Article

Exploring the differences

among Chinese casino
gamblers characteristics,
motivations, and behaviors

Journal of Vacation Marketing

2015, Vol. 21(1) 2336
The Author(s) 2014
Reprints and permission:
sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/1356766714542188
jvm.sagepub.com

Sow Hup Joanne Chan

University of Macau, Peoples Republic of China

Yim King Penny Wan and Ip Kin Anthony Wong

Institute for Tourism Studies, Peoples Republic of China

Abstract
Few studies of gambling report subgroup differences within a culture. This study investigates whether
there are subgroup differences among gamblers regarding their characteristics and their gambling behaviors and motivations. Face-to-face survey data were collected from two major groups of gamblers in
Macau, namely mainland Chinese and Hong Kong Chinese. Findings from 371 respondents indicate significant differences between places of origin with regard to age, gender, monthly income, occupation,
whether it was their first trip, the primary purpose of the trip, length of intended stay, and how long
they usually stay in one casino. There are also behavioral differences, such as the size of the bets for
each game, and the motivation for gambling. Marketing implications to meet the needs of the subgroups
of Chinese customers were also drawn.
Keywords
Behaviors, characteristics, Chinese, gamblers, motivations, preferences

Introduction
In the Asia Pacific Rim, Macau, Singapore, Korea,
and Vietnam have seen tremendous growth in
the casino gambling industry. The expanded
gambling industry alone contributed 72.64%
of total tax revenue for Macau in 2009 (Financial Services Bureau, 2010). This industry
accounted for 23% of Macaus total employment
(Statistics and Census Service (DSEC), 2013).
As the only city in China that allows commercial gambling, Macaus gambling proceeds
reached US$38 billion in 2012, exceeding the
US$35.64 billion collected by the whole commercial casino industry in the United States in
2011 (Stutz, 2013). With gross domestic product
per capita reaching more than US$36,357,
Macaus growth was primarily fueled by the liberalization of casino licenses in 2002 (Chan and
Kuok, 2011). Since the liberalization of casino

regulations and the relaxation of the Chinese visa

requirement to enter Macau, the number of tourists leapt from 11 to 28 million within a decade
(DSEC, 2012). Within the same period, the number of casinos expanded threefold, from 11 to 34,
while the number of tables increased from 424 to
5242, and the quantity of slot machines soared
from 808 to 16,102 (Gaming Inspection and
Coordination Bureau (DICJ), 2012). The casino
gross gambling revenue in Macau was projected
to increase at a compound annual growth rate of
24.7% until 2014, peaking at US$45.1 billion
(Macau Business, 2010).

Corresponding author:
Sow Hup Joanne Chan, Faculty of Business Administration,
University of Macau, Av. Tomas Pereira S.J. Taipa, Macau,
Peoples Republic of China.
Email: joannec@umac.mo

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Journal of Vacation Marketing 21(1)

The development of the gambling industry
as a dominant force in the region raises some
interesting issues. Chinese nationals are the
major group of tourists in Macau, representing
nearly 90% of the entire number of tourists
(DSEC, 2012). Specifically, from a grand total
of 28,082,292 visitors in 2012, 16,902,499 visitors were from mainland China (60.2%) and
7,081,153 visitors were from Hong Kong
(25.2%). The third largest group, of 1,072,052
visitors, was from Taiwan (3.8%) (DSEC,
2012). Together, these visitors are considered
major customers of the local casinos, although
statistics regarding the gamblers profile are
lacking (Wan, 2011). Although Chinese gamblers are important to many casinos, there are
few studies about market profiling to support and
steer casino marketing activities (Wan, 2011;
Wong et al., 2012; Zeng et al., 2012). The existing literature on Chinese gamblers has focused
mainly on their general profile, motivation, and
game preference (Lam, 2005; Wan, 2011). Apart
from Liu and Wan (2011) who reported that
mainland Chinese customers, compared with
those from Hong Kong and Macau, are less willing to try new slot games unless the game rules
are clearly explained, and are motivated to win
big money by playing table games, little else is
known about the Chinese gamblers. We also
recognize that ethnic gamblers within the same
culture may differ in their gambling motivations,
behaviors, and preferences (Lam, 2005; Liu and
Wan, 2011; Wong et al., 2012).
Few studies have reported intracultural differences within a culture (Wan et al., 2013). Of
those studies that exist, Liu and Wans (2011)
study is limited to slot playing, while Zeng
et al. (2012) focused on the visitors and not
exclusively on the gamblers. Although Wan
et al. (2013) reported differences in the three subcultures gambling behavior, their study was
based on casino workers perceptions and was
limited to examining their table games behavior,
but not their gambling and traveling motivations
and spending pattern.
Given the importance of understanding intracultural differences within a culture, and the
scarce literature on intracultural gaming variances of Chinese gamblers (Wan et al., 2013),
face-to-face survey interviews with gamblers in
Macau were conducted to fill the gap, to understand the characteristics of Chinese gamblers as
well as the subgroup differences among this market segment. The findings can help casino and
destination marketers to understand the possible

differences among various Chinese subgroups

in terms of who they are, their motivations for
gambling, what games they play, how much they
were prepared to outlay on average per bet, and
the consumption/spending level of their gambling activities and their trip behavior. Casino
operators would be more capable of marketing
their products and services to different target segments for customer acquisition and retention.
Destination marketers would also better know
how to target their markets to encourage more
spending and repeat visitation. This study therefore had two objectives. The first objective was
to identify the general characteristics of the Chinese casino gamblers. The second objective was
to determine whether there are any differences
between the two subgroups of Chinese gamblers
(from mainland China and Hong Kong) regarding their characteristics, gambling behaviors,
gambling motivations, and gambling patterns.

