13
14
0
0
0
0
10
18
0
0
0
0
2.4w
1.9
1980
1994
7w
10 w
7w
9w
29
24
30
3.0w
2.7
5.3
5.2
2.5
3.5
34 w
31 w
0
6
1.6
2.5
2.6
6.8
1994
0
41
48
30
5.3
5.1
0.8
2.2
1.8
5.3
2.4
6.1
0.7
3.3
1.9
1.4
1.6
5.4
Total
Urban
3.1
0.9
2.7
7.0
2.1
4.4
3.9
2.7
51
32 w
28 w
30
0
12
32
0
43
32
33 w
30 w
29
0
0
38
25
24
37
11
22
7
16w
12 w
14
0
0
7
12
11
11
6
0
12
0
0
20
23
12
9
14
25
0
0
18
17
29
49
44
0
0
0
0
40
0
0
24
38
49
0
0
25
34
51
29
0
19
20 w
16 w
17
0
0
13
13
10
18
7
0
0
16
9
26
33
0
0
28
0
11
13
22
28
Urban population
Cropland
73
74
Tunisia
Ukraine
Namibia
Peru
Belarus
Slovak Republic
Latvia
Costa Rica
Poland
75
76
77
78
79
1993
1980
1993
1980
13
32
59
10
23
77
51
57
3.2
..
13
..
46
28
70
1.2
46
46
53
53
36
21
21
76
76
6.2
3.0
2.2
3
30
45
36
15
49
59
23
38
44
43
58
17
39
38
58
48
..
52
75
71
50
50
73
49
64
20
67
64
54
..
88
70
62
94
75
54
83
66
62
23
61 w
72
23
44
46
70
50
47
55
49
..
17
13
61
46
13
13
2
16
48
15
18
22
20
5
25
7
..
62
23
65
56
52
68
15
34
..
50
7w
37 w
15
52
10
11
59
52
98
..
43
..
11
..
17
2
41
15
o
6
4
83
85
18
91
81
46
11
2
13
56
43
76
74
57
82
52
27
18
39
77
10
31
33
80
48
59
31
27
.
11
21
..
9w
24
..
73
55 w
33
31
2.1
1.6
3.9
26
35
13
20
5.1
2.6 w
2.7
2.9
40 w
42
23
1.4
0.1
4.0
1.8
1.7
0.6
0
18
16
41
5.1
0
41
18
12
41
0
31
0
38
49
46
0
0
27
54
0
34
40 w
42
37
0
56w
4.4w
3.7w
24 w
32 w
74 w
77 w
3.0 w
0.8 w
2.6 w
0.3 w
56
35
35
86
1.4
40
29
83
73
1.3
1.2
0.5
18
55
72
39
27
89
86
89
60
41
98
12w
lOw
16 w
19 w
38 w
32 w
16 w
24 w
9
53
13
19
3
9
51
21
68
7
57
18
54
46
27
Italy
Kuwait
53
0
41
22
15
..
..
24
27
2
35
31
41
14
86
..
31
34
35
7
18
34
20
21
..
20
42
74
25
24
56
91
45
92
92
67
90
76
90
76
57
90
1.4
0.3
0.7
0.1
1.0
0.4
63
67
97
77
76
73
5.1
1.4
1.6
0.6
72
85
78
61
83
39w
45w
2.7w
..
25
55
74
32
97
97
31
2
32
76
40
97
35
86
56
97
71
84
65w
63w
76
57
0.7
89
92
58
51
15
42
85
1.7
0.2
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.4
1.2
0.6
0.2
0.7
1.0
6.1
..
1.3
4.1
1.5
1.6
..
95
89
100
48
45
0.9
0.7
0.6
2.8
0.9
8.6
..
92
88
100
95
73
83
55
83
38
0
6
3.3
2.7
0.4
0.3
4.4
-0.9
27
0
0
27w
42
32
75
63
80
65
52 w
26w
86
66
64
49
48
67
34 w
53
13
63w
60w
28w
65
68w
72w
11
41
3.0 w
1.0 w
95
57
62
United Kingdom
Finland
11w
45
74 w
77
50
97
73
83
55
86
23
o
0
3.3w
15
58
83
57
21
6
58
11
0
0
2.0 w
..
57
45
62
77
86
37
71
91
25
99
87
94
11w
2.9
7.6
3.5w
13 w
World
3.5
8.9
1.0
5.0
2.0
65 w
45w
39 w
4w
Middle East and N. Africa
Latin America and Caribbean 9 w
High-income economies
15 w
34
109
Portugal
110
New Zealand
2
70
97
36
66
85
38
78
47
92
30
73
18
25
29
26w
50w
11
-0.2
2.7
58 w
48 w
65 w
76 w
35 w
12
1.2
1.5
22w
12 w
63
22
73
15
0
39
o
0
23
20
71 w
70 w
64 w
63 w
26w
33w
3
60
12
56
34
2.4
4.6
45w
7w
27w
24w
59
2.8
5.8
2.2
2.8
92 w
78 w
53 w
54 w
11w
..
28
39w
10 w
4w
13 w
30
31
36 w
38
20
3.3
1.0
40 w
11
52
21
0
o
18
10
17
o
o
16
16
3.9 w
41
52
23
4.6 w
51
10
21
Canada
1. Hong Kong
Netherlands
t Singapore
Belgium
France
Sweden
Austria
Germany
United States
Norway
Denmark
Japan
Switzerland
t United Arab Emirates
32 w
27
10
0
0
o
1.1
-0.8
22 w
38
11
31
17
54 w
40
13
43
24
34w
24w
40
40
24
1.5
32w
21w
28
56
65
..
25
17
14
0
26
14
22
22
39
22
3.1w
4.8w
15
29 w
25 w
34
2.9
..
1994
2.8
0.9
6.2
2.6
3.6w
4.9w
7
0
Spain
Ireland
t Israel
Australia
63
1.4
1980
39w
31w
14
42
64
42
3.8
1994
32w
24w
34
48
1.5
1.0
Total
1980
44
64
13
7w
12 w
64 w
66
70
58
Urban
1990-94
88
80
6w
15
72
0.5
6.0
2.9
1.0
8.7
2.6
6.9
1.3
1.9
3.8
17
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
44
20
45
7
27
74
32 w
22
67
7
0
55
2
111
1994 1980-90
1980
83
Thailand
Turkey
84
Croatia
85
Panama
86
Russian Federation
87
Venezuela
88
Botswana
89
Estonia
Iran, Islamic Rep.
90
91
Turkmenistan
Upper-middle-income
92
Brazil
South Africa
93
94
Mauritius
Czech Republic
95
Malaysia
96
Chile
97
Trinidad and Tobago
98
Hungary
99
100
Gabon
101
Mexico
102
Uruguay
103
Oman
104
Slovenia
Saudi Arabia
105
106
Greece
107
Argentina
108
Korea, Rep.
.
Low- and middle-income
Sub-Saharan Africa
East Asia and Pacific
South Asia
Europe and Central Asia
population
1993
82
81
Avg. annual
1980
28
10
48
41
80
Other
As % of total
205
1.1
0.2
-5.4
1.3
1.7
0.8
2.0
0.5
0.6
0.6
1.0
1.0
1.3
0.8
0.4
0.4
1.4
3.7
2.3w
28
54
0
19
26 w
27
30 w
32
11
19
0
12
7
12
33
0
6
35
19
20
27
42
28
42
19
21
31
35
39
35
37
10 w
51
13w
5w
8w
9w
11 w
36w
6w
lOw
36w
24 w
35 w
37 w
14 w
15 w
24 w
40 w
46
433w
52
16 w
18 w
28 w
34 w
13
o
18
o
27
23
20
18
o
41
55
39
68
26
37
47
25
35
58
23
28
o
39
67
38
100
8
100
o
31
70
45
100
16
100
26
60
29
20
67
91
7
100
35
95
14
100
13
11
12
11
29
20
49
46
49
o
32
44
28
21
21
o
o
o
o
34w
21
17
17
46
47
27
56
o
30
36
o
27
34
26
40
43
48
35w
38
o
o
14w
26
37
0
0
16w
206
Low-income economies
Excluding China and India
1
Rwanda
2
Mozambique
3
Ethiopia
4
Tanzania
5
Burundi
6
Sierra Leone
7
Malawi
8
Chad
9
Uganda
10
Madagascar
11
Nepal
12
Vietnam
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Bangladesh
Haiti
Niger
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
Mali
Nigeria
Yemen, Rep.
Burkina Faso
37
38
39
40
Mongolia
India
Lao PDR
Togo
Gambia, The
Nicaragua
Zambia
Tajikistan
Benin
Central African Republic
Albania
Ghana
Pakistan
Mauritania
Azerbaijan
Zimbabwe
Guinea
China
Honduras
41
Senegal
42
43
Cote d'Ivoire
Congo
Kyrgyz Republic
Sri Lanka
Armenia
Cameroon
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Lesotho
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
Kazakstan
Guatemala
Papua New Guinea
Bulgaria
Romania
Ecuador
Dominican Republic
Lithuania
El Salvador
Jordan
Jamaica
Paraguay
Algeria
Colombia
Thousand
sq. km
2,006.6 t
1,282.4 t
2
0.0
1.4
0.4
4.4
0.0
19
0.1
35
114
63
158
50
83
8
0
24
20
0.5
0.9
0.6
1.3
0.5
1.4
12
121
0.1
156
41
1.2
173
142
336
0.4
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.8
0.3
1.3
0.6
0.6
1.5
0.8
1.0
0.9
1.1
1.6
4.9
6.5
0.4
0.8
0.6
3.3
0.0
60.2
138.9
0.9
0.8
10.6
114.9
19.1
11.1
11.1
13.3
Number
1,666 t
829 t
2
37
12
59
1.0
0.1
84.2
..
..
36
6.0
3.2
3.2
3.6
1.1
. .
. .
49
306
0.7
1.3
1.4
0.4
14
96
19
6
0.0
1.4
..
..
89
67
1,246
46
75
0.6
0.9
8.8
109
199
..
..
17
0.3
1.5
..
..
..
2.1
56
4
204
1.2
0.0
0.6
0.0
20.5
7.9
14
12
15
1.4
0.1
1.9
1.7
0
0
289
..
..
26.6
61.7
143.5
24.4
6.5
0.2
9.0
63.6
12
15
374
17
11
59
21
0.9
7.8
61.1
2
13
0.0
0.3
11
1.4
4.1
11.0
37.2
55
..
17.5
1.9
12
0.7
30.7
25
1.3
1.6
1.2
1.1
0.3
0.2
580.7
8.6
21.8
19.9
11.8
2.8
8.0
463
44
0.5
0.7
2.4
0.7
1.1
0.0
4.0
4.0
0.7
0.4
6.6
..
11
19
2,984.5 t
2,161.0 t
9.7
3.9
4.4
9.8
1.2
0.1
4.6
4.7
1.7
2.2
7.9
0.7
6.1
7.7
42
28
0.4c
0.3c
1.0
0.2
0.3
153.4
0.7
15.8
1.2
0.7
460.0
4.8
1.6
7.7
1.0c
0.4
0.1
1,095
78
12.1
1.1
175
3.2
4.0
27
2.0
..
..
90
-1.2
-1.3
..
..
..
42
360
0.8
1.1
1.9
0.3
10
10
9
17
37
-0.1
-0.2
63
0.0
2.4
0.4
0.0
2.0
3.3
0.5
0.8
0.3
7.6
0.2
3.3
4.6
39.2
21.5
9.7
0.2
3.3
0.2
3.6
5.0
8.2
..
..
..
0.0
0.0
0.3
4.0
0.3
3.7
2.6
0.1
-1.0
2.9
0.0
14.8
119.2
93.6
10
46
39
15
17
76
19
19
79
29
7
16
6
54
7
2
13
14
1,568
144
361
213
5
13
136.0
0.5
2.2
18.2=
0.4
0.8c
0.3c
0.5
0.3c
13.2c
0.4c
0.0
0.9c
0.6c
32.8c
6.4c
56.4c
6.1c
0.3
16.4
2.1=
17
33
13
30
243
594
239
18
21
17
2
92
54
123
7
11
27
275
32
2,332
19
59
90
20
88
23
2,032
436
2,158
19
14
117
126
28
433
282
6
12
21
12
10
15
12
191
1.0
6.5c
0.4
10
149
17
67
7
156
7
52
7
2,647
493
996
20
889
24
586
94
0.4
20
181
..
..
793
83
562
3,956
404
2,202
127
20
0.1
97.1.
82
5.4w
..
1.4c
1.3c
24.0
14.6
45.8c
185.6
6.1
2.4
3.6
8.9
8.3
0.8
3.7
10.9
111.1
10.5
6.3
92
11.7
6.3
3.8
13
7
7
37
159
28
318
1.4
12.1
2,675 t
1,670 t
0.4
56.4
0.1
4.0
4.0
45
14
3.5c
0.9
0.0c
7.2
4.3
0.8
0.2
2.7
0.3
4.9 w
18
0.9c
0.0c
3.6c
0.7
0.0
..
0.8
0.7
6
13
6
6.2
3.4
..
72
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
2.4
0.4c
2.0
0.5c
2.8
0.2
0.9c
11.1
8.4
8.4
0.2
9.7
11.2
3.1
Other
10
12
10
2
129
41
541
3.6
3.4
0.2
0.6
380.0
0.4
12.6
0.1
25
16
1.4
8.5
0.6
6.9
92.3
2.2
11
1.1
0.1
0.0
0.9
1.3
0.1
120
0.2
0.8
2.2
0.5
0.1
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.2
16.3
2.7
28.9
22.5
0.0
0.3
0.0
10.3
11.4
2.0
6.9
6.3
0.0
493
Domestic
1.5
1.4
5.0 w
4.7 w
35.0
40.1
29.7
1.2
0.8
0.0
resources
8.9
9.0
8.1
1.9
7.9
9
31
60
323
..
(cu. km)
0.0
3.4
surface area
1.1
517
132
As % of
total water
14
139
0.0
0.3
1.3
Total
23
30
1.3
0.2
44
As % of total
12.4
0.0
5.5
14.7
3.2
0.9
0.8
0.0
0.7
0.9
0.7
1.0
1.6
0.8
2.1
1.1
Georgia
Myanmar
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
Bolivia
52
Macedonia, FYR
53
54
Moldova
55
Indonesia
Philippines
56
57
Uzbekistan
58
Morocco
1.2
..
3.7
16.6
29.5
82.2
29.1c
0.7
60
9.1
76.4c
10.9
37.9
36.2
30.2c
0.6
0.0
6.8c
123
165
23
92
13
8
43
91
41
22
83
0.7
0.1
13.9
26.0
5.6
3.0
4.4
1.0
0.4
0.3
0.4
3.0
5.3
12.5c
1.8
14.9
19.0c
5.3
32.1c
3.9
0.1c
20.3c
0.5
12
17
50
11
16
35
71
1,501
1,044
541
423
1,107
228
123
148
93
125
103
Forest area
Total area
(thousand sq. km)
Tunisia
Ukraine
Namibia
Peru
Belarus
Slovak Republic
Latvia
Costa Rica
81
Poland
82
Thailand
83
Turkey
84
Croatia
85
Panama
86
Russian Federation
87
Venezuela
88
Botswana
89
Estonia
90
Iran, Islamic Rep.
91
Turkmenistan
Upper-middle-income
92
Brazil
93
South Africa
94
Mauritius
95
Czech Republic
96
Malaysia
Chile
97
Trinidad and Tobago
98
Hungary
99
100
Gabon
101
Mexico
102
Uruguay
103
Oman
104
Slovenia
105
Saudi Arabia
106
Greece
107
Argentina
108
Korea, Rep.
Low- and middle-income
Sub-Saharan Africa
East Asia and Pacific
South Asia
Europe and Central Asia
As % of
Thousand
total area
sq. km
7
92
-0.1
-0.2
-1.8
-0.3
126
679
63
0.4
2.7
0.3
0.4
-0.3
-0.4
18
0.0
0.1
..
..
14
87
127
0.5
3.5
-0.1
-0.1
5.2
0.0
0.0
0.6
4.0
0.0
6.0
0.8
1.3
202
20
31
0.1
2.1
..
457
143
180
0.0
0.5
0.0
Japan
132
Switzerland
133 t United Arab Emirates
World
131
0.4
5.2
102.2
41.8
2.4
10.2
7.8
6.4
30.6
70.2
8.2
3.8
13.3
655.4
263.2
106.6
4.4
83.0
11.1
823.5 t
5,611
45
36.7
0.7
-0.4
-0.8
0.0
0.0
4.0
0.2
0.0
2.3
88
2
17
182
-0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.1
1.2
0.6
486
6.8
0.0
1.4
26
176
41
10
12
60
592
65
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.9
0.1
-1.9
-0.5
-0.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
321.9
69.3
0.0
10.7
14.9
137.2
0.2
5.7
10.4
97.3
0.3
31
75
256
4
1
-0.1
-0.4
. .
..
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1,456
24
234
86
-0.2
-0.1
0.0
4,533
o
3
o
6
135
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
-0.5
-0.3
2.5
-0.3
-0.1
280
39
-0.1
-0.1
-0.1
107
-0.5
-0.4
-0.4
2,960
3.2
0.1
0.0
0.0
-0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
96
5
238
12
-0.6
0.0
44
29
15
199
100
9
39
68
8
1,005 t
273
237
1.1
6.8
17.6
3.8
28.9
18.3
9.8
5.0
2.3
4.0 w
3.8
5.7
2.0
34
13.5
54
66
6
53
6
65
8
4.5
18.1
3.1
6.2
3.9
5.0
0.2
17.6
As % of
total water
(cu. km)
resources
2.3
34.7
0.1
6.1
3.0
1.8
0.7
1.4
12.3
31.9
33.5
..
1.3
117.0
4.1
0.1
3.3
45.4
22.8
36.5
14.7
0.4
2.7
9.4
16.8
0.2
6.8
0.1
77.6
0.6
0.5
Other
41
276
565
60.5c
40.0c
0.3c
15.3
108
7
5.4,
94
5.8
2.2,
57
..
