Reet
: ANALYSIS UF VaRianci: oF TRIALS 10 Ckrttaion FOR GHOUES MAKING
Wirnis-Ditession Sars
“Bip oithginenion se
oe shape task (C)
Sect i
Witkin groups
Total
‘Bete ramlomed ses
+R ani
carried out. ‘This was accomplished stimuli on
in a separate 2 x 2 analysis of vari-
ance, using the transformed scores
(log 1+X). ‘The two variable
resent (see Table 4) were: (a) type
of WDS, and () color-shape task.
‘The essential comparis
for the type of WDS. This compar
son was significant, indicating (Tables
2 and 4) that Groups 2 and 6, which
only made WDSs, learned quicker
than Groups 1 and 5, which made
both WDSs and RRs,
The data suggest that what appears
to be the facilitating effects of RRs
results from their always involving
WDSs. ‘There are further indications
that RRs actually retard learning as on
compared to WDSs, J. exp. Paschal
The results from the present experi
‘ment also permit us to ansiver a quest
basic to the nature of WDSs and ol
importance in concept formation, ‘That
is, if WDS lead to facilitative effects in
learning, is this because Ss have been
trained to respond to the specific stimuli
they have learned are important? ‘The
alternative hypothesis is that the ad-
vantages of a WDS occur because Ss
have learned to pay selective atteation
toa general dimension of the stimul
(such as color) while learning a frst task,
and that they continue to pay selective
attention to that aspect of the stimuli,
even when the specific colors formerly
present are no longer there. In the
current transfer-of-training situation,
facilitation occurred for the groups mak.
ing WDSe when the dimension of the
tion were changed.
hypothesis that the f
was previously relevant,
REFERENCES,
Buss, A. H,
in eoneept form
ment eliminated
52, 162-166.
Rowarns, A. L.
peyehological research
hart, 1950,
Kenting, HHL, & D'AMATO, M.
human eoneept for
Peychel., 1955, 49,
J.exp. Psyche,
versal and nonreversal shifts
56-60,
‘mental rychologs
Univer. Press, 1955
Rest, HW. Verbs
Gowstrzano, L, & Grant, DA, Pr
ambiguity in the attainment of
the Wisconsin Card Sorting
958, 55, 621-027.
Hawsow, M, & Bucuwatn, A. M,
nd nonreversal shifts in concept fo
using consistent and inconsistent re
T-exp. Psychol, 1962, 64, AT6-481
Oscoon, C.F. Method and theory in
New York!
(Recelved May 25, 1984)
which discrimination
based was kept constant, but the s
a reversal shift occur because it invol
Using a dimension of the stimuli wh
Reversal and nonreversa
ion with partial rea
Re
A
parison of reversal and nonreveraal shit
Kuspuer, HH, & Mayzsin, M,
versal and nonreverstl shifts card
tests with two or four sorting eate
956, $1, 244-248,
Kesourn, TS," Kespier, Hy H,
“F-exp. Psycho, 198,
ition asa fu
Psyc. Bull, 1962, 58,
Jates that in judgments of are:
constant error is usually one of over-
& Tinker, 1938).
tenleney of Ss to overestimate the
proportion of the printed page oc-
‘pied by print (printers, as a rule of
thumb, set up about 50% of a book
inker (1938) found that Ss over-
feasting color on representative book-
Mpart-whole proportion illusion
AN INVESTIG!
OF RELATIVE AREA?
HARRY HELSON axp WILLIAM BEVAN
Kansas State University
In 6 different experiments the part-whole proportion illusion reported
by Paterson and Tinker was confirmed. ‘The absolute error was most
pronounced with proportions of intermediate magnitude but, the
relative error was greatest with smallest proportions of central
totalarea. The error was found to be essentially invariant with chi
the range of relative magnitudes, the orientation of the rectangul
stimulus area, and overall field size.” However, when a null method of
measuring the illusion was employed, the error was severely ceducead
with an inflection point at a proportion of 70%, ‘The impertance of
contextual factors in judgments of @ relative arce is indicated by an
inverse relationship hetween judged size and overall field size of the
stimulus series when Uhe comparisons are made within, Ss rather than
oss groups of Ss. This last finding sas methodoloyical importance
determining the role of contextual factors in judgment.