Literature review
Market segmentation
Companies should define the subcategories of
customers in order to understand each subcategories needs and to develop merchandise that
is tailor made to respond to those needs (Cohen,
2005). Target marketing can help companies to
concentrate their marketing efforts on the key
segments (Cohen, 2005; Kurtz, 2010). Understanding who the casinos current customers
arewhich sectors of the database (in terms of
visitation and gambling patterns and cultural
background) impact the casinos incomewould
help the marketers to allocate resources to retain
and attract profitable sectors (Klebanow, 2001;
Lee et al., 2006; Wan et al., 2013). Target marketing also assists companies to develop their
relationship marketing.
Relationship building is particularly important
for casinos that target the high-end customers
(Prentice and King, 2011), which account for a
great portion of the casinos earnings and profits
(Lucas et al., 2002). As such, casinos should find
ways to understand each subgroup of customers
according to their preferences, activities, tastes,
and complaints, in order to satisfy them. Successful relationship building also requires a
good understanding of the customers culturethe collective programming of the mind
which distinguishes the members of one human
group from another (Hofstede, 1984: 21)and
intracultural differences, because cultures are

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Chan et al.

25

key determinants of behavior (Huang et al.,

1996; Pizam and Sussmann, 1995).

Culture and cross-cultural studies

According to Hofstedes findings, Asians value
cooperation and shared responsibility, conformity to the group, role compliance, and social
harmony (Hofstede, 1991). The Asian populations also scored higher in uncertainty avoidance
than populations in Western countries (Hofstede,
1991). These findings were confirmed in several
hospitality and tourism studies (Huang et al.,
1996; Mattila, 2000; Mok and DeFranco, 1999;
Pizam and Sussmann, 1995).
In the casino literature, the variations in behaviors and preferences between patrons in Asia and
those in Western countries were highlighted by
Kale and Spence (2009). Specifically, Kale and
Spence (2009) note that Asian customers prefer
table games over slots due to the belief that there
is more chance to win big money from table
games. The study alerts casino marketers that different marketing efforts are needed to promote
products and services to different markets, and
Western countries desirous of operating in Asia
will have to dramatically alter their managerial
mindset (Kale and Spence, 2009: 323).

Intracultural studies
Researchers are increasingly interested in the
manifestation of intracultural variations within
a major cultural group (Kwek and Lee, 2007; Lee
and Sparks, 2007; Liu and Wan, 2011; Wan
et al., 2013). The available studies suggest that
dissimilarities among members of a group are
often overlooked through oversimplifying and
overgeneralizing the culture of the dominant
group. According to Au (1997: 744), the notion
of intracultural variance represents the population distribution of a characteristic within a culture . . . it describes how observations vary
among a particular population.
Intracultural differences among subgroups of
a national culture have been reported by several
researchers. For example, Kim and Prideaux
(2005) found that although motivational factors
for visits to Korea were similar between mainland Chinese and Hong Kong residents, the preferred tourist resources and planning before
traveling were different between the two national
groups. In Lee and Sparks (2007) investigation
of differences in the tourism behavior of Koreans
in Australia (those who had migrated to Australia

and those who were visiting), they found differences in the behaviors and travel-specific lifestyle of the two groups. Specifically, Koreans
who had settled in Australia tend to take longer
vacations, avoid traveling in a group, and make
travel preparations without the help of a tour
guide. These behaviors were attributed to their
adaptation of and acculturation to the travel
behavior of Australians, and the unique sociocultural environment of Australia, where longer
domestic holidays and frequent school holidays
are more common than in Korea.
McCartney (2008) also observed differences
in the travel information preferences of tourists
visiting from Beijing, Hong Kong, Shanghai, and
Taiwan to Macau. He found that tourists from
Shanghai and Taiwan relied a lot more on media
to obtain information about Macau than did their
counterparts in Beijing. The tourists from Beijing
were more affected by Internet/direct-mail
advertising and advertising, while tourists from
Shanghai relied more on material from friends
and family, movies, and books (McCartney,
2008). On the other hand, tourists from Hong
Kong valued outdoor advertising, print media,
and acquaintances from Macau, as being more
important than did the tourists from Shanghai,
Taiwan, or Beijing. Taken together, these studies
suggest that there may be differences among subgroups of Chinese in terms of traveling and gambling behaviors, preferences and motivations,
although there are many commonalities within
the Chinese subcultures (Fan, 2000; Wan et al.,
2013), such as the Confucian philosophy that
stresses family order, respect, and relationship
harmony (Fan, 2000; Wan et al., 2013). Other
Chinese cultural values include the fear of losing
face in front of others, willingness to accept
unequal power distribution in society, high integration into groups, and the tendency to avoid
uncertainty more than other cultural groups do
(Fan, 2000; Hofstede, 1980; Mok and DeFranco,
1999). The Chinese gambling culture is elaborated in the subsequent section.