110
1.4
31
21.9'
42
24
140
17.8c
17.3'
. .
0.9
. .
152
749
279
578
445
. .
91
664
656
218
2.7'
0.3'
0.6'
21.2'
134
164
38.6
54
64
32.6'
103
243
200
105
94
1,992
1,307
6,326
0.5'
54
191
29.3'
47
16.4
66
109
177
98
40
59
41
54
14
348
344
157
592
1,528
4.7
2.1
3.6
2.9
5.7c
0.0
21.7
0.5,
24.0
17
108
601
16
845
227
547
. .
..
224
273
42
481
94
27.6
41.8
117
949
515
6.3
22.7
8.4
0.7
7.3
2.0
30.8
0.8
10.5'
0.6
191
14.6
12.1
20.9
82
8.1
7.6
0.3
825.5
172
2
1.9
14.6
11.8
2.2
56.2
640
8.3
0.5
45.1
..
..
..
..
..
..
. .
3.9
0.0
0.8
56.0
29.9
20.0
92.0
1,042.4
55.4
13.9
27.6
7.3
79
10.4
4.8
2.5
10.2
6.6
23.9
25.8
7.8
0.2
9.0
37.7
2.9
2.4
46.3
467.3
2.0
1.2
90.8
1.2
0.9
8.7c
31.7
26
492
38
72.2'
101
19.1c
1.6c
2.6c
27.1c
18.9c
0.5c
106
123
101
46
816
559
218
203
518
1,626
390
935.5
51.3
27.3
22.8
111
0.3
0.9
12.4
3.2
1.2
20.7
12.0
12.5
9.8
13.7
Total
163.6
8.6c
2.8c
0.0
29
111
As % of total
surface area
3.6
5.0
27.6
62.0
2.2
43.7
6.9
3.1
0.0
10
40
45
10
10
-0.3
0.0
12
22
29
-1.1
-1.0
7
20
1.1
5.8
61.5
42.5
0.5
0.0
Number
37.4
4,991.1 t
1,361.7 t
997.4 t
212.6 t
807.0 t
318.2 t
1,294.2 t
4,324.5 t
Thousand
sq. km
1990
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
..
24
86
28
4,341 t
677 t
993 t
520 t
940 t
172 t
1,039 t
5,508 t
25
206
215
12
15
892
3
110
214
170
504
1,494
114
113
5.3
2.9
1.7
1.6
7.0
5.0 w
5.7 w
. .
6.1w
4.1 w
3.3 w
3.2 w
6.3 w
13.6w
1.5
11.1
17.1
80
32.2
7.3
109
17.7
..
..
27.6c
1.6'
84.1'
4.3
111
271
94
37
65
607
16.6
I.9c
41
33.7,
. .
138
336
1.6
288
9.2'
16.6
2.4c
300.0
53
64
244
98
70
628
318
687
196
343
327
164
387
848
189
1,314
163
125
610
40
97
787
133
9,849 t
7.1 w
9,315.5 t
a. Data may refer to earlier years and are the most recent reported by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre in 1994. b. Refers to any year from 1970 to 1994.
c. Total water resources include river flows from other countries.
207
208
GDP deflator
GDP
Low-income economies
Excluding China and India
1
Rwanda
2
Mozambique
Ethiopia
3
4
Tanzania
5
Burundi
Sierra Leone
6
7
Malawi
8
Chad c
Uganda
Madagascar
Nepal
Vietnamc
Bangladeshc
Haiti
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Nigel,
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
Malic
Nigeria
Yemen, Rep.
Burkina Faso
Mongoliac
India
Lao PDRc
Tog,
Gambia, The
Nicaragua,
Servicesa
Gross domestic
investment
1980-90 1990-94 1980-90 1990-94 1980-90 1990-94 1980-90 1990-94 1980-90 1990-94 1980-90 1990-94 1980-90 1990-94
5.8 w
6.2w 13.0w 59.0 w 3.5w
2.8w 7.4 w 11.0w 6.8w 5.2 w
5.7w 10.4w 6.1 w
7.9w
1.4 w
2.9w
24.8w 150.2w 2.0w
2.5w
3.0w -0.4w -1.8w
1.5w
2.7w -0.7w 3.7w 2.1w
2.3
0.7
-15.5
-13.8
1.7
-23.4
4.4
3.3
9.7
4.3
-14.2
1.2
3.7
-12.3
-0.2
1.6
7.3
2.4
-9.8
-2.4
2.8
12.7
38.4
49.3
-5.0
8.6
7.2
-2.5
3.4b
1.1b
2.3b
..
..
..
..
..
0.1b
4.4,
3.8
20.4
-3.1
..
3.1
35.7
4.9
5.8
3.4
..
..
9.7
2.8
..
4.4
-1.4
4.4
3.1
-3.1
7.1
4.5
4.5
-3.4
1.5
-2.5
4.5
6.3
-4.0
0.9
0.6
56.0
55.9
2.9
0.6
-2.0
1.1
7.4
0.7
-2.7
-7.6
-4.0
5.4
2.7
-0.7
14.6
22.8
2.0
2.9
3.0
-1.0
-0.6
-0.4
2.5
0.4
-3.9
-14.5
1.1
6.3
6.6
b
8.0
1.2
1.3
6.9
-9.9
9.9
19.0
7.7
-15.8
-2.9
28.8
3.3
3.1
6.0
5.6
125.6
9.3
7.7
2.3
3.5
2.3
9.3
2.6
5.3
1.1
-0.2
17.1
1.5
16.8
0.9
-0.7
0.5
-1.1
-2.0
2.5
4.4
4.9
-7.4
4.6
4.9
4.0
1.3
11.1
12.6
6.0
0.9
2.2
10.5
4.8
6.8
26.8
6.3
..
8.0
29.8
..
..
4.5
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
4.3
4.2
4.1
2.7
1.9
4.9
7.1
6.6
11.7
1.4
9.5
5.0
4.7
5.7
-0.2
-8.1
..
1.2
..
..
..
-19.0
..
..
7.5
20.9
-0.6
-45.7
-1.1
4.7
1.8
-2.2
-0.3
2.9
-5.2
-4.6
-1.3
-3.5
-3.3
-6.7
-5.9
-6.9
4.5
3.6
6.7
2.3
5.8
56.1
4.7
0.4
2.3
-1.6
-6.2
53.4
0.7
3.3
4.2
3.9
0.9
4.3
-2.2
9.0
4.8
2.0
0.4
0.8
17.7
3.3
-1.5
0.9
1.5
2.0
8.0
4.3
1.7
2.7
1.1
5.6
-1.4
5.3
5.2
5.4
5.0
3.0
1.6
2.4
16.6
2.2
-1.0
4.5
1.7
37.4
3.3
0.3
2.8
-0.3
-10.9
-4.6
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
3.7
2.5
3.1
3.1
4.6
4.2
1.6
-0.6
-4.4
-1.2
2.9
-4.0
3.7
4.6
1.4
5.5
5.8
4.0
157.7
-7.0
18.5
-4.0
8.0
10.1
3.1
2.9
7.1
3.2
4.6
..
..
..
..
1.8
-3.4
1.1
1.4
0.5
5.6
0.4
3.3
3.4
4.7
18.7
422.6
42.4
0.5
8.8
5.7
5.6
148.6
124.2
522.3
7.9
6.2
101.6
..
6.9
8.6
1.7
6.5
-15.1
-20.3
3.8
6.2
5.2
5.9
-2.4
-13.0
-0.5
6.0
-2.2
0.3
-1.7
3.6
2.1
1.0
-6.0
-0.8
-4.4
-1.3
-1.4
..
3.6
..
0.1
5.9
5.1
4.9
3.5
2.7
2.4
1.5
2.1
3.1
6.4
3.2
-4.6
-21.8
3.3
7.3
4.9
2.8
3.6
-2.0
0.8
2.9
Beni,
2.6
31
Central African Republic 1.7
Albania
32
1.5
Ghana,
33
3.0
34
Pakistan
6.3
Mauritania
35
1.7
36
2.1
Azerbaija,
37
Zimbabwe
3.5
38
..
Guinea
39
China,
10.2
40
Honduras
2.7
41
Senegalc
3.2
42
Cote d'Ivoire
-0.1
43
Gong,
3.6
44
Kyrgyz Republic
4.2
Sri Lanka
4.2
45
46
Armenia
3.3
47
Cameroonc
1.9
48
Egypt, Arab Rep.
5.0
49
Lesotho
4.3
Georgia
0.5
50
0.6
51
Myanmar
Middle-income economies
2.2w
2.2 w
Lower-middle-income
Bolivia,
52
Macedonia, FYR
53
54
..
Moldova
55
Indonesiac
6.1
1.0
Philippine,
56
57
Uzbekistan
3.4
58
4.2
Moroccoc
59
1.5
Kazakstan
60
0.8
Guatemala,
61
Papua New Guinea,
1.9
Bulgaria
62
4.0
Romania
0.6
63
64
Ecuadorc
2.0
65
Dominican Republic,
2.7
66
Lithuania,
2.3
0.2
El Salvadorc
67
68
Jordan
-1.5
69
Jamaica,
2.0
70
Paraguayc
2.5
71
Algeria
2.9
Colombia
3.7
72
Zambiac
Tajikistan
Industry
Agriculture
-0.1
-22.5
4.1
..
-0.1
1.6
5.6
-4.2
-0.4
4.3
4.6
3.6
42.4
6.7
20.7
1.0
1.8
10.8
4.3
8.6
7.6
696.6
27.0
1.7
2.7
5.3
-22.9
..
1.1
11.5
3.5
12.9
3.8
0.0
..
5.8
5.7
6.4
-0.2
-0.1
-16.9
3.1
5.4
11.7
10.8
16.9
7.1
-1.4
..
2.4
1.6
4.3
4.1
..
5.9
2.7
2.9
1.2
3.5
1.9
0.5
-2.9
-2.4
4.3
7.3
4.7
3.3
-2.2
-3.7
-2.6
6.4
6.9
0.3
4.2
3.9
..
13.6
2.5
3.1
0.8
3.8
13.7
-4.7
-2.7
3.0
2.8
..
-6.2
12.1
-8.7
-11.3
-3.9
4.4
4.8
-6.6
-0.3
8.1
7.5
11.3
4.5
5.9
3.4
-3.8
-4.1
2.5
-16.9
4.2
4.7
3.2
..
..
..
0.4
..
1.3
5.4
1.3
0.2
4.3
9.9
11.5
4.5
0.5
16.0
..
..
-1.1
11.0
2.9
15.4
12.6
3.6
-0.1
-10.8
-11.9
-6.7
..
..
..
..
..
4.6
7.5
5.8
3.7
10.7
5.1
-36.7
-6.9
2.7
6.9
-1.3
..
10.6
-38.8
4.7
-26.6
9.1
6.1
4.1
-0.6
-1.5
11.4
5.0
4.4
1.0
7.5
3.6
..
..
0.7
5.5
1.9
13.6
-4.1
9.4
2.1 w
3.5
6.1
-9.9
5.8
6.1
-31.2
1.9
5.7
12.2
0.2 w
57.3 w 334.6w
15.5 w 326.4 w
-3.9
1.2
1.5
2.6
0.7
0.5
..
..
-1.9
-1.2
1.8
-2.3
-31.5
5.1
3.7
2.6
7.2
1.8
0.5
0.9 w
1.1
0.2
3.4
0.1
9.4
1.3 w
1.5
1.2
1.1
2.8
1.4
1.4
-1.4
0.1
-1.0
-1.2
2.6
-2.6
4.8
5.7
-28.7
-3.9
1.2
..
..
..
2.5
1.7
6.2
-0.8
3.7w
1.4
16.0
10.8
-25.0
-10.0
-2.7
10.4
..
..
-2.9
2.0
-0.1
317.4
10.9
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
7.4
9.6
628.7
4.4
976.5
15.5
3.8
90.0
191.9
41.0
13.6
390.6
3.4
1.0
3.0
1.6
6.9
2.9
3.5
10.8
8.0
7.5
2.3
-0.1
4.3
3.0
-6.7
6.7
-0.7
-1.5
0.3
7.0
2.8
5.4
4.2
7.6
-0.9
9.8
0.9
..
..
..
..
2.3
2.5
5.3
2.1
1.9
4.2
24.3
-2.9
-2.3
5.2
..
-9.3
-5.1
4.4
0.4
2.0
3.0
1.2
..
1.6
8.5
14.9
-5.0
-0.7
1.7
7.2
-14.3
..
-34.3
..
9.5
7.6
..
2.1
2.0
454.9
3.8
..
4.8
-2.0
..
-13.6
-5.6
2.2
2.2
0.1
10.9
0.3
5.7
11.7
13.6
-2.3 w
6.0
-3.8
-3.3
-8.6
3.4
0.3
1.1
1.9
18.8
2.4
2.2
0.4
0.6
0.6
-0.3
1.2
..
-4.9
-0.9
-2.8
-0.5
967.0
2.7
14.9
11.9
2,707.1
24.4
..
-3.6
13.6
8.3
..
3.3
3.8
4.4
5.2
6.8
2.1
-27.8
-4.1
3.4
..
11.1
4.3
6.3
2.0
..
..
2.8
4.1
14.6
11.5
5.3
1.2
-5.9
2.5
-3.7
36.4
3.5
4.2
21.5
-20.3
3.5
16.4
6.2
11.4
8.2
7.0
4.7
18.6
3.5
42.8
2.9
24.4
19.3
-0.6
7.8
27.1
4.3
24.6
23.8
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
1.8
-2.1
..
2.2
5.2
3.7
-6.3
..
..
3.4
5.6
2.1
7.0
-2.1
0.4
2.5
..
..
..
..
1.9
2.1
4.9
-2.1
0.7
4.8
..
3.3
5.2
18.3
-1.8
-0.9
-0.6
-3.1
-3.5
-5.3
2.4
..
..
..
2.9
4.6
5.4
2.8
7.5
5.2
-3.8
5.9
3.7
7.0
16.0
6.5
5.8
1.2
..
1.8
3.7
2.1
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
-1.1
1.0
10.2
0.1
0.7
12.1
-7.3
2.2
7.3
8.3
2.4
-0.5
1.9
8.8
7.9
6.0
4.1
-3.4
-1.3
4.2
7.9
-0.6
6.4
13.2
0.6
3.6
4.5
1.4
-0.3
1.9
-0.2
1.7
-0.8
3.4
3.3
2.9
1.4
5.0
3.0
3.1
14.0
3.3
5.4
-1.0
11.5
4.1
7.5
13.5
-9.1
-2.7
-26.0
10.7
-4.1
-10.1
-13.1
..
-0.4
-0.1
-0.8
-2.3
-6.8
5.9
0.5
21.2
209
73
74
75
76
77
Tunisia
Ukraine,
Namibia
Peru,
Belarus
Slovak Republic,
Latvia
78
79
80
Costa Rica,
Poland
Thailand,
Turkey
Croatia
Panama,
Russian Federation
Venezuela,
Botswana,
Estonia,
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
Upper-middle-income
Brazil
92
South Africa
93
94
Mauritius
Czech Republic,
95
Malaysia,
96
Chile,
97
98
Trinidad and Tobago
Hungary,
99
100
Gabon,
101
Mexico,
102
Uruguay,
103
Oman,
104
105
106
107
108
Slovenia
Saudi Arabia,
Greece
Apiculture
GDP deflator
GDP
4.5
7.5
5.5
..
-14.4
..
1.1
4.1
13.6
-0.2
4.2
4.8
-10.5
229.6
0.6
1.9
-5.4
-17.7
1,169.1
9.5
83.0
905.5
17.0
205.1
18.8
36.9
1.7
7.6
5.6
5.6
1.6
8.2
3.2
1.8
0.0
23.5
53.9
3.9
48.4
4.4
71.7
..
..
..
..
0.3
7.0
1.6
1.9
1.1
-10.6
2.4
3.2
19.3
616.7
34.2
13.1
8.4
208.4
30.3
545.8
3.2
4.4
10.3
0.2
-11.6
4.4
1.5
5.2
3.6
-5.2
3.4w
14.6
0.7
2.2 w
5.3
-4.7
1.5
8.4
7.5
0.3
20.9
2.2
1.3
-0.1
6.5
1.7
5.2
4.1
-2.5
1.6
0.5
1.0
0.4
8.3
2.8
1.7
4.1
-2.0
-2.1
8.6
2.5
4.4
70.4
61.3
1.9
1,231.5
11.9
7.2
21.3
3.7
15.3
6.4
22.4
0.5
3.1
-8.5
1.8
6.8
-1.1
4.0
3.5
5.9
-19.4
..
-11.3
2.9
2.2
4.1
5.9
-1.8
..
..
..
0.2
6.1
11.9
-2.8
-1.7
7.4
-44..24
-105..73
5.6
2.3
..
..
..
..
..
..
1.8
-5.3
-11.8
-35.7
4.9
1.7
..
..
..
..
3.8
3.1
3.1
-8.0
3.1
6.2
2.2
4.3
2.8
-11.1
0.6
2.3
-6.8
-2.6
-19.1
3.1
0.1
9.9
0.8
6.4
1.2
10.9
4.3
5.3
0.9
9.4
5.3
10.6
-3.0
6.1
4.5
14.0
10.7
0.7
4.0
4.4
6.0
2.6
7.4
3.3
6.1
2.2
7.3
5.5
4.4
3.4
16.6
6.3
14.6
7.7
-20.5
-3.3
9.3
2.2
..
18.6
5.1
5.5
4.9
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
3.0
2.2
2.3
0.6
4.1
1.7
1.1
2.6
7.9
2.8
11.0
-1.9
-9.3
4.5
1.2
5.8
0.5
11.4
1.6
3.3
2.7
2.7
Gross domestic
investment
3.3
3.5
3.0
Servicesa
Industry
0.9 w
2.1 w
-19.4
4.5
7.2
..
..
9.1
9.7
0.9
10.9
7.0
8.9
12.9
9.0
11.8
2.3
2.6
9.6
12.1
-10.1
-0.6
4.0
-5.9
2.8
6.6
4.3
4.5
4.0
8.4
-0.4
-4.6
-2.8
-3.1
-7.8
6.5
11.6
3.8
5.6
2.8
4.0
0.9
1.1
3.3
2.1
..