A literature of long standing indi-
the
ination (Anastasi, 1936; Paterson
Curious ‘about the
vertical-horizontal illusion
estimate the vertical cor
the horizontal
since pri
eas marginal space), Paterson and
timated rectangular areas consisting
white or black on cards of con-
fe areas, about 18%, and actual
inted matter in a wide variety of
ks by 25%. These writers simply
ferred the overestimations to the type of judgment d
A Accordingly, six experi
went:
mber of possible explanations o
res of this tendency of judgment
mediately suggest themsolves: ac- _part-whole proportion illu
thee experiments were perforin! under
tact Nonr-3684(01) between. Kansts
fe University and the Physiological
tology Branch, Office of Naval Research.
writers are ‘indebted to Joa Faye
tard, Edward D. Turner, and Janes R
for their asistance during the course
Exveninenr [
from a limited ra
ION OF VARIABLES IN JUDGMENTS
coring to Piaget's (1947) Centrat
Effect, centrally fixated objects ap-
pear larger than objects in the peri
phery; Hollingworth’s (1910) Central-
Tendency Effect suggests that if the
range of areas were extended, larger
areas should be underestimattd
sugge
the
that perhaps the tendency to over
pared with
be responsible
ited! pages anil the cards used
by Paterson and Tinker were rectan:
gular; the illusion may be a function
of total field size; and there is the
possibility that it may be an artifact
of the method of measurement or the
nanded of
Ported in this paper investigating each
of these possible explanations of the
‘The first series of experiments beyan
with the speculation that this error of
overestimation might have resulted
we covered by the
the wark, stimulus series. Paterson and ‘Tinker
35
it f S ae
J E at —
/ \ T | WV =>
IaHmation pre- it-¢ards, ‘The procedure was that of Exp, |.
+ size of the central area varying froin _ |i! being solid and were like the stimuli used ty
42.7% to 71.9%, was conjectured (itu aml, Tinker in sree
that if the series had been extended 10 jh. total area of each card, Gr roup 1 judge
cover a wider range, the Central- a 2t-card a with cea ranging, frog
Tendency Effect might have been in 0.02% to 96.4% of the total area.
evidence. Hollingworth, in his first Preceinre— Hack card) wus’ preseated 1
us range, for overes
dominates when almost the complete Resulis
Pepe cate pects nS eo eneeatwanicnificoe Oe
dluded. It is also clear that the ie ehsiatiees
sratest absolute overestimation coe ‘The average magnitude uf ero
tars in the intermediate range of (1374) was approximately that of
coe times for judgment, Group I thus receiveda] 2 Fc . Exp. [, and there was no difference in
test of this principle (1910), employed rl of 150 tal, with the order ranma UE areas. Por Group I the error tytn au tnere was uo dierence in
the estimation of the size of squares. jn ilais of 15, Group Hsereved MO marge A overestimation averaged 12/
witha range from 1.39% to 21.6%, Iq {unction of field (card) size—1.5 3 2
Group IL the average was 9.5% with
arange from 0.5% to 24.5%. Plots
of the relative magnitude of the error
(the ratio of the estimated to the
aetual per cent black) against actual
mative size, result in a curve that is
monotonic and negatively accelerated
wrth the greatest effect at the low end
ux! the smallest at the high end of the
series. Thus in the 15-item series the
More recently demonstration ofthe ninbiiaa! i bas 21 alle
cffect involved rectangles (Bevan & reett experiments the atimulus ax oa
y Sted of ether 15 oF 210 trials dependoga
De etbaas) a whether the L5-item or the 21- ie
Experiment I thus consisted simply Sua)" Testing say done in groupe Te
vof the construction of a psycho- rth! was that uf sbuoute Solgeny
physical function for judged relative tone instructed to record their ae
Sree a a Oe bas. ceretioeiei ee sees
stimuli this purpose, ‘The stimulus cards were om)
sie from S's view andl presets,
Method Sxey 10 se, for judgment. For‘
in,, 14.0%; 6 x Bin., 12.2%; 24 x 32
in, 13.6%; Femuw (2, 54) = 1.01,
p> .05. There was, however, a ten
dency for the female Ss to display
slightly larger error than the n
14.0% v5.11.7%; Panos (1
P< Ot—that is reminiscent of the
greater field dependence reported for
females by Witkin, Lewis, Hertzman,
Machover, Bretnall, and Wapner
Soft seseelibeesiey pact ied oc al a
Pec tcl el ae aaa ye era tO ies ie riave cron 209 for Card O98. |
Eetandon ines two groups exp iat thc tn 92 for Card 15. ExPERIWENT
aes eee ineecn eae, Reals Another plausible consideration in
etre Cro es he of IS 18 pegeta the average Experiment [I accounting forthe rel the role of
‘Thee dimension ene! de mean with mate per cent black plotted agai Wich a clear demonstration that te horontal-vertal illusion, Ione
fad iengh of 100 Dooks messuredatandiom actual por cent black for the ISeaMll nrstination io con erro at dimension of a plane figure is ove
Geirwetaion hewyathepeionry .05, in these observations.