Chinese gambling culture

Social gambling allows the Chinese gamblers to
interact with others in a social setting (Lam,
2005; Wan et al., 2013). Social gambling (such
as mahjong) is prevalent among the Chinese
communities and is a favorite pastime (Loo
et al., 2008). Card games in casinos are also considered by the Chinese as a way to meet people
(Aasved, 2002; Lam and Ozorio, 2008). In fact,

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Journal of Vacation Marketing 21(1)

people derive gambling pleasure not just from
the excitement of gambling but also from their
interactions with the dealers and with other gamblers (Lam, 2005: 65). Moreover, Lam and
Ozorio (2008: 3) note that while engaging in these
gambling activities, Chinese deepen their friendship with each other and realize the real characters of those who gamble. For some Chinese,
gambling provides a form of business networking or guanxi opportunities. The desire for
socialization in gambling reflects the collective
nature of the Chinese society, in which group
bonding is stressed over individualistic behavior
(Yu, 1996).
Unlike gamblers in the Western countries
(such as Canada and the United States) whose
main motivation for gambling is having fun
(Park et al., 2002; Tarras et al., 2000), many Chinese gamble for financial reasons and hence to
win (Lam, 2005; Liu and Wan, 2011; Wan,
2011). Many Chinese gamblers take extraordinary risks while betting and prefer to play baccarat (Lam, 2005; Liu and Wan, 2011; Wan
et al., 2013). They believe that their skills and
luck can facilitate their chances of winning (Lam
and Ozorio, 2008). Using the cultural perspective
to explain this phenomenon, according to Lam
(2005: 66):
Americans were taught to adopt critical thinking
and challenge the validity of ideas and statements.
Chinese subjects, influenced by Confucian philosophy for centuries, were taught to accept facts and
adhere to ideals. Relating all these findings to Chinese gambling, these unique characteristics of the
Chinese were likely to aggravate Chineses illusion
of control in situations of gambling. A persons perceived control over an event is positively associated
to his or her appetite for risk. Higher perceived (or
illusion of) control would increase risk appetite and,
hence, fuel more gambling among Chinese.

Subcultural differences among Chinese

gamblers
Social, cultural, and economic factors have influence on the attitudes and behaviors of the various
subgroups among the Chinese (Wan et al., 2013).
Variations in the gambling behavior and motivation among different Chinese subcultural groups,
for example, revealed that mainland Chinese
customers are less willing to try new slot games
(Liu and Wan, 2011) and are motivated to win
big money from playing table games, compared
to customers from Macau and Hong Kong (Lam

and Ozorio, 2008; Liu and Wan, 2011; Wan,

2011).Compared with customers from mainland
China and Macau, Hong Kong customers
reported that obstacles in gaining assistance in
the slot areas represent a key reason for not playing slots (Liu and Wan, 2011). The Hong Kong
customers also had a conspicuous predisposition
to discontinue playing when they experienced
poor service (Liu and Wan, 2011), suggesting the
importance of offering more personal and attentive service to them.
In examining the differences in the gambling
behaviors between Hong Kong, mainland Chinese,
and Taiwanese customers who visit Macau casinos, through quantitative surveys with casino dealers and supervisors, Wan et al. (2013) found that
Hong Kong customers showed the highest tendency of lodging complaints and a higher tendency
not to follow a dealers guidance, compared with
their counterparts. Mainland Chinese customers
like to gather together in groups to observe others
playing, play a game together, and enjoy smoking
cigarettes and are less likely to challenge themselves with new games (Wan et al., 2013). On the
other hand, the Taiwanese customers are generous
tippers when purchasing their own drinks, and
their gambling behaviors lie between mainland
Chinese customers and Hong Kong customers
for many measured items in that study. Wan
et al.s (2013) study concludes that uncertainty
avoidance, group harmony, and face-saving are
more important to mainland Chinese gamblers
than to Hong Kong and Macau gamblers.

Research gap and research question

The literature reviewed shows that ethnic gamblers within the same culture differ in their gambling motivations, behaviors, and preferences.
Given the scarce literature on intracultural gambling variances (Wan et al., 2013) and the lack of
a comprehensive understanding of the differences among various Chinese subgroups in terms
of who they are, their motivations for gambling,
what games they play, how much they are prepared to spend on average per bet, and the consumption/spending level of their gambling
activities, this study seeks to identify these parameters which are essential to tourism marketers
and casino operators in deciding their marketing
efforts and activities. Thus, the research questions (RQs) in this study were stated as follows:
RQ1: What are the characteristics of the
Chinese tourist gamblers in Macau?

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Chan et al.

27

RQ2: Are there any differences in the characteristics, travel patterns, gambling
behaviors and patterns, and motivations
between the two major subgroups of
Chinese gamblers (Hong Kong versus
mainland China)?

apply here. Rather, these adopted scales demonstrate construct validity. The last part of the form
gathered demographic details of the respondents,
such as age, gender, marital status, highest level
of education, place of residence, and occupation.

The pilot study

Methodology
The questionnaire
The English version of the questionnaire was
translated to Chinese (Putonghua) to gather information regarding the gamblers characteristics
and their gambling motivations, behaviors, and
preferences. The questions used were generated
based on the literature reviewed and related to
gamblers profiles, preferences, behaviors, and
gambling motivations, as reported later in this
section. The questionnaire consisted of four parts.
Part one was devised to grasp the respondents
travel patterns and behaviors on their trip. Questions in this section included the major and secondary reasons of their trip, the duration of
their trip, and the budget assigned for gambling,
transportation, food, and lodging. The scale
items were adapted from studies conducted by
Morrison et al. (1996), Shoemaker and Zemke
(2005), and Tan et al. (2010). Part two asked for
respondents gambling involvement and behaviors. Sample questions included how much they
bet, the frequency of visits to casinos in the past
12 months, the duration of time they spent in the
casino, and the kinds of games they played.
These scale items were used in previous studies
conducted by Shoemaker and Zemke (2005) and
Tarras et al. (2000). Since the adopted items were
validated by prior research, we believe that they
provide a valid measure of the constructs of
interest.
Part three evaluated the gambling motives of
the respondents. Scale items used in this section
were adopted by Lee et al. (2006). Specifically,
there were two items on winning, eight items
on challenge, nine items on socialization/learning, and four items on gambling as a means of
escape. Sample items for each of the motivation
factors include To experience achievement,
To take risks, To increase friendship, and
To escape from routine life. Again, since these
items were developed by Lee et al. (2006), scale
validity is ensured. It is worthy to note that the
scales mentioned above are primarily categorical
in nature; hence, the traditional convergent and
discriminant validity and scale reliability do not