..
6.0
0.1
..
7.8 w
..
9.2
..
0.6
..
7.1 w
9.0
2.3
4.6
..
60.0
3.6
..
4.4w
-33.8
-7.8
7.5
1.9
10.4
0.8
-1.2
1.7
-2.5
3.2
0.6
6.4
2.0
-1.1
10.5
13.1
9.0
3.5
2.9
5.3
3.2
-9.4
-0.3
0.5
6.9
2.7w
-2.3
-2.1
0.6
6.9
..
-27.1
5.4
-5.3
2.6w
2.8
3.0
2.6
-5.8
-0.5
-0.3
5.0
19.6
7.2
3.7
9.8
7.5
4.3
4.2
-5.5
-2.6
-0.5
-1.1
4.8
1.0
1.0
2.8
2.5
-0.3
-0.5
-9.2
1.1
2.7
-0.2
-2.6
10.3
6.2
0.9
6.0
8.5
11.4
1.3
0.7 w
5.7w
0.2
1.8
-4.8
2.4
5.5
-6.6
14.9
12.9
3.2
6.7
-3.6
-3.4
7.9
..
..
..
..
..
-1.2
1.9
1.4
-3.7
0.4
13.7
27.6
6.3
13.4
..
-2.3
..
-1.2
..
..
..
..
..
-0.1
3.3
1.3
-1.1
2.3
0.0
8.2
2.3
8.4
7.5
7.1
10.4
2.7
10.6
-0.9
-4.7
1.2
1.7
17.9
389.1
5.9
..
..
Argentina
-0.3
1.2
-0.9
8.0
3.7
7.6
0.9
22.0
Korea. Reo.,
2.8
1.8
9.4
6.6
13.1
6.1
12.0
11.9
4.3
,
..
..
Low- and middle-income
1.9w 45.7w 262.4w 3.1 w
4.6w 3.8w 4.0w
7.3w
2.3 w
3.1 w
1.9w 3.9w
0.5 w -0.2w 2.4w 0.9 w
1.8 w
2.1 w -4.1 w -0.4 w
Sub-Saharan Africa
1.7w
0.9 w 18.8 w
39.2 w 1.8 w
0.7 w
East Asia and Pacific
9.9w 4.4w 3.6w 9.7w 13.4w 8.6w 8.0w 9.7w 12.7w 9.1 w 10.6 w
7.9w 9.4w
9.3 w
3.9w
8.0w
9.9w 3.2w 2.7w 6.9w 3,8w 6.8w 4.6w 6.1 w 13.1w 6.1w 1.8w
South Asia
5.7w
2.3 w -7.5 w
..
..
Europe and Central Asia
9.8 w 528.9 w
..
..
..
..
Middle East and N. Africa
..
1.0 w
..
1.3 w
0.2 w
2.3 w
8.2 w 15.9 w 4.5 w
Latin America and Caribbean 1.7 w
5.4 w
2.3 w
6.3 w -1.5 w
1.3 w
2.9w 2.1 w 4.4w
7.9 w
3.6w 179.4 w 482.8 w 2.0 w
2.5 w 2.3 w
4.1 w
3.2 w
5.1 w
3.2w
1.7w
4.7w
3.2 w
High-income economies
109
Portugal,
2.9
0.6
18.1
10.1
1.0
2.6
8.7
2.7
110
4.1
1.2
4.1
New Zealand,
1.9
3.0
10.8
4.4
1.3
1.8
5.4
2.4
111
Spain,
3.2
0.7
9.3
5.6
-1.0
7.8
5.7
5.7
-5.4
112
3.3
4.5
2.0
-10.8
Ireland
9.7
6.3
-0.4
8.9
113 t Israel
6.2
101.4
12.9
9.2
12.2
..
5.5
2.1
3.5
..
1.2
3.3
114
Australia,
7.3
-0.1
-0.2
2.8
7.0
3.5
3.4
2.6
4.0
2.6
7.6
0.9
115
3.2
..
..
..
..
..
..
1.9
United Kingdom
0.8
5.7
4.0
-2.0
6.4
3.9
116
6.8
1.9
-0.2
-4.2
2.2
Finland
-2.6
3.3
-4.0
3.7
66
-2.2
3.3
3.0
-19.5
117
4.9
Italy,
2.4
0.6
2.1
2.2
0.9
4.1
5.2
0.7
9.9
-0.5
2.7
2.1
-5.9
..
118
..
..
..
.
..
-2.4
14.7
Kuwait,
1.0
0.9
-2.3
..
0.9
-4.5
119
1.0
Canada
1.4
4.4
1.4
1.5
3.4
-1.2
2.9
-0.9
3.6
6.0
65
5.2
-1.3
120 t Hong Kong
..
..
14.4
14.3
..
4.0
6.9
5.7
8.9
9.1
7.7
1.5
121
2.2
..
1.9
4.6
2.1
1.7
..
-0.4
Netherlands,
2.6
..
-2.8
3.0
3.3
122 t Singapore,
8.3
2.0
3.7
6.4
-6.2
8.1
10.0
-1.3
7.2
12.3
6.1
5.4
8.7
3.7
1.8
123
3.3
2.2
..
1.8
..
4.4
4.6
2.8
Belgium,
1.9
0.9
3.2
-1.7
7.7
124
France,
2.4
6.0
2.3
2.0
1.1
0.8
0.4
1.1
-1.0
3.7
3.0
3.8
2.8
-6.3
2.3
-1.0
7.4
125
Sweden
2.1
-1.2
4.3
2.4
3.2
1.5
-1.9
2.8
-2.7
4.3
-13.3
126
2.1
1.6
3.7
1.1
Austria,
0.9
2.3
2.2
4.6
2.6
-2.8
1.9
0.9
3.8
2.5
1.2
-3.0
127
1.1
4.4
2.0
Germanycl
2.2
2.6
3.8
1.7
2.9
-1.8
128
3.1
5.2
United States,
4.1
2.4
4.0
4.1
2.5
2.8
67
3.0
3.4
129
Norway
5.5
..
2.9
0.5
0.9
..
3.5
2.6
..
5.0
7.2
0.6
-0.4
3.3
1.7
3.1
130
2.1
1.5
4.4
2.7
2.4
0.4
4.0
-69
Denmark
1.8
1.3
2.9
5.5
4.0
-0.4
131
1.1
5.7
Japan,
4.1
1.2
1.1
-2.8
4.9
0.7
3.7
2.6
4.8
1.5
1.5
3.4
4.8
-7.3
132
2.8
..
..
2.2
0.1
3.7
Switzerland,
-4.2
-1.8
2.0
-8.7
9.3
-2.0
0.7
..
9.6
133 t United Arab Emirates
World
1.8 w 14.8w 66.2 w 2.8w
3.1 w
3,4w
3.3w
5.3 w
3.7 w
a. Services include unallocated items. b. Includes Eritrea. c. GDP components are at purchaser values. d. Data prior to 1990 refer to the Federal Republic of Germany
before unification.
210
Low-income economies
Excluding China and India
1
Rwanda
2
Mozambique
3
Ethiopia,
4
Tanzania
Burundi
5
6
Sierra Leone
Malawi
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
Chad,
Uganda
Madagascar
Nepal
Vietnarnd
Bangladesh,
Haiti
Niger,
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
Malid
Nigeria
Yemen, Rep.
Burkina Faso
Mongoliad
India
Lao PDRd
Togo,
Gambia, The
Nicaragua,
Zambia,
Tajikistan
Benind
Central African Republic
Albania
Ghana,
Pakistan
Mauritania
Azerbaijand
Zimbabwe
Guinea
Chinad
Honduras
Senegal,
Cote d'Ivoire
Congo,
Kyrgyz Republic
Sri Lanka
Armenia
Cameroond
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Lesotho
1980
751,872 t
377,855 t
Industry
1980
1994
1980
1994
1980
1994
34w
28w
38w
32w
34w
21w
25w
32w
36w
39w
27
40
32
55
31
51
23
37
31
5,179
5,702
4,688
3,378
56
46
33
57
57
920
1,100
1,238
727
1,267
1,001
843
1,302
62
33
37
53
13
47
22
31
910
4,001
1,918
4,048
15,570
26,164
1,623
1,540
243
6,860
54
72
44
19
12
4
16
12
43
44
33
1,871
58
35,200
27
1,856
33
14
38
12,950
1,462
2,538
105
7,265
1,629
93,082
1,709
2,329
172,321
1,1%
233
2,144
3,884
741
293,606
1,534
981
363
1,833
3,481
30
62
50
27
30
23
49
35
44
28
30
44
13w
21 w
50
1,946
Services',
1994
585
1,467
4,042
(Manufacturing.)
1980
1,163
2,028
12
18
9
12
10
17
18
18
21
17
44
32
26
29
35
47
22
16
34
35
14
13
21
23
54
26
37
52
30
22
11
7
6
12
3
8
12
2
14
37
25
45
16
18
12
11
23
20
18
29
42
43
21
9
17
13
40
15
32
35
36
47
32
32
16
21
45
39
45
34
22
27
28
30
51
38
26
45
28
18
28
33
14
31
35
40
28
58
30
30
22
34
44
14
15
24
7
11
57
18
18
36
13
25
16
31
41
21
15
7
26
9
7
16
18
23
12
12
13
20
35
44
18
21
10
35
43
52
44
37
54
42
25
39
34
42
31
48
53
45
44
41
58
52
40
35
30
53
43
23
39
50
46
34
2,009
1,405
797
1,636
4,445
23,690
709
5,355
201,696
2,566
3,016
10,175
1,706
4,024
7,499
22,912
368
Georgia
Myanmar
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
Bolivia,
52
53
Macedonia, FYR
Moldova
54
55
Indonesia,
1994
1,208,422 t
392,644 t
Agriculture
1,522
872
1,808
5,421
52,011
1,027
3,541
5,432
3,395
522,172
3,333
3,881
6,716
1,578
2,666
11,712
2,607
7,470
42,923
886
2,063
2,477,885 t
3,074
46
12
25
25
26
47
34
27
27
30
24
21
19
31
17
41
10
12
20
44
37
24
49
28
32
18
20
24
14
61
63
28
47
51
55
20
37
4,069,532 t
1,783,221 t
10 w
13w
18
22
16
25
30
32
36
16
8
18
12
39
25
31
44
30
46
44
41
52
48
45
49
24
25
24
47
32
41
15
37
20
26
15
15
14
21
52
57
47
44
26
7
45
42
30
30
25
30
18
16
43
8
12
7
12
15
17
17
46
45
47
41
26
37
29
28
21
46
9
10
20w
36w
36w
5,506
35
1,678
28
3,672
48
78,013
174,640
24
42
41
17
56
Philippinesd
33
32,500
64,162
22
25
39
57
Uzbekistan
21,508
28
37
34
33
58
Morocco,
18,821
30,803
18
21
31
30
59
Kazakstan
18,167
44
35
60
Guatemala,
7,879
12,919
25
19
61
Papua New Guinead
2,548
5,403
28
33
27
38
62
Bulgaria
20,040
14
10,199
13
54
35
63
Romania
21
30,086
33
64
12
Ecuador,
12
11,733
16,556
38
38
65
6,631
Dominican Republied
20
10,416
15
28
22
66
Lithuania,
5,224
19
21
41
53
67
El Salvador,
8,116
3,574
14
22
24
38
68
Jordan
8
6,105
27
69
Jamaica,
4,241
8
2,679
8
38
37
70
Paraguay,
29
4,579
7,826
24
27
22
Algeria
71
42,347
41,941
10
12
54
44
72
Colombia
33,399
67,266
19
14
32
32
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes. Figures in italics are for years other than those specified.
32
48
63
32
46
33
23
13
18
43
31
26
27
17
52w
49w
47
15
13
51
26
41
59
40
16
28
25
24
23
18
17
10
25
34
36
35
42
45
51
49
40
32
21
56
33
53
34
46
15
21
15
16
. .
18
50
52
29
40
50
54
44
36
49
54
54
14
17
16
17
16
11
23
18
63
38
62
65
44
54
GDP (million $)
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
Tunisia
Ukraine
Namibia
Perud
Belarusd
Slovak Republicd
Latvia
Costa Ricad
Poland
Thailand,
Turkey
Croatia
Panama,
Russian Federation
Venezuela,
Botswana,
Estoniad
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Turkmenistan
Upper-middle-income
92
Brazil
South Africa
93
94
Mauritius
Czech Republicd
95
96
Malaysia,
97
Chile,
98
Trinidad and Tobago
Hungaryd
99
100
Gabond
101
Mexicod
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
Uruguay,
Ornand
Slovenia
Saudi Arabiad
Greece
Argentina
Korea, Rep.,
Low- and middle-income
Sub-Saharan Africa
East Asia and Pacific
South Asia
Europe and Central Asia
Middle East and N. Africa
Latin America and Caribbean
High-income economies
109
Portugal,
110
New Zealandd
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
Spaind
Ireland
t Israel
Australiad
United Kingdom
Finland
Italy,
t Kuwaitd
Canada
I- Hong Kong
Netherlands,
1. Singapored
Belgiumd
France,
Sweden
Austria,
Germany
United States,
Norway
Denmark
Japand
Switzerlandd
t United Arab Emirates
World
131
132
133
1980
8,743
..
2,190
20,661
12,027
..
4,831
57,068
32,354
56,919
..
3,592
..
69,377
971
..
92,664
1,054,324 t
236,995
78,743
1,132
29123
,
24,488
27,572
6,236
22,163
4,279
194,905
10,133
5,982
..
156,487
40,147
76,962
63,661
3,222,247 t
297,077 t
524,972 t
219,283 t
..
463,036 t
762,475 t
7,685,574 t
28,526
22,469
211,542
20,231
22,690
159,728
537,383
51,306
452,648
28,639
263,192
28,496
172,280
11,718
118,021
664,595
125,557
76,882
2,708,147
57,711
66,322
1,059,257
101,646
29,625
10,759,322 t
1994
15,770
91,307
2,884
50,077
20,287
12,370
5,817
8,281
92,580
143,209
131,014
14,017
6,975
376,555
58,257
4,011
4,578
63,716
5,156
2,264,369 t
554,587
121,888
3,385
36,024
70,626
51,957
4,792
41,374
3,945
377,115
15,539
11,628
14,037
117,236
77,721
281,922
376,505
5,276,483 t
277,021 t
1,520,558 t
394,958 t
1,029,958 t
425,707 t
1,624,083 t
20,120,240 t
87,257
50,777
482,841
52,060
77,777
331,990
1,017,306
97,961
1,024,634
24,289
542,954
131,881
329,768
68,949
227,550
1,330,381
196,441
196,546
2,045,991
6,648,013
109,568
146,076
4,590,971
260,352
1980
1994
Servicesb
(Manufacturing.)
Industry
1980
1994
1980
1994
20
1980
1994
48
53
16
15
36
32
14
..
19
14
7
..
50
..
38
..
31
53
42
29
37
20
23
56
56
17
53
54
45
44
7
9
15
6
10
16
13
63
36
34
24
40
39
35
48
29
30
31
12
10
18
7
18
..
23
23
..
27
..
29
30
20
..
19
19
55
..
..
..
22
29
21
20
20
48
47
25
29
57
57
61
54
50
52
62
73
..
11
..
16
..
..
54
38
42
16
13
49
14
10
36
4
42
23
18
21
46
44
49
32
37
49
43
37
55
31
14
37
14
50
42
47 w
44
37 w
22 w
20w
43 w
53 w
39
45
31
33
23
25
50
26
63
38
37
60
23
49
65
33
15
22
43
62
39
..
..
30
58
55
43
21
21
9
32
40
42
..
55
38
51
..
23
..
11
33
22
26
20
17
59
53
60
33
34
69
33
52
28
23
..
8
8
53
28
44
..
38
..
29
..
57
..
81
..
..
18
..
20
6
16
35
44
53
41
52
65
40
29
45
..
7
14w
22
29
29
18
20
15
31
30
43
24w
20 w
27 w
18 w
38 w
32 w
50
48 w
48 w
41 w
39w
29w
35w
43w
53
46
55
.
8w
8w
11
13
12
6
14
22
7
2
8
14
3
1
..
3
..
..
46
36 w
39 w
36 w
30 w
42 w
13 w
28 w
21 w
15 w
30 w
24w
26w
16w
15w
..
..
9w
10 w
57w
10 w
3w
..
10
36w
7w
25 w
23 w
31
22
38 w
33 w
..
..
60
40
64
69
..
10 w
21 w
32 w
50 w
59 w
55 w
..
11
..
..
3
9
58
17
. .
83
..
..
..
..
..
. .
. .
15
63
22
24
20
51
6
o
..
31
18
..
0
3
27
28
28
6
20
23
58
55
67
2
5
30
32
19
2
10
36
43
40
39
75
36
..
27
..
36
29
2
4
4
4
2
2
2
38
34
34
34
40
..
24
..
28
30
34
24
..
20
20
23
29
..
34
40
30
42
32
31
53
..
23
28
..
66
55
66
11
25
47
..
11
60
68
18
27
61
22
..
64
62
62
56
..
82
70
64
..
70
68
64
. .
64
..
16
..
57
..
27
40
20
29
19
65
54
69
58
..
..
27
40
8
22
4
2
1
57
77
35,405
8w
22 w
25,223,462 t
37 w
53 w
a. Because manufacturing is generally the most dynamic part of the industrial sector, its share is shown separately. b. Services, etc., include unallocated items. c. Data prior
to 1992 include Eritrea. d. GDP components are at purchaser values.
211
212
Low-income economies
Excluding China and India
1
Rwanda
2
Mozambique
3
Ethiopia
4
Tanzania
Burundi
5
6
Sierra Leone
Malawi
7
8
Chad
9
Uganda
10
Madagascar
Nepal
11
12
Vietnam
13
Bangladesh
14
Haiti
Niger
15
16
Guinea-Bissau
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Kenya
Mali
Nigeria
Yemen, Rep.