Exreximenr 1V
The conditions considered to this
point as determinants of the error of
overestimation have been stimulus
related. Response-related processes
also suggest themselves as possible
sources of error. Piaget (1947) insists
that all perceptual—at least, visual—
judgments have one essential property
in common, the systematic over-
estimation of fixated items. ‘This he
calls the Centration Effect, ‘Thus
perceptual space is conceived to be
spatially expanded at the focus of
attention and progressively more con-
tracted toward the periphery of the
perceptual field. ‘The fact of atten-
tion shifts causes multiple centration
effects with compensation for the
field distortion associated with a single
fixation. ‘Therefore, if the overestima-
tion of the black centers was duc to
processes underlying centration, then
@ comparable effect should be pro-
duced for the white surround. by
having S fixate upon this portion of
the visual field,
cl
Suhjets.—Forty Ss were used. Group
of Exp. T served as the control group i
center estimation. “X second group of 1 ee
sn 10-women was use! for border estimate
Procedure-—The control group, hate
insteueted to fixate apo
‘each eard and estima
‘experimental group
the white borders of the card and indicate
proportion of white tothe total stimulus a
Results
‘The centration hypothesis was naj
confirmed. While the control cond]
tion displayed the usual overestin|
tion (12.0%), the group judging
white border showed a complement
error of underestimation of cra
parable magnitude (10.4%; Fog}
< 1.00). Again, there was no sign
cant sex diflerence in judgme
(Fsaes < 1.00).
Exrenivent V
Experiment V was concerned wil
the error of overestimation as a
reflection of method. The proceduy
utilized heretofore involved at let
wo judgmental operations: a oa]
parison of areas in the stimulus fa
and the expression of this comparisd
in a conceptual system of per «
‘Thus it is conceivable that the
stant error is less a matter of
tion than one of judgment of wha
constitutes specific relative mag
tudes of particular dimen:
recent applied! psychophysical expel
ment, Trumbo, Adams, Milner,
Schipper (1962) had S3 make simp
stimulus judgments, with estimates
per cents, of various properties
systematically programed heteroge
ous samples of wheat. They founda}
seueral tendency to overestimate te
proportions of undamaged wheat
different grades in each sample,
at the same time, they found con
errors of underestimation of
proportion of foreign mate
damaged grain present
Exp. V involved a null method,
which Ss matched th
judged against a standard series,
apparent.
Physical method is assoc
marked reduction in the magnitude of
the error. Maximum overestimation,
‘Therefor
areas 10 be
Method
Subjects — Twenty-one undergrad
omen and 10
Procedure—The 2L-item series of Exp. 1
sas used as stimulos mater
9, served as Ss
and cerved also
ndards. ‘The Ss were shown these cards,
te at a time, 10 times each, randomized in
Woks of 21 trials, for a total of 210 trial,
‘Mer each S-see, presentation, identified
we card froin among the 2
fandard series judged to be the same as the
‘eperimental eard,
ses were arranged in random order o»
tall ata 90° angle to the left of the position
A the experimental eard and were presented
eye level, mounted against a soft tan back
pound
Involves comparison of a set of variables with
me standard, th
cards in the
ecards of the standard
Since classical time-order error
conditions used here
imized, if they did not completely ob
tis type of error,
Results
Figure 2 presents the results of Exp.
Several things arc inimediately
‘The change in psycho-
ted with a
a
refer Wick Sts Cano
Fiv.2. Judgments of relative area
involving the null meth
however, is the same with both the
null and absolute methods and occurs
at 40% area.
In addition there is an
the funetion in the
tive area with larger
lack centers being slightly under
estimated. However, the eeror is still
prelominately positive, (1, 20)
6.29, p <.01, and the inflection
point is curiously displaced above the
center of the series. Meanvhile, if
this function is taken at face value it
is suggestive of a central-tendency
effect, with values below the inflection
point! being typically overestimated
anil those above underestimated.
Auain, there was no evidence of a sex
difference in judgment (F< 1.00).