A pilot survey among eight Chinese casino players was conducted to check the clarity and relevance of the queries on the questionnaire. The
respondents were selected based on convenience
sampling outside the casino hotels. Some questions were reworded to improve clarity based
on the respondents comments.

The respondents and survey

The respondents were Chinese visitors who
planned to gamble, or had gambled, during their
present visit to Macau. Purposive convenience
sampling was used because we wanted to target
only Chinese respondents.
Face-to-face interviews with the respondents
were accomplished to obtain the traits of visitors
on weekdays and weekends. Twenty university
students fluent in both Mandarin and Cantonese
were engaged to carry out the interviews. The
researchers were given training, demonstration,
and on-site supervision. The researchers were
located near 10 flagship casinos, representing
both Asian and Western styles of management,
to invite target patrons of the casinos to take part
in the research. The casino patrons were identified using convenience sampling. The interviews
were conducted on the footpaths outside or near
the casinos. The questions were read to the
respondents and the researchers filled in the
questionnaire according to the answers provided
by the respondents. Generally, the respondents
took 15 min to answer the questions on the
inquiry form. No incentives were offered to the
respondents.
Overall 2634 Chinese casino patrons were
requested to take part in the research. Three
screening questions were posed to establish their
suitability for participation before the interview
started. Of these patrons, 423 met the screening
criteria (they were visitors, of Chinese origin,
and were in a casino or were planning to go to
a casino during the trip) and agreed to participate
in the study. Of the 423 questionnaires, 52 were
discarded due to too many missing values, or
they were filled out by Chinese respondents
from other countries of origin, hence they were

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Journal of Vacation Marketing 21(1)

Table 1. Sociodemographic variables by subgroup (n 371).

Demographic
Gender (n 368)
Male
Female
Age (years; n 368)
1837
3847
Above 48
Education level (n 357)
Up to high school
Vocational/technical
University/postgraduation
Marital status (n 361)
Single
Married
Monthly income (HKD$) (n 327)
Less than 10,000
10,00120,000
Above 20,000
Occupation (n 338)
Technical/admin/sales
Professional/manager
Others
First trip to Macau (n 369)
Yes
No

Hong Kong

Mainland China

Total

n (%)

n (%)

n (%)

123 (73.2)
45 (26.8)

126 (63.0)
74 (37.0)

249(67.7)
119 (32.3)

86 (51.2)
46 (27.4)
36 (21.4)

133 (66.5)
35 (17.5)
32 (16.0)

219 (59.5)
81 (22.0)
68 (18.5)

56 (35.2)
35 (22.0)
68 (42.8)

81 (40.9)
53 (26.8)
64 (32.3)

137 (38.4)
88 (24.6)
132 (37.0)

48 (29.6)
114 (70.4)

71 (35.7)
128 (64.3)

119 (33.0)
242 (67.0)

42 (28.4)
93 (62.8)
13 (8.8)

119 (66.5)
41 (22.9)
19 (10.6)

161 (49.2)
134 (41.0)
32 (9.8)

57 (37.0)
53 (34.4)
44 (28.6)

72 (39.1)
36 (19.6)
76 (41.3)

129 (38.2)
89 (26.3)
120 (35.5)

2 (1.2)
166 (98.8)

47 (23.4)
154 (76.6)

49 (13.3)
320 (86.7)

w2
0.034*

0.011*

0.125

0.224

0.000***

0.004**

0.000***

Note: US$1 HKD$8.

*p < 0.05; **p < 0.005, ***p < 0.001.

excluded from the analysis. Therefore, 371 valid

questionnaires were used for the data analysis.
The valid response level was 14%.

Data analyses
The data for this research were examined using
the Statistical Program for Social Sciences
(v 17.0). Descriptive analyses such as frequencies and cross tabulation were employed. w2
Analysis and a series of logistic regressions were
used to determine whether there were variations
between the subgroups.

Results

More than two-thirds of the respondents were

male (67.7%). A majority of the participants
were married (67.0%), and approximately 61%
of the married participants had children. Half the
participants had a monthly salary of less than
HKD$10,000 (or less than US$1250; 49.2%).
The most frequently cited jobs held by the participants fell into the professional/manager category (26.3%). Most participants had taken a
trip to Macau previously (86.7%). The respondents primary purpose of the current trip was
gambling (35.1%), followed by visiting heritage/culture (22.3%) and shopping (21.8%).

Characteristics of the participants

Comparison of gamblers sociodemographic

patterns

The participants were mainly Chinese visitors

from mainland China (53.9%) and Hong Kong
(45.3%). In general, these samples accurately
portrayed the two major sources of tourists to
Macau. The participants from Hong Kong were
slightly higher in number perhaps because they
were more agreeable to take part in this study.

