1.

Introduction
Small beginning, in the form of radio clubs in 1927.AIR started
operating as government organisation in 1936 Largest network of
SW/MW/FM transmitters, AIR, reaches the remotest corners of the
country to serve the people.Its moto is BHUJAN HITAYA BHUJAN
SUKHAYA i.e. promote the happiness and welfare of the masses
through education, information and entertainment.It is for people
welfare and entertainment.It works under ministry of I&B.The first
license granted for transmitting a broadcast was given on February
23, 1922. The Radio Club of Calcutta was the first radio club to start
functioning in Nov-1924.The Government run broadcasting set up
was called the India State Broadcasting Service (ISBS) which is then
turned into AIR (All India Radio) in June 1936. AIR today has a
network of 232 broadcasting centres with 149
frequency(MW),

54

high

frequency

(SW)

and

medium
171

.FM

transmitters.The coverage is 91.79% of the area serving 99.14% of

the

people.CThe

introduction

of

the

commercial

channel

VividhBharti in October 1957 increased the interest and popularity

of radio.The Government run broadcasting set up was called the India
State Broadcasting Service (ISBS) which is then turned into AIR (All
India Radio) in June 1933.

2.

Flow chart of organization set-up

DG DOORDARSHAN

ADMINISTRATION

2.1 Programme wing

PEX

2.2 Engineering wing

AE

2.3 Administration

AO

Air Sagar
4

 Program Wing Flow Chart

LIA

Engineering wing

TECH

Administration
UDC

LDC

3.Microphones
A microphone is an acoustic to electric transducer or sensor that converts
sound in air into an electrical signal.
Microphones are components in virtually all audio systems.
Studio microphones are used for recording, PA microphones for live
sound, boom microphones for broadcast or film shoots, instrument
microphones which attach directly to guitars or horns,boundary
microphones for conference systems.
Applications:

Telephones
Tape recorders
Karaoke
Hearing aids

Microphone classification:
Acoustical classification
Electrical classification
Polar pattern-wise classification
Acoustical classification:
1.pressure-operated microphone
They are depending on the output voltage from a microphone and
the sound pressure on it.
Sound pressure is applied on one side of the diaphragm.
Electrical output proportional to the sound pressure.
Theoretically omnidirectional.

Electrical classification:
1.electrodynamic moving coil microphone
A magnet is moved near a coil of wire an electrical current is
generated.
Using this electromagnet principle,the dynamic microphone uses a
wire coil and magnet to create the audio signal.
The diaphragm is attached to the coil.
Used in live performance where rough handling is common.
Examples-AKG D-202,D-222,D-900,D-770 etc.
2.ribbon microphone
It uses a thin aluminium,duraluminium or nanofilm ribbon placed
between the poles of a magnet to generate voltages by
electromagnetic induction.
Very sensitive to shock and large sound volumes.
Very delicate.
Very low impedance and hence uses in-built transformer.
Bidirectional.
Special microphones
Lip microphone
A close talking microphone.
Designed to ensure contant spacing between the microphone body
and the lips of the user.
Also known as noise canceling microphone.

Gun microphone:
8

Highly unidirectional long and rod shaped.

Good for recording single voice in noisy locations.
Good for recording sound effect from a far distance.
Also used for picking up voice from long distance.

Lapel microphone
The microphone is very small and light-weight and is suspended
around the neck keeping the mike just below the chin.
Contact microphone:

Size is small.
Attached with the sound source itself.
Pickup vibration pulsing through solid.
Attach to a point so that it should not come in the view of camera.
HF response is good but LF response is bad.

Parabolic microphone:
A cardioids microphone is placed at the focal point of a parabolic
refector.
The parabolic reflector is made of sheet metal or stratified
polyester or glass fibre.
Low frequency pickup is proportional to the diameter of the
reflector.
Used for recording faint sounds such as birdsongs.

Boundary microphone:
9

 A small capsule microphone usually an electrets,is housed in a flat

receptacle.
The flat receptable works as a plane reflective surface.
The directivity is hemspherical at all frequencies.
More dynamic range and clarity.
Omnidirectional.
Also known as PZM.

4.STUDIO
A studio is an acoustically treated compact anechoic room. It is
suitably furnished and equipped. The selection and placement of
microphones can have a major influence on the sound of an acoustic
recording. It is a common view in the recording industry that the
music played by a skilled musician with a quality

instrument

properly miked can be sent directly to the recorder with little or

no modification. This simple approach can often sound better than
an instrument that has been reshaped by amultitude of signal
processing gear.