Burkina Faso
Mongolia
India
Lao PDR
Togo
Gambia, The
Nicaragua
Zambia
Tajikistan
1980
12 w
11 w
10 w
11
14a
12
8
12
20
1980
66w
71w
83
78
83a
69
22
92
92
70
17
99
11
12
7
10
89
89
82
9
8
19
6
10
10
29
11
12
9
9
7
6
17
20
8
15
10
12
12
10
10
16
14
92
82
67
77
62
Ghana
11
34
35
Pakistan
10
Mauritania
25
36
37
38
39
40
Azerbaijan
19
Zimbabwe
Guinea
China
Honduras
20
41
Senegal
22
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
Cote d'Ivoire
Congo
Kyrgyz Republic
Sri Lanka
Armenia
Cameroon
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Lesotho
17
18
50
51
Georgia
12
12
10
19
15
20
9
16
9
16
36
13
13
14
20
23
15
3a
19
//a
12
14
24
14
17
31
9
9
16
1
1
10
4
12
13
22
24
14
36
18
21
24
15
17
14
37
30
29
6
20
17
24
28
39
26
16
21
19
21
22
10
32
11
29
22
10
14
56
12
23
20
16
30
44
24
34
26
19
16
27
27
20
17
10
21
55
57
84
23
30
19
41
96
94
56
84
82
78
100
84
15
20
14
13
16
10
23
26
23
83
71
7
35
6
18
20
68
40
64
80
96
36
17
23
19
23
7
41
16
17
10
25
17
67
54
68
Kazakstan
Guatemala
20
20
55
79
61
24
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
Bulgaria
Romania
Ecuador
Dominican Republic
Lithuania
El Salvador
Jordan
Jamaica
Paraguay
15
6
15
15
13
7
20
13
61
55
60
60
77
64
72
21
18
24
22
5
35
14
35
25
42
26
15
16
13
27
36
29
34
29
16
30
34
20
6
24
29
31
22
20
15
23
18
14
86
42
86
60
89
21
12
18
76
32
25
81
68
60
86
53
64
62
70
80
15
20
36
25
28
51
15
26w
26w
19
14
11
19
24
29
32
24
29
24
23
37
24
27
30
21
14
16
38
16
25
24
25
20
17
13
15
34
40
26
21
25
31
13
20
18
27
21
39
35
26
21
15
16
11
16
25
23
19
14
88
4
22
26
75
3
20
64
12
69
16
22
16
19
6
7
76
18
14
79
32
23
71
Algeria
14
43
39
32
43
17
57
27
72
10
Colombia
19
20
20
9
70
15
75
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes. Figures in italics are for years other than those specified.
4
6
21
20
34
63
17
22
43
36
35
25
22
28
19
53
53
25
29
19
24
71
8
16
6
10
23
9
12
102
6
3
8
6
2
12
6
13
15
12
29
5
12
99
1w
13
5
5
10
12
10
5
0
10
15
15
13
34
24
16
15
51
18
20
49
60
36
34
6
2
4
18
3
0
32
25
12
29
41
33
24
29
12
23w
24
32
4
5
4
0
18
11
32
25w
25w
15
18
8
15
30
12
25
16
43
55
39
20
24
36
36
47
14
10
37
22
61
71
37
21
6
36
28
35
60
44
17
0
11
15
8
12
17
35
10
14
18
79
89
79
15
27
59w
62w
9
19
18
8
6
9
17
52
6
7
6
18
2
23
95
67
10
4
13
19
47
24
82
11
..
22
24
23
51
.1;
..
11
13
12
28
16
2
12
13
73
16
19
10
10
25
76
15
17
14
11
101
10
15
55
12
28
19
19
30
26
80
47
69
69
124
12
22
6a
2w
6w
78
76
61
1994
10
54
74
3w
9
14
12
21
51
1980
4
6
15
18
17
11
9
18
25
23
82
43
73
79
58
Resource
balance
29
13
11
21
14
24
68
60
59
25
69
10
19
47
8
11
14
16
19w
17w
6
15
21
11
9a
29
1994
6
60
27
23
13
16
13w
20w
14w
14w
14
18w
1980
28w
11w
21
12
17
14
17w
1994
22
70
78
63
82
22w
22
1980
46
13
101
30w
17
53
33
78
77
85
1994
24w
20w
71
79
83
91
1980
Exports of goods
and nonfactor services
78
18
14
13
9
83
79
93
85
Gross domestic
saving
95
15
15
15
158
75
85
88
99
Gross domestic
investment
73
73
22
20
20
15
62w
79w
56
91
11
26
19
9
1994
90
62
82
79
10
32
Myanmar
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
Bolivia
52
Macedonia, FYR
53
54
Moldova
55
Indonesia
Philippines
56
57
Uzbekistan
Morocco
58
12w
12
21
Benin
Central African Republic
Albania
31
1994
Private
consumption, etc.
Iw
7
14
8
6
5
4
9
1
17
2
2
4
15
23
9
4
213
INDICATORS
Tunisia
74
Ukraine
75
Namibia
76
Peru
77
Belarus
Slovak Republic
78
79
Latvia
80
Costa Rica
81
Poland
82
Thailand
83
Turkey
84
Croatia
85
Panama
86
Russian Federation
87
Venezuela
88
Botswana
89
Estonia
90
Iran, Islamic Rep.
91
Turkmenistan
Upper-middle-income
92
Brazil
93
South Africa
94
Mauritius
95
Czech Republic
Malaysia
96
Chile
97
98
Trinidad and Tobago
Hungary
99
100
Gabon
101
Mexico
Uruguay
102
103
Oman
104
Slovenia
105
Saudi Arabia
106
Greece
107
Argentina
108
Korea. Rep.
Low- and middle-income
Sub-Saharan Africa
East Asia and Pacific
South Asia
73
Portugal
New Zealand
Spain
Ireland
t Israel
Australia
United Kingdom
Finland
Italy
t Kuwait
Canada
t Hong Kong
Netherlands
t Singapore
Belgium
France
Sweden
Austria
Germany
United States
Norway
Denmark
Japan
Switzerland
t United Arab Emirates
World
Private
consumption, etc.
Gross domestic
investment
Gross domestic
saving
Exports of goods
and nonfactor services
Resource
balance
1980
1994
1980
1994
1980
1994
1980
1994
1980
1994
1980
1994
14
16
62
62
29
24
24
22
40
45
. .
. .
..
..
..
. .
. .
..
17
31
10
44
52
20
57
70
29
29
76
22
46
70
51
19
24
35
17
20
22
24
22
39
32
32
2
3
53
31
23
53
37
26
27
26
29
22
17
58
66
67
65
73
32
16
23
23
14
25
..
23
17
35
26
28
24
72
72
40
24
39
23
21
11
23
b
10
18
9
12
13
17
19
9
11
28
..
60
64
55
67
60
28
16
40
22
14
25
27
16
21
. .
61
15
62
50
22
12
55
19
32
53
72
44
25
12
21
24
63
53
48
26
38
28
54
30
23
50
..
..
28
61
59
23
64
21
58
53
..
15
18
12w
9
..
17
21
56w
70
13
50
75
..
22
17
12
10
51
9
12
67
46
13
61
13
12
10
26
13
14
12
10
13
65
63
63
72
40
70
79
25w
13
32
. .
27
..
32w
23
29
22
25
52
. .
14
21
28
27
25
61
47
23
25
13
13
12
18
12
11
17
15
20
63
15
17
47
27
..
25
16
29
62
23
28
8
b
12
b
10
22
29
25
32
24
19
22
60
76
64
44
16
24
25
14w
14w
12w
14w
17w
11w
11 w
60w
68w
54w
70w
60w
26w
23w
29w
20w
27w
17w
36w
22w
24w
28w
27w
28w
9w
57w
60w
58w
75w
67w
60w
67w
25w
23w
21w
23w
23w
20w
65
62
66
67
66
34
26
21
23
56
27
21
14
51
61
22
21
20
14
23
22
20
17
60
63
11
13
59
59
54
61
63
64
25
20
24
17
19
19
14
57
29
27
15
14
17
28
24
20
20
14
11
58
24
18
35
31
25
34
22
18
33
22
46
22
24
19
32
18
18
13
21
24
38
51
25
22
16
20
14
30
22
19
38
18
22
18
15
16
26
18
22
23
11
18
37
19
22
55
6
17
10
18
18
60
15
61
53
63
59
19
15
19
28
19
20
17
22
27
26
10
10
14
18
29
18
. .
18
13
11
15w
31
51
56
. .
63
47
56
59
64
17
59w
62
41
61
59
61
40
62
61
55
55
58
68
52
52
58
59
49
38
15w
28
..
20
28
19
32
27
28
24w
51
58
23
50
39
65
90
28
40
29
62
4
8
2
2
9
2
11
10
4
2
33
2
6
6
22
5
2
10
4
3
71
21
40
41
22
10
18
39
34
7
36
26w
23w
30w
16w
37w
20w
23w
8w
22w
27w
28w
13w
16w
22w
15w
24
24
30
19
16
26
31
19
28
47
40
20
19
17
26
26
19
22
15
10
34
26
17
31
21
24
72
27
. .
47
33
14
37
78
22w
a. Includes Eritrea. b. General government consumption figures are not available separately; they are included in private consumption, etc.
2w
2w
Ow
22
10
43
34
Ow
2w
13
13
11
44
23
33
38
2w
3w
55
30
1w
3w
4w
23
139
51
177
69
6w
2
2
1
3
19
23
33
31
25
33
19
32
68
27
33
22
78
28
90
50
23
1w
16
207
63
22
29
37
24w
6w
25
..
25
5
5
2
2
58
21
4
3
10
31
31
18
20
10
24
59
33
20
42
29
..
o
7
36
21
18
70
30
..
..
15
52
27
10
3
6
8
22
17
38
27
30
25
36
10
..
55
18
13
16
33
14
28w
..
. .
4
8
..
21
12w
12
22
20
23
20
37
28
24
39
11w
17w
11
30
28
21
. .
18w
13
46
21
18
32
20
39
76
28
82
53
29
53
10
12
25
73
. .
28
31
10
47
12
22
33
28
25
26
32
53
/
10
/
/
3
14
5
4
12
9
3
1
2
2
. .
1
6
1
1
5
19
4
0
36
2
5
68
43
1w
21 4
Low-income economies
Excluding China and India
1
Rwanda
2
Mozambique
3
Ethiopia
4
Tanzania
5
Burundi
6
Sierra Leone'
7
Malawi,
8
Chad
9
Uganda
10
Madagascar
11
Nepal
12
Vietnam
13
Bangladesh,
14
Haiti
15
Niger
16
Guinea-Bissau
17
Kenya,
18
Mali
Nigeria,
19
20
Yemen, Rep.
21
Burkina Faso
22
Mongolia
23
India
24
Lao PDR
25
Togo
26
Gambia, The
27
Nicaragua
28
Zambia
29
Tajikistan
30
Benin
31
Central African Republic
32
Albania
Ghana,
34
Pakistan
35
Mauritania
36
Azerbaijan
Zimbabwe
38
Guinea
39
China,
40
Honduras
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
Senegal
COte d'Ivoire
Congo
Kyrgyz Republic
Sri Lanka
Armenia
Cameroon
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Lesotho
Georgia
11.0
..
13.2e
17.2
13.3
15.2
Current
Nontax
Tax
1980
Total expenditure
1994
11.6
1980
1.8
1994
1.6
1980
9.3
..
12.4
3.5e
2.4
0.7
0.8
15.2
1.7
0.6
2.7
18.1
..
19.2
11.6
22.6
Capital
1994
18.7
..
..
17.6
1994
5.0
65
..
11.3
14.2
24.4
23.5
-3.1
..
..
-3.0
15.8
2.5
24.8
-4.7
-4.8
..
..
..
9.4
12.4
1.3
14.0
9.6
3.5
9.1
..
..
2.9
0.9
2.5
20.0
12.4
..
3.6
..
25.3
6.1
1.9
15.3
10.5
61
30.3
20.7
..
..
25.7
-4.6
-4.7
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
8.7
1.2
2.9
9.8
2.3
4.5
17.7
..
11.7
11.3
17.4
14.6
3.2
2.0
14.1
..
..
..
9.3
..
..
24.8
7.0
39.9
1.4
17.5
160
4.7
1.7
26.3
35.7
31.3
13.9
16.2
6.0
4.3
10.9
23.7
33.2
17.4
-2.0
-4.7
-7.3
-20.0
..
17.1
..
9.7
9.6
1.9
4.0
3.2
..
..
..
4.5
3.6
2.5
2.0
..
22.1
28.8
10.6
-5.0
..
..
6.1
10.5
28.0
21.0
21.6
25.0
-6.1
..
2.2
22.4
..
7.8
15.6
3.6
-69
..
0.2
..
..
7.8
0.2
7.7
19.8
9.6
-1.7
-7.0
-3.9
-13.2
-17.3
0.8
12.6
1980 1994
..
..
1.6
(% of GNP)
21.9
5.3
1.3
1994
..
..
0.3
1980
9.2
0.1
8.5
1994
..
..
6.5
1980
Overall
deficit/surplus.
10.4
11.0
5.8
18.0
19.6
Social servicesd
Defense
1980
3.0
13.1
0.4
..
..
1.6
..
..
11.1
7.1
29.4
27.0
5.7
..
5.5
0.2
30.1
9.8
12.8
-3.6
28.1
9.3
..
45.5
29.3
..
-6.5
-1.8
-6.0
..
3.6
-5.7
-7.3
..
14.9
1.5
18.4
..
..
..
..
6.4
13.5
13.1
13.2
0.5
3.0
3.8
..
4.9
19.5
9.8
14.6
..
33.5
1.4
0.5
12.6
2.6
14.4
21.5
5.3
17.9
20.7
9.6
1.3
..
..
1.1
3.1
3.6
3.7
..
24.9
3.1
1.8
10.9
..
4.8
-3.5
28.6
..
-4.2
-5.8
28.5
-11.1
35.1
38.5
11.0
3.3
19.0
1.0
1.6
1.8
22.2
29.9
20.0
9.2
..
..
..
19.3
17.4
1.1
..
..
..
14.8
10.9
1.3
31.1
14.7
264
17.9
..
2.4
..
2.0
9.5
19.1
23.1
..
..
..
23.6
16.7
..
..
..
..
..
..
1.9
24.9
22.3
16.7
5.3
1.6
11.6
..
..
..
..
..
10.4
161
34.9
5.1
1.7
9.1
9.7
8.1
11.6
4.9
15.0
..
..
39.4
36.8
0.9
7.0
-11.4
-5.8
..
-18.4
..
..
25.5
29.7
-68
165
26.5
24.6
1.2
..
42.0
11.8
20.8
14.4
23.1
-2.3
-1.4
27.0
27.2
-10.0
29.8
27.2
29.5
30.7
36.3
46.9
-3.5
-2.0
25.4
22.2
.
..
0.5
-8.7
-2.0
2.1
..
2.6 12.1
39.1
6.4
67 3.8
Myanmar
9.7
4.9
3.5 21.9
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
Bolivia
12.1
.. 20.5
52
5.6
8.5
5.7
53
Macedonia, FYR
54
..
Moldova
..
..
..
..
1.1
8.1
12.7
62
2.8
12.2
10.9
Indonesia
21.1
16.3
8.9
10.2
56
15.1
1.5
Philippines,
12.5
1.8
9.9
15.0
2.9 13.5
3.5
..
57
..
..
..
..
Uzbekistan
..
7.2
17.8
58
24.2
10.7
13.9
21.0
267
3.0
3.3
23.5
Morocco
..
..
..
..
59
..
Kazakstan
10.0
15.2
60
8.8
2.3
6.8
0.7
Guatemala
0.8
7.4
6.9
5.1
2.5
61
Papua New Guinea,
21.1
20.8
28.8
3.4
29.9
5.4
3.6
4.3
3.3
..
62
6.1
Bulgaria
42.8
..
1.1
8.9
29.3
63
10.3
26.5
36.0
27.8
3.8
7.3
Romania
3.5
30.5
15.3
4.3
2.0
64
12.9
0.6
14.9
12.5
Ecuador,
13.3
2.4
3.5
12.5
1.4
4.. 7
11.4
161
3.3
11.7
8.7
65
9.0
7.8
Dominican Republic,
5.3
66
1.6
18.3
0.8
18.9
..
Lithuania
12.0
10.7
11.2
67
11.3
0.5
1.3
2.9
El Salvador,
3.7
8.8
8.7
27.1
8.4
67 22.4 21.3
68
Jordan,
22.2
..
..
..
..
..
69
Jamaica
30.4
1.3
1.9
0.9
11.7
70
Paraguay
2.4
9.7
9.0
5.0
7.4
11.0
10.7
..
..
..
..
Algeria
71
72
10.4
1.7
2.8
2.6
67
8.1
14.4
10.5
12.2
4.2
Colombia
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes. Figures in italics are for years other than those specified.
-3.3
-2.1
..
33.0
23.6
..
9.3
8.2
..
..
..
-2.5
-6.9
-2.2
.. -3.7
0.6
-1.4
..
-1.4
..
0.5
-1.2
-4.5
-4.5
-2.5
39.8
-1.5
-2.7
0.0
0.0
34.3
39.4
-5.9
-0.8
23.0
40.7
18.8
43.9
35.5
..
1.9
-16.9
33.6
463
0.3
1.2
44.1
31.5
-1.8
-0.6
215
INDICATORS
Percentage of GNP
Total
Tax
1980
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
24.6
24.3
..
..
..
30.7
Thailand
13.3
17.7
Turkey
Croatia
Panama
Russian Federation
Venezuela
Botswan41
Estonia
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Turkmenistan
Upper-middle-income
Brazil
92
South Africa
93
Mauritius
94
Czech Republic
95
Malaysia
96
Chile
97
Trinidad and Tobago
98
99
Hungary
100
Gabon
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
13.7
..
17.6
19.5
Current
1980
1994
1980
7.1
5.4
22.8
3.8
1.4
1.3
15.8
262
12.9
..
..
..
1.6
27.8
28.1
43.1
9.7
69
..
60
11.1
2.9
21.0
4.6
3.5
1.6
2.6
0.0
62.4
..
