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Contents
4
12
17
23
29
Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures for lateral loads and other factors
34
40
45
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Acknowledgements
The Concrete Centre would like to thank the authors
and peer reviewers for their contribution to these
technical papers including:
John Roberts; RS Narayanan; Robert Vollum,
Imperial College.
www.concretecentre.com I 3
Introduction
EC2 provides information about reinforcement detailing in Sections 8
and 9 of Part 1-1 (BS EN 1992-1-1)1. Section 8 provides information on
the general aspects of detailing and this is where the rules for anchorage
and lap lengths are given. Section 9 sets out the rules for detailing
different types of elements, such as beams, slabs and columns.
In EC2, anchorage and lap lengths are proportional to the stress in the
bar at the start of the anchorage or lap. Therefore, if the bar is stressed
to only half its ultimate capacity, the lap or anchorage length will be half
what it would have needed to be if the bar were fully stressed.
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5
5
5
5
150
150
a
a
90
90
a
a<
< 150
150
a) Bend
Bend or
or L
L bar
bar
a)
b) Hook
Hook
b)
c) Loop
Loop or
or U
U bar
bar
c)
Direction of concreting
Direction of concreting
250
c) h > 250 mm
a) 45 < a < 90
Anchorage lengths
Direction of concreting
Direction of concreting
300
h
b) h < 250 mm
d) h > 600 mm
Key
Good bond conditions
Figure 4 gives the basic design procedure for calculating the anchorage
length for a bar. There are various shortcuts, such as making all
coefficients = 1, that can be made to this procedure in order to ease the
design process, although this will result in a more conservative answer.
Both anchorage and lap lengths are determined from the ultimate bond
strength bd. The basic required anchorage length lb,rqd can be calculated
from:
lb,rqd = (/4) (sd/bd)
where sd is the design stress in the bar at the position from where the
anchorage is measured. If the design stress sd is taken as the maximum
allowable design stress:
sd = yd = yk/s = 500/1.15 = 435MPa
This number is used for most of the published anchorage and lap length
tables, but the design stress in the bar is seldom the maximum allowable
design stress, as bars are normally anchored and lapped away from
positions of maximum stress and the As,prov is normally greater than As,req.
The design anchorage length lbd is taken from the basic required
anchorage length lb,rqd multiplied by up to five coefficients, 1 to 5.
lbd = 1 2 3 4 5 lb,rqd lb,min
where the coefficients 1 to 5 are influenced by:
1 shape of the bar
www.concretecentre.com I 5
1, 2, 3 and
5=1.0
Start
Yes
No
No
Is the bar in
compression?
1= 0.7
4 = 0.7
Yes
4 = 1.0
No
1 = 1.0
Yes
Is bar diameter
32mm
No
2 = (132)/100
Take lbd = lb,rqd
Yes
2 = 1.0
No
Determine ultimate bond stress
fbd = 2.25 1 2 fctd
Yes
2 concrete cover
3 confinement by transverse reinforcement
4 confinement by welded transverse reinforcement
5 confinement by transverse pressure
The minimum anchorage length lb,min is:
max {0.3lb,rqd; 10; 100mm} for a tension anchorage
max {0.6lb,rqd; 10; 100mm} for a compression anchorage
The maximum value of all the five alpha coefficients is 1.0. The minimum
is never less than 0.7. The value to use is given in Table 8.2 of BS EN 19921-1. In this table there are different values for 1 and 2 for straight bars
and bars called other than straight. The other shapes are bars with
a bend of 90 or more in the anchorage length. Any benefit in the
coefficients from the bent bars is often negated by the effects of cover.
Note that the product of 2 3 and 5 has to be 0.7.
6 I www.concretecentre.com
Yes
1 = 1.0
2 =10.15(cd)/
0.7 2 1.0
Is the bar
straight?
No
END
1= 0.7 if cd > 3
1=1.0 if cd 3
2 =1 0.15 (cd3)/
0.7 2 1.0
lbd = 12345lb,rqd
Yes
3 = 1 K
0.7 3 1.0
No
No
Is 235 < 0.7
3 = 1.0
5=1 0.04p
0.7 5 1.0
5=1.0
No
C25/30
C28/35
C30/37
C32/40
C35/45
C40/50
C50/60
ctm
2.21
2.56
2.77
2.90
3.02
3.21
3.51
4.07
ctk, 0.05
1.55
1.80
1.94
2.03
2.12
2.25
2.46
2.85
ctd
1.03
1.20
1.29
1.35
1.41
1.50
1.64
1.90
www.concretecentre.com I 7
C1
C1
a) Straight bars
cd = min (a/2, c1, c)
c) Looped bars
cd = c
Source: EC2-1-1, Figure 8.3.
t,
As
Ast
As
K = 0.1
t,
Ast
As
K = 0.05
t,
Ast
K=0
Bond
Condition
Anchorage
length, lbd
Lap length,
lo
10
12
16
20
25
Reinforcement
32
40
in compression
Straight
bars only
Good
230
320
410
600
780
1010
1300
1760
40
Poor
330
450
580
850
1120
1450
1850
2510
58
Other
bars only
Good
320
410
490
650
810
1010
1300
1760
40
Poor
460
580
700
930
1160
1450
1850
2510
58
50% lapped
in one
location
(a6=1.4)
Good
320
440
570
830
1090
1420
1810
2460
57
Poor
460
630
820
1190
1560
2020
2590
3520
81
Good
340
470
610
890
1170
1520
1940
2640
61
Poor
490
680
870
1270
1670
2170
2770
3770
87
100%
lapped
in one
location
(a6=1.5)
Notes
1) Nominal cover to all sides and distance between bars 2mm (i.e. 2<1). At laps, clear distance between bars 50mm.
2) 1 = 3 = 4 = 5 = 1.0. For the beneficial effects of shape of bar, cover and confinement see Eurocode 2, Table 8.2.
3) Design stress has been taken as 435MPa. Where the design stress in the bar at the position from where the anchorage is measured,
sd, is less than 435MPa the figures in this table can be factored by sd/435. The minimum lap length is given in cl. 8.7.3 of Eurocode 2.
4) The anchorage and lap lengths have been rounded up to the nearest 10mm.
5) Where 33% of bars are lapped in one location, decrease the lap lengths for 50% lapped in one location by a factor of 0.82.
6) The figures in this table have been prepared for concrete class C25/30.
Concrete class
Factor
C20/25
C28/35
C30/37
C32/40
C35/45
C40/50
C45/55
C50/60
1.16
0.93
0.89
0.85
0.80
0.73
0.68
0.63
8 I www.concretecentre.com
For example, if anchoring an H25 bar in a beam with H10 links at 300mm
centres:
As = 491mm2 for a 25mm diameter bar
lbd
Figure 7 Anchorage of bottom reinforcement at end supports in beams and slabs where
directly supported by wall or column
There is no benefit in the value of 2 for bars other than straight unless
(cd 3) is positive. If we assume that the value of cd is 25mm, then
the only benefit for bars other than straight is for bars that are 8mm in
diameter or less. For bars larger than 8mm 2 = 1.0. Again, for hooked
or bobbed bars in wide elements, where cd is based on the spacing of
the bars, 2 will be less than 1.0 if the spacing of the bars is equal to or
greater than 7.
3 confinement by transverse reinforcement
All bar types, 3 = 1 K 0.7 1.0
where:
K
is the amount of transverse reinforcement providing
confinement to a single anchored bar of area
As = (Ast Ast,min) / As
Ast
Ast,min
www.concretecentre.com I 9
Start
END
No
Is the bar in
good position?
1 = 0.7
Yes
Check l0 >
max{0.36lb,rqd; 15; 200mm}
1 = 1.0
No
2 = (132-)/100
l0 = 12356lb,rqd
Yes
2 = 1.0
Yes
No
Is lb,rqd 6
satisfactory as the
lap length?
No
Yes
5 = 1 0.04p
0.751.0
Yes
Take l0 = lb,rqd6
No
3 =1.0
Is the bar in
compression?
No
Yes
Is the bar
straight?
1 =1.0
2 = 1-0.15(cd)/
0.7 2 1.0
No
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No
Yes
1, 2, 3 and
5=1.0
1 = 0.7 if cd > 3
1 = 1.0 if cd 3
2 = 1 0.15(cd3)/
0.7 2 1.0
3 = 1 K
0.7 3 1.0
Yes
The largest possible savings in lap and anchorage length can be obtained
by considering the stress in the bar where it is lapped or anchored.
typical building structures, there is usually no need to lap bars where
they are fully stressed, e.g lapping bars in the bottom of a beam or slab
near mid-span. Examples where bars are fully stressed and laps are
needed are in raft foundations and in long-span bridges.
The wording of this clause regarding guidance on the provision of
transverse reinforcement is that it should be followed rather than
it must be followed. This may allow the designer some scope to use
engineering judgement when detailing the transverse reinforcement,
e.g increasing the lap length may reduce the amount of transverse
reinforcement.
All the bars in a section can be lapped at one location if the bars are in
one layer. If more than one layer is required, then the laps should be
staggered.
A design procedure to determine a lap length is given in Figure 9 and,
as can be seen in the flow chart, the initial steps are the same as for the
calculation of an anchorage length.
Design lap length, l0 = 1 2 3 5 6 lb,rqd l0,min
(Eq. 8.10 in BS EN 1992-1-1)
Recommendations
The largest possible savings in lap and anchorage length can be
obtained by considering the stress in the bar where it is lapped or
anchored.
For most locations, the old rule of thumb of lap lengths being equal to
40 should be sufficient. For this to be the case, the engineer should
use their judgement and should satisfy themselves that the lap and
anchorage locations are away from locations of high stress for the bars
being lapped or anchored. Where it is not possible to lap or anchor away
from those areas of high stress, the lengths will need to be up to the
values given in Table 2.
This article presents the rules currently set out in EC2. However, there
has been significant recent research which may find its way into the
next revision of the Eurocode. For example, research into the effect of
staggering on the strength of the lap (6) was discussed by John Cairns
in Structural Concrete (the fib journal) in 20146. In the review of the
Eurocodes, the detailing rules have been the subject of 208 comments
(18% of the total for EC2) and it is acknowledged that the rules need to
be simplified in the next revision.
References:
2) Bond A. J., Brooker O., Harris A. J. et al. (2011) How to Design Concrete
Structures using Eurocode 2, Camberley, UK: MPA The Concrete Centre
where:
1
In most cases either the laps will all occur at the same location, which is
100% lapped and where 6 = 1.5, or the laps will be staggered, which is
50% lapped and where 6 = 1.4.
www.concretecentre.com I 11
Introduction
Essentially, the span-to-effective-depth method is a hand method
based on experience, justified by various reports1,2. The L/d method also
serves as a very useful and valuable hand check on computer outputs.
According to Section 7.4.2 of BS EN 1992-1-13 (Eurocode 2) and fib Model
Code 20104, its use will be adequate for avoiding deflection problems
in normal circumstances. The main attraction of the method is that it
avoids the need to undertake laborious calculations.
While according to Eurocode 05, deflection limits should be agreed with
clients, generally the limits implicit in the L/d verification of deflection
of concrete structures are L/250 overall and L/500 post partitions (i.e. for
deflection affecting partitions, brittle finishes, etc.).
The current L/d method
In simple terms, the current BS EN 1992 L/d method means verifying
that:
Allowable L/d = N x K x F1 x F2 x F3 actual L/d (1)
where:
N = basic span-to-effective-depth ratio derived for K = 1.0 from the
formulae:
if 0
or if > 0
Factors F1, F2 and F3 have been used here for convenience, they are
not symbols used in BS EN 1992-1-1. According to the notes to Table
NA.5 of the UK National Annex (NA)6 warnings are given that the values
of K may not be appropriate when formwork is struck at an early age.
L/d may not exceed 40K
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Notes
1 For two-way spanning slabs, the check should be
carried out on the basis of the shorter span.
2 This graph assumes simply supported span
condition (K = 1.0).
K = 1.5 for interior span condition
K = 1.3 for end span condition
K = 0.4 for cantilevers
3 Compression reinforcement, r, has been taken as 0.
4 Curves based on the following expressions:
l
1.5 fck r 0
+ 3.2
= K 11 +
r
d
fck
( )]
1.5
r0
1
r
where r r 0
and
l
1.5 fck r 0
+
= K 11 +
d
( r r )
fck
12
r
r0
where r > r 0 .
Figure 2 Typical loading and deflection history for slab in multistorey building
Figure 4 L/d for simply supported slabs supporting imposed load of 2.5kN/m2
Results using this method do not give a good match with span-todepth ratios derived by calculating deflections rigorously under
quasi-permanent loading (Figures 3 and 4)
1.0
1.3
1.5
1.2
Cantilevers
0.4
The method for adjustment when providing more reinforcement
than required for flexure (based on steel service stress) is not
conservative
The most substantiated comments came from Vollum10. The significant
reductions in slab thickness initially allowed by BS EN 1992-1-1,
compared to those allowed by BS 8110, were met with some scepticism
in the UK and modifications were made via the UK NA to EC26 (as
outlined earlier). Vollum showed that the EC2 span-to-depth rules do
not account for cracking during construction; variations in effective
depth over thickness (d/h), varying serviceability/ultimate loading ratio
(w/wu) or the effect of restraint at the external supports.
www.concretecentre.com I 13
These issues have led some to suggest that the L/d method should be
deleted from standards. However, to do so would be to deny designers
a valuable tool and feel for their designs, although there is clearly room
for improvement.
Rigorous method of assessing deflection
Here, it is worth explaining the rigorous method according to BS EN
1992-1-1, Cl. 7.4.3. A section will crack if it experiences a serviceability
moment exceeding its moment capacity at the time Mcr(t). If a section
is cracked, then its inertia is much less than that of the uncracked section
and so curvature is much greater in cracked sections. Cracked sections
and greater degrees of cracking lead to larger curvatures and deflections
(Figure 5).
Economically designed horizontal elements act somewhere between
wholly uncracked and wholly cracked. Slabs tend to be less highly
stressed and are cracked along only part of their spans. Beams tend
to be more highly stressed and crack along much more of their spans.
Actions are applied at different times and these actions may or may
not cause cracking depending upon the flexural tensile strength of the
concrete at the time. Once cracked, a section is assumed to stay cracked
but some tensile stiffening occurs in the concrete between cracks. So
the mean inertia of the segment is somewhere between those for wholly
uncracked or wholly cracked sections. When considering curvatures,
these different actions incur different creep coefficients, which affect
the applicable effective modulus of the concrete used in assessing
curvatures.
BS EN 1992-1-1 (and MC2010) state that an adequate prediction of
behaviour and the mean curvature in a discreet element (Figure 6) is
given by:
1/rm = (2 + 2cs) + (1 )(1 + 1cs)
where:
rm = mean radius
= 1 (Mcr/M)2
where:
= 1.0 for short-term and = 0.5 for long-term loading. For
construction loads, conservatively10 = 0.70
Mcr = cracking moment
M = SLS moment
1 = M/EceffI1 = curvature of uncracked section
2 = M/EceffI2 = curvature of cracked section
where:
Eceff = Ecm/(1 + )
where:
Ecm = modulus at 28 days
= creep coefficient
I1, I2 = inertias of the uncracked and cracked sections
1cs, 2cs = shrinkage curvature
This rigorous method is described in greater detail elsewhere11,12
and is supported by site-based research10,13,14.
Greater accuracy may be achieved by considering small increments of
span and computing relevant curvatures and thus overall deflections.
The method involves numerical integration, which is tedious by hand
but can, of course, be undertaken by computer, notably by spreadsheet
software.
14 I www.concretecentre.com
Peak deflections are calculated under the frequent load case; the
increment in load freq perm should be treated as an instantaneous
load in the calculation of ELT
where:
freq = the frequent UDL action for the SLS and
perm = the permanent UDL action, including quasi-permanent
variable actions, for the SLS
ELT = the equivalent long-term modulus of the concrete, dependant
on loading and age at time of loading11,12
For each span and imposed load the depth of the slab was iterated
such that all design criteria were met and As,prov = As,req.
www.thestructuralengineer.org
Structural Design of Concrete and Masonry
33
Uncracked
response
E=0.5
Mu
Tension stiffening
Fully cracked
response
Curvature \
\cs1 \cs2
Figure 5 Typical momentcurvature response
Figure 5
With
respect
to continuity,
rigorous analysis showed good correlation
Table
2: Basic
L/d ratios
with the K factors in Table 1.
Span (m)
4.0
5.0
6.0
Figure 6
Acknowledgement
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
24.3
22.2
20.7
19.6
18.4
17.8
17.2
16.7
Span (m)
37.8
30.7
27.1
37.8
31.2
27.6
25.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
30.3
24.6
27.5
23.2
25.4
22.5
23.6
21.5
22.9
8.0
22.0
20.4
21.4
9.0
20.5
19.5
20.1
10.0
19.4
18.6
37.8
30.7
27.1
24.3
22.2
20.7
19.6
37.8
31.2
27.6
25.0
22.9
21.4
30.3
27.5
30.6
25.4
23.6
22.0
20.5
2
2
Imposed
= 5kN/m
Imposed
loadload
= 10kN/m
28.3
24.6
27.3
23.
26.5
22.5
25.6
21.5
23.8
20.4
25.9
25.2
24.5
23.9
24.1
31.9
23.5
30.6
23.0
29.3
22.4
28.2
Imposed
load
= 7.5kN/m
L/d
ratio using
Cl 7.4.2(2):
Imposed
= 10kN/m
Imposed
loadload
= 2.5kN/m
2
31.9
29.3
28.2
18.9
11.0
18.4
17.8
18.2
12.0
17.7
17.2
17.6
13.0
17.2
16.7
17.2
14.0
16.8
16.3
18.4
17.8
17.2
16.7
20.1
18.9
18.2
17.6
17.2
19.4
22.2
20.8
18.4
17.7
17.2
16.8
22.3
19.5
20.9
18.6
19.6
17.8
18.5
17.2
17.5
16.7
16.4
16.3
22.3
20.9
19.7
18.6
17.6
16.7
15.9
21.0
26.0
19.7
23.9
18.6
22.2
17.6
20.8
16.7
19.5
15.9
18.3
15.1
17.3
26.0
23.9
19.5
18.3
17.3
Imposed
5kN/m2 fyk = 500MPa; As,prov = A
28.3
26.5 long-term
25.6deection
23.8limit L/250,
22.3 post-construction
20.9
19.6
18.5 L/500 17.5
Notes: fload
30MPa;
1.5kN/m2 and
deection limit
ck = =
s,req; SDL =27.3
16.4
25.9
25.2
24.5
23.9
22.3
20.9
19.7
18.6
17.6
16.7
15.9
24.1
23.5
23.0
22.4
21.0
19.7
18.6
17.6
16.7
15.9
15.1
Notes: ck = 30MPa; yk = 500MPa; As,prov = As,req; SDL = 1.5kN/m2 and long-term deflection limit L/250, post-construction deflection limit L/500
TSE44_30-34 CDG v1.indd 33
24/07/2015 09:10
www.concretecentre.com I 15
References:
1) Beeby A. W. (1971) TR456: Modified Proposals for Controlling
Deflections by Means of Ratios of Span to Effective Depth, Wexham
Springs, UK: Cement and Concrete Association
2) Corres Peiretti H., Prez Caldentey A., Lpez Ag J. C. and Edtbauer
J. (2002) EC2 serviceability limit states: deflections. Supporting
document: first draft, 15 June 2002, Madrid, Spain: Grupo de Hormign
Estructural ETSICCP UPM
3) British Standards Institution (2004) BS EN 1992-1-1:2004+A1:2014
Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules and rules for
buildings, London, UK: BSI
4) fib (2013) Model Code for Concrete Structures 2010, Berlin, Germany:
Ernst & Sohn
16 I www.concretecentre.com
Concrete does not normally need any further protection against fire due
to its thermal conductivity properties and the fact that it does not burn.
The design of concrete slabs and beams is not generally affected by fire
design requirements. However, fire design requirements can be
a governing factor in the sizing of columns, particularly in multistorey
buildings. This article therefore concentrates on the guidance given
in Eurocode 2 on the sizing of concrete columns for different fire
resistance periods.
Methods
Guidance on fire design to EC2 is given in part 1-2 (BS EN 1992-1-2)1
and is much more extensive than in the previous codes. For the design
of columns and walls there are basically three design methods available
to the engineer:
tabular data
simplified calculation methods
advanced calculation methods
Most of the columns that have been tested have been square columns;
therefore, the tabulated data for columns assume square or circular
columns. Rectangular columns are not covered in Method B, but can be
modelled, to a certain extent, in Method A.
Fin or blade columns are not covered by the tabulated data until they
are greater than a width-to-thickness ratio of 4:1 (h:b). At this point,
EC2 part 1-1 (BS EN 1992-1-1)2 states that they are walls, and the column
should be designed as a wall at both normal temperatures and in a fire.
If a column needs to be designed to fit into a partition, the use of blade
columns with a ratio of 4:1 or greater has been common for many years,
as by definition these are walls.
The tabulated data are given for braced structures only. However, the
background document for the UK, PD 6687-13, states that the tabulated
data can be used to size unbraced columns, at the discretion of the
designer. In critical cases it recommends that Annex B, which details
the simplified methods, be used. It justifies the use of tabulated data for
both braced and unbraced columns on historical grounds.
0.8
0.7
Introduction
fi = 0.9
0.6
0.7
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0
0.2
G = 1.35
Q = 1.50
0.5
1.0
1.5
Qk,1/Gk
2.0
2.5
3.0
Figure 1 Reduction factor fi when Exp. 6.10 of EC2 has been used
For all the different method types, the axial load on the element
compared to the capacity of the column or wall is key to the design.
A lightly loaded column will be able to resist a fire for a much longer
period than the same column when fully loaded.
www.concretecentre.com I 17
T
Structural Design of Concrete and Masonry
bfi
b
T - Tension
b) Fire expos
the compr
500 C
hfi
Loading
The load under fire conditions can be reduced from the loads taken
for normal temperature design. Generally, the effect of the loads
Ed, = Ed where Ed is the design moment, axial load, shear force, etc.
under normal temperature loads.
bfi
b
Gk + 1,1 Qk,1
1.35Gk + 1.5 Qk,1
Gk + 1,1 Qk,1
1.25Gk + 1.5 Qk,1
where:
Qk,1 is the main variable action under consideration. Only one variable
action need be considered in the fire design
1,1 is the appropriate factor for the frequent value of the main
variable action
Tabular methods
Columns: Method A
Method A has the more stringent limitations of the two tabulated
data methods:
the effective length of column under fire conditions l0, 3m.
For a braced structure, the effective length can be taken as
0.5l, i.e. l 6m for intermediate floors and 0.5l l0, 0.7l, i.e. l
4.2m for top floors, where l is the actual length of the column
Effective length 3m
30
30 80
30 80
30 80
200 b 450
150 b 600
150 b 600
150 b 600
150 b 600
e 0.025b but
e 10mm
e 0.25b but
e 100mm
e 0.5b but
e 200mm
Table C1
Table C2
Table C3
Table C4
Table C5
Table C6
Table C7
Table C8
Table C9
Minimum dimensions
Eccentricity
e 0.15b
= 0.1
Table 5.2a*
= 0.5
= 1.0
Jenny Burridge
e 0.25b
Concrete & Fire
Version 1
Chap 7 Fig
7.7
Table 5.2b
10.09.08
Amendments
23.02.09, 25.06.09
Note
* 4% reinforcement
All columns must be braced
b is the smallest dimension of a rectangular column, or the diameter of the column
Mechanical reinforcement ratio
Slenderness ratio
Lofi
i
Asfyd
Acfcd
18 I www.concretecentre.com
Table 2: Minimum column dimensions and axis distances for square and circular columns
Exposed condition
Load level fi
R, = 83 1
R 60
R 90
R 120
R 180
R 240
0.2
200/25
200/25
200/30
300/25
250/38
350/33
350/52
450/47
350/68
0.5
200/25
200/32
300/27
300/40
400/35
350/49
450/43
350/68
450/62
450/78
0.7
200/26
300/25
250/40
350/35
350/48
450/43
350/59
450/54
450/75
450/73
0.7
155/25
155/25
155/25
175/35
230/55
295/70
fcd,fi (20)
(1 + )
(0.85 / acc) +
xbfifcd,fi (20)
Fs = As fscd,fi (
As
z
dfi
As
As1fsd,fi (
m)
Fs = As2fsd,fi (
m)
bfi
Mu = Mu1 + Mu2
As = As1 + As2
Figure 3 Stress distribution at ultimate limit state for rectangular concrete cross-section
with compression reinforcement
wall thickness
Amendments
24.02.09, 26.02.09, 29.06.09, 13.11.09
40
www.concretecentre.com I 19
Wall
kc (
The rounded corners of the residual section reflect the real profile
of the isotherm and may be approximated to a rectangle (Figure 2);
some interpretation may be required.
m1)
a z1
a z1
a z1
a z1
a z1
W1
Wall end
M1
W1
W1
W1
Column
kc (
m1)
a z1
a z1
a z1
W1
W1
Table 2: Minimum column dimensions and axis distances for square and circular columns
Load level at normal
temperature
conditions
(n)
0.15
0.3
0.5
0.7
Reinforcement ratio
R 60
R 90
R 120
R 180
R 240
0.1%
150/25
150/30
200/25
200/40
250/25
250/50
350/25
400/50
500/25
500/60
550/25
0.5%
150/25
150/25
150/35
200/25
200/45
300/25
300/45
450/25
450/45
500/25
1.0%
150/25
150/25
200/25
200/40
250/25
300/35
400/25
400/45
500/25
0.1%
150/25
200/40
300/25
300/40
400/25
400/50
550/25
500/60
550/25
550/40
600/25
0.5%
150/25
150/35
200/25
200/45
300/25
300/45
550/25
450/50
600/25
550/55
600/25
1.0%
150/25
150/30
200/25
200/40
300/25
250/50
400/25
450/50
550/25
500/40
600/30
0.1%
200/30
250/25
300/40
500/25
500/50
550/25
550/25
550/60
600/30
600/75
0.5%
150/25
250/35
350/25
300/45
550/25
450/50
600/25
500/60
600/50
600/70
1.0%
150/25
250/40
400/25
250/40
550/25
450/45
600/30
500/60
600/45
600/60
0.1%
300/30
350/25
500/25
550/40
600/25
550/60
600/45
>600
>600
0.5%
200/30
250/25
350/40
550/25
500/50
600/40
500/60
600/50
600/75
>600
1.0%
200/30
300/25
300/50
600/30
500/50
600/45
600/60
>600
>600
20 I www.concretecentre.com
Jenny Burridge
Concrete & Fire
Version 1
Chap 7 Fig 7.9
05.09.08
Amendments
ge
ire
.12
80
70
1.0
FRR
60
240 min
0.8
50
FRR
30 min
120 min
30
90 min
k c ( m )
az
180 min
40
0.6
0.4
20
10
0
0
90 min
120 min
60 min
30 min
60 min
0.2
180 min
240 min
50
100
150
w (mm)
200
250
300
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
w (mm)
Load level fi
REI 60
REI 90
REI 120
REI 180
0.35
100/10*
110/10*
120/20*
150/25
180/40
REI 240
230/55
0.7
120/10*
130/10*
140/25
160/35
210/50
270/60
0.35
120/10*
120/10*
140/10*
160/25
200/45
250/55
0.7
120/10*
140/10*
170/25
220/35
270/55
350/60
Note
* Normally the cover required by BE EN 1992-1-1 will control
Design notes according to 5.4.2 of BS EN 1992-1-2:
A. The tabular data can be used for plain concrete walls
B. For calcareous aggregates, the minimum wall thickness can be reduced by 10%
C. To prevent excessive thermal deformation and subsequent integrity failure between wall and slab, the ratio of clear wall height to wall thickness should not exceed 40
b =
d =
z=
z =
As =
As1 =
As2 =
As =
Jenny Burridge
www.concretecentre.com I 21
R 60
R 90
R 120
R 180
R 240
Minimum
width of crosssection (mm)
90
120
160
200
280
References:
1) British Standards Institution (2010) BS EN 1992-1-2:2004 Eurocode 2.
Design of concrete structures. General rules. Structural fire design,
London, UK: BSI
The impact of a major fire at Tytherington County High School, Cheshire was limited due to the fire resistance of the concrete structure.
22 I www.concretecentre.com
No. Eurocode
2: Eurocode6:6:Design
Design of
ofmasonry
masonry
structures for vertical loads
This series is produced by The Concrete Centre to enable designers to realise the potential
of concrete.
The Concrete Centre, part of the Mineral Products Association (MPA), is a team of qualied
professionals with expertise in concrete construction, engineering and architecture.
www.concretecentre.com
roduction
t 2 coversBS
aspects
of design,
EN 1996-1-1
was firstmaterials
published in 2005 along with BS EN 1996-1-2.
3
workmanship
while
Part
3 looks
after
BS EN 1996-2 and 1996-3
were
published in 2006. The corresponding
Figure 1
German need
for
simpli
ed
calculation
National Annexes bear the same dates. Corrigenda
were
issued
Modi
cations
to K for units
4
thods . Masonry
bridges
covered
with
generalwas
purpose
mortar
to Part 1-1
in 2006are
andnot
2009,
and in 2012 laid
a new
version
published
EC6. Eachincorporating
part has a corresponding
UK the 2012 changes to BS EN 1996Amendment 1. While
58
onal annex
. relatively small, the opportunity was taken to update the
1-1 are
BS EN 1996-1-1
was rstUK
published
in
corresponding
National Annex
based on feedback from use and
05 along with
BS EN 1996-1-2.
recalibration
of some ofBS
the EN
outcomes. The discussion and observations
6-2 and 1996-3
were
in 2006.
that follow
arepublished
therefore related
to the 2012 version of the UK National
e corresponding
National
Annexes
Annex to BS EN 1996-1-1. bear
same dates. Corrigenda were issued
A further
Standards
Institution (BSI) publication, PD 66979,
Part 1-1 in 2006
andBritish
2009,
and in 2012
published
in 2010.
This covers recommendations for the design
ew versionwas
was
published
incorporating
masonry
to BS EN 1996-1-1 and BS EN 1996-2 and
endment 1.ofWhile
thestructures
2012 changes
encompasses
the useful
design information previously contained
BS EN 1996-1-1
are relatively
small,
1012
in
BS
5628
,
which
does
opportunity was taken to updatenot
theconflict with the principles contained
in UK
EC6.National Annex based
responding
feedback from
use
and
recalibration
EC6 has
been
developed
to enable the designer to use the following
ome of the
outcomes.
The
discussion
types of masonry unit:
clay, calcium silicate, aggregate concrete,
observations
that follow
therefore
autoclaved
aeratedare
concrete
(aircrete), manufactured stone and natural
ted to thestone.
2012European
version of
the UKfor these materials have been published
Standards
ional Annex
to BS
by the
BSI EN
and 1996-1-1.
form part of an array of standards relating to masonryA further British
Standards
Institution
(BSI)test methods.
related products and
the associated
blication, PD 66979, was published in 2010.
The standards supporting
EC6design
were developed within a common
s covers recommendations
for the
framework to
butBS
it did
prove possible
masonry structures
ENnot
1996-1-1
and to standardise all the
test methods used by the different materials from which masonry
Concrete v3.indd 38
22/01/2015 12:26
www.concretecentre.com I 23
Table 1: Value of partial factors for materials for ultimate limit states
Material
2.3
2.7
Units of category II
2.6
3.0
2.0
Units of category II
2.3
2.3
2.7
2.0
2.4
2.5
2.5
2*
Masonry
2.0
Anchorage of reinforcing
steel
1.5
2.0
Ancillary components
wall ties
3.0
3.0
Ancillary components
straps
1.5**
1.5**
See NA to BS EN 845-2
See NA to BS EN 845-2
*
Class 1 of execution control should be assumed whenever the work is carried out following the
recommendations for workmanship in BS EN 19962, including appropriate supervision and inspection, and
in addition:
i) the specification, supervision and control ensure that the construction is compatible with the use of the
appropriate partial safety factors given in BS EN 199611
ii) the mortar conforms to BS EN 998-2, if it is factory made mortar. If the mortar is site mixed, preliminary
compressive strength tests, in accordance with BS EN 1015-2 and 1015-11, are carried on the mixture of sand,
lime (if any) and cement that is intended to be used (the proportions given in Table NA.2 may be used initially
for the tests) in order to confirm that the strength requirements of the specification can be met; the proportions
may need to be changed to achieve the required strengths and the new proportions are then to be used for the
work on site. Regular compressive strength testing is carried out on samples from the site mortar to check that
the required strengths are being achieved.
Class 2 of execution control should be assumed whenever the work is carried out following the
recommendations for workmanship in BS EN 19962, including appropriate supervision.
When considering the effects of misuse or accident these values may be halved.
Class 2 of execution control is not considered appropriate for reinforced masonry and should not be used.
However, masonry wall panels reinforced with bed joint reinforcement used:
i) to enhance the lateral strength of the masonry panel or
ii) to limit or control shrinkage or expansion of the masonry can be considered to be unreinforced masonry for
the purpose of class of execution control and the unreinforced masonry direct or flexural compression M values
are appropriate for use.
When considering the effects of misuse or accident these values should be taken as 1.0.
For horizontal restraint straps, unless otherwise specified, the declared ultimate load capacity depends
on there being a design compressive stress in the masonry of at least 0.4N/mm2. When a lower stress due to
design loads may be acting, for example when autoclaved aerated concrete or lightweight aggregate concrete
masonry is used, the manufacturers advice should be sought and a partial safety factor of 3 should be used.
**
24 I www.concretecentre.com
Number 2
40
TheStructuralEngineer
February 2015
Technical
Concrete design
Figure 2
Wall stiffened
by piers
General
purpose
mortar
Thin layer
Lightweight mortar of density d
(kg/m3)
mortar (bed joint
0.5mm and
Table 2: Values of K to be used with
Equation 3.1
3mm)
Masonry unit
General
purpose mortar
Clay
Group 1
0.50
0.75
0.30
0.40
Clay
Group Group
2
1
Group 2
Group 3 and 4
0.40
*
Group 3 and 4
0.50
0.70 0.75
0.25
0.30
0.40 0.30
0.40
0.70
0.25
0.30
0.50
Group 2
Group 2
0.50
0.80 0.80
0.40
0.70
0.40
0.70
Aggregate concrete
Group 1
0.75
0.90
0.45
0.45
Group 1 (units
0.50
0.70
0.40
0.40
Aggregate concrete
Group 1
laid flat)
0.75
Group 2
0.50
Group 1 (units
laid at)
Group 3 and 4
0.70
Group 1
0.70
Group Autoclaved
2
0.70
aerated
concrete
Group 3 and 4
0.90
0.75
Manufactured stone
Group aerated
1
0.75
Autoclaved
concrete
Dimensioned natural stone
Group 1
Group 1
0.75
0.45
0.45
0.76
0.40
0.45
0.45
0.76
*
0.45
0.40
0.45
0.45
0.90
0.45
0.45
0.90
0.90
0.45
*
the results of
K b m is determined
[Equationfrom
3.1 of
BS EN 151996-1-1]
k =masonry)
The tests are carried out on small wallette
where:
specimens rather than the storey-height
used
in BS 5628. compressive
The designer has
is the
characteristic
strength of the masonry,
k panels
the option of2either having the units intended
in N/mm
to be
used in a project tested or to use the
K values
is a constant
determined from the UK national
The latter values are provided
, database.
are constants
in the UK National Annex in the form of
b theisconstants
the normalised
mean compressive strength of the units,
to be used in the following
in the direction of the applied action effect, in N/mm2
equation:
m is the compressive strength of the mortar, in N/mm2
fk = K fb fm [Equation 3.1 of BS EN
Values of K to be used1996-1-1]
with Equation 3.1 are provided in the UK National
Annex Table NA.4 and are shown in Table 2.
where:
0.45
*
*
Manufactured
stone
Group 3 and
4 units have not traditionally been used in the UK, so no values are available.
and mortar combinations have not traditionally been usedin the UK, so no values are
available.
If Group 1 aggregate concrete units contain formed vertical voids in the normal direction,
Dimensioned
stone
multiply K natural
by (100 - n)/100,
where n is the percentage of voids, maximum 25%.
When aggregate concrete masonry units are to be used laid flat the normalised strength of the unit should be
calculated using the width and height of the unit in
the upright position along
with the compressive strengthof
Group 1
0.45
These masonry unit and mortar combinations have not traditionally been used in the UK, so no values are available.
If Group 1 aggregate concrete units contain formed vertical voids in the normal direction, multiply K by (100 - n)/100,
where n is the percentage of voids, maximum 25%.
When aggregate concrete masonry units are to be used laid at the normalised strength of the unit should be calculated
using the width and height of the unit in the upright position along with the compressive strength of the unit tested in the
upright position.
Note
Where a mortar joint is parallel to the face of the wall K should be modied (Figure 1).
wide by 100mm
high masonry
The100mm
characteristic
compressive
strength of masonry (other than shellunit. The detail is contained in the test
bedded
masonry)
is
determined
from the results of tests in accordance
methods for masonry units in BS EN 772The
are carried
with114BS
ENadvantage
1052-115. to
. The
thetests
designer
is that out on small wallette
the normalised
independent panels used in BS 5628. The
specimens
rather strength
than theisstorey-height
of the size of the units used in the nal
designer has the option of either having the units intended to be used
construction thereby obviating the need
in afor
project
tested or
the
values
determined
from the UK national
recalculation
if ato
diffuse
erent
size
of unit
is
selected.
database.
The latter values are provided in the UK National Annex in the
The characteristic compressive strength
form of
the constants to be used in the following equation:
tests in accordance with BS EN 1052-1 .
Calcium
silicate
Calcium
silicate
Group Group
1
1
mortar, in N/mm2
22/01/2015 12:26
www.concretecentre.com I 25
www.thestructuralengineer.org
41
Figure 3
Values of m against slenderness ratio for different eccentricities, based on E of 1000fk
tef =
t 1 + t32 3
3
=
1 + 2
where:
is the effective thickness of the
1
outer or unloaded leaf
ist thethe
effective
thickness of the outer or unloaded leaf
effective thickness of the inner
2
the effective
thickness
of the inner or loaded leaf
or loaded leaf
where: t
t1
t2
Note that
the
effective
thickness
of the
leaf should not be
Note
that
the effective
thickness
ofunloaded
the
leaf should
taken to of
bethe loaded leaf and that ties
takenunloaded
to be greater
than not
thebe
thickness
greater
than the at
thickness
. loaded leaf
should
be provided
2.5 per of
m2the
and that ties should be provided at 2.5 per
m.
The slenderness
ratio of the wall is obtained by dividing the effective
The slenderness ratio of the wall is
height by the effective thickness and should not be greater than 27 for
obtained by dividing the effective height by
wallsthe
subjected
mainly vertical
loading.
effectiveto
thickness
and should
not be
2
Figure 3 Values of m against slenderness ratio for different eccentricities, based on E of 1000k
Whenvertical
a wallloading.
is subjected to vertical loads which result in an eccentricity
a wall
is subjected
vertical
at rightWhen
angles
to the
line of thetowall,
EC6loads
requires the resistance of the
which
result in an
at right angles
wall to
be checked
at eccentricity
the top, mid-height
and bottom.
to the line of the wall, EC6 requires the
resistance ofof
the
wall
to be
checked
at the
The eccentricity
the
load
at the
top and
bottom of the wall is given by:
designation
mortars
has1-1.
also changed
the need
for
a of the
top, mid-height and bottom.
NA.2.4 The
of the
UK Nationalof
Annex
to Part
h iswith
the clear
storey
height
eccentricity of the load at the top and
The designation
mortars
also rather than mix
wall
MThe
declarationofbased
onhas
strength
proportions. Thus, an
id
ehethe
+ ewall
0.05t
changed with the need for a declaration
n is a reduction
factor, where n = 2, ei = bottom+of
int is given by:
M12 mortar may be expected to have a strength
of 12N/mm2. Equivalent
Nid
based on strength rather than mix
3 or 4, depending upon the
mixesThus,
are shown
National
Table NA.2
andrestraint
are shown
inening
Tableof4.the
proportions.
an M12in
mortar
may Annex
be
edge
or stiff
where: = id +
i
he + init 0.05
expected to have a strength of 12N/mm2.
wall. The reduction factor to be
Eccentricity
id
applied depends upon the restraint M is the design
Equivalent mixes are shown in National
value of the bending moment at the top or the
id
where:
offered by adjoining elements
Annex Table NA.2 and are shown in Table 4.
A further area of change for vertical load relates to the treatment of
bottom
wallvalue
resulting
eccentricity of the floor load at
Mid is of
thethe
design
of thefrom
bending
eccentricity, where a frame analysis approach
is implied
than
the tmin
the support
The value
for the rather
minimum
thickness
Eccentricity
moment at the top or the bottom
A further
change forofvertical
load that any
of the wall
resulting
of eccentricity
a load-bearing
BSarea
5628ofapproach
assuming
atwall
the should
top of be
thetaken as Nid is the design
value
of thefrom
vertical load at the top or the bottom of
relates to the treatment of eccentricity,
eccentricity of the oor load at the
90mm for a single-leaf wall and 75mm for
wall reduces to zero at the bottom of the
wall. The use of a frame analysis
the wall
where a frame analysis approach is implied
support
the leaves of a cavity wall. For a single-leaf
will not
usually
justifiedofgiven typical
UKa construction
practice
eccentricity
theof
top
bottom of the wall resulting from
rather than
the BS
5628be
approach
wall,
double-leaf wall,
a facedand
wall,ita shell-ehe isNthe
is the designat
value
theorvertical
id
assuming
thatacceptable
any eccentricity
at the
the BS
top5628 approach.
bedded wall and a grouted cavity wall the imposed
load
at the top loads
or the bottom of the
is still
to use
horizontal
of the wall reduces to zero at the bottom
effective thickness tef is taken as the actuale is the initial
wall eccentricity resulting from construction imperfections
init
is used to allow
for anyofinaccuracies
An initial
eccentricity
of the wall.
The use
of a frame eanalysis
thickness
the wall t. in the
ehe is the eccentricity at the top or
init
and may
be taken as h /450
will notconstruction
usually be justi
given
typicaland is takenWhen
a wall
stiffened
(Figure
bottom of the wallefresulting from
ofed
the
masonry
as einit
= hefis/450
wherebyhpiers
is the
ef
UK construction practice and it is still
2), the effective thickness is given by the
imposed horizontal loads
effective height of the wall. The initial eccentricity is applied to the full
acceptable to use the BS 5628 approach.
coefficients contained in Table 5.1 of BS EN
einit is the initial eccentricity resulting
height
of the wall
to result
in the greatest value of eccentricity.
An initial
eccentricity
Table 3: Values of K to be used with Equation 3.1
einitsois as
used
to allow
for any inaccuracies in the construction of
Masonry unit
Masonry unit
is obtained
applying
The effective
height
a masonry wall hTable
3: Values by
to be
used inaEquation 3.1
the masonry
and is taken
as eof
ef
init = hef/450
factor
toeff
the
clearheight
height
of the
wall such that:
where h
ective
of the
wall.
ef is the
Type of mortar
The initial eccentricity is applied to the
h
hef =
full height
ofthe
n wall so as to result in the
General purpose mortar
greatest value of eccentricity.
Values to be used
=
0.85
and = 0
h
is the
clear
storey height of the wall
height of
the wall
such
that:
Thin layer mortar in bed joints of thickness 0.53mm (using
clay units of Group 1, calcium silicate units, aggregate
3 or 4, depending
upon the aerated
edge concrete
n is a reduction factor, where n = 2,concrete
units and autoclaved
units)
clay units
of Group 2)
= 0.85 and = 0
= 0.7 and = 0
= 0.7 and = 0
22/01/2015 12:26
Table 4: Acceptable assumed equivalent mixes for prescribed masonry mortars for Class 2 of execution control
Compressive
strength class*
Mortar designation
Severe(S)
M12
1 : 0 to : 3
1:3
Not suitable
Not suitable
(i)
M6
1 : : 4 to 4
1 : 3 to 4
1 : 2 to 3
1:3
(ii)
Severe(S)
M4
1 : 1 : 5 to 6
1 : 5 to 6
1 : 4 to 5
1 : 3 to 4
(iii)
Moderate(M)
M2
1 : 2 : 8 to 9
1 : 7 to 8
1 : 5 to 6
1 : 4
(iv)
Passive(P)
The number following the M is the compressive strength for the class at 28 days in N/mm2 that may be assumed for the proportions given in columns 2 to 4; site compressive strength testing is not required for these traditional mixes.
Checking of prescribed mortars should only be done by testing the proportions of the constituents.
Cement or combinations of cement (which include CEM I and many CEM IIs) in accordance with NA.2.3.2, except masonry cements
Masonry cement in accordance with NA.2.3.2 (inorganic filler other than lime)
Notes
When the sand portion is given as, for example, 5 to 6, the lower figure should be used with sands containing a higher proportion of fines whilst the higher figure should be used with sands containing a lower proportion of fines.
For Class 2 of execution control site compressive strength testing is not required for these traditional mixes and checking of prescribed mortars should only be done by testing the proportions of the constituents.
Determine normalized
compressive strength, fb.
i = 1 2
Determine design value of
vertical actions (per unit
length), Ed, using Expression
(6.10), (6.10a) or (6.10b) of
Eurocode (see Introduction to
Eurocode 6)
Check complete
Figure4 Flow chart for design of masonry walls to resist vertical actions
The eccentricity at the mid-height of the wall emk includes the initial
eccentricity einit, the horizontal load eccentricity ehm, and the load
eccentricity em.
The mid-height eccentricity emk is:
emk = em + ek which must be greater than or equal to 0.05t
em =
Mmd
Nmd
where:
i is the reduction factor at the top or bottom of the wall
t
Check Ed NRd
ei
At the top or bottom of the wall, the reduction factor for slenderness and
eccentricity is given by:
+ ehm + ei
where:
Mmd is the design value of the greatest moment at the middle height of
the wall resulting from the moments at the top and bottom of the
wall, including any load applied eccentrically to the face of the wall
Nmd is the design value of the vertical load at the middle height of the
wall, including any load applied eccentrically to the face of the wall
ehm is the eccentricity at the middle of the wall resulting from imposed
horizontal loads
ek is the creep eccentricity and, in the UK, can be ignored if the
slenderness ratio is not greater than 27
www.concretecentre.com I 27
For sections of small plan area, less than 0.1m2, d should be multiplied
by (0.7 + 3A), where A is the loadbearing horizontal cross-sectional area
of the wall in m2.
A flow chart for vertical load design is provided in Figure 4.
References:
1) British Standards Institution (2013) BS EN 1996-1-1:2005+A1:2012
Eurocode 6. Design of masonry structures. General rules for reinforced
and unreinforced masonry structures, London, UK: BSI
Concentrated loads
Concentrated loads are dealt with by a calculation approach using a
dispersion angle of 60. Only Group 1 masonry units may be enhanced.
For a Group 1 unit (not shell bedded) the vertical load resistance is
given by:
1 + 0.3
a1
hc
)(
1.5 1.1
Ab
Aef
(where Ab/Aef is not to be taken as greater than 0.45) which should not be
less than 1.0 nor taken to be greater than:
1.25 +
a1
2hc
where:
is an enhancement factor for load
a1 is the distance from the end of the wall to the nearer edge of the
loaded area
hc is the height of the wall to the level of the load
Ab is the loaded area
Aef is the effective area of the bearing
lefm is the effective length of the bearing as determined at the midheight of the wall or pier
t is the thickness of the wall, taking into account the depth of recesses
in joints greater than 5mm
For walls built with Groups 2, 3 and 4 masonry units, and when shell
bedding is used, it is necessary to check that, locally under the bearing
of a concentrated load, the design compressive stress does not exceed
the design compressive strength of the masonry fd (i.e. is taken to
be 1.0).
In any case, the eccentricity of the load from the centre line of the wall
should not be greater than t/4.
Further Reading:
1) Roberts J. J. and Brooker O. (2013) How to design masonry structures
using Eurocode 6. 1. Introduction to EC6, London, UK: MPA The Concrete
Centre
2) Roberts J. J. and Brooker O. (2013) How to design masonry structures
using Eurocode 6. 3. Vertical Resistance, London, UK: MPA The Concrete
Centre
3) Roberts J. J. and Brooker O. (2013) How to design masonry structures
using Eurocode 6. 3. Lateral resistance, London, UK: MPA The Concrete
Centre
28 I www.concretecentre.com
Introduction
Throughout this article the Nationally Determined Parameters (NDPs)
from the UK National Annexes (NAs) have been used. These enable
Eurocode 6 (BS EN 1996-1-1)2 to be applied in the UK.
Lateral loads
EC6 offers two approaches to the design of laterally loaded panels. The
first method relies on the flexural strength of the masonry and makes
use of yieldline analysis. The second method is an approach based on
arching and the assumption of a three-pinned arch being formed within
the wall. Figure 1 shows a flow chart for lateral load design.
The flexural strength approach is the most widely used and does
not depend upon rigid supports to resist arch thrust. Values of the
characteristic flexural strength of masonry are provided in Table NA.6 of
EC6 and are shown here in Table 1.
The assessment of the edge conditions is a requirement for the flexural
strength approach. A free edge is easily identified but some judgment
on the part of the engineer is necessary in deciding between simply
supported or fixed conditions. When considering the vertical support
condition, attention also needs to be paid to the potential position of
movement joints, and to the changes the provision of such joints makes
to the panel size and restraint conditions.
Where the walls are not rectangular (e.g. a trapezoidal-shaped wall to
a mono-pitched structure), engineering judgement may be applied to
determine the effective wall height.
Wall panels with openings need to be treated with care and may
typically be subdivided into smaller panels around the opening. It is
beyond the scope of this article to deal with the topic in detail and
reference should be made to suitable handbooks3. Alternatively, a yieldline analysis from first principles may be applied to wall panels4.
If a damp-proof course (DPC) is present in a wall subjected to flexure,
then the degree of fixity may be altered. The bending moment
coefficient at a DPC may be taken as that for an edge over which
full continuity exists, provided that there is sufficient vertical load on
the DPC to ensure that the flexural strength capacity is not exceeded.
Walls may be either horizontally or vertically spanning, or both, and the
ultimate strength of the wall is governed by the capacity of the masonry
to resist flexural tension. This capacity is enhanced by the presence of
xk1
M
+ d Z
where:
xk1 is the characteristic flexural strength of masonry bending about an
axis parallel to bed joints (Table 1)
M is the appropriate partial factor for materials
d is the design vertical load per unit area (<0.15NRd) taken where
the bending resistance is being considered
Z is the section modulus of the plan shape of the wall
www.concretecentre.com I 29
The analysis can be based upon a three-pin arch, and the bearing of the
arch thrust at the supports and at the central hinge should be assumed
to be 0.1 times the thickness of the wall.
Shear
vk = vko + 0.4d but not greater than 0.065b or vlt for fully filled mortar
joints
vk = 0.5vko + 0.4d but not greater than 0.045b or vlt for unfilled
perpend joints
where:
7. if MEd MRd then the wall is acceptable; if not, return to either step 1
or 2 and modify
8. check shear
In a cavity wall, the design lateral load per unit area WEd may be
apportioned (either according to capacity or stiffness) between
the two leaves, provided that the wall ties are capable of transmitting
the actions that result from the apportionment.
EC6 indicates that the flexural strength of masonry should not be used
in design of walls subjected to lateral earth pressure.
vlt is the limit value of vk which in the UK is taken as the limit 0.065b
and 0.045b respectively for filled and unfilled joints
h
Determine requirements
for mortar strength and
durability. See tables 5 & 6
of Introduction to Eurocode 6
Obtain height, h
Obtain thickness, t
Characteristic vertical
actions
Figure 1 Flow chart for design of masonry walls to resist lateral actions
30 I www.concretecentre.com
MRd1 = gxk1 + s d Z
M
Obtain fxk2 from Table 1 and calculate design moment
of resistance perpendicular to the bed joints, MRd2, where: z
f
MRd2 = gxk2 Z
M
Check shear
Values of xk2
Plane of failure perpendicular to bed joints
M6 & M4
M2
M12
M6 & M4
M2
0.4
2.0
1.5
1.2
0.7
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.35
1.5
1.1
1.0
Over 12%
0.4
0.3
0.25
1.1
0.9
0.8
0.2
0.9
0.6
0.3
0.2
0.9
0.6
Aggregate concrete masonry units and manufactured stone of Groups 1 and 2 and AAC masonry units used in walls of thickness up to 100mm,** of declared compressive strength (N/mm2):
2.9
0.4
0.4
3.6
0.25
0.2
0.45
0.4
7.3
0.6
0.5
Aggregate concrete masonry units and manufactured stone of Groups 1 and 2 and AAC masonry units used in walls of thickness of 250mm or greater ,** of declared compressive strength (N/mm2):
2.9
0.15
0.25
0.2
3.6
0.1
0.25
0.2
7.3
0.35
0.3
Aggregate concrete masonry units and manufactured stone of Groups 1 and 2 and AAC masonry units used in walls of any thickness of declared compressive strength (N/mm2):
10.4
0.25
0.2
17.5
0.75
0.6
0.9
0.7
Key
* Tests to determine the water absorption of clay masonry units are to be conducted in accordance with BS EN 77273
Units not exceeding 337.5mm 225mm 112.5mm
Autoclaved aerated concrete (aircrete)
The thickness should be taken as the thickness of the wall, for a single-leaf wall, or the thickness of the leaf, for a cavity wall
** Linear interpolation may be used to obtain the values of xk1 and xk2 for:
1) wall thicknesses greater than 100mm and less than 250mm
2) compressive strengths between 2.9N/mm2 and 7.3N/mm2 in a wall of given thickness
When used with flexural strength in the parallel direction, assume the orthogonal ratio = 0.3
www.concretecentre.com I 31
Strength class of
general purpose
mortar
Clay
Calcium silicate
Lightweight mortar
0.30
0.15
0.40
0.15
0.30
0.15
M12
0.30
M4 & M6
0.20
M2
0.10
M12
0.20
M4 & M6
0.15
M2
0.10
M12
0.20
M4 & M6
0.15
M2
0.10
32 I www.concretecentre.com
References:
1) British Standards Institution (2013) BS EN 1996-1-1:2005+A1:2012
Eurocode 6. Design of masonry structures. General rules for reinforced
and unreinforced masonry structures, London, UK: BSI
2) British Standards Institution (1998) BS EN 772-7:1998 Methods
of test for masonry units. Determination of water absorption of clay
masonry damp proof course units by boiling in water, London, UK: BSI
3) Roberts J., Tovey A. and Fried A. (2001) Concrete Masonry
Designers Handbook (2nd ed.), London, UK: Spon Press
4) Johansen, K. W. (1972) Yield-line formulae for slabs, Leatherhead,
UK: Eyre and Spottiswoode
5) Roberts J. J. and Brooker O. (2013) How to design masonry structures
using Eurocode 6. 3. Lateral resistance, London, UK: MPA The Concrete
Centre
6) British Standards Institution (2005) BS 5628-1:2005 Code of practice
for the use of masonry. Structural use of unreinforced masonry, London,
UK: BSI
Further reading
There are a number of guidance documents available:
Morton J. (2011) Designers guide to Eurocode 6: Design of masonry
structures: EN 1996-1-1, London, UK: Thomas Telford
The Institution of Structural Engineers (2008) Manual for the design
of plain masonry in building structures to Eurocode 6, London, UK:
The Institution of Structural Engineers
International Masonry Society (2009) Eurocode for masonry,
EN1996-1-1 and EN 1996-2: Guidance and worked examples,
Penkhull, UK: IMS
Roberts J. J. and Brooker O. (2013) How to design masonry structures
using Eurocode 6. 1. Introduction to Eurocode 6, London, UK: MPA
The Concrete Centre
Roberts J. J. and Brooker O. (2013) How to design masonry structures
using Eurocode 6. 2. Vertical resistance, London, UK: MPA The Concrete
Centre
NHBC (2011) Technical Guidance Note: The Building Regulations
2004 Edition England and Wales. Requirement A3 Disproportionate
Collapse [Online] Available at: www.nhbc.co.uk/NHBCPublications/
LiteratureLibrary/Technical/filedownload,23676,en.pdf (Accessed:
February 2015)
www.concretecentre.com I 33
Introduction
Sheath
Grease
PT flat slabs provide the thinnest readily available structural option for
spans of 7m or more, and can economically be used for spans up to 13m
13m. For longer spans, a one-way spanning slab onto band beams is
frequently used.
Strand
Unbonded PT tendon
Bonded PT components
34 I www.concretecentre.com
Both systems can be used in the same slab if the design dictates it.
Table 1 gives a comparison between the two systems.
using infill strips, also known as pour strips, which are usually cast
around 28 days after the remainder of the floor, to allow initial
shrinkage to occur
(Figure 3)
b) Unfavourable
layout of restraining walls (high restraint)
FIGURE
11: TEMPORARY
using a proprietary
temporary
release detail RELEASE DETAIL
Infill later
Infill late
1000 mm
RC infill strip
Post-tensioned
slab
Slab to remain
fully propped
until infill strip
cured
100mm bearing
www.concretecentre.com I 35
Number 7
40
TheStructuralEngineer
July 2015
Technical
Post-tensioned slabs
Common strandafter
typesthree
useddays,
in the
UK the
are concrete
given in Table
once
has 2. It is
recommended that
onlyaone
of these strand
typesallowing
is used on any
reached
predetermined
strength,
striking of formwork. Higher levels of cement
project.
replacements, e.g. ground-granulated blast-
furnace
slag (GGBS)
orfloors
y ash,
beinused,
A specification for
the execution
of PT
is can
given
the National
4 programme length and
but will
increase the
, section 7.
Structural Concrete
Specification
fire protection
Cover
The cover required for bond considerations for bonded systems is the
As with other forms of reinforced concrete,
diameter of the duct
for circular
ducts; for
ducts it is the
the cover
is determined
by flat
consideration
of: larger of half
the larger dimension or the smaller dimension. For unbonded systems,
corrosion
the cover required
for bondprotection
is the diameter of the sheath.
$
"
$
36 I www.concretecentre.com
18/06/2015 11:22
a) Consider a beam with a force P applied at each end along the beams centre line.
P
c) The stress distribution from the flexure of the beam is calculated from
M/Z where M is the bending moment and Z the section modulus. By
considering the deflected shape of the beam it can be seen that the
bottom surface will be in tension. The corresponding stress diagram can
be drawn.
+ M/Z
Compression
P/A
This force applies a uniform compressive stress
across the section equal to P/A, where A is the cross
sectional area. The stress distribution is shown right.
=
Tension
- M/Z
0
d) Concrete is strong in compression but not in tension. Only small tensile
stresses can be applied before cracks that limit the effectiveness of the
section will occur. By combining the stress distributions from the applied
precompression and the applied loading it can be seen there is no longer
any tension, assuming the magnitude of P has been chosen correctly.
b) Consider next a vertical load w applied along the beam and the
corresponding bending moment diagram applied to this alone.
w
Applied load
+ M/Z
P/A
Resultant Moment Diagram
P/A+ M/Z
M (max)
- M/Z
0
Figure 5 Principles of prestress design
P/A - M/Z
0
a) Proposed
loading
b) Unstressed
slab
c) Prestressed
slab
d) Final
condition
www.concretecentre.com I 37
w2/m
e2
L1
Cantilever
Span 1:
e3
drape
e1
w3/m
drape
w1/m
L2
e4
L3
Span 2:
Span 3:
Figure 7 Idealised tendon profile for two spans with single cantilever
= Pa
38 I www.concretecentre.com
slabs for different imposed loads. Table 3 gives the range of spans that
are normally used for PT floors.
Prestress losses
From the time that a post-tensioning tendon is stressed, to its final state
many years after stressing, various losses take place which reduce the
tension in the tendon. These losses are grouped into two categories:
short-term and long-term losses.
Short-term losses
Short-term losses include:
These losses take place during stressing and anchoring of the tendon.
Long-term losses
Long-term losses include:
Although these losses occur over a period of 10 or more years, the bulk
occurs in the first two years following stressing. The loss in prestress force
following stressing can be significant (between 10% and 50% of the
initial jacking force at transfer and between 20% and 60% after all losses)
and therefore the losses should, in all instances, be calculated. TR43 gives
advice on prestress losses in Appendix B.
Table 3: Span ranges for PT floors
Floor Type
Span Range
PT flat slab
6-13m
PT band beam
8-18m
PT ribbed slab
7-18m
PT waffle slab
8-18m
www.thestructuralengineer.org
Nominal
Nominal
tensile
diameter
(mm)
Table 2: Specification of strength
commonly used strand
in the UK
(MPa)
Strand Type
12.9 Super
15.7 Super
12.9 Super
15.7 Euro
15.7 Super
15.2 Drawn
15.7 Euro
15.2 Drawn
Nominal tensile
1860(MPa)
strength
1770
1860
1860
1770
1820
1860
1820
Nominal diameter
12.9
(mm)
15.7
12.9
15.7
15.7
15.2
15.7
15.2
Crosssectional area
(mm2)
Cross-sectional area
100(mm2)
150
100
150
150
165
150
165
Nominal
mass (kg/m)
Characteristic
value of maximum
force (kN)
0.781
1.17
1.17
1.29
1.17
1.29
Characteristic
value of 0.1%
proof force
(kN)
Characteristic valus
186
of maximum
force
(kN)
Maximum value of
213
maximum
force (kN)
186
319
213
240
265
302
228
265
0.781
1.17
Maximum value
of maximum
force (kN)
279
300
279
300
302
342
319
342
Chararacteristic
value of160
0.1% proof
force (kN)
228
160
258
240
258
Figure 8
Span-to-depth ratios for PT oors
Conclusion
Conclusion
This
doesnot
notprovide
providea a
full
explanation
This article
article does
full
explanation
of the design of PT
of
the design
of PT oors.that
It isthe
recommended
floors.
It is recommended
designer makes themselves familiar
that the designer makes themselves familiar
with TR43 when starting the design process. The design of PT floors
with TR43 when starting the design process.
allows the designer to play with the different aspects prestress force,
The design of PT oors allows the designer
tendon profile etc. to arrive at the most economic design. There are
to play with the different aspects prestress
manysoftware
packages
help,atboth
force,
tendon pro
le etc.that
tocan
arrive
the 2D design and finiteelement
analysis.design. There are many
most
economic
software packages that can help, both 2D
The Post-Tensioning Association (PTA) in the UK can also help.
design and nite-element analysis.
It produces technical design guidance and is in the process of producing
The Post-Tensioning Association (PTA) in
a model performance specification for PT floors to help main designers
the UK can also help. It produces technical
understand
what and
is required
byprocess
specialistofdesigners and what can be
design
guidance
is in the
expected from
the specialist
designers
and
contractors. The PTA website
producing
a model
performance
speci
cation
canPT
beaccessed
at www.posttensioning.co.uk
for
oors to help
main designers
understand what is required by specialist
designers and what can be expected from
the specialist designers and contractors.
The PTA website can be accessed at
www.posttensioning.co.uk
References:
18/06/2015 11:22
www.concretecentre.com I 39
44
TheStructuralEngineer
January 2015
Technical
Concrete design
This series is produced by The Concrete Centre to enable designers to realise the potential
of liquid-retaining structures.
of concrete.
The Concrete Centre, part of the Mineral Products Association (MPA), is a team of qualied
professionals with expertise in concrete construction, engineering and architecture.
Introduction
www.concretecentre.com
Concrete mix
In liquid-retaining structures, mix design should aim at durability and
minimising the risk of cracking. Strength is rarely critical. Watertightness
and durability can be achieved using good-quality concrete alone
Concrete mix
without
any special
additivesmix
or admixtures.
In
liquid-retaining
structures,
design should aim at durability and
minimising
thespecification
risk of cracking.
Strength
is rarely critical.
Watertightness
The following
is likely
to be satisfactory
for most
cases:
and durability can be achieved using good-quality concrete alone
Consistence
class:
S3
without
any special
additives
or admixtures.
followingwater
speci
cationratio:
is likely
to be satisfactory for most cases:
The
Maximum
cement
0.50
Consistence
320kg/m3class:
whenS3
aggregate size is 14mm
Maximum water cement ratio: 0.50
3
Maximum cement content: 400kg/m
for CEM I (OPC) concrete and
Minimum cement
content: 300kg/m3 when aggregate size is 20mm;
3
450kg/m
when
ground
granulated
blast-furnace
slag (GGBS) or fly
320kg/m3 when aggregate size is 14mm
Maximum
ash is used
3
cement content: 400kg/m for CEM I (OPC) concrete and
Concrete
strength
C30/37blast-furnace slag (GGBS) or y ash
3
450kg/m
when
groundclass:
granulated
is used
Use of cement replacement (GGBS or fly ash) is recommended as
Concrete strength class: C30/37
the heat of hydration will be less than that for pure Portland cement
(CEM I) and this in turn assists in crack control. Suitable cement or
Use of cement replacement (GGBS or y ash) is recommended as
combination
types arewill
CEM
(which
contains
2135%
flycement
ash) or
the
heat of hydration
be IIB-V
less than
that
for pure
Portland
CEM IIIA
(which
3665%
GGBS).control.
If high proportions
of cement
(CEM
I) and
thiscontains
in turn assists
in crack
Suitable cement
or
replacementstypes
are used,
thereIIB-V
will be
implications
early strength
and
combination
are CEM
(which
containsfor
2135%
y ash) or
CEM
IIIA resistance,
(which contains
GGBS).
If high
of cement
abrasion
which3665%
might have
an effect
onproportions
the programme.
replacements are used, there will be implications for early strength and
Figure 1
Aeration and clarier tanks at New Hythe, Kent
Concrete
should
bewith
speci
ed inregulations.
accordanceThe
with
BS
EN 2065,6 and
will need to
comply
specific
Civil
Engineering
7,8
BS 8500 Parts 1 and 2 . All materials
in contact with potable water
Specification for the Water Industry9 provides useful information.
will need to comply with specic regulations. The Civil Engineering
Speci
cation forconcrete
the Water
Industry9for
provides
useful
information.
Well-compacted
is essential
durability.
Generally,
the
Well-compacted
concrete
is essential
for durability.
Generally,
the
thickness of members should be
at least 250mm
to permit
good
thickness
of However,
membersthe
should
be atshould
least 250mm
to permitasgood
compaction.
thickness
not be excessive
the
compaction. However, the thickness should not be excessive as the
reinforcement required increases with the thickness of the concrete.
reinforcement required increases with the thickness of the concrete.
The
likely
exposure
classes
for different
elements
are in
noted in
The
likely
exposure
classes
for different
elements
are noted
Table
2. Cover requirements in BS EN 1992-1-1 and BS 8500 will generally
Table 2.
Cover
in to
BSuse
ENnominal
1992-1-1cover
and BS
will generally
of 45mm
from the
apply.
It isrequirements
good practice
cnom8500
apply. It is good practice to use nominal cover Cnom of 45mm from the
face in contact with liquid and 75mm from any face cast against soil.
face in contact with liquid and 75mm from any face cast against soil.
Durability
selection
of materials
BS 8500 Partsand
1 and
27,8. All materials
in contact with potable water
40 I www.concretecentre.com
TSE37_44-48 Concrete v2.indd 44
18/12/2014 12:46
Values of actions
Values of actions should be established using the relevant codes. In
practice the designer is likely to know only the maximum depth of
liquid that it is physically possible to store. The operational depth will
be slightly smaller. It is recommended that all calculations are carried out
using the full depth of the tank. Although slightly conservative, this
approach will result in a reliable design.
Partial factors on actions
Partial factors for permanent and variable actions are given in the
UK NA to BS EN 1990. Tables 3 and 4 show the partial factors
recommended for loads and pressures induced by retained liquids,
noting that designs should be based on the assumption that the
maximum liquid level would be the top of the walls.
Key
Line 1a
Line 1b
Line 2a
Line 2b
Structural analysis
Design should be based on elastic analysis without redistribution.
In rectangular tanks, direct tension in the plane of the walls arises from
the lateral load supported by adjacent contiguous walls and this should
be taken into account in design. Hoop stresses in circular tanks also lead
to in-plane tension.
Structural design ultimate limit state
Guidance in BS EN 1992-1-1 should be used. The following should be
noted in connection with the calculation of shear resistance:
the shear resistance of a section not reinforced for shear VRd,c should
be calculated making allowance for the presence of any tension
Table 1: Liquid tightness classes*
Tightness class
No leakage permitted
*Based on BS EN 1992-3
Underside of roofs to
reservoirs
Unprotected surfaces
of walls and roofs
Will depend on the circumstances XC, XD, XS and XF may all be relevant
Variable actions
Common variable actions to be considered are:
loads due to liquid pressures
wind loads on structures at or above ground
snow loads on covered structures
uplift forces on underground tanks due to ground water
lateral loads due to earth and water pressures on underground tanks
www.concretecentre.com I 41
Verification
Permanent
actions
Loads
from
contained
liquid
Earth and
groundwater
pressures
Equilibrium
0.90
1.50
Strength
1.35
Strength
1.35
1.35
Tank empty
Tank full
*The more critical values obtained using combinations given in BS EN 1997-111 should be used here
Verification
Permanent
actions
Loads
from
contained
liquid
Wind
Snow
Tank empty
Equilibrium
0.90
1.50
Strength walls
and base
1.35
1.35
1.50
Strength
supporting
structures and
foundations
1.35
1.35
1.50
Tank full
42 I www.concretecentre.com
0 1.50*
Cracks that may be expected to pass through the section should be avoided,
unless special measures are incorporated (e.g. water bars or liners). There is an
implication in the code that it may be adequate to provide water bars to
safeguard against leakage through cracks and verify the above-mentioned
conditions for cracks that do not penetrate the whole depth of the section
*The crack width w1 is related to hd/h values where hd is the hydraulic head and h is the overall thickness of the wall as
shown in Table 6
Where the whole section is not cracked, it must be checked that the depth of the compression zone should be at least
xmin. In the UK the value of xmin is given as the lesser of 50mm or 0.2h
The crack width limit w1 noted above* is only acceptable if the range of strain at a section under service conditions is
150 x 10-6. If this is not satisfied self-healing is unlikely to occur at the crack and this may lead to leakage
Water bars
Water bars are preformed strips of durable impermeable material that
are wholly or partially embedded in the concrete during construction.
They are located across joints to provide a permanent liquid-tight seal
during the whole range of movements. Water bars may be metal strips
or proprietary products made of rubber or flexible plastics such as PVC
(Figure 4).
At construction joints (both horizontal and vertical), a rigid water bar
formed from a strip of black steel (unpainted and non-galvanised) has
proved effective. The water bar is placed centrally across the joint. In
horizontal joints, the water bar is gently pushed in when the concrete is
still green. Separate lengths of the metal water bars need not be welded
together. At butt joints between two water bars, a gap should be left
equal to aggregate size + 5mm. A cover strip overlapping the two water
bars should be placed, again leaving a gap of aggregate size + 5mm.
www.concretecentre.com I 43
References:
1) British Standards Institution (2004) BS EN 1992-1-1:2004
Eurocode 2. Design of concrete structures General rules and rules
for buildings, London, UK: BSI
2) British Standards Institution (2006) BS EN 1992-3:2006 Eurocode
2. Design of concrete structures. Liquid retaining and containing
structures, London, UK: BSI
3) Narayanan R. S. and Goodchild C. H. (2012) Concrete Basements:
Guidance on the design and construction of in situ concrete
basement structures, London, UK: MPA The Concrete Centre
Figure 5 Types of formwork ties for use in watertight construction
10
15
20
25
30
35
0.200
0.175
0.150
0.125
0.100
0.075
0.050
44 I www.concretecentre.com
Introduction
It is based on the same truss analogy as the design for shear in Eurocode
21 and can be applied to many elements, but is particularly useful where
normal beam theory does not apply, i.e. where plane sections do not
remain plane, e.g. in deep beams, corbels and pile caps. EC2 provides
information about the use of strut-and-tie modelling and this article is
an introduction for engineers who want to take advantage of this useful
analysis method.
Regions where normal beam theory cannot be used arise at geometrical
discontinuities, supports and concentrated loads and are known as D or
disturbed regions. D regions are dimensioned using Bernoullis principle
(Figure 1). Regions where normal beam theory can be used are called B
or beam or Bernoulli regions. In strut-and-tie modelling, the structure
can be split into D and B regions and a strut-and-tie model (STM)
prepared for the D regions. The method uses the truss analogy where
the actual flow of stresses is represented by a series of struts and ties
(Figure 2). The method is an application of the lower bound theory of
plasticity. Consequently, there is no unique STM for any given problem.
The main requirements are to ensure that equilibrium is satisfied and
to proportion the cross-sectional areas of struts and ties such that their
resistances are everywhere greater than or equal to the internal forces.
Adequate ductility is typically ensured through the provision of codespecified minimum reinforcement areas.
The scope of this article is restricted to strut-and-tie modelling of planar
structures. The reader is referred to specialised texts27 for more in-depth
treatment of the method.
Development of STM
The first step is to determine the basic STM geometry within the
element. The serviceability limit state (SLS) of cracking is usually satisfied
if the ultimate limit state (ULS) STM geometry is based on the elastic
stress field, with members positioned at the centroids of the
compressive and tensile elastic stress distributions (Fig. 2a).
An elastically based STM can lead to overly conservative designs, since
such models do not recognise the redistribution in stress that occurs
when the concrete cracks, putting more stress into the reinforcement.
Therefore, some deviation from the elastic solution is permissible, as in
the design of continuous beams. Consideration of Fig. 2a and Fig. 2b
shows that the STM geometry changes as the load is increased to failure,
due to the internal redistribution of forces that occurs on cracking and
subsequent yielding of reinforcement, which in the ultimate case lies
within the plastic limit. The STM in Fig. 2b neglects the contribution of
the minimal web reinforcement required by EC21 to control cracking,
which further increases load resistance.
Load path method
The load path method2 is a useful tool for developing the STM geometry
within elements. The starting point is to determine the stress distribution
at the boundaries of the D region after which the STM can be developed
using the following rules of Schlaich and Schfer2:
1. Load paths do not cross each other
2. Load paths take the shortest streamlined route between the centres
of gravity of stress diagrams
3. Curvatures concentrate near stress concentrations, reactions and
concentrated loads
4. In the absence of elastic analysis, position struts from experience
and the application of simple rules
www.concretecentre.com I 45
www.thestructuralengineer.org
37
www.thestructuralengineer.org
Figure 2
Development of STM for uniformly loaded deep beam
37
a) based on elastic stress eld b) at ULS
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eld
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if
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cient tensile
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thatsection
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zone
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created.
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therefore
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concrete
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section
should
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Development of STM for uniformly loaded deep beam
a) based on elastic stress eld b) at ULS
nite-element
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cient
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nominal
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from nite-element models that this tensile zone is created. Normally
stress
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Figure 2 Development of STM for uniformly loaded deep beam
Compressive
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in Prismatic stress fields
asCompressive
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Compressive
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(Figure
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Application of load path method (adapted from EC21)
The
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the
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Figure 3
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Figure 3 Application
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after
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compressive
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assumed is
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equilibrium
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Consequently,
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right angles
toisthe
The procedure is illustrated in Figure 3 for the anchorage zone
equilibrium
after
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anstress
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an
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a
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are
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eld is an stress
idealisation
which
the to in which the compressive
compressive
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trajectories
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develop
at supports
and concentrated
intoplastic
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eld Consequently, no tension
whenbeam.
a wall isAloaded
with
a concentrated
load at its
corner.
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stress trajectories
areare
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stress
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procedure
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istension
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and
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develop
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when
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2 are equal
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a
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at
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Fig.
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Prismatic
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diagonal
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45
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o the centroid of the corresponding elastic
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the
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Alternatively,
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be positioned
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be
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toacontrol
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code
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an compressive stress
or
since
load
path
is incompatible
with
elastic
stress
eld
is bottle-shaped
aswith
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withcracking.
the dotted
line.
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done
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Fig.
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atbad,
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c mm
are
eldoften
is bottle-shaped
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the
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of Fig.
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In as
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4 shows
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prismatic
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Figure
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twoSchfer
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for
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2
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Consequently,
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Figure 4
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UK National
Annex
, itthe
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4a is more
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the strut
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code requires area
an isotropic
mesh with
the elastic
stress trajectories.
Asand
noted
by Schlaich
andEC2 increases
Consequently, a crude rule of thumb for distinguishing
between
2
2
2 noted by Schlaich and Schfer , it is helpful to realise that Figure 4
As
thickness)
to
be
in each
face,(where
but theAUK
Annex to
or 0.001t
mm2/mm
is National
the cross-sectional
area
of 0.001Ac mmprovided
, it is
helpful
to realise
that loads
try toand
useshortest
the path
Schfergood
Choice
ofbad
limiting
angle
ties
and
models
is to between
choose
thestruts
model
with
ties,with the Good and bad
c
model9based on minimising
length of ties
EC2 increases this area to 0.002Ac.
loads
trybetween
tomuch
use the
with
the
least
forces
andtodeformations.
The
angle
struts
andConsequently,
ties should
be
large
enough
since
ties
morepath
deformable
than
struts.
area of the member and t is its thickness)
to be provided in each face,
least forces
andare
deformations.
a crude
ruleavoid
of thumb for
strain
incompatibilities
due to
tiesof
extending
struts shorteningbetween
Consequently,
a crude
rule
thumb and
for distinguishing
9
8
but
the
UK
National
Annex
to
EC2
increases
this area to 0.002Ac.
distinguishing
between
good
and
bad
models
is
to
choose
the
model
Figure
4
in
almostand
thelimiting
same direction.
Model
Code
1990
gives
thewith
following
Choice
of
angle between
struts
ties
good
bad
models
is
to choose
theand
model
shortest ties,
Good and bad model based on minimising length of ties
useful
rules
ofsince
thumb
for developing
STMs
which
broadly
follow
the
The
angle
between
struts
and much
ties
should
be
large
enough
to
avoid
with shortest
ties,
ties
are
more
deformable
than
struts.
since
ties
are
much
more
deformable
than
struts.
elastic
stress eld:
strain incompatibilities
due to ties extending and struts shortening
8
almost
the same
direction.
Modelstruts
Code 1990
following
ChoiceinChoice
of
limiting
angle
between
andgives
ties theand
limiting
angle
ties
1. Orientation
thefor
elastic
stressbetween
STMs
eld is which
morestruts
important
for struts
useful
rulesof
ofwith
thumb
developing
broadly follow
the
than
ties,
which
can usually
be arranged
to be
the large
edges enough
of the
Thebetween
angle
between
struts
tiesparallel
should
to avoid
elastic
stress
eld:
The angle
struts
and
tiesand
should
be large
enough
to avoid
member
following practical considerations
strain incompatibilities
due to ties extending and struts shortening
strain incompatibilities
due
to ties
extending
and
struts
shortening
in
2. Orientation
highly stressed
regions,
main
struts
ties
should
at
1.
with
the
elastic
stress
eld and
is more
important
struts
8 for
inInalmost
the
same
direction.
Model
Code
1990meet
gives
the following
angles
of which
about
60 and
not
less
than
45
(this8isgives
a guideline
and
not
can
usually
be
arranged
parallel
to
the the
edges
of the
following
useful
almostthan
theties,
same
direction.
Model
Code
1990
useful
rules
of
thumb
for
developing
STMs
which
broadly
follow
the
mandatory)
member
following practical considerations
rules of2.
thumb
for
developing
STMsstruts
follow
elastic
stress
eld:
3.
If the
arrangement
of the model
iswhich
made
inbroadly
accordance
withthe
the
In
highly
stressed
regions,
main
and
ties
should
meet
at
elastic
eld,
ULS
not require
checking
of
about
60the
and
notdoes
less than
45 (this
is a guideline and not
elastic angles
stressstress
field:
mandatory)
1. Orientation with the elastic stress eld is more important for struts
3. If the arrangement
of the model
isfield
madeisinmore
accordance
with the
1. Orientation
with
the can
elastic
stressbe
important
foredges
strutsof the
than ties,
which
usually
arranged
parallel
to the
elastic stress eld, the ULS does not require checking
S
S
following
practical
considerations
thanmember
ties, which
can usually
be arranged
parallel to the edges of the
2. In
highly
regions,
main struts and ties should meet at
CDG
v1.indd stressed
37 practical
TSE40_36-41
member
following
considerations
angles of about 60 and not less than 45 (this is a guideline and not
mandatory)
2. In highly
stressed regions, main struts, ties should meet at angles of
TSE40_36-41 CDG v1.indd 37
3. 60
If the
arrangement
of45
the(this
model
made in accordance
with the
about
and
not less than
is aisguideline
and not mandatory)
elastic stress eld, the ULS does not require checking
TSE40_36-41
CDG v1.indd
37the
elastic stress
field at
46 I www.concretecentre.com
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19/03/2015 14:19
Number 4
38
TheStructuralEngineer
April 2015
Technical
Concrete design
Figure 6
Figure 5 Use of Model Code 19908 rules to distinguish between good and poor STM
Figure 6 Compressive
stress fields
a) prismatic
b) fan-shaped c) bottle-shaped
Compressive
stress
elds
Figure 5
Use of Model Code 19908 rules to distinguish between good and poor STM
Type of node
Strength
Table 1: Eurocode 2 node strengths
1.0cd Strength
Code C-C-C
Type of node
EC2
C-C-T
C-C-C
0.85cd1.0f
C-T-T
C-C-T
0.75cd0.85f
C-T-T
Note: = 1ck/250
Note: = 1fck/250
cd
cd
0.75fcd
a) prismatic
b) fan-shaped
c) bottle-shaped
boundaries are less than or equal to the design concrete strengths given
in Table 1. It is necessary to ensure that the design stresses are less than
the design node
strengths
in both
nodes
at node-strut
interfaces
where
dimensions
need
to be and
chosen
to ensure that
stresses on
node
boundaries
are lessThe
thandesign
or equal
to the design
concrete
strengths on
strut resistance
is checked.
strength
of the
strut depends
given in Table 1. It is necessary to ensure that the design stresses
the reinforcement
provided within the depth of the element and is often
are less than the design strengths in both nodes and at node-strut
less than the
node strength.
interfaces
where strut resistance is checked. The design strength of
the strut depends on the reinforcement provided within the depth of
Dimensioning
of nodes
the element
and is often less than the node strength.
The dimensions
of concentrated
nodes are frequently determined by the
Dimensioning
of nodes
The and
dimensions
of concentrated
nodes
areposition
frequentlyofdetermined
by
widths of load
support
plates as well
as the
ties (Fig. 8).
EC2 gives design concreteCompressive
strengths for struts
which
are
based
on
the widths of load and support plates as well as the position of ties
strength of struts
simple criteria that account
forgives
the eff
ectsconcrete
of cracking
and confi
nement.
(Fig. 8).
EC2
design
strengths
for struts
which are based
Sizing of C-C-C
nodes
on simple criteria that account for the effects of cracking and
In general:
connement. In general:
Sizing
of C-C-C
nodes
The width of the loading
plate
of the deep beam in Figure 9 needs to
The width of the loading plate of the deep beam in Figure 9 needs to
=
1
/250.
prismatic struts with transverse
tension
to
0.6
cd diagonal struts of
cd Fig. 7 if insufficient
normally governed by other considerations than the design concrete
bottle-shaped struts like the
centrelines
are
normal
to
the
node
boundaries.
In
practice,
the
width
The strength of 0.6cd also
appliesreinforcement
to the ends isofprovided
bottle-shaped
struts
strength. Consequently, the bearing stress can be signicantly less
transverse
to maintain
equilibrium after
of
the
loaded
area
is
normally
governed
by
other
considerations
than
than
cracking
of
concrete.
f
.
It
is
suggested
that
in
the
absence
of
shear
reinforcement,
cd
like the diagonal struts of Fig. 7 if insufficient transverse reinforcement is
the
exuralstrength.
compressive
stress is takenthe
as f
the widths
cd, to avoid
the
design
concrete
Consequently,
bearing
stress
can
be
provided to maintain equilibrium
after cracking
of concrete.
of the incoming struts being overestimated, but this is not an EC2
Classication
of nodes
signifi
less than cd. It is suggested that in the absence of shear
requirement.
Nodes are dened as regions were struts change direction or
strutscantly
Classification of nodes and ties intersect (Fig.7). Smeared nodes arise in regions where
reinforcement, the flexural compressive stress is taken as cd, to avoid
the orientation of struts is diverted by a band of evenly distributed
of C-C-T nodes
the
widths Sizing
of the incoming
struts being overestimated, but this is not an
Nodes are defined as regions
were struts
change
direction
reinforcement
bars
and is not
checkedor
in struts
design. Concentrated
The design bearing stress at C-C-T nodes is limited to a maximum
EC2
requirement.
nodes
are
typically
highly
stressed
and
need
to
be
designed
to
resist
of
0.85f
.
The
node
width normal to the inclined strut centreline in
and ties intersect (Fig. 7). Smeared nodes arise in regions where
cd
the incoming forces without concrete failing in compression. EC2
of compressive
bearing and bond
stresses
within
the(Figure
node. The
and one tie), and C-T-T (one
strut
and two
ties)
8).dimensions of the face of C-C-T nodes.
nodes in Fig. 7 are governed by the dimensions of the loading and
It is benecial to provide the tensile reinforcement in several layers
(1)
w = Lbsin + ucos
The node where a columnsupport
meets plates
a pile as
cap
would
typically
be
a
C-C-C
well as the cover to the exural reinforcement. The
in highly stressed concentrated nodes since this increases u and
node, and the node where a two-pile pile cap meets the pile would
typically be a C-C-T node.
where Lb is the length of the support plate, u is the height of the
back face of the node and is the angle of the strut centreline to the
Forces are transferred from ties into nodes through a combination of
TSE40_36-41 CDG v1.indd 38
horizontal. EC2 does not require stresses to be checked at the back19/03/2015
bearing and bond stresses within the node. The dimensions of the nodes
face of C-C-T nodes.
in Fig. 7 are governed by the dimensions of the loading and support
plates as well as the cover to the flexural reinforcement. The node
It is beneficial to provide the tensile reinforcement in several layers
dimensions need to be chosen to ensure that stresses on node
in highly stressed concentrated nodes since this increases u and
www.concretecentre.com I 47
14:19
www.thestructuralengineer.org
39
www.thestructuralengineer.org
39
hence the strut width w. The reinforcement should be sufficiently
anchored to develop its design tensile force at the node.
hence the strut width w. The reinforcement should be sufficiently
hence the strut width w. The reinforcement should be sufficiently
anchored
to develop its design tensile
force at the
Additional
recommendations
with respect
to node.
STM
Fig.point
9 shows
STMinclined
for a deep
beam
of at
thickness
t loaded
0.85
=
0.85(1f
cd f cd ck
ckck/250)(0.85fck/1.5) = 12.7MPa
given
by Equation
1.of deep
(bearing
node)
Example
1. Design
with
central
central
point load
P. Thebeam
inclined
strut
widthpoint
at theload
bottom node is
(bearing strength
strength at
attop
bottom
node)
At given
the top
the inclined
strut width is given by:
0.6fcd = 0.6(1fck/250)(0.85fck/1.5) = 9.0MPa
bynode,
Equation
1.
0.85(1
/250)(0.85
/1.5) /1.5)
= 12.7MPa
0.85
Fig. 9 shows
STM
for athe
deep
beamstrut
of thickness
loaded
(strut
without
reinforcement)
ck calculated
cktransverse
At thean
top
node,
inclined
width is tgiven
by:with a
0.6strength
fcdcd==
0.6(1f
= 9.0MPa
ck/250)(0.85f
ck
(2)
(bearing
strength
at bottom
node)transverse reinforcement)
central point load P. The inclined strut width at the bottom
node is
(strut strength
without
calculated
The minimum required widths of the bearing plates are:
(2)
given by Equation 1.
= 0.6(1required
/250)(0.85
/1.5) = 9.0MPa
0.6
ck
ck of the bearing plates are:
where:
Thecd minimum
widths
(strut strength without calculated transverse reinforcement)
At thewhere:
top node, the inclined strut width is given by:
(3)
(2)
The minimum required widths of the bearing plates are:
wt = 0.5Ltsin + xcos
(3)
in
which:
500 x 103
where:
= 167mm < 300m provided
Lt
in which:
200 x 15
(4)
T1
x = (3)
(4)
Trial and
250error
x 103gives: x = 70mm, = 50, C = 326kN, wb = 205mm,
tco
= 98mm
150mprovided
and error gives:
x = <70mm,
= 50, C and
= 326kN,
wb = 205mm,
b Trial
where c0 fcd is the exural compressive stress.
wt L=
160mm,
T1 = 209kN.
200 x 12.7
where c0 fcd is the exural compressive stress.
wt = 160mm,
and T1 =is209kN.
in which:
Therefore,
the required area of exural reinforcement
required
area
exural
is
2gives:
and
errorthe
xinclined
= 70mm,
of=is
50,
C =reinforcement
326kN, windicating
= 205mm,
T1Trial
cot = (0.5L0.25Lt)/(h0.5xd)
(5)
/fydTherefore,
=
480mm
. The
strut
overstressed,
b
2
T1 = 0.5Pcot (4)
9
T1shear
cot = (0.5L0.25Lt)/(h0.5xd)
(5)
/f160mm,
480mm
strut
is
overstressed,
indicating
yd =reinforcement
that
is
required.
UKand
National
Annex to
w
=
CRd =. The
160 xinclined
200
x 1000
=The
287kN
T1 = 209kN.
t
that
shear reinforcement
is required.
The UK
National
Annex to of
EC2
requires
nominal horizontal
and vertical
web
reinforcement
The compressive
force
in the
strut is given
by:
flexural
compressive
stress.
where
c0 cd is the
2
EC2
requires
nominal
horizontal
and
vertical
web
reinforcement
of
The compressive force in the strut is given by:
= 480mm
.
Therefore,
the
required
area
of
flexural
reinforcement
is
T1/of
yd this
area 0.002Ac to be provided in each face. The effectiveness
area
0.002
A
to
be
provided
in
each
face.
The
eff
ectiveness
of
this
c strut is overstressed, indicating that shear reinforcement is
The
inclined
)/(h0.5xd)
(5)
cot
C ==(0.5L0.25L
0.5P/sin
(6)
t
C = 0.5P/sin
(6)
The
in the strut
is given by:within the depth of the
In compressive
the absenceforce
of minimal
reinforcement
SS
Figure
7
STM
for simple
deep beam
STM for simple deep beam
CRdabsence
= 0.6f
In the
of minimal
reinforcement
within the (7)
depth
of the
cdmin(w
t,w b)t
C
(7)
Rd = 0.6f cdmin(w t,w b)t
element, the compressive resistance of the strut is given by:
EC2 does
not de
how
the strut
resistance
CRdCshould
be
EC2 does
notne
de
ne how
the strut
resistance
Rd should be
min(wt,wbstrength
)t
(7) C-C-T node-to-strut
CRd = 0.6cdThe
calculated.
is 0.6f
cd at the
calculated. strut
The strut strength
is 0.6f
at
the
C-C-T
node-to-strut
cd
interface,
but EC2
doesdoes
not de
the
strength
at C-C-C
nodes.
interface,
but EC2
not ne
de
ne strut
the strut
strength
C-C-C
nodes.
beat
calculated.
EC2 does
not define
how the strut
resistance
CRd should
It is suggested
that, that,
in the
of code-prescribed
minimal
web
It is suggested
in absence
the absence
of code-prescribed
minimal
web
The
strut
strength
is
0.6
at
the
C-C-T
node-to-strut
interface,
but
cd
reinforcement,
the strut
strength
is also
taken
as 0.6f
C-C-CEC2
cd at
reinforcement,
the strut
strength
is also
taken
as 0.6f
cd at C-C-C
does nodes.
not define the strut strength at C-C-C nodes. It is suggested that,
nodes.
Typical
design
solution
procedure
strength
is also
taken
as 0.6
at C-C-C nodes.
Typical
design
solution
procedure
cd
Equations
27 can
using
the following
step-by-step
Equations
27 be
cansolved
be solved
using
the following
step-by-step
Typical
design solution procedure
procedure:
procedure:
with
3. If
minimal
web
isEq.
provided,
7. Calculate
theEq.
strut
widths
wt and
wreinforcement
Eq.
1 and
2 and
hence
b with
co strut widths w and
7.
the
w
with
Eq.
1
and
Eq.
2
and
hence
t
b
the
strut
capacity
with Eq. 7 if P/(L t) [bearing stress at top
the
chosen
valueCof
xCisRdacceptable
the
strut
capacity
t
Rd with Eq. 7
node] co cd. Otherwise, adjust x by trial and error until co = cd
Figure 8
Figure
8 cation of node types
Classi
Classication of node types
a) C-T-T
a)b)
C-T-T
C-C-T
b)c)
C-C-T
C-C-C
c) C-C-C
6. Calculate the strut force C in terms of the applied load P with Eq. 6
TSE40_36-41 CDG v1.indd 39
TSE40_36-41 CDG v1.indd 39
48 I www.concretecentre.com
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Number 4
40
TheStructuralEngineer
April 2015
Figure 9
STM of deep beam
Technical
Concrete design
Figure 10
Bottle stress elds
a) partial discontinuity
b) full discontinuity
Example 2. InclinedTstrut
with full discontinuity
= F[1.00.7a/H]/4
= 326[1.00.7160/3776]/4 = 79kNequations for shear enhancement in beams. In the case of the EC2 shear
enhancement equations, no calculated shear reinforcement is required,
The inclined strut in The
Fig. tensile
9 is a full
discontinuity
force
T is provided of
by length:
a mesh of horizontal and vertical
provided the design shear stress vEd vRdc where vRdc is given by
(3000 70 70/2)
Equation 6.2a in EC2 and = av/2d where av is the clear shear span. The
H =
= 3776mm
main advantage of using a truss model over the bottle stress field is to
sin50
steepen the angle of the inclined strut at the support. For example,
the
TSE40_36-41
CDG
v1.indd
40
19/03/2015 14:19
Hence, the design tensile force to be resisted by transverse
effect of introducing the vertical tie in the simplified truss model of Fig.
reinforcement over each half of the strut length is:
11 is to increase the resultant angle of the inclined strut from:
T = F[1.00.7a/H]/4 = 326[1.00.7160/3776]/4 = 79kN
z
tan -1 ( )
a
The tensile force T is provided by a mesh of horizontal and vertical
reinforcement with minimum area of 0.002Ac = 400mm2/m in each
face in each direction.
www.concretecentre.com I 49
to:
tan1
F1
Tmax F1cot
= (2
References:
www.thestructuralengineer.org
1) British Standards Institution (2004) EN-1992-1-1:2004. Eurocode 2.
where z is the flexural lever arm.
41
Design of concrete structures. Part 1. General rules and rules for buildings,
Clause 6.2.3 (8) of EC2 reduces the design shear force due to loads
London, UK: BSI
applied to the top surface of beams within 0.5d av 2d of supports by
2) Schlaich J. and Schfer K. (1991) Design and detailing of structural
node, wt = strut width at top node, t = member thickness, fsb = strut
=to:
av /2d where av is the clear shear span. Shear reinforcement
needs
to
concrete using strut-and-tie models, The Structural Engineer, 69 (6), pp.
strength at bottom node and fst = strut strength at top node). In the
shear reinforcement,
take fst = fsb = 0.6(1fck/250)fcd.
be provided within the central of av to resist the reducedabsence
designofshear
113125
The strut strength can be increased if necessary by increasing node
force.
Consideration of Clause 6.2.3 (8) shows that the reduced
design
dimensions, providing shear
reinforcement
or a Federation
combination offor
theStructural Concrete (2011) fib
where
3) International
8
The(8)
minimum
Model
Code
estimates
tie tie
force
F1 as:F1 of Fig. 11. Clausetwo.
shear
force
is1990
equivalent
tothe
the
force
6.2.3
is reinforcement required by the UK National Annex
Bulletin
No.suffi
61:cient
Design
examples
within the depth of deep beams
is often
to increase
the for strut-and-tie models, Lausanne,
typically less onerous than Equation 10,(10)
with both being less
onerous
strut strength at C-C-T andSwitzerland:
C-C-C nodes tofib
the node strengths of
than Expression 6.59 of EC2 for a full discontinuity. It is