10

MICROPHONE RECORDING

1) Use a microphone with a frequency response that issuted to the

frequency range of the sound, if possible, or filter out frequencies above
and/or below the highest and lowest frequencies of the sound.
2) Place the microphone at various distances and positions until you find
a spot where you hear from the studio monitors the desired tonal balance
and the desired amount of room acoustics. If you dont like it, try
another position, try another microphone, try isolating the instrument
further, or change the sound of the instrument itself. For example,
replacing worn out strings will change the sound of a guitar.
Editing is meant to edit or to produce the final program after
modifications. In CPS editing plays an important role. We need editing
to cut clip from a complete program to use that in news section. Lets
assume a programme held in USA, which we received through IRDs in
11

feed room and have its complete recording in video cassettes and now
we want to show 1 3-minute of this 2-hour program in News.
Then the process that wills produce this 3-minute clip from 2-hours
program will be called editing.
.

Editing can be of two types:

Linear Editing and
Non Linear Editing
Linear Editing-In linear editing we view the complete program
through some playing equipments and then cut desired part of
program and then record that in a special type of cassette through any
recording equipment and then send it to News control room where
these are used at the time of News broadcasting. This is about linear
editing.
Non-Linear Editing-When we use the term NLE, we mean editing
video from your hard drive, NLE requires two things: editing
software and a video capture card to gets the video into your
computer. Once the video clip are digitized and on your hard drive
they can be assembled in any order, with the drag of a mouse, much
like moving around sentences in a word processing program.
5. TRANSMISSION UNIT
The transmitter remote control unit is a very important piece of
equipment in the radio station. It is responsible for keeping the station on
the air. The WVRC-8 system unit controls and monitors the large
transmitter housed in a secured building near the tower on campus.

12

The WVRC-8 transmitter remote is equipped with eight separate

channels that offer lowering or raising functions.
Transmitter readings should be monitored and taken from the computer to the left of the
console.

Block Diagram of Modern FM Transmitter

13

2 x 3 kW FM Transmitter

6.RA
DIO BROADCASTING
What is broadcasting

14

The process of sending information to a distant place is called

broadcasting.

Need:We can not send information to a distant place with good quality of intelligence.

Means of broadcasting:1.
2.
3.
1.

2.

Terrestrial
Satellite
Internet
Terrestrial(line of sight) :H.P.T. (High Power Transmitter) > 1 kW
L.P.T. (Low Power Transmitter) > 100 W
V.L.P.T. (Very Low Power Transmitter) = 10 W
Satellite: - In this signal is transmitted to satellite which is at 36000 KM from earth.

HISTORY:-

The birth of broadcasting in India has started on an experimental basis in the year 1921when

times of India in collaboration with P & T department broadcasts a musical programme.

In the year 1930 radio broadcasting started operating under the Indian broadcasting company.
The government took over the charge of broadcasting in March 1935.
A separate office of the controller of broadcasting was created.
The landmark in the history of broadcasting is the change of the name of the Indian broadcasting

to air in 1936 and in the same year Delhi station was formed.
From 1936 onwards the development of air was very slow;nine stations were opened up in
different places like Delhi, Calcutta, Bombay,Madras,Lucknow and Tiruchi.
From 1956 on wards air was popularly known as AKASHWANI.
On 12th November 1947 the voice of Gandhiji was broadcasted in air and since then it is
celebrated as broadcasting day.
AIR and DOORDARSHAN aims to provide information,education and entertainment for the
public.
Television (Doordarshan) started in India in the year 1959 with black and white transmission.
The black & white transmission was converted fully into color in 1982 during Asian games.

Broadcasting consol with transmission-

15

SPECIFICATIONS OF 10KW BROADCAST POWER MONITOR

(THROUGHLINE POWER METER):
1. Introduction:
1.1 Broadcast Power Monitor, UHF Band IV/V, with 3 EIA unflanged line section
and suitable elements for measurement of Max Forward power of 5 kW and reflected
power of 0.5 KW, VSWR, Return Loss etc.
1.2 Ethernet & RS 232 enabled- Remote monitoring, control & instant alarm alert with 50
feet of cable to connect RS 232 and serial port between monitoring unit and line section,
and serial interface cable.
1.3 Data logging capabilities System trends and anomalies before failure.
1.4 Integral RF Test Port facility.
1.5 Frequency / Channel field configurable.

Entertainment Programs for broadcastingVIVIDH BHARATI-

16

The entertainment channel of AIR, VividhBharati service was started in October 1957, with
popular film music as its main ingredient. It started accepting commercials from November
1967. VividhBharati Service provides entertainment for 15 hours a day. Nearly 85 percent of
programming is based on music with film music topping the chart. Classical, folk, light and
devotional music are also broadcast.
Or other entertainment channel of AIR are jai jawan- jai kisan,aajkefankaar
,bhoolebisregeet,hellofarmaish etc.