3.9
20.9
15.2
..
170
4.1
1.7
19.1
21.6
38.8
7.1
10.0
26.2
25.8
26.2
5.8
..
1.3
4.0
11.6
2.6
7.4
9.8
25.6
24.9
32.8
14.6
L5
16.9
4.4
7.2
..
..
27.5
16.6
..
5.4
..
30.5
. .
..
..
4.6
16.9
21.2
3.1
11.4
14.9
..
4.1
..
..
2.0
3.0
3.1
0.0
8.9
43.0
(% of GNP)
1980
1994
-2.9
-2.6
..
-4.7
9.5
20.2
5.6
16.1
..
10.3
3.0
6.5
..
-2.5
..
3.1
-5.2
57.2
..
..
..
-7.8
-4.4
-5.9
..
..
-2.4
28.0
23.8
35.4
-4.9
-3.8
-4.0
39.6
70.9
-5.4
1.7
416
14.5
4.9
8.5
..
7.9
1994
deficit/surplus.
..
..
14.6
1.4
34.2
1.3
1.8
4.2
5.4
1980
..
1.2
..
1994
..
5.9
22.4
3.4
6.8
1980
3.0
4.2
15.4
29.1
8.3
1994
..
1.1
19.1
18.9
26.8
1980
31.9
25.3
22.8
37.9
17.0
15.4
41.7
21.8
Capital
1994
33.8
0.6
30.8
Overall
Total expenditure
Nontax
1994
Tunisia
Ukraine
Namibia
Peru,
Belarus
Slovak Republic
Latvia
Costa Rica
Poland
16.5
revenue.
52.8
61.3
21.7
53.6
54.1
1.9
.. -10.7
32.0
30.6
..
360
0.0
-4.3
-0.2
11.2
36.7
56.4
37.4
-13.7
-0.1
1.2
. .
18.4
21.4
18.5
..
24.4
26.6
37.5
175
24.7
20.0
38.0
22.5
5.0
3.1
2.4
..
75
2.0
3.0
3.0
7.7
2.6
19.2
20.0
22.8
..
33.8
34.4
1.7
1.0
3.2
1.6
18.9
37.7
21.4
17.8
4.6
4.5
4.9
0.7
1.4
40.7
5.0
13.1
12.1
6.6
12.0
8.8
26.8
57.6
Mexico
Uruguay
26.1
14.8
21.8
..
2.9
6.6
7.2
8.9
13.3
0.8
31.7
1.3
Oman
12.1
9.1
30.8
Slovenia
Saudi Arabia
Greece
Argentina
Korea, Rep.
26.5
25.8
3.1
18.1
5.3
2.2
29.3
33.5
30.1
1.9
39.2
33.5
21.2
31.9
29.6
4.0
7.3
2.2
4.6
2.5
2.8
4.8
2.1
5.3
38.8
1.1
..
16.1
19.5
2.5
74.1
2.6
21.5
36.4
25.6
37.5
2.5
21.6
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
44.0
44.7
5.2
18.2
42.1
36.5
30.2
32.2
171
8.1
1.9
48.1
16.2
50.7
13.4
42.8
38.0
31.7
2.9
4.9
2.7
3.8
10.0
1.8
2.7
6.9
3.1
47.0
37.3
37.7
34.3
48.4
44.9
..
2.0
..
1.5
20.3
37.9
37.6
19.1
465
..
10.5
15.8
..
..
19.9
26.3
19.3
..
10.3
2.8
12.6
3.4
77
..
50.6
..
3.2
2.5
367
..
48.6
60.6
39.5
64.9
267
4.3
11.7
..
5.7
..
2.3
26.5
20.9
34.0
34.3
41.7
1.8
9.1
2.8
7.8
2.1
30.1
18.4
38.6
5.4
4.3
2.8
15.1
16.0
1.9
4.4
3.6
3.1
29.6
36.6
24.0
41.7
69.3
2.1
13.1
49.6
-2.5
-2.5
-10.4
-4.0
-9.2
-0.3
..
0.9
4.1
1.7
-6.2
5.6
7.6
-2.9
..
..
6.8
..
7.3
36.7
..
..
32.3
..
36.1
61.1
..
-3.1
..
73.1
0.0
-3.0
9.4
30.0
0.5 -12.6
30.6
-4.8 -15.6
32.0
-2.6
-2.3
..
8.9
..
12.5
14.3
2.5
2.9
29.3
18.7
374
4.6
5.4
7.0
..
35.1
2.5
3.0
4.8
2.9
1.6
1.8
3.0
1.0
4.8
3.5
2.5
3.0
4.4
4.1
3.4
3.2
..
51.2
28.6
22.0
..
0.3
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
Portugal
New Zealand
Spain
Ireland
flsrael
24.9
31.3
22.4
31.8
44.6
Australia
United Kingdom
Finland
Italy
t Kuwait
Canada
19.9
30.6
25.5
29.1
2.3
16.6
t Hong Kong
Netherlands
t Singapore
Belgium
France
Sweden
Austria
Germany
United States
Norway
Denmark
Japan
Switzerland
t United Arab Emirates
1.3
33.7
29.6
18.3
18.5
38.6
32.2
37.0
11.0
17.5
178
0.0
0.5
33.3
20.0
1.6
3.8
4.2
0.6
1.4
0.2
3.2
3.1
9.5
6.2
3.3
14.8
18.2
1.7
10.7
34.0
4410
39.8
27.0
39.9
460
48.5
43.6
1.2
2.8
1.8
3.2
36.8
9.1
13.1
5.3
19.2
7.8
10.4
3.7
2.1
1.9
7.6
0.3
6.3
. .
. .
. .
. .
4.6
4.6
4.3
2.2
5.5
4.3
4.2
2.0
20.8
21.4
5.5
..
2.1
1.8
2.5
0.7
5.6
38.4
31.9
3.4
3.2
..
1.7
22.2
1.4
1.3
0.8
1.9
2.8
3.6
1.3
0.9
1.7
7.3
7.0
3.0
9.0
20.3
6.8
6.5
..
50.3
47.9
44.3
11.0
3.3
11.0
7.4
..
69
46.0
57.0
64.8
49.3
25.7
45.5
43.7
50.3
48.8
24.0
43.8
..
-2.2
573
-8.7
-6.8
-4.2
-12.9
49.1
57.5
-16.1
-1.5
-4.8
-2.3
-3.0
-2.9
52.2
59.3
-4.6
-66
69.1
48.6
..
51.4
0.8
-2.2 -14.1
-10.7 -10.6
50.2
-3.6
-4.5
. .
. .
. .
69.3
-4.5
-0.5
35.9
2.2
15.7
..
-8.2
-0.1
-5.5
4.7
62.9
24.1
60.2
69.4
58.2
70.0
68.8
48.8
47.4
56.3
4.2
..
53.5
59.2
63.6
20.5
5.3
2.2
..
18.1
65
..
..
10.1
..
0.4
41.4
37.1
68.7
56.8
70.1
-8.1 -13.4
-3.4
..
..
52.1
..
-2.8
-2.0
-2.7
-7.0
-0.2
29.9
2.0
55.6
-61
-5.1
-2.5
-3.0
-75
-5.7
-1.6
..
-0.2
World
a. Refers to current revenue. b. Includes lending minus repayments. c. Includes grants. d. Refers to education, health, social security, welfare, housing, and community
amenities. e. Includes Eritrea. f. Data are for budgetary accounts only.
216
Exports
Manufactures
1% of total)
Total
(million $1
1980
Low-income economies
Excluding China and India
1
Rwanda
2
Mozambique
3
Ethiopian
4
Tanzania
Burundi
5
6
Sierra Leone
7
Malawi
8
9
Chad
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
Uganda
Madagascar
Nepal
Vietnam
Bangladesh
Haiti
Niger
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
Mali
Nigeria
Yemen, Rep.
Burkina Faso
Mongolia
India
Lao PDR
Togo
Gambia, The
Nicaragua
Zambia
Tajikistan
Benin
Central African Republic
Albania
Ghana
Pakistan
Mauritania
Azerbaijan
Zimbabwe
Guinea
China*
Honduras
Senegal
Cote d'Ivoire
Congo
Kyrgyz Republic
Sri Lanka
Armenia
Cameroon
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Lesotho
Georgia
Myanmar
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
Bolivia
Macedonia, FYR
Moldova
Indonesia
Philippines
Uzbekistan
Morocco
Kazakstan
Guatemala
Papua New Guinea
Bulgaria
Romania
Ecuador
Dominican Republic
Lithuania
El Salvador
Jordan
Jamaica
Paraguay
Algeria
Colombia
Data for Taiwan, China
85,945 t
60,700 t
112
281
425
511
65
224
295
1980 1993
1994
202,239 t
56,192 t
..
372
519
106
115
325
71
..
345
421
277
363
3,770
2,661
401
80
339
793
226
566
11
1,250
205
26,000
802
0
2
0
14
3
40
7
8
3
6
31
69
..
..
..
9,378
1980
20
12
..
10
29
4
12
1
20
88
83
12
29
9
0
51
..
2
4
11
14
800
717
1,250
168
427
439
74
293
600
342
1,310
2,600
375
594
55
2,120
439
16,700
2,510
359
90
..
..
59
75
14,900
31
324
25,000
300
..
338
..
11
31
451
1,300
35
29
551
165
352
14
11
..
531
..
..
..
11
29
47
331
81
8,590
63
116
..
1,260
2,620
116
7,370
194
..
1,410
401
18,100
830
477
3,130
911
..
1,070
..
1,380
3,050
58
..
472
606,399 t
682
..
1,520
1,030
10,400
11,200
2,480
..
5.6
-19.6
1.3
-1.9
..
-10.5
-0.3
-1.0
1.2
-9.4
3.3
2.9
-3.3
150
24
491
..
23
870
434
1,176
4,440
4,701
292
11
6,511
..
..
223
26,846
564
-0.6
-4.6
18
12
7.8
22.1
4.9
..
..
..
16
10
13
10
7.5
12.7
1.8
5.3
-11.2
-2.0
-18.3
-4.4
-4.5
-68
1.3
1.1
-5.4
-5.6
-3.4
..
24
24
-2.4
166
-3.7
-1.9
........
1.5
7.2
-17.5
-5.9
5.4
1.3
2.1
..
..
..
..
27
6.3
7.0
4.5
2.7
..
..
..
10
4.9
2.3
9.0
1.1
14
-4.4
-3.5
17
22
23
209
824
23
23
..
20
22
619
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
26
-6.3
3.5
6.0
29.4
-3.3
..
..
7.7
2.5
-0.3
21
8
2
..
..
..
9.1
8.8
1.6
2.1
12.8
10.3
3.5
1.1
4.4
..
..
-5.1
-2.8
10.0
24.8
7.0
596
..
..
15
..
37
76
..
..
..
24
57
4,160
..
..
24
30
12
1,600
1,180
..
..
76
9,650
12,800
2,250
1,640
24
52
64
7.3
-5.0
-62
8,890
13
14
27
17
..
30
3.9
9.5
7.8
..
..
15
2.2
..
-6.6
..
-3.6
-8.6
-2.2
-2.9
6
14
11
11.4
14.3
10.7
-1.0
3.6
-7.5
9.7
1.0
61
-4.0
-2.0
5.4
2.5
..
..
115,681
1,056
14
..
3
11
..
..
..
39
..
10
3
13
16
..
25
29
25
2,000
13
..
16
14
..
744
886
........
20
32
5.5
..
..
..
..
6.3
17.0
2.0
15.0
..
..
..
16
24
12
4.5
-1.7
-11.2
-0.2
-0.1
-1.4
-0.7
..
..
272
-7.0
38.7
..
..
..
7
-7.0
890,818 t
4,160
7,109
2.6
3.3
24
..
9
1.3
14
3.5 w
........
........
7.0w
..
..
-5.4
-2.9
..
1.0 w
9.8 w
..
-2.8
18.9
19
1.7
..
..
..
..
13
8
7
8
16
28
5.3
21.3
1.2
12
2.9
10.2
2.4
9.1
15.2
..
..
..
..
17
24
14
4.2
0.8
2.9
1.7
-0.6
-0.2
19.3
2.1
20
..
..
8
11
24
21
..
15
. .
..
14
..
..
12
-1.3
8.2
..
4.5
19.3
22
..
26
-6.8
-4.7
3.0
-1.0
8.9
-10.2
-2.8
13.0
1.3
162
7.4
7.1
1.3
-3.1
13.0
7.0
7.3
8
1
5
2
3,690
..
.. 25
2,630 17
11
. .
..
44
.
2,210
. .
2,250
18
18
11
35
46
13
967
966
20
17
13
34
51
2,400
18
574
3,382
14
38
19
63
2,164 20
963
65
1,100
11
..
12
310
12
17
615
2,370
0
27
3
4
1
10,600
8,000 21
13,900
8,594
71
12
20
8
12
72
3,920
8,399
40
11,883
4
4,740
8
6 25
8
19,800
88
93
85,507
19,700
92,847
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes. Figures in italics are for years other than those specified.
962
1.0
-4.1
17
1,209
1,260
672
31,985
22,546
3,243
7,188
4,205
2,604
1,521
10,800
8,300
..
269
-8.7
269
..
27
665
..
11
-11.2
9.0
11
..
53
..
10
..
7.6
11.1
8.3
..
19
..
1.2
45
..
19
459
4,780
401
1,100
10,185
35
2
7
13
..
453,101 t
34
..
21
826,822 t
14
28
2,970
580
..
2.5
2.6
2.6
16
14
353
..
-5.6
68
..
15
22
10
-12.1
28.7
3.9
15
-1.6
10.5
-68
23
8
19
17
..
-1.1
1.3
-0.1
13
381
771
5.4
-9.9
-1.4
13
33
0.1
19
..
11
11
15
81
3,463
15
2,156
791
..
2
8
-5.1
..
1,600
4,860
464
-14.6
..
12.7
1.4
26
85
14
-3.3
-4.8
-4.3
-1.8
-10.0
14
10.0
7.4
-2.1
20
49
2,040
-1.8
19
..
1,130
5,350
286
74
21
63
24
16
23
14
..
..
25
48
340
3,210
209
16
-2.9
-6.4
38
13
..
13
13
..
..
Imports
Exports
12
1,000
1,033
1,505
224
..
1,032
1,120
618
40,054
13,304
3,543
4,013
3,285
1,522
2,640
4,165
6,151
3,820
633
1,892
844
1,424
1,192
817
2,490
218,960 t
76,433 t
121,047
843
942
..
887
1,340
(% of total)
1,450
270
19,900
1,010
1,050
..
..
9
36
of total)
..
..
38
..
21,900
5,740
..
Fuels
Food
(%
1994
102,726 t
69,547 t
243
73
32
1,609
Total
(million $1
..
1.2
9.9
2.5
9.7
11.6
-1.9
-0.8
4.8
5.9
. .
. .
-0.9
-3.9
-5.4
2.6
10.0
8.9
. .
3.1
3.2
-5.1
-1.9
12.8
-5.7
22.3
14.2
Imports
Exports
Manufactures
(% of total)
Total
(million $)
73
74
75
Tunisia
76
77
Peru
Belarus
Slovak Republic
Latvia
Costa Rica
Poland
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
Venezuela
Botswana
Estonia
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Turkmenistan
Upper-middle-income
92
Brazil
South Africa
93
94
Mauritius
95
Czech Republic
96
97
98
99
100
Malaysia
Chile
Trinidad and Tobago
101
Mexico
Uruguay
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
1994
2,200
4,660
11,818
1,321
4,555
3,134
6,587
967
2,215
17,000
45,262
18,106
4,259
584
53,000
15,480
1,845
1,329
13,900
2,176
Ukraine
Namibia
Thailand
Turkey
Croatia
Panama
Russian Federation,
Hungary
Gabon
Oman
Slovenia
Saudi Arabia
Greece
Argentina
Korea, Rep.
1980 1993
1980
3,900
..
1,000
14,200
6,510
2,910
..
358
..
19,900
502
..
14,700
..
280,750 t
20,100
25,500
431
..
13,000
4,710
3,960
8,670
2,170
15,600
1,060
2,390
404,146 t
43,600
25,000
1,347
14,252
58,756
11,539
1,867
10,733
1980
75
3,540
18
17
2,500
..
..
..
34
33
71
68
28
27
73
72
1,540
16,700
9,210
7,910
71
16
1,450
14
..
10,700
692
..
5
12,200
..
..
174,465 t
25,000
39
39
60
94
27
90
19,600
609
..
..
..
19
10
4
70
10,800
5,800
3,160
9,220
674
19,500
1,680
1,730
66
18
34
68
12
1,913
5,418
38
3
75
43
15
86
..
6,828
38,600
109,000
9,384
5,150
8,020
15,839
17,500
96,000
683,360 t 1,033,887 t
59,065 t
77,330 t
87,323 t
388,383 t
38,922 t
13,855 t
Total
36
61,964
217
47
53
23
90
32
93
30,200
10,500
10,500
22,300
Fuels
Food
of total)
(% of total)
(%
1994
6,580
14,177
1,196
6,794
3,857
6,823
1,367
3,025
21,400
54,459
23,270
5,231
2,404
41,000
7,710
1,638
1,690
20,000
1,690
14
21
6.2
7.7
1.3
64
20
20
-1.9
11.0
-1.0
12.1
..
8
..
..
..
..
15
10.1
3.9
2.8
18
12
30
48
14
4.9
4.8
14.3
12.0
..
10
10
31
10
13
15
11
9
14
11
15.1
26.3
8.8
1.5
12.1
11.3
2.6
23.3
-4.1
14.3
1.6
-6.1
19.3
11.4
-0.1
-0.8
7.7
-5.6
7.4
10.2
-4.0
15.7
21.6
12.7
11.2
. .
. .
13
..
..
428,837 t
36,000
23,400
1,926
15,636
59,581
11,800
Imports
Exports
$1
10
3.5 w
7.8 w
43
16
6.1
66
2.8
0.9
8.6
-1.5
-0.8
2.0
11.0
..
..
..
..