Exeesntent VI
Experiment 11 indicated that field
size had no effect upon the magnitude
of the overestimation. However, the
adaptation-level literature (Helson,
1947) has demonstrated that the role
of contextual factors is most readily
identified when these variables are
allowed to vary within the experieney
of the individual, Experiment 1
followed the common procedure of
varying context across groups while
holding it constant within groups.
Experiment VI was performed as a
complement to Exp. Ul. Here the
relative size of the central black area
was held constant and the overall card
siz was varied over the series
Method
Subjects Sixty unergraduates, 30° men
‘and 30 women, were used as Ss. They. wer
divided "at random “into three eyualsicc
serous,
dvocedure.—Fach grip madea tet
judgments, randomized’ in blocks of
The overall dimensions of the sevei series
stimuli varied from 14 X 2in, to 10} > 1 in
with cach next larger card being 1 in. wider
and 2 in. taller than the preceding ear. For
‘one kroup the central blaek area repent2
z
3
3 2
Bog
Fic. 3. Error of overestimation with
judged area held physically constant and
of background varied. (Background size was
Increased from Stimulus { to Stimulus 7. ‘The
parameters indicate relative size of the area
jndged.)
21% of the total area of the card; for the
second, $3% and for the third, 81%. ‘The
procedure was the same as that used fa Exp.
Vand I,
Results
As in the earlier experiments,
the error of overestimation was pro-
nounced (Fig. 3). Again, it was
greatest for the intermediate-sized
black area (53%) and about the sume
for the complementary high and low
values (81% and 21%). Finally, un-
like the results of Exp. II, where each
‘S was allowed to experience no varia-
tion in overall stimulus size, the error
of overestimation is here seen to be
clearly related to stimulus field size in
an inverse fashion, the largest error in
the case of all groups being associated
with the smallest overall field size
‘These results were sta-
1, Fatma (6, 324)
= ALAL, P< 01; Frisee sae (2, 54)
= 1446, 2 <.01; Foxna (12, 324)
= 5.32, p <.01. They are reminis-
cent of the data of Bevan, Pritchard,
and Reed (1962) on the direction of
ee a eee
of tones
Discussion
“The present series of experiment
fied the overestimation ofrelativear
reported by Paterson and Tinker (1
by exploring a wider range of situation
variables, both stimulus and response
ies production, Te is. manifestly ca
from the results that this constant ene
is stong and pervasive over a vatityd
conditions. Furthermore, as ight i
expected) it is for rela
magnitudes of intermediate size.
ments {through V strongly
seat that response variables are not
Potent determinants ofthe error then an
imnilds variables. While the eror
hot vary as exporimental groupe die
in overall range of relative arene jade
Cverall field size, and orientation of
stimvls figures, shift in peychophti
method from. single-stimulus tot
‘matching ‘method, with a coinciee
Change in the response langunge from
Statement of proportion to that of sim
discri ion was accompanied by #|
‘warked reduction inthe constant ene
and the appearance of an inflection pois
Shove the midpoint of the series. How
fever, the latter at 70% i 20. mati
Siserepant from. both. the middle
Series value (32%) and the.
stimulus size (36%), that it emg
the strength of the error and casa
fan the infleetion point as an inant
the CentralcTendency Erect.
(On the other hand, the importance
contextual. factors anticipated. by
theory is demonstrated in the fina
periment, Here field size as an ind
ent variable was allowed to vary wa
the experience of each and the ow
estimation was then found to be inven
related to total field size. This
an important methodological rae
thumb: since psychophysical jxdgaal
occur within a judgmental frame dj
reference, their competent investigate
calls for designs in which stimulus vai]
ales are manipelated within rather
roups if the role of contextual
factors is to be identified,
The estimation of area,
Psychol, 1936, 14, 201-225,
Brvax, W., & Dukes, W. F. Color as a
variable in the judgment of size.
Poychol, 1953, 06, 283-288.
Tevax, W., Partenaa, J. F,,& Reep, W. G.
Single-stimulas judgments of loudness as a
{unetion of presantation interval
Psycho, 1962, 75, 612-618
Adaptation level as frame of
reference for prediction of paychophyrial
‘Amer. J. Psychol, IAT, 60, 1-29
Hhuneworr, HL. The central tendency
J. Phil, 1910, 7, 461-169,
Parersox, D. G., & Tiswen, M.A. ‘The
‘puctahole proportion ikon in. printing
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Prsciet, J.” The psychology of intligence.
London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1947
Teumpo, D.A., Abans, C. A., Mitta, M.,
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(Received May 23, 1963)