In order to determine whether there was any difference between the two subgroups of Chinese
gamblers (i.e. Hong Kong and mainland Chinese),
w2 tests were done. Table 1 shows significant
variations between the subgroups in terms of
age, w2(2, N 368) 9.10, p 0.011; gender,
w2(1, N 368) 4.35, p 0.034; monthly

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29

Table 2. Logistic regressiontravel pattern, gambling experience, and motivation by subgroup.

First trip to Macau

Yes
Noa
Trip primary purpose
Gambling
Shopping
Visiting cultural heritage
Business
Visiting relatives/friends
Food/othersb
Length of intended stay (days)
12
3
>3b
Traveling as part of a package tour
Yes
Nob
Traveling with companion
Alone
Family/relatives
Friends/colleagues/othersb
Gambling frequency
About 6 times a year
About once a month
More than once a monthb
Duration of casino visit (h)
02.0
2.014.0
4.016.0
>6b
Length of gambling in a casino (h)
02.0
2.014.0
>4b
Number of casinos visited in this trip
12 casinos
3 casinos
>3 casinosb
Games most often played
Blackjack
Baccarat
Othersb
Amount for each bet (HKD$)
Less than 100
100less than 300
300 and aboveb
Gambling motivation
Winning
Challenge/social/escapeb

Hong Konga

Likelihood ratio

0.04***

240.33***
60.35*

0.49
0.34y
0.45
1.50
0.47

33.43**
2.94***
2.70**

0.45y

179.60y

21.10
1.47
1.16

20.16
0.84
0.62

30.17***
4.76***
5.05***
7.27***

21.18y

1.53
2.02*

21.46
1.06
1.12

24.96
1.44
0.92

31.44**
0.41*
1.28

20.57**
1.95**

Note: Results are based on (1) binary logistic regression if there are only two categories for the dependent variable or (2) multinominal
logistic regression if there are more than two categories for the dependent variable. Parameter estimates are in odds ratio (eb).
a
The reference group is mainland China.
b
Reference category for the dependent variable.
y
p < 0.1; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

income, w2(2, N 327) 55.69, p < 0.001; occupation, w2(2, N 338) 10.95, p 0.004; and
whether it was their first trip to Macau to gamble,

w2(1, N 369) 39.1, p < 0.001. Specifically,

mainland Chinese gamblers (66.5%) were more
likely to be between 18 and 37 years old,

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Journal of Vacation Marketing 21(1)

Table 3. Travel pattern by subgroup.

Item
Primary trip purpose (n 367)
Gambling
Shopping
Visiting heritage/culture
Business
Visiting relatives/friends
Food/others
Length of intended stay (days; n 371)
12
3
>3
Traveling as part of a package tour (n 369)
Yes
No
Traveling with companion (n 361)
Alone
Family/relatives
Friends/colleagues/others

Hong Kong

Mainland China

Total

n (%)

n (%)

n (%)

w2
0.013*

58 (34.5)
29 (17.3)
35 (20.8)
25 (14.9)
11 (6.5)
10 (6.0)

71
51
47
10
14
6

(35.7)
(25.6)
(23.6)
(5.0)
(7.0)
(3.0)

129
80
82
35
25
16

(35.1)
(21.8)
(22.3)
(9.5)
(6.8)
(4.4)
0.002***

106 (63.1)
46 (27.4)
16 (9.5)

106 (52.2)
50 (24.6)
47 (23.2)

212 (57.1)
96 (25.9)
63 (17.0)

7 (4.2)
159 (95.8)

18 (8.9)
185 (91.1)

25 (6.8)
344 (93.2)

33 (20.6)
58 (36.3)
69 (43.1)

32 (15.9)
71 (35.3)
98 (48.8)

65 (18.0)
129 (35.7)
167 (46.3)

0.077y

0.422

p < 0.10; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.005; *** p < 0.001.

compared with those from Hong Kong (51.2%);

that is, the mainland Chinese sample tended to
be a little younger.
There were significantly more male gamblers
from Hong Kong (73%). The mainland Chinese
gamblers were more likely to have a monthly salary of below HKD$10,000 (66.5%) compared
with gamblers from Hong Kong (28.4%). In general, mainland Chinese gamblers tended to have
a somewhat lower income, which reflects the difference in economic development between mainland China and Hong Kong. The Hong Kong
gamblers in this study were more likely to earn
HKD$10,00120,000 (62.8%). There were significantly fewer mainland Chinese (19.6%) in
professional or managerial positions compared
with those from Hong Kong (34.4%). There were
also significantly more Hong Kong gamblers
who were repeat visitors to Macau (98.8%), as
compared to 76.6% from mainland China. There
were no significant variations between the two
subgroups in marital status or level of education.
To test whether the two subgroups of Chinese
gamblersthose from Hong Kong versus those
from mainland Chinacan predict tourist travel
and gambling motivations and behaviors, we performed a series of logistic regressions. A binary
logistic regression was performed if the dependent variable only had two categories, while a
multinominal logistic regression was carried out
if the dependent variable had more than two categories. The parameter estimates are presented in

odds ratio (eb), which represents the likelihood of

occurrence of a specific category of value
relative to the value of a reference category
(see Table 2). In addition, we complemented
the regression analyses with w2 tests to provide more insights into the study.

Comparisons of gamblers travel patterns

The results in Table 2 indicate that mainland
tourists, as a reference group, were about
25 times more likely than Hong Kong tourists to
visit Macau the first time (eb 0.04, p < 0.001).
Mainlanders were about 3.4 times as likely
as Hong Kong respondents to engage in shopping compared to dining and other activities
(eb 0.34, p < 0.10). In addition, Table 3
shows that the primary purpose for the trip
to Macau for gamblers from mainland China
was more likely to involve gambling (35.7%),
followed by shopping (25.6%); while the primary purpose for the trip for gamblers from
Hong Kong was more likely to be gambling
(34.5%), followed by visiting heritage/culture
(20.8%) and shopping (17.3%). Only a few gamblers from mainland China visited Macau for its
food or for business.
Mainlanders were about twice as likely as Hong
Kong tourists to join package tours (eb 0.45,
p < 0.10). Hong Kong tourists were about three
times more likely than mainlanders to stay in
Macau for 12 days (eb 2.94, p < 0.001) or

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31

Table 4. Gambling experience by subgroup.

Hong Kong

Mainland China

Total

n (%)

n (%)

n (%)

60 (40.8)
55 (37.4)
32 (21.8)

49 (37.1)
61 (46.2)
22 (16.7)

109 (39.0)
116 (41.6)
54 (19.4)

62 (36.9)
58 (34.5)
39 (23.2)
9 (5.4)

68
60
28
47

(33.5)
(29.6)
(13.8)
(23.2)

130 (35.0)
118 (31.8)
67 (18.1)
56 (15.1)

83 (49.4)
59 (35.1)
26 (15.5)

100 (49.5)
54 (26.7)
48 (23.8)

183 (49.5)
113 (30.5)
74 (20.0)

47 (28.0)
46 (27.4)
75 (44.6)

56 (27.6)
52 (25.6)
95 (46.8)

103 (27.8)
98 (26.4)
170 (45.8)

64 (38.1)
51 (30.4)
53 (31.5)

58 (29.1)
72 (36.2)
69 (34.7)

122 (33.25)
123 (33.5)
122 (33.25)

12 (7.1)
93 (55.4)
63 (37.5)

36 (17.8)
89 (44.1)
77 (38.1)

48 (13.0)
182 (49.2)
140 (37.8)

Item
Gambling frequency (n 279)
About 6 times a year
About once a month
More than once a month
Duration of casino visit (h; n 371)
02.0
2.014.0
4.016.0
>6
Duration of gambling in a casino (h; n 370)
02.0
2.014.0
>4
Number of casinos visited (n 371)
12
3
>3
Games most often played (n 367)
Blackjack
Baccarat
Othersa
Amount for each bet (HKD$) (n 370)
Less than 100
100less than300
300 and above

w2
0.290

0.000***

0.072y

0.902

0.184

0.005*

Poker, roulette, slot machines, video poker, bingo, craps, and dice.
p < 0.10; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.005; ***p < 0.001.

3 days (eb 2.70, p < 0.01); yet, as Table 3

reveals, there were significantly more gamblers
from mainland China who intended to stay
for more than 3 days. However, no significant difference in travel companionship was observed
between the two subgroups.

Comparisons of gamblers motivations and

behaviors
With respect to gambling frequency and duration
between the two segments, results in Table 2
show that Hong Kong tourists were significantly more likely than their mainland counterparts to stay in a casino for 2 h or less (eb 4.76,
p < 0.001), more than 2 h but less than 4 h (eb
5.05, p < 0.001), and more than 4 h but less than
6 h (eb 7.27, p < 0.001). On the other hand, for
longer casino sessions, Table 4 shows a substantial
difference between the two groups; as 23.2% of
mainland tourists spent more than 6 h in a casino
compared with only 5.4% of their Hong Kong
counterparts. Hong Kong tourists were about twice
as likely as mainlanders (eb 2.02, p < 0.05) to

gamble in a casino for more than 2 h but less

than 4 h (35.1% vs. 26.7%). Table 4 indicates that
more Hong Kong tourists gamble in a casino
for more than 2 h but less than 4 h than mainlanders (35.1% vs. 26.7%). Table 4 also indicates
more mainland tourists gamble for more than
4 h than Hong Kong tourists (23.8% vs. 15.5%).
Although more visitors from Hong Kong preferred blackjack while more visitors from mainland China preferred baccarat, the games they
most often played was not significant.
Also, mainlanders were more than twice as
likely as Hong Kong tourists to spend less than
HKD$100 (eb 0.41, p < 0.05), compared with
spending HKD$300 or more. Table 4 further
shows that gamblers from Hong Kong (7.1%)
were less likely to spend less than HKD$100 for
each bet, compared with mainland Chinese
(17.8%). A plurality of the gamblers from Hong
Kong (55.4%) and mainland China (44.1%)
spent between HKD$100 and HKD$300 for each
bet on table games in general, although the
amount varied for specific table games. Few
gamblers (8.4%) bet more than HKD$600 per

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32

Journal of Vacation Marketing 21(1)

Table 5. Summary of gambling motivation by subgroup.

Item
Gambling motivation (n 369)
Winning
Challenge/social/escape

Hong Kong

Mainland China

Total

n (%)

n (%)

n (%)

118 (70.2)
50 (29.8)

110 (54.7)
91 (45.3)

228 (61.8)
141 (38.2)

w2
0.002**

Note: Challenge: HK 48 (28.6), Mainland 69 (34.3); socializing/learning: HK 2 (1.2), Mainland 15 (7.5); escape:
HK 0 (0.0), Mainland 7 (3.5).
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.005; ***p < 0.001.

game, and they were more likely to be mainland

Chinese (12.2%).
With respect to gambling motivation, Hong
Kong tourists were about twice as likely as
mainlanders to gamble for winning (eb 1.95,
p < 0.01) compared to other motives. Table 5 further shows that among gamblers from Hong
Kong who indicated winning as a major motivation for gambling (70.2%), slightly more respondents indicated that they gambled to win back
previous losses (36.9%) rather than simply to win
money (33.3%). Winning was a somewhat
weaker motivation among mainland Chinese
(54.7%), though there were more gamblers from
mainland China who indicated that they gambled
to win money (34.3%) than to recoup losses
(20.4%). However, the two subgroups were not
significantly different in regard to frequency of
gambling and the length of gambling in a casino.

Discussion
The aim of this study was to describe the characteristics of Chinese casino gamblers and to determine whether there are differences between the
two subgroups of Chinese from Hong Kong and
mainland China. The findings support and
broaden the results of previous studies (Lam,
2005; Liu and Wan, 2011; Wan et al., 2013)
demonstrating the existence of variances in travel
patterns and in gambling behaviors between the
two subgroups of Chinese gamblers. In using the
cultural theory to describe behavioral variances,
the findings also extend existing literature
and contribute new insights to our knowledge of
Chinese gamblers motivation (Kim and Prideaux,
2005; Liu and Wan, 2011; Wong et al., 2012).

Chinese gamblers sociodemographic

characteristics
The results show that the Chinese gamblers in
Macau have distinctive characteristics compared

to gamblers in earlier research (Harrahs Entertainment, 2006; LVCVA, 2009; Shoemaker and
Zemke, 2005). The Chinese gamblers are predominantly male. This observation is consistent
with earlier studies conducted in Korea and
Malaysia (Lee et al., 2006; Tan et al., 2010). In
addition, the gamblers are younger (aged
between 18 and 37 years) than the gamblers in
the studies conducted in Malaysia and Korea
(Lee et al., 2006; Tan et al., 2010). In contrast
to gamblers in the United States (LVCVA,
2009), the Chinese gamblers (50%) are not affluent, with a relatively low annual household
income (less than HKD$10,000 per month). This
is perhaps due to the difference in living standards and economic development of the region
compared with the United States, which is more
advanced. Overall, the majority of Chinese
gamblers in the study has achieved up to a high
school level of education and has visited Macau
previously. They did not join a package tour,
and the primary purpose of their trip was for
gambling. While Lam and Vong (2009)
revealed that casino gambling is the last in the
top five motives for tourists to visit Macau, this
study shows that casino gambling is the primary
motivation for the trip. A possible reason could
be the sampling method used in this study.
Whereas Canadians have been shown to gamble for fun (Canadian Gaming Association, 2007),
previous studies of Chinese gamblers revealed
that they are motivated by the desire to win money
or to increase wealth (Lam, 2005; Lam and
Ozorio, 2008; Liu and Wan, 2011; Wan, 2011).
The findings here support that assumption. Nearly
two-thirds (62%) of the Chinese respondents in
this study were motivated to gamble primarily for
monetary gain. Gambling for social reasons, a primary motivation reported in earlier studies, was
overshadowed here by gamblers playing to win;
and escape was infrequently cited as a primary
reason for gambling. Some of these gamblers
playing to win were trying to win back previous

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Chan et al.

33

losses, apparently because playing to win did not

work very well in the first place.

Differences in the subgroups

If the findings in this study are representative of
the population under investigation, it indicates
that there are distinct differences between the
two subgroups of Chinese (from Hong Kong and
mainland China). Specifically, gamblers from
Hong Kong gambled to win back previous losses,
while gamblers from mainland China gambled to
win money. A possible reason could be the Hong
Kongs gamblers desire to win back previous
losses, which reflects their belief that ones fate
can be changed through being persistent and
standing firm in facing new challenges (Welsh,
1993). On the other hand, for the mainland gamblers, winning big money in front of others
(including their peers and the other gamblers)
can help them to gain face, a value also observed
by Liu and Wan (2011). Gaining face is important to them since wealth and fame can represent
achievements and therefore earn familial glorification (Lam, 2005; Yu, 1996).
The mainland Chinese gamblers were relatively younger, earned lower income, and stayed
longer in Macau than the other subgroup.
Because subgroup factors can influence gambling motivations and behaviors, more research
should perhaps be conducted to determine a suitable model that would be useful for educational
strategies and for predicting problem gambling
among those playing to win big money or chasing after their previous losses. Although such
gamblers may not necessarily spend all their time
in Macau on gambling, other studies indicate that
efforts to lower gambling-related illusory attitudes may be necessary so that these players do
not become pathological gamblers.
In this study, the gamblers from mainland
China preferred baccarat, while gamblers from
Hong Kong preferred blackjack. A majority of
gamblers in this study spent between HKD$100
and HKD$300 for each bet on table games.
Both subgroups preferred table games to slot
machines, perhaps due to the Chinese belief that
they could use their skills to win in the table
games and therefore they might have better control over the outcomes. It is unsurprising that the
Chinese gamblers spent less time on slot
machines since winning slot games depends on
luck (Lam and Ozorio, 2008; Liu and Wan,
2011). This finding also reflects the Chinese

cultural inclination to avoid uncertainty (Fan,

2000; Hofstede, 1980).
The secondary purpose for visiting Macau for
the gamblers from Hong Kong was visiting heritage/culture events. This finding is similar to
observations from earlier studies on Hong Kong
visitors (Cheng, 2007; Lam and Vong, 2009). On
the other hand, gamblers from mainland China
claimed shopping as a secondary purpose for
visiting Macau. Taken together, the findings suggest that casino gambling was not the only purpose for their trip. Destination marketers should
take note of these differences in order to satisfy
the needs and preferences of the visitors. In summary, the findings highlight the need for more
research on subgroup differences among gamblers to better understand specific motivations
and behaviors, with the aim to produce results
that could be relevant for policy development
and support services.

Implications for tourism managers

If the findings here are representative of the population under investigation, there are several
implications for practitioners and marketers,
which include breaking a market into segments
and then concentrating target marketing efforts
on the key segments (Cohen, 2005; Kurtz,
2010). First, the secondary trip purpose for the
gamblers from mainland China was shopping,
while the secondary trip purpose for the gamblers
from Hong Kong was to visit heritage sites. This
finding suggests an opportunity for the tourism
managers to encourage visitors to stay longer and
increase spending by bolstering Macaus heritage and shopping facilities. Although the number of shopping facilities in the Western-styled
casino resorts that mostly sell very high-end
products has increased, establishing additional
shopping malls, weekend markets, or shopping
streets that offer a variety of products and at
wide-ranging prices could match some visitors
secondary demands. Publicity and advertising
about the citys shopping facilities, and creating
more attractions to entice visitors to lengthen
their stay may be necessary. In fact, the four new
walking tourism routes created by the Macau
Tourist Government Office represent a good
attempt to encourage visitors to visit the heritage
sites and to stay longer in the city (MGTO,
2013). Attention is also needed to address the
shortcomings of visiting the local heritage sites;
such issues include poor street signs, poor
streetscape, too few events and activities, lack

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34

Journal of Vacation Marketing 21(1)

of maintenance and promotion, and limited
access to a transportation network (Wan and Pinheiro, 2009; Wan and Cheng, 2011). Free transportation to and from the heritage sites, and
free food and drink coupons at those sites (if such
amenities are provided there), may encourage
some visitors transitioning to the sites at the end
of their visit to the casinos. Such collaboration
can create a winwin situation for both the casino
operators and Macau tourism as a whole.

Implications for casino managers and

gambling policy makers
Based on the findings, casinos might want to promote reasonably priced hotel packages, along
with coupons for entertainment in all their facilities, to encourage more frequent visitation and
spending. In addition, promotional packages,
including spa and health treatments, and organizing more competitions for their guests, may
improve the perception of Macau as a location
for a wholesome getaway rather than for a gambling getaway. Special promotion of new casino
games that fall within specific customers preferences might also be emphasized in the direct
mailings and within the casinos to attract customers to try the new games.
Given that more Hong Kong gamblers than
mainland Chinese gamblers spend less than 2 h
in the casinos, the casino managers might need
to consider ways to encourage the latter to stay
longer, as these visitors are among the top
sources of customers in Macaus casinos. Further
research on what they like and dislike in the casinos, and what factors affect their stay, might be
necessary. Examples include the kinds of shows
and food these customers like and whether the
existing price levels are acceptable. If the average bet size of between HKD$100 and HKD$300
per game on table games is representative of the
total population of visitors, casino managers
might also need to ensure that a sufficient number of table games fall within this bet limit and
that the favored games, in the preferred bet limit,
are available at all times.
Finally, given that the strongest desire for all
the Chinese customers in the casinos was to win,
it is vital that the government, the casino industry, and the local universities join hands to conduct research, promote responsible gambling,
and place more emphasis on casino gambling
as an enjoyable social activity, rather than promoting the idea of winning big. Educating gamblers on the probability of winning for each type

of game might also be necessary so that gamblers

can be more informed before making their betting choices.

Limitations and future research

The limitations of the research must be acknowledged. First, the convenience sample of gamblers
recruited outside the casino limits its generalizability, by not including other types of gamblers
(such as VIP gamblers or gamblers who play in
non-casino settings such as the lottery or online
betting). Second, the sampling method used and
the small sample suggest that the findings may
not be generalizable to the entire Chinese population under investigation. Third, participants
may not have accurately reported their motives
for gambling. This is a problematic limitation,
as actual motives cannot be easily assessed.
Moreover, this study was designed to describe
the characteristics and behaviors of the respondents; hence it limits further in-depth analysis
such as regression to explain the variance in
dependent variables.
Future researchers might want to verify
whether the gambling motivations, gambling
behaviors, and other characteristics of Chinese
gamblers in the VIP segments might be similar.
Given that the mainland Chinese visitors are the
largest revenue-generating group for Macaus
casinos, collaborating with casino operators and
working with junkets or tour managers might
be necessary to derive further insights on the
gambling motivations and behaviors of that segment. A comparison done with the Chinese gamblers in Las Vegas or another non-Asian setting
could also allow further understanding of Chinese gamblers behaviors and motivations. Further research may also give deeper attention to
the variables under investigation, since travel
and gambling behaviors and motivations are
complex issues. Nevertheless, the findings here
provide direction for future research and show
that Chinese gamblers are worthy of additional
attention.

Conclusion
This study uses tourist data to describe the characteristics and the differences between two subgroups of Chinese gamblers visiting Macau.
The findings demonstrate variance in characteristics, travel patterns, and gambling motivations
and behaviors between two subgroups of Chinese
gamblers, from Hong Kong and mainland China.

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Chan et al.

35

The findings contribute to the limited literature

on intracultural gambling variances. The findings also show that Chinese gamblers are worthy
of additional research attention, although there
are several limitations. This study provides direction for future research and several practical
implications for tourism managers, casino managers, and gambling policy makers.
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any
funding agency in the public, commercial, or
not-for-profit sectors.
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