11.5
5.7
17.8
10.5
6.0
1.4
15.7
14.5
-4.3
4.9
-1.8
5.7
14.7
-3.1
9.8
-12.1
0.7
8.1
7.9
-2.0
2.0
18.7
26
10
6
14
..
..
12
15
14
15
6
6
18
10
1,131
14,438
11
15
38
i8
16
16
13
..
..
80,100
2,770
3,915
7,304
22,796
21,466
21,527
102,348
16
29
15
19
11
..
..
11
14
9
6
14
10
23
10
30
-8.2
3.0
0.6
12.2
2.9
13.1
2.2 w
5.7
-2.0
-1.6
..
5.3
2.5
.
21.7
18.5
.
4.0
11.9
-8.4
5.9
5.8
12.8
5.1
3.1
-1.0
-8.6
18
13.7
7.4
11.2
11
10.4 w
8.5
7.7
10.5w
1.8w
218
Low-income economies
Excluding China and India
1
Rwanda
2
Mozambique
3
Ethiopia'
Tanzania
Burundi
Sierra Leone
Malawi
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Chad
Uganda
Madagascar
Nepal
Vietnam
Bangladesh
Haiti
Niger
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
Mali
Nigeria
Yemen, Rep.
Burkina Faso
Mongolia
India
Lao PDR
Togo
Gambia, The
Nicaragua
Zambia
Tajikistan
32
Benin
Central African Republic
Albania
33
Ghana
34
Pakistan
35
40
Mauritania
Azerbaijan
Zimbabwe
Guinea
China
Honduras
41
Senegal
42
Cote d'Ivoire
Congo
Kyrgyz Republic
Sri Lanka
Armenia
Cameroon
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Lesotho
31
36
37
38
39
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
Georgia
Myanmar
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
Bolivia
Macedonia, FYR
Moldova
Indonesia
Philippines
Uzbekistan
Morocco
Kazakstan
Guatemala
Papua New Guinea
Bulgaria
Romania
Ecuador
Dominican Republic
Lithuania
El Salvador
Jordan
Jamaica
Paraguay
Algeria
Colombia
Data for Taiwan, China
1980
1994
105,529 t
74,386 t
237,848 t
76,664 t
182
452
590
762
..
55
421
..
2,622
498
1,016
83
3,095
537
22,044
596
934
18,105
..
35,020
259
570
66
514
1,625
305
220
459
1,185
1,049
1,987
..
..
405
428
329
375
1,264
6,042
493
3,010
270
..
1,719
553
20,901
967
830
3,640
1,029
..
-2
..
2,666
392
9,879
2,010
343
241
205
386
1,213
247
0
307
17
..
22
0
..
2,061
263
225
443
12,348
0
55
494
638
333
630
1,004
4,918
3,220
64
245
..
..
331
518
239
186
276
1,386
8,401
427
637
2,016
1980
1994
Current account
balance before
official transfers
(million $)
1980
639
336
0
58
45
138
61
22
450
11
29
..
10
13
0
18
304
-8
-155
-423
-126
-628
. .
-209
-310
-16
-121
-623
-100
-4
-2
-30
..
-2
10
33
70
..
..
29
-4
..
197
52
1,090
0
13
170
154
43
351
102
-47
10
-9
-10
-14
2,844
817
12,504
3,178
933
-3
0
27
9
151
40
85
546
1,059
0
0
146
0
..
-15
..
26
-0
-259
-491
-2,897
-99
-181
-112
-534
-545
901
988
1,320
6,218
4,830
216
-410
..
100
481
43,692
400
2,786
71
0
..
4,976
0
12
0
74
..
-0
1,224
10
-0
..
-1,436
-137
-429
-80
-1,006
-234
5,295
752
341
181
254
1,429
1,593
0
-61
30
..
..
..
..
..
65
0
3
6
0
147
0
0
-112
-4
16
259
945
-54
-1
-23
-1,137
-251
36
..
..
1,900
577
518
75
280
775
2,123
12,812
568
852
-19
..
265
-4
12
1,748
1,446
24
2,338
-27
..
..
4
2
13
-122
-19
..
..
-141
26
-50
-302
-26
441
-4
-3,211
-331
-129
-8
640
-15
-716
-38
395
90
40
-312
-26
..
152
698
..
-16
-25
-52
-72
0
52
36
..
11
-8
-34
6,516
678
124,665
1,370
1,349
3,177
1,078
340
4,087
258
2,210
10,511
16,121
914
5,073
95
551
9,745
482
2,696
363
0
3
-395
-438
-117
1,125
869
1,776
312
-307
..
1,340
..
1,828
2,226
952
118,344
1,859
1,740
3,590
1,400
490
5,646
525
2,485
24,752
1,306
1,337
4,761
1,195
..
2,269
..
..
662,723 t 1,047,195 t
..
..
1,046
1,226
1,226
618
46,295
24,033
3,561
7,035
3,114
2,586
2,909
5,507
7,158
4,521
2,601
2,153
1,675
3,058
2,680
2,657
9,698
12,428
112,899
..
22,241
7,997
..
3,270
..
1,834
1,089
9,443
12,160
2,975
1,313
1,271
1,781
1,422
781
14,500
5,860
22,627
1980
-526
-1,836
-230
..
-793
-400
-870
-317
-762
-171
. .
-230
-163
-264
-327
-250
-1,130
-366
-109
-106
-37
-30
-194
-2,079
-124
-493
-59
-2,473
-131
1994
119,140 t
37,138 t
187
39
262
588
105
211
..
76
48
12
80
272
752
..
..
..
331
27
132
3,175
539
26
10,640
588
229
1,649
274
241
94
24,221
68
99
..
..
75
12,010
..
115
..
-31
85
-20
-940
-427
..
..
75
206
146
..
-48
-95
-238
-466
-2,020
-140
-179
-295
-315
7,157
-394
-350
-726
-346
-202
-933
-232
-257
-536
-360
..
15
62
209
330
1,568
146
..
262
214
..
689
3,716
44
..
9
41.
..
585
10,091
159
25
46
93
57,781
179
283
1,686
..
191
221
55
..
..
..
206
2,480
14
14,413
. .
556
1994
Gross international
reserves
(million $1
42,943 t
20,842 t
-14
2,067
83
450
1,121
368
1994
496
797
1,412
181
1980
1,403
1,189
563
855
106
390
27,749
1994
285,936 t
121,425 t
335
875
71
..
1980
136,812 t
98,041 t
Net workers'
remittances
(million $1
51
341
276
315
976
309
644
Imports of goods
and servicesa
(million $)
. .
-339
670,749 t 1,214,187 t
409
173,363 t
78,989 t
1,112
..
19,432
10,348
..
5,807
..
2,107
1,561
8,547
14,580
3,647
2,237
..
1,289
3,318
1,678
1,399
14,552
6,231
23,445
1,670
1,733
823
49,704
27,809
3,569
9,901
3,916
3,734
2,356
5,525
7,704
5,482
3,253
2,463
2,982
4,783
3,112
3,981
12,919
16,283
105,524
-1
..
..
0
449
367
13
..
-53
2,810
989
2,061
15
..
..
0
0
0
0
0
0
93
0
55
80
109
378
-106
-150
58
0
0
164
194
0
183
0
0
420
17
..
..
0
0
31
11
37
-120
-91
51
967
1,093
327
31
241
68
0
211
36
96
120
42
1,400
651
202
25
137
22
97
715
-92 -1,316
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes. Figures in italics are for years other than those specified.
..
-2,052
..
-1,533
..
-164
-578
954
-2,420
-672
-725
..
-1
-942
-175
-618
225
-207
-910
-419
-370
-183
553
-2,960
-3,316
6,803
3,978
-8
-750
-722
-770
402
146
-352
-962
-232
-279
-303
-723
..
316,491 t
136,901 t
793
166
180
13,321
7,126
..
..
814
4,622
..
..
753
458
943
120
..
2,511
1,257
279
..
382
1,745
15
105
-1,282
-1,821
-2,993
783
7,064
6,474
4,055
6,059
518
3,092
2,003
259
597
829
1,997
.
1,030
4,813
7,862
97,653
219
Current transfers
Exports of goods
and servicesa
(million $)
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
Tunisia
Ukraine
Namibia
Peru
Belarus
Slovak Republic
Latvia
Costa Rica
Poland
Thailand
Turkey
Croatia
85
Panama
86
Russian Federatione
87
Venezuela
Botswana
88
89
Estonia
90
Iran, Islamic Rep.
91
Turkmenistan
Upper-middle-income
Brazil
92
93
South Africa
94
Mauritius
Czech Republic
95
96
Malaysia
Chile
97
Trinidad and Tobago
98
99
Hungary
100
Gabon
101
Mexico
102
Uruguay
103
Oman
104
Slovenia
105
Saudi Arabia
106
Greece
107
Argentina
108
Korea, Rep.
Low- and middle-income
Sub-Saharan Africa
East Asia and Pacific
South Asia
Portugal
New Zealand
Spain
Ireland
t Israel
Australia
United Kingdom
Finland
Italy
t Kuwait
Canada
t Hong Kong
Netherlands
t Singapore
Belgimnd
France
Sweden
Austria
Germanye
Imports of goods
and services.
(million $)
Net workers'
remittances
(million $1
Current account
balance before
official transfers
(million $1
Gross international
reserves
(million 5)
1980
1980
1994
1980
1994
1980
1994
1980
1994
1980
1994
3,356
6,983
14,426
1,758
5,996
2,770
9,138
1,263
3,399
22,189
59,161
30,084
6,654
4,119
8,086
15,837
1,806
9,197
3,345
8,496
1,446
4,004
25,898
68,429
30,589
6,872
304
675
-2
-462
-419
-1,977
-19
-2,935
-505
4,832
1,219
16,200
8,575
3,672
7,736
22,232
748
14,073
305,516 t
23,275
29,258
574
14,836
6,276
3,371
9,780
2,434
22,240
1,594
3,852
114,208
8,374
11,202
22,577
5,080
1,897
20,338
10,861
9,251
7,647
59,006
8,062
19,170
2,356
1,173
19,765
17,065
954
488,002 t
50,674
29,580
2,087
286,289 t
19,602
65,795
14,881
2,161
11,441
2,418
53,607
3,442
5,800
8,628
54,598
15,650
21,029
116,228
16,509
36,250
25,989
712
15,100
8,360
2,972
10,374
1,926
33,496
2,312
2,650
62,710
11,670
15,999
28,347
30,215
2,385
19,744
70,106
15,978
1,943
16,404
2,275
86,406
3,892
5,558
8,185
52,159
22,732
31,421
121,364
,484,372 t
100,724 t
482,575 t
69,750 t
16,011
111,791
40,446
24,527
58,062
386,474
36,490
278,378
17,927
190,101
..
197,115
101,929
224,364
424,737
83,406
82,237
565,307
7,630
41,089
13,754
13,458
30,683
189,683
18,621
116,794
10,463
79,859
25,448
97,610
26,695
92,625
171,856
42,495
32,951
235,078
333,830
26,658
26,642
167,450
58,524
18,116
121,337
39,483
33,898
68,755
380,663
34,992
256,921
12,261
209,087
280
30
0
0
0
0
2,071
0
.
0
0
0
2,627
340
0
986
82
126
-52
-116
-25
-378
. .
-202
89
991
2,248
436
4,749
2,450
-85
-207
174
1,200
-2,436
2,597 -12,848
-19
3,363
68
-129
-1,203
126
94
10
0
0
203
7,420
2,186
641
197
574
3,026
3,298
2,804
-136
15
-746
-17
1,544
706
-158
-516
-2,718
-8,282
-659
-3,545
-2,212
-3,426
. .
13,360
12,459
-68
..
446
4,581
12,783
-1,045
771
5,755
4,128
2,813
6,949
26,339
13,802
373
6,853
64
-44
-30
357
213
63
896
-531
-4,067
-72
350
216 -10,463
-716
33
71
115
-28,878
-416
4,175
-1,087
704
-14
687
3,705
106
2
-362 -1,329
-2,020
56
-4,094 -15,717
1,066
0
2,576
21
23
399
0
33
840
0
53
318
47,404
832
2,401
532
-2,209
-4,774
-5,371
-13,278
-4,453
-10,074
-4,304
179,589 I
38,492
3,295
113
0
26
-143
-307
-654
-230
-16
-4,262
6,875
7,888
126
48
52
-43
906
6,023
30,280
8,633
1,410
7,206
94,374 t
1
26,129
3,607
9,297
3,101
216,306 t
22,249t
33,794t
15,403 t
180
6,441
1,622
1,090
1,499
9,139
15,809
16,003
25,764
435,631
20,107
161,686
31,901
63,580
46,538
111,820
11,445t
76,217 t
57,197t
730,811 t 1,031,132
2,928
3,844
71
-3
143
177
-35
1,647
1,780
411
806
99
0
0
0
0
0
0
1,609
0
0
242
-692 -1,445
123
-52
1,060
295
3,260
738
-473
-20
-155
-398
-96
0
53
..
..
..
..
180,466
-316
-395
0
0
99,194
-266
209,188
-360
408,318 -2,591 -1,290
80,711
83,834
-248
20
593
75
-418
-14
70
63
569,204 t
54,474
.. 165,659 t
218,507 t
132,434 t
233,334 t 178,545 t 319,456 t
1,908,362 t 4,923,317 t 1,916,810 t 4,792,515 t
6,846
24,586
30,354
10,916
6,561
33,863
10,418
9,858
26,668
201,137
17,332
105,011
27,344
77,995
24,190
97,922
25,239
88,925
171,817
39,388
29,152
233,971
344,440
28,252
24,152
158,230
59,462
7,756
59,208
15,993
2,096
1,240
16,384
-566
0
0
1994
700
137
91
-301
-67
33
-1,926
10,980
5,414
1,402
21,453
4,221
-1,308
-247 -10,329
0
16,190
832
-1,811
-1,258
..
-498 -1,547
-104
-104
-1,072
-961
-5,168
-3,213
-2,540
-3,720
-482
-240
-87
-273
-294
-1,123
-7,667
911
-6,111
-9,955
13,863
365
20,474
3,071
4,055
-18,153
6,366
31,755
2,451
62,428
5,425
15,462
..
..
-503
14,707
37,549
-1,560
2,253
14,576 27,974
-4,070
15,043
-2,494
75,592
-3,407
2,513
6,996
-3,857
-1,858
17,725
-7,007
2,327 104,702
9,580 -136,484 171,413
21,671
3,709
47,531
6,253
6,796
14,313
48,079
11,430
57,817
4,474
13,775
47,859
23,474
57,627
25,579
23,852
113,841
163,591
19,479
9,680
135,145
66,645
6,964
128
129
130
131
132
133
220
St
1980
Low-income economies
Excluding China and India
1
Rwanda
2
Mozambique
3
Ethiopia..
4
Tanzania
5
Burundi
6
Sierra Leone
..
824
2,616
166
435
Malawi
821
Chad
Uganda
Madagascar
Nepal
Vietnam
Bangladesh
Haiti
Niger
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
Mali
Nigeria
228
702
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
Yemen, Rep.
Burkina Faso
Mongolia
India
Lao PDR
Togo
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
Gambia, The
Nicaragua
Zambia
Tajikistan
Benin
Central African Republic
Albania
Ghana
Pakistan
Mauritania
Azerbaijan
Zimbabwe
Guinea
China
Honduras
41
Senegal
42
43
44
45
46
47
Cote d'Ivoire
Congo
28
29
30
31
32
33
48
49
50
Kyrgyz Republic
Sri Lanka
Armenia
Cameroon
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Lesotho
Georgia
Myanmar
Middle-income economies
Lower-middle-income
Bolivia
52
53
Macedonia, FYR
54
Moldova
55
Indonesia
56
Philippines
57
Uzbekistan
58
Morocco
51
59
Kazaks tan
GNP
1,241
205
6
4,327
303
863
135
3,383
732
8,921
1,684
330
..
20,582
350
1,052
137
2,192
3,261
..
424
195
..
1,398
9,930
843
954
5,491
5,058
7,441
1,125
1,392
2,015
816
3,473
4,134
2,320
25,115
16,569
712
1,569
816
7,273
2,781
33,485
5,959
1,125
443
98,990
2,080
1,455
419
11,019
6,573
594
1,619
891
925
5,389
29,579
2,326
1994
..
..
..
16.3
164.8
113.7
450.4
..
109.8
139.4
349.7
2,163.9
1,388.7
630.0
877.5
1,144.9
..
..
18.2
40.7
72.1
31.6
55.7
31.1
10.4
..
33.4
20.9
34.5
128.4
48.1
45.4
113.8
187.3
160.3
91.0
88.1
225.3
56.2
161.3
63.4
44.2
..
158.3
262.4
320.2
213.2
240.7
91.5
..
399.8
73.4
138.6
10.1
..
..
..
19.5
61.1
91.8
..
..
61.3
34.2
135.6
156.6
11.9
..
95.9
61.5
108.5
90.7
117.3
..
800.6
204.3
28.7
109.4
104.0
50.8
31.6
42.4
125.5
101.5
56.6
240.1
..
30.2
24.3
1,499
2,702
4,749
. .
36.8
89.2
16.2
67.6
8.3
107.0
78.9
11.4
44.4
..
58.6
8.8
46.1
..
26.0
..
20,944
17,417
..
9,710
..
924
492
96,500
39,302
1,156
22,512
2,704
3,017
2,878
10,468
5,492
14,955
4,293
438
2,188
7,051
4,318
1,979
29,898
19,416
..
28.0
53.7
..
53.3
..
89.4
56.9
13.2
57.4
59.7
5.4
76.3
14.9
23.4
57.5
104.8
18.3
96.6
41.8
8.4
26.9
121.8
110.1
25.1
74.3
29.6
..
25.6
6.3
22.7
..
21.6
..
17.4
8.1
45.6
9.5
7.9
6.1
15.8
1.2
26.1
15.2
5.1
33.6
27.5
4.3
18.5
89.4
..
4.8
80.1
14.9
6.2
..
50.0
62.1
71.4
29.3
62.3
50.6
88.3
42.9
..
202.3
..
..
..
..
139.7
96.9
399.9
490.6
190.7
389.2
303.3
6.7
10.1
5.0
12.9
2.5
24.8
35.1
23.3
0.0
..