RADIO KISAN DIWAS

All India Radio observed 15th February as KISAN DIVAS from its 96 Kisanvani broadcasting
stations. Special programmes were broadcast on the occasion by these stations.

Farm & Home Broadcasts

The commitment of All India Radio to the rural audience dates back to more than 50 years.
All stations of All India Radio broadcast Farm & Home programmes directed at rural
audience. In fact, special programmes have been designed to cater to the day-to-day
seasonal needs of the farming community

MANAGE TRAINING
Two Trainings and one Review workshop were organized by MANAGE, Hyderabad.
Almost 40 Farm and Home Programme Producers were trained in these Workshops.

ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMMES
Keeping in view the importance of the subject, all the AIR stations are broadcasting daily
programmes on Environment for 5 to 7 minutes duration and weekly programmes of longer
duration for more than a decade. The importance of protecting environment is being
discussed in our other programmes i.e. health/ women / rural women / youth & children
programmes also for making people aware of this serious issue. The AIR stations are
broadcasting programmes on the subject on the basis of instructions and guidelines issued
by the Directorate. In order to inform and educate the listeners,

7. TRANSMITTER:17

 A transmitter is the equipment through which we receive the radio

broadcast on our sets.
This is big equipment in comparison to other equipment installed in
the studio or control room.
The strength and type of the transmitter determines the coverage area
of broadcast.
There are two types of transmitters.
Low Power Transmitter (LPT) and
High Power Transmitter (HPT)
Likewise, there are:
Medium Wave (MW) radio broadcast transmitters and
Short Wave (SW) radio broadcast transmitters

The transmitter that generates the RF1 power to drive the antenna is
usuallylocated at some distance from the antenna terminals. The
connecting linkbetween the two is the RF transmission .

FEATURES18

Up to 20kW transmitter output power per 19 standard rack

Fully digital exciter with digital input via AES/EBU or optional analog
inputs
Direct Digital Synthesis (DDS)
Integrated stereo encoder with deviation limiter
High internal redundancy; even in 2.5kW version; dual redundant 24V
power supply
Amplifier modules are hot-pluggable, only 25mW input power per
module
Each amplifier module includes its own primary power supply unit
Low output transistor junction temperatures for a high MTBF
Easy handling for comfortable replacement, each amplifier module
weighs about 15kg
Multi-Transmitter-Option offers n+1 solutions in one 19 rack
Integrated air-cooling up to 10kW per 19 rack
Support of future proof function for SFN (Single and audio networks)

19

20

21

AMPLIFIERSAs mentioned earlier, antennas do not actually create power. They

simplydirect all available power into a particular pattern. By using a
power amplifier,you can use DC power to augment your available
signal. An amplifierconnects between the radio transmitter and the
antenna, and has an additional.
Lead that connects to a power source. Amplifiers are available thatwork
at 2.4GHz, and can add several Watts of power to your
transmission.These devices sense when an attached radio is transmitting,
and quicklypower up and amplify the signal. They then switch off again
when transmissionends. When receiving, they also add amplification to
the signal beforesending it to the radio.
Unfortunately, simply adding amplifiers will not magically solve all of
yournetworking problems. We do not discuss power amplifiers at length
in thisbook because there are a number of significant drawbacks to using
them:
They are expensive. Amplifiers must work at relatively wide
bandwidths at2.4 GHz, and must switch quickly enough to work for WiFi applications.
22

EXCITERS -

a) DP/DG Corrector:
This unit is used for pre-correcting the differential gain of the
final output of the transmitter. The pre-correction is achieved by
introducing nonlinearity introduced in opposite tot hat of non-linearity
existing in thedemodulated video from the 1 Kilo watt output stays.

b) Low Pass Filter:

The Low Pass filter unit cuts off the video frequencies beyond 5
MHz so that video information beyond 5 MHz does not interfere with
23

the sound signal which will be appearing as frequency modulated

signal at 5.5 MHz and around in the RF spectrum. The resultant group
delay is corrected in a delay equalizer circuit in this unit to preserve
video characteristics.

c) Delay Equalizer:
This unit comprises of two sections namely the receiver pre-corrector
and transmitter delay corrector section. The former, the later or both or
none can be brought into the line up by selection on the front panel.
The receiver pre-corrector required for achieving a god video wave
form at the domestic receivers where in delays are introduced .
) IF Oscillator:
This unit generates using a crystal oscillator the visual I
frequency of 38.9 MHz. Four outputs are available in this unit of these
four outputs are the first one goes to the Visual Modulator Unit., second
one is used for monitoring third one is taken to the Local Oscillator and
the fourth one to the Aural Modulator Unit.