115.8
211.0
326.7
518.1
17.7
..
..
13.2
18.1
18.4
..
4.0
19.8
4.4
22.0
29.4
39.4
10.6
278.0
455.7
84.3
345.3
277.6
581.0
489.2
129.8
168.3
83.4
325.1
231.8
331.9
254.2
580.8
262.4
390.1
35.5
..
75.4
79.7
211.3
13.9
..
127.6
..
138.2
213.9
79.5
..
..
93.4
23.3
27.8
8.3
17.4
20.5
3.4
20.5
41.7
9.3
6.3
23.2
25.5
441
7,811
..
..
803.1
..
338.9
454.2
11.5
47.8
0.0
41.2
21.6
35.7
14.2
26.7
32.6
11.6
14.7
62.0
100.0
29.0
43.8
16.5
21.6
18.6
23.7
6.4
470.5
194.6
2,286.1
560.1
..
..
..
7.6
21.5
47.3
73.5
62.3
72.9
43.7
73.7
45.6
47.2
54.9
71.6
48.5
83.7
50.7
56.5
55.4
65.3
70.9
78.5
23.0
9.6
26.9
7.7
7.8
14.4
38.0
31.5
48.3
202.0
21.4
156.3
167.0
208.3
149.2
99.1
14.7
..
..
3.1
50.5
76.9
99.0
4.6
10.0
85.9
94.7
19.3
1994
253.7
..
..
1980
106.5
14.9
2.2
60.6
1994
..
187.9
206.5
443.4
1994
1980
146.5
113
214
7,275
33,358
600
1,227
6,502
400.7
151.8
102.5
340.7
112.4
4,368
3,104
100,536
4,418
3,678
18,452
5,275
..
..
523.0
450.9
1,042.7
652.1
223.4
514.3
168.6
227.2
33.0
104.2
..
2,513
19,131
72
1994
1,108.9
617.4
1,801.8
275.0
589.2
322.6
196.3
1,166
14.9
Guatemala
719
Papua New Guinea
61
28.9
2.0
62
Bulgaria
392
63
..
Romania
9,762
64
Ecuador
53.8
5,997
2,002
31.2
65
Dominican Republic
66
..
Lithuania
..
67
911
26.1
El Salvador
1,971
..
68
Jordan
69
1,913
78.0
Jamaica
70
20.7
Paraguay
955
Algeria
71
47.1
19,365
20.9
72
6,940
Colombia
Note: For data comparability and coverage, see the technical notes.
60
229.5
1980
786
1,117
4,504
1,472
1,473
7,445
1,526
1,841
1980
..
190
7
9
1994
Debt service
as % of exports of
Exports of goods
and services
..
12.4
..
14.2
9.3
33.9
14.9
40.1
51.5
4.8
8.7
..
1.7
15.4
13.8
6.1
16.7
15.8
16.9
..
1.2
26.2
15.4
33.0
28.2
12.7
2.2
32.4
21.9
3.2
33.3
..
1.9
8.4
11.4
30.0
14.0
8.4
22.1
17.0
2.8
55.3
77.0
88.5
51.5
50.2
88.4
62.1
74.5
67.6
96.6
80.0
63.2
85.2
76.4
65.7
83.2
..
29.5
5.9
11.3
29.9
19.2
12.2
..
24.5
27.4
..
19.9
15.4
14.8
..
0.4
11.6
0.0
31.2
17.8
7.0
84.1
79.3
7.7
61.2
91.9
80.7
65.7
11.7
58.3
95.3
74.8
..
..
16.8
13.7
56.1
19.2
42.0
35.5
78.3
23.9
78.8
72.3
58.4
38.6
77.8
0.9
55.9
73.3
52.7
44.6
37.9
44.3
14.4
20.3
78.1
25.5
31.8
25.4
46.9
71.5
11.9
30.3
11.4
48.5
66.3
7.1
49.6
38.9
35.7
7.4
34.1
42.0
13.5
46.7
48.3
18.2
13.2
21.9
34.0
48.6
22.3
12.5
68.6
..
12.1
18.6
22.4
16.5
47.9
23.6
..
33.1
19.8
..
94.7
233.9
..
227.0
..
67.4
69.9
4.2
80.9
207.7
137.7
74.0
86.2
135.7
136.2
132.8
128.8
189.7
33.0
257.1
88.1
121.4
99.4
193.1
78.0
335.3
144.8
20.3
84.0
172.9
149.8
78.3
312.1
159.4
29.3
..
14.6
0.5
12.7
34.9
26.1
..
7.8
9.2
19.9
20.7
28.0
17.7
13.1
12.4
20.6
10.2
56.0
30.3
74.0
93.5
88.7
87.2
89.1
91.2
84.0
91.0
8.8
7.5
..
7.4
..
80.6
80.3
95.6
92.0
87.6
87.9
82.9
74.6
71.3
30.0
21.2
85.4
88.6
81.9
93.7
14.9
0.0
8.3
5.4
10.2
..
28.3
8.0
21.2
0.4
27.4
8.0
28.3
31.3
13.3
25.2
16.1
21.8
27.2
57.2
14.3
20.2
27.4
36.0
1.5
19.5
27.7
11.1
221
1980
Tunisia
74
Ukraine
75
Namibia
76
Peru
Belarus
77
78
Slovak Republic
Latvia
79
Costa Rica
80
81
Poland
82
Thailand
83
Turkey
84
Croatia
85
Panama
86
Russian Federation
87
Venezuela
88
Botswana
Estonia
89
90
Iran, Islamic Rep.
91
Turkmenistan
Upper-middle-income
92
Brazil
93
South Africa
94
Mauritius
Czech Republic
95
Malaysia
96
Chile
97
98
Trinidad and Tobago
Hungary
99
100
Gabon
101
Mexico
102
Uruguay
103
Oman
104
Slovenia
105
Saudi Arabia
Greece
106
Argentina
107
108
Korea, Rep.
Low- and middle-income
Sub-Saharan Africa
East Asia and Pacific
South Asia
73
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
Portugal
New Zealand
Spain
Ireland
Israel
Australia
United Kingdom
Finland
Italy
Kuwait
Canada
t Hong Kong
Netherlands
t Singapore
Belgium
France
Sweden
Austria
Germany
United States
Norway
Denmark
Japan
Switzerland
t United Arab Emirates
World
a. Includes Eritrea.
3,526
9,386
670
..
2,744
8,894
8,297
19,131
..
2,975
4,477
29,345
147
4,500
72,920
1994
9,254
5,430
41.6
..
22,623
1,272
4,067
364
3,843
42,160
60,991
66,332
2,304
7,107
94,232
36,850
691
12,081
829
9,764
1,514
57,378
1,660
599
1994
1994
1980
60.8
6.6
98.5
..
..
47.6
42.1
16.3
46.2
6.3
33.2
6.3
47.8
46.2
43.1
51.4
16.4
107.2
25.4
65.6
17.4
186
..
4.1
22,712
418
4.8
36.6
151,104
31.8
27.9
..
..
1,355
10,694
41.6
24,767
22,939
2,218
28,016
3,967
28.0
45.5
40.3
29.7
36.9
45.5
50.3
70.1
..
467
3,789
6,611
GNP
1980
128,302
5,099
3,084
2,290
27,157
77,388
29,480
54,542
647,308 t 1,921,450 t
84,049 t 212,416 t
94,307 t 421,329 t
38,112 t
161,128 t
87,919 t 356,090 t
84,257 t 207,669 t
562,818 t
258,665 t
..
5.6
..
59.7
16.3
25.9
34.3
..
81.8
..
13.0
14.0
44.8
39.3
30.5
17.0
11.2
35.6
47.9
Debt service
Exports of goods
and services
as % of exports of
1980
1994
1994
1980
1994
15.2
18.8
12.3
37.9
37.7
2.0
85.9
92.4
..
..
..
..
202.5
379.6
45.9
45.3
28.8
116.4
46.4
17.7
4.3
9.3
..
2.1
29.6
18.1
20.4
28.2
..
195.0
107.9
217.1
33.4
15.0
14.3
16.3
88.0
..
14.4
..
..
161.1
146.6
209.7
32.3
30.2
2.4
21.0
4.3
..
..
..
118.6
17.2
7.4
22.5
4.2
88.5
74.4
91.9
89.6
88.1
79.3
98.4
85.8
93.8
96.6
92.2
90.2
75.9
90.3
90.9
90.6
334.0
336.0
67.7
35.8
92.6
4.2
..
..
..
..
..
7.3
13.1
7.9
20.3
31.6
53.0
10.5
16.6
0.0
11.3
2.9
8.6
0.0
2.7
5.6
11.0
5.8
19.2
8.8
6.9
19.0
18.4
12.4
11.4
13.3
..
86.5
94.3
89.3
90.2
93.9
94.2
89.8
91.4
93.3
90.6
5.4
93.1
35.1
7.0
91.2
..
229.3
55.5
104.5
336.2
22.7
34.5
82.1
..
46.8
202.4
26.4
..
122.5
35.2
33.2
30.7
16.4
63.0
266.4
27.8
15.3
274.6
108.6
15.8
122.1
68.1
56.8
39.0
160.0
104.1
260.9
165.1
238.4
161.4
..
9.2
.
6.6
45.3
7.3
..
18.0
50.9
19.6
6.6
26.8
42.3
20.3
13.2 w
9.7 w
13.4 w
26.5 w 37.6 w
30.6 w 78.7 w
21.5 w 30.9 w
88.3 w
90.9 w
93.6 w
17.4w 42.0 w
161.1w
271.6w
11.6w
32.8 w
54.6 w
36.8 w
206.0 w
153.7 w
148.5 w
258.6 w
8.6 w
5.0 w
36.9 w
18.6w 41.7w
36.2 w
37.2 w
134.5
33.4
4.2
6.3
405.4
48.1
162.8 w
265.7 w
93.3 w
25.7 w
35.4
16.1
16.6w
14.0 w
12.0 w
25.6 w
14.6 w
15.4 w
27.5 w
88.5
4.1
..
5.5
0.0
..
16.4
0.0
12.0
11.2
..
11.0
0.0
0.7
57.5
..
13.8
14.8
13.6
12.5
31.5
33.6
4.6
5.1
14.0
22.9
8.2
1.7
8.5
72.6
35.2
1.3
13.2
4.0
8.0
7.6 w
9.0 w
8.3 w
24.5w
5.4 w
6.7 w
5.5 w
6.1
23.9
5.2
21.6
9.9
5.7
14.6 m
23.9 NI
12.5 m
35.4 v,
8.6 m
10.1 NI
12.2 vs
222
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
Afghanistan
American Samoa
Andorra
Angola
Antigua and Barbuda
Aruba
Bahamas, The
Bahrain
Barbados
Belize
Bermuda
Bhutan
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Brunei
Cambodia
Cape Verde
Cayman Islands
Channel Islands
Comoros
Cuba
Cyprus
Djibouti
Dominica
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Faeroe Islands
Population
(thousands)
Area
(thousands
mid-1994
of sq. km)
22,789
652.09
0.20
0.45
1,246.70
0.44
0.19
55
65
10,442
67
77
272
557
260
211
63
675
4,383
280
9,951
372
33
143
485
10,978
726
603
72
386
3,482
45
Fiji
767
French Guiana
French Polynesia
Greenland
Grenada
Guadeloupe
Guam
Guyana
Iceland
Iraq
Isle of Man
Kiribati
Korea, Dem. Rep.
Lebanon
141
Liberia
Libya
Liechtenstein
Luxembourg
Macao
Maldives
Malta
Marshall Islands
Martinique
Mayotte
Micronesia, Fed. Sts.
Monaco
Netherlands Antilles
New Caledonia
Northern Mariana Islands
Puerto Rico
Qatar
Reunion
Sao Tome and Principe
219
55
92
421
146
826
266
20,356
72
78
23,448
3,930
2,719
5,218
31
404
444
246
368
54
383
13.88
0.68
0.43
22.96
0.05
47.00
51.13
5.77
181.04
4.03
0.26
0.19
2.23
110.86
9.25
Avg. ann.
..
-6.8
6,770
2.5
..
..
-0.8
-0.7
-0.0
73.1
57.7
48.0
59.8
51.1
43.3
5.0
18.0
21.6
-1.2
..
..
400
4.4
4.8
4.9
Adult
illiteracy (%)
1995
44
69
..
15,470g
13,220g
11,210g
5,600g
79
47
75
75
73
72
15
..
..
2
69
..
1,2701
58
..
14,240
75
52
12
65
28
930
2.0
7.1
7.4
e
e
-1.4
..
10,260
4.6
..
4.3
2.2
6.8
47.2
5.5
57.2
55
43
4
14,800g
76
77
49
..
2.4
20.4
23.0
77
78
1,4301
..
2,250
1,9201
..
510
5,940g
d
d
34
73
48
48
77
72
.8
73
69
66
2,630
d
d
530
24,630
f
d
740
0.4
0.3
..
..
8.8
86.4
10.6
74.2
..
2,750g
19,210h
75
73
66
79
67
..
70
69
53
64
39,600
42
61
f
f
.8
72
1.2
138.6
. .
35,860h
76
7.7
62
5.1
77
143.1
950
d
1.10
89
104
0.37
0.70
33
198
187
..
0.80
18.58
0.48
8.90
11.00
2.51
47
3,651
610
640
1994
Life
expectancy at
birth (years)
1994
..
11,800
7,460
6,560
2,530
2,800
430
c
1.71
1994
0.75
28.05
125.00
1.40
18.27
90.00
0.55
214.97
103.00
438.32
0.57
0.73
120.54
10.40
97.75
1,759.54
0.16
3.00
0.02
0.30
0.32
0.20
1987
23.20
4.00
341.70
0.34
Current int'l $
US=100
63
76
60
65
f
d
12,820
78
77
72
..
..
1.6
-2.4
..
90.4
73.8
19,100g
75
72
21
74
0.96
-2.1
250
68
0.45
72
21
6,680
4.8
61
810
Solomon Islands
28.90
8.2
8.1
2.2
2,100g
62
62
Somalia
-2.3
637.66
49
c
41
St. Kitts and Nevis
63
0.36
4.7
36.0
69
4,760
30.4
9,310g
64
St. Lucia
160
0.62
71
4.0
3,130
110
65
St. Vincent and the Grenadines
2,140
4.5
0.39
..
72
66
27,364
..
Sudan
2,505.81
c
-0.2
8.8
54
..
54
67
407
Suriname
860
1.8
13.8
9.5
7
163.27
2,470g
69
68
906
14.0
Swaziland
17.36
-1.2
11.6
1,100
23
3,010i
58
69
Syrian Arab Republic
13,844
185.18
f
-2.1
68
70
Tonga
101
0.75
1,590
0.3
69
71
Vanuatu
1,150
9.2
165
12.19
2,370g
60
-0.3
9.3
100
e
72
Virgin Islands (U.S.)
0.34
75
West Bank & Gaza
73
1,951
f
0.38
..
Western Samoa
164
74
2.84
1,000
9.5
8.0
2,060g
-0.3
69
Yugoslavia, Fed. Rep.
10,520
75
102.17
f
72
Zaire
76
42,540
-1.0
2,344.86
c
33
a. Atlas method; see the technical notes. b. Purchasing power parity; see the technical notes. c. Estimated to be low income ($725 or less). d. Estimated to be upper middle income ($2,896 to $8,955). e. Estimated to be high income ($8,956 or more). f. Estimated to be lower middle income ($726 to $2,895). g. Based on regression estimates. h. Extrapolated from 1993 ICP estimates. i. According to UNESCO, illiteracy is less than 5 percent. j. Extrapolated from 1985 ICP estimates.
Seychelles
125
72
365
8,775
otes
technical notes discuss the sources and methods used to compile the 120 indicators included in
These
the 1996 Selected World Development Indicators. Notes on specific indicators are arranged by table
heading and, within each table, by order of appearance of
the indicator.
years on either side of the date shown for economic indicators and up to three years for social indicators, because
223
224
is the base year for the period from 1960 to 1975, 1980
for 1976 to 1982, and 1987 for 1983 and beyond.
During the chain-linking procedure, components of
gross domestic product (GDP) by industrial origin are
individually rescaled and summed to provide the rescaled
GDP. In this process a rescaling deviation may occur
between the constant price GDP by industrial origin and
the constant price GDP by expenditure. Such rescaling
deviations are absorbed under the heading private consumption, etc. on the assumption that GDP by industrial
origin is a more reliable estimate than GDP by expenditure. Independently of the rescaling, value added in the
services sector also includes a statistical discrepancy as
reported by the original source.
Summag measures
the GNP estimates, focusing on the coverage and concepts employed and, where appropriate, making adjustments to improve comparability. As part of the review
225
The summary measures for GNP per capita, life expectancy, and adult illiteracy in Table 1 are weighted by
population.
Table 2. Macroeconomic indicators
The principal sources of the data in Table 2 are the IMF's
Government Finance Statistics (GFS) and International
Financial Statistics (IFS). Data on GNP, GDP, and total
external debt come from the World Bank's data files.
Central government current deficit/surplus is defined as
226
The net present value of total external debt is the discounted sum of all debt service payments due over the life
of existing loans in current prices. To estimate the ratio to
exchange rates, and GNP is converted from national currencies to U.S. dollars by applying the conversion procedure described in the technical note for Table 12.
aggregates for gross international reserves and total imports of goods and services in current dollars.
the issuer can exchange for money with little, if any, delay
or penalty and foreign currency deposits of resident sectors
other than those of the central government. Where nonmonetary financial institutions are important issuers of
quasi-monetary liabilities, these are often included in the
measure of broadly defined money. The average annual
Data in this table reflect a country's openness to international markets and its potential vulnerability to changes in
export prices, international interest rates, and the availability of private capital flows and official development
assistance.
The terms of trade, or the net barter terms of trade, mea-
The export concentration index is taken from UNCTAD's Handbook of International Trade and Development
Statistics. The index measures the degree to which a coun-
trades. There are 239 commodities identified at the threedigit level in the SITC Revision 2.
flows on long-term debt are disbursements less the repayment of principal on public, publicly guaranteed, and pri-
exchange under the control of monetary authorities. International reserves in U.S. dollars are shown in Table 16.
Reserve holdings as months of import coverage are calculated as the ratio of gross international reserves to the cur-
to qualify as ODA, each transaction must meet the following tests: it is administered with the promotion of the
economic development and welfare of developing countries as its main objective; and it is concessional in character and conveys a grant element of at least 25 percent.
Summary measures for ODA as a percentage of GNP
(See also the notes in the Key table.) The World Bank
uses the de facto definition of a country's population,
which counts all residents regardless of legal status or citizenship. Note, however, that refugees not permanently
settled in the country of asylum are generally considered
to be part of the population of their country of origin.
The average annual growth rate of population is computed from end-point data using an exponential growth
The table describes the distribution of income or consumption expenditures accruing to subgroups of the population in sixty-five low- and middle-income countries
and twenty high-income countries. Because the subgroups
are ranked by per capita income or expenditure or, in the
case of high-income countries, by household income, the
resulting shares indicate the extent to which the distribu-
adjustment has been made for spatial cost-of-living differences within countries, because the data needed for such
calculations are not generally available. For further details
on both the data and the estimation methodology for low-
tion rates.
The structure of labor force shows the share of the labor
force engaged in agricultural and industrial activities. The
agricultural labor force includes people engaged in farming,
forestry, hunting, and fishing. The industrial labor force
227
228
cifLD DEVELOPMENT
ORT
229
accepted definitions, and its application is subject to qualifiers in a number of countries. The data are from the illit-
UNESCO.
The summary enrollment measures in this table are
weighted by population or by subgroups of the population. Infant mortality is weighted by the number of births.
Table 7. Education
The percentage of cohort reaching grade 4 is the proportion of children starting primary school in 1980 and 1988
230
EVE opivte
The data on land use are compiled by the World Resources Institute (WRI). The main source, however, is the
Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), which gath-
A*,
and disseminate them. Total surface area is used to calculate the percentage of total area protected. (See Table 1.)
Data on annual freshwater withdrawal are subject to
economy
231
232
OR LO DEVELOP
It is calculated without making deductions for depreciation of fabricated assets or depletion and degradation of
natural resources. International comparability of the estimates is affected by differing country practices in valua-
a practical solution, GDP estimates are shown at purchaser prices in Table 11 if the components are on this
basis, and such instances are footnoted. In Table 13, GDP
is measured in purchaser values for all countries.
In Table 11, growth rates are computed from partially
all current expenditures for purchases of goods and services by all levels of government, but excluding most gov-
dollar values for each economy are calculated for each year
tribution of agriculture to GDP and reduces the reliability and comparability of such numbers.
Industry comprises value added in mining, manufactur-
is
ME1,IT
ND c/,T
individual components of central government expenditure and revenue shown may not be strictly comparable
ment" can mean either of two accounting concepts: consolidated or budgetary. For most countries, central government finance data have been consolidated into one overall
account, but for others only the budgetary central government accounts are available. Because budgetary accounts do
not always include all central government units, the overall
picture of central government activities is usually incomplete. Countries reporting budgetary data are footnoted.
Consequently, the data presented, especially those for
social services, are not comparable across countries. In
many economies, private health and education services are
substantial; in others, public services represent the major
component of total expenditure but may be financed by
lower levels of government. Caution should therefore be
exercised in using the data for cross-country comparisons.
Total revenue is derived from tax and nontax sources.
Tax revenues comprise compulsory, unrequited, nonrepayable receipts for public purposes. They include interest
collected on tax arrears and penalties collected on non-
ture by all government offices, departments, establishments, and other bodies that are agencies or instruments
of the central authority of a country. It includes both current and capital (development) expenditures.
Defense comprises all expenditures, whether by defense
Trade (COMTRADE) data base, and World Bank estimates. The shares in these tables are derived from trade
tain commodity categories are unavailable. Food commodities are those in SITC Sections 0, 1, and 4 and
Division 22 (food and live animals, beverages and tobacco,
animal and vegetable oils and fats, oilseeds, oil nuts, and
oil kernels). Fuels are the commodities in SITC Section 3
(mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials).
Average annual growth rates of exports and imports are cal-
233
234
The summary measures for the growth rates are calculated by aggregating the 1987 constant U.S. dollar price
series for each year and then applying the least-squares
growth rate procedure for the periods shown.
The data for this table are based on IMF data files. World
The data on debt in this table come from the World Bank
Debtor Reporting System, supplemented by World Bank
estimates. The system is concerned solely with developing
economies and does not collect data on external debt for
other groups of borrowers or for economies that are not
members of the World Bank. Debt is stated in U.S. dollars converted at official exchange rates. The data on debt
Publicly guaranteed loans are external obligations of private debtors that are guaranteed for repayment by a public entity. Private nonguaranteed loans are external obliga-
log X, = a+ bt,
X=
(1 + r)t.
appropriate "model" for the data, the least-squares estimate of the growth rate is consistent and efficient.
Exponential growth rate
r = ln (p I p,) I n
where pn and p1 are the last and first observations in the
period, n is the number of years in the period, and In is
the natural logarithm operator.
This growth rate is based on a model of continuous,
exponential growth. To obtain a growth rate for discrete
periods comparable to the least-squares growth rate, take
the antilog of the calculated growth rate and subtract 1.
The Gini index
The Gini index measures the extent to which the distribution of income (or, in some cases, consumption expenditures) among individuals or households within an economy deviates from a perfectly equal distribution. A Lorenz
235
236
t-2
,S$ \
Pt tt Pt
,S$
,Pt-2 Pt-2 )
ss \
Pt /t Pt
+ e t_1
,,S$
,Pt-1 ft_i j
+e]
Yts=(Y,INt)le:
where
Yt = current GNP (local currency) for year t;
Data Sources
Summary of
socioeconomic
development
indicators
International Monetary Fund. Various years. Government Finance Statistics Yearbook. Vol. 11. Washington, D.C.
. Various years. International Financial Statistics. Washington, D.C.
U.N. International Comparison Programme Phases IV (1980), V (1985), and VI (1990) reports, and data from ECE, ESCAP,
Human
resources
Atkinson, Anthony, Lee Rainwater, and Timothy Smeeding. 1995. Income Distribution in Advanced Economies: The Evidence
from the Luxembourg Income Study (US). Paris: OECD.
Bos, Eduard, My T. Vu, Ernest Massiah, and Rodolfo A. Bulatao. 1994. World Population Projections, 1994-95 Edition.
Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Chen, Shaohua, Gaurav Datt, and Martin Ravallion. 1992. POVCAL, A Program for Poverty Measurement for Grouped Data.
World Bank, Policy Research Department, Washington, D.C.
Council of Europe. 1995. Recent Demographic Developments in Europe and North America. Council of Europe Press.
Eurostat. Various years. Demographic Statistics. Luxembourg: Statistical Office of the European Community.
Institute for Resource Development/Westinghouse. 1987. Child Survival: Risks and the Road to Health. Columbia, Md.
International Labour Office. 1995. Year Book of Labour Statistics. Geneva.
. 1995. Labour Force Estimates and Projections, 1950-2010. Geneva.
. 1995. Estimates of the Economically Active Population by Sex and Age Group and by Main Sectors of Economic Activity.
Geneva.
Ravallion, Martin, and Chen, Shaohua. 1996. "What can new survey data tell us about recent changes in living standards in
developing and transitional economies?" World Bank, Policy Research Department, Washington, D.C.
Ross, John, and others. 1993. Family Planning and Population: A Compendium of International Statistics. New York: The
Population Council.
U.N. Administrative Committee on Co-ordination, Subcommittee on Nutrition. Various years. Update on the Nutrition
Situation. Geneva.
U.N. Department of Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis (formerly U.N. Department of International
Economic and Social Affairs). Various years. Demographic Yearbook. New York.
. Various years. Statistical Yearbook. New York.
Various years. Levels and Trends of Contraceptive Use. New York.
. 1988. Mortality of Children under Age 5.. Projections 1950-2025. New York.
1994. World Population Prospects: The 1994 Edition. New York.
. Various years. Population and Vital Statistics Report. New York.
U.N. Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization. Various years. Statistical Yearbook. Paris.
UNICEF. 1996. The State of the World's Children 1996 Oxford: Oxford University Press.
United States Bureau of the Census. Various years. World PopulationRecent Estimates for the Countries and Regions of the
World. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
World Health Organization. Various years. World Health Statistics Annual. Geneva.
. Various years. The International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade. Geneva.
. 1986. Maternal Mortality Rates: A Tabulation of Available Information, 2nd edition. Geneva.
. 1991. Maternal Mortality: A Global Factbook. Geneva.
. Various years. World Health Statistics Report. Geneva.
and UNICEF. 1995. "Modeling maternal mortality in the developing world". Geneva.
FAO, ILO, U.N., and World Bank data; demographic and health surveys from national sources.
Environmentally
sustainable
development
International Energy Agency. 1995. /EA Statistics: Energy statistics and balances. Paris: OECD.
Economic
performance
International Monetary Fund. Various years. Government Finance Statistics Yearbook. Vol. 11. Washington, D.C.
. Various years. International Financial Statistics. Washington, D.C.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Various years. Development Co-operation. Paris.
. 1988. Geographical Distribution of Financial Flows to Developing Countries. Paris.
U.N. Conference on Trade and Development. Various years. Handbook of International Trade and Development Statistics.
U.N. Department of Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis (formerly U.N. Department of International
Economic and Social Affairs). Various years. World Energy Supplies. Statistical Papers, series J. New York.
. Various years. Energy Statistics Yearbook. Statistical Papers, series J. New York.
. 1994. World Urbanization Prospects, 1994 Revision. New York.
World Resources Institute. 1994. World Resources 1994-95. New York.
. 1996. World Resources 1996-97. New York.
Geneva.
U.N. Department of Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis (formerly U.N. Department of International Economics and Social Affairs). Various years. Monthly Bulletin of Statistics. New York.
Various years. Yearbook of International Trade Statistics. New York.
FAO, IMF, OECD, UNIDO, and World Bank data; World Bank Debtor Reporting System; national sources.
237
East and
Income
group
Subgroup
Southern
Africa
Burundi
Comoros
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Kenya
Lesotho
Madagascar
Malawi
Mozambique
Rwanda
Somalia
Sudan
Tanzania
Uganda
Zaire
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Lowincome
West Africa
Benin
Burkina Faso
Cameroon
Central African
Republic
Chad
Congo
Cote d'Ivoire
Equatorial
Guinea
Gambia, The
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Liberia
Mali
Mauritania
Niger
Nigeria
Sao Tome
and
Principe
East Asia
and Pacific
Cambodia
China
Lao PDR
Mongolia
Myanmar
Vietnam
South Asia
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
Eastern
Europe and
Central Asia
Albania
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Georgia
Middle
East
North
Africa
Yemen, Rep.
Egypt, Arab
Rep.
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras
Nicaragua
Iran, Islamic
Algeria
Morocco
Belize
Bolivia
Tunisia
Colombia
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican
Republic
Ecuador
El Salvador
Grenada
Guatemala
Jamaica
Panama
Americas
Kyrgyz
Republic
Tankistan
Republic
Senegal
Sierra Leone
Togo
Angola
Botswana
Cape Verde
Djibouti
Namibia
Swaziland
Fiji
Indonesia
Kiribati
Korea, Dem.
Rep.
Marshall
Islands
Micronesia,
Fed. Sts.
Maldives
Islands
Turkmenistan
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Seychelles
South Africa
and the
Grenadines
Suriname
Venezuela
Yugoslavia,
Fed. Rep.
Samoa
Gabon
Paraguay
Peru
St. Vincent
Slovak
Republic
Thailand
Tonga
Vanuatu
Western
Mauritius
Mayotte
Reunion
Jordan
Lebanon
Syrian Arab
Republic
West Bank
and Gaza
FYIV-
Islands
income
Rep.
Iraq
Moldova
Poland
Romania
Russian
Federation
Papua New
Guinea
Philippines
Solomon
Middle-
Turkey
Croatia
Estonia
Kazakstan
Latvia
Lithuania
Macedonia,
N. Mariana
Lower
Belarus
Bulgaria
American
Samoa
Guam
Korea, Rep.
Malaysia
New
Caledonia
Czech
Republic
Hungary
Greece
Isle of Man
Malta
Bahrain
Antigua and
Barbuda
Argentina
Libya
Oman
Saudi Arabia
Barbados
Brazil
Chile
French
Slovenia
Guiana
Guadeloupe
Martinique
Mexico
Puerto Rico
St. Kitts and
Nevis
St. Lucia
Trinidad and
Tobago
Uruguay
Upper
Subtotal:
238
165
27
23
25
27
10
36
Table 1 (continued)
Europe and Central Asia
Sub-Saharan Aftica
Asia
East and
Income
group
Subgroup
Southern
Africa
West Africa
Eastern
Europe and
Central Asia
Middle
East
North
Africa
Canada
United States
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Australia
Japan
New Zealand
Americas
Icdand
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Norway
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
OECD
countries
Highincome
United
Kingdom
Andorra
Channel
Brunei
French
Polynesia
Macao
Singapore
OAEb
countries
Total:
210
Kuwait
Islands
Qatar
Cyprus
United Arab
Faeroe Islands Emirates
Greenland
Liechtenstein
Monaco
Hong Kong
Non-OECD
27
23
34
Aruba
Bahamas, The
Bermuda
Cayman
Islands
Netherlands
Antilles
Virgin Islands
(U.S.)
Israel
27
28
14
44
Low-income and middle-income economies are sometimes referred to as developing economies. The use of the
Definitions of groups
239
Low-income
Severely
Group
indebted
Moderately
indebted
India
Pakistan
Less
indebted
Armenia
China
Severely
indebted
Bulgaria
Moderately
indebted
Russian
Federation
Georgia
Kyrgyz
Republic
Exporters of
manufactures
Less
indebted
Not classified
by indebtedness
High-income
OECD
Canada
Finland
Germany
Ireland
Italy
Japan
Belarus
Czech Republic
Estonia
Korea, Dem.
Rep.
Korea, Rep.
Latvia
Lebanon
Non-OECD
Hong Kong
Israel
Macao
Singapore
OAP
Sweden
Switzerland
Lithuania
Malaysia
Moldova
Romania
Thailand
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Burundi
Cote d'Ivoire
Equatorial
Guinea
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Guyana
Honduras
Exporters
of nonfi4el
prima),
products
Albania
Mongolia
Bolivia
Chad
Cuba
Malawi
Zimbabwe
Peru
Chile
Botswana
Namibia
Solomon
Islands
Suriname
Swaziland
Islands
Venezuela
Bahrain
Iran, Islamic
Republic
Libya
American
Iceland
Samoa
New Zealand
French Guiana
Guadeloupe
Reunion
Faeroe Islands
Greenland
Liberia
Madagascar
Mali
Mauritania
Myanmar
Nicaragua
Niger
Rwanda
Sao Tome and
Principe
Somalia
Sudan
Tanzania
Togo
Uganda
Vietnam
Zaire
Zambia
Algeria
Angola
Congo
Nigeria
Gabon
Iraq
Exporters
offliels
(mainly oil)
Brunei
Qatar
United Arab
Emirates
Oman
Saudi Arabia
Trinidad and
Tobago
Turkmenistan
Cambodia
Ethiopia
Mozambique
Yemen, Rep.
Benin
Comoros
Egypt, Arab
Rep.
Gambia, The
Haiti
Nepal
Exporters
of services
Bhutan
Burkina Faso
Lesotho
Jamaica
Jordan
Panama
Cape Verde
Dominican
Republic
Greece
Morocco
Western Samoa
Antigua and
Barbuda
Barbados
Belize
Djibouti
El Salvador
Fiji
Grenada
Kiribati
Maldives
Paraguay
Seychelles
240
Martinique
United
Kingdom
Aruba
Bahamas, The
Bermuda
Cayman
Islands
Cyprus
French
Polynesia
Kuwait
Monaco
Table 2 (continued)
Low- and middle-income
Middle-income
Low-income
Severely
Group
Diversified
indebted
Moderately
indebted
Bangladesh
Lao PDR
Afghanistan
Cameroon
Central African Senegal
Republic
Kenya
Sierra Leone
Less
indebted
Azerbaijan
Sri Lanka
Tajikistan
exporters"
Severely
indebted
Argentina
Brazil
Ecuador
Mexico
Poland
Syrian Arab
Republic
Moderately
indebted
Colombia
Hungary
Indonesia
Papua New
Guinea
Philippines
Tunisia
Turkey
Uruguay
Less
indebted
Costa Rica
Dominica
Guatemala
Not classified
by indebtedness
High-income
OECD
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Kazakstan
Denmark
Malta
Mauritius
South Africa
St. Vincent
and the
Grenadines
France
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Norway
Portugal
Spain
United States
Yugoslavia,
Fed. Rep.
Croatia
Macedonia,
Bosnia and
Herzegovina
FYR.c
Eritrea
New Caledonia Guam
Slovak
Isle of Man
Republic
Marshall
Slovenia
Islands
Mayotte
Micronesia,
Fed. Sts.
N. Mariana
Islands
Puerto Rico
West Bank and
Gaza
Not classified
by export
category
Non-OECD
Netherlands
Antilles
Andorra
Channel
Islands
Liechtenstein
Virgin Islands
(U.S.)
Number of
economies: 210
36
15
11
17
16
55
15
22
23
Definitions of groups
These tables classify all World Bank member economies
plus all other economies with populations of more than
30,000.
the two key ratios exceeds 60 percent of, but does not
sified as diversified.
241
World Development
Report 1996:
From Plan to Market
Development Report 1996: From Plan to Market steps back from the extraWorld
ordinary array of recent events and policy changes in 28 former centrally planned
economiesthose in Central and Eastern Europe and the newly independent states of the
former Soviet Union, along with China, Mongolia and Vietnamto ask what we have
learned about the key elements of any successful transition and how they should be
pursued.
Available June 28, 1996. Published for the World Bank by Oxford University Press.
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ISBN 0-19-521107-3
Cover Illustration by Glenn Pierce/The Magazine Group