f) Local Oscillator UnitThis unit generates the visual oscillator frequency (fc + 38.9 MHz) of
the required channel. The basic oscillator is crystal oscillator at fc/4
24

frequency. The crystal is housed iproportionately controlled over to

maintain frequency .stability..
M
MPX

BLOCK DIA OF EXCITER

MODULATION & DEMODULATION-

Modulatin is the process in which low or weak signasl are superimpose

with high frequency signals this process is called modulation.
Modulation are three types--1. Amplitude modulation
2. Frequency modulation
3. Phase modulation

25

In radio transmission frequency modulation is used for better

performance.In frequency modulation frequency does not overlap to
onather frequencies but in amplitude modulation frequency are easily
can read soo it is not security.

FREQUENCY MODULATIONIn frequency modulation , frequency of the modulated signal is varied

according to the carrier wave.this is called frequency modulation.

Whereas in AM the amplitude of a sinusoidal function is varied with

time to include information of a message signal, in FM
DEMODULATIONModulation consists of on-off keying of a carrier wave. To recover onoff keyed information.
we need a method of detecting the presence or absence of rf oscillations.
The CW DEMODULATOR detects the presence of rf oscillations

and

converts them into a recognizable .

26

27

FM DEMODULATION-

In fm demodulators, the intelligence to be recovered is not in amplitude

variations; it is in the variation of the instantaneous frequency of the
carrier, either above or below the center frequency. The 3-11 detecting
device must be constructed so that its output amplitude will vary linearly
according to the
instantaneous frequency of the incoming signal, whereas in PM the
instantaneous phase is varied with the message signal.

28

ANTENNA-

Extremely important factor for good work of simple radio receivers is

the outside antenna that has to beNlong enough, and in which voltages
induced by the radio transmitters will be high enough. At first sight, one
can think of using instead some modest antenna made of a piece of wire,
compensating that with supplying the receiver with amplifier strong
enough to give the end result as if much better antenna havebeen used.
That, of course, is not the case, since every amplifier creates noise that
makes the reception worse, if not impossible. This fact is the cause for a
radio-amateur saying that "Antenna is the best HF amplifier." The
external (outside) antenna is being made of copper wire, thick enough to
resist strong wind conditions. In the sense of mechanical strength, the
best thing is to use the litz wire (cable),

. Antennas demonstratea property known as reciprocity,..

29

Test Proposal: Test Case

VSWR Test
Frequency Band Test
Isolation between port Test
Direct Ground Test

Test Proposal
TEST CASE:Huawei to submit test case for VT
UNDERTAKING: Huawei to give undertaking where test is
notpossible.
LAB TEST REPORT: Huawei to give lab test reports for testwhich
are not possible in field.

30

POWER SUPPLY

There are four types of power supply which are .used in transmitter
section. These are as follows:

31

AC POWER SUPPLY
Filament Supply
Bias supply
Plate Voltage Supply
Screen Grid Voltage Supply
i)
Fillament Supply:This supply for 1 KW PA (BEL 4000 Ix) is derived from a three phase
full wave rectifier using silicon rectifier. The rectifier is followed by a
single section LC filter for the reduction of ripples. The filament
transformer is of the leakage type so as to limit the starting current
drawn by the valve filament under initial switching condition. The
transformer is provided with tapes to adjust the filament voltage
precisely to the rated value.
ii)

Bias Power Supply:

This supply feeds the grid of 1 KW valve stage. It consist of 2

independent sections of Dc power supply with a common ac input.
The first section can deliver on O/P adjustable voltage between-50V to
-80V dc, while the second section can deliver in O/P adjustable
voltage between-80V to -120V dC each section has the capacity to
supply current of 200 mA and operates at an ac input voltage 200 V
single phasesupply. During normal operation the first section only is
used. The second section is used as stand by in event of failure of the
first section.
32

iii)

Screen Grid Power Supply:

This provides a regulated output at 1000V dc. A constant voltage

transformer (CVT) Tl feeds a constant ac voltage through the
magnetic amplifier. The O/P voltage can be adjusted by changing the
taps of the CVT. The screen voltages set between 700 V to 750 V &
the screen dissipation islimited to 100 W.
+ 28V SMPS : The +28V SMPS unit consists of two separate 28V
modules. Each module feeds one 80W power amplifier & the
corresponding dual driver section. Remote sensing & TTL ON/OFF
facilities for each module are provided.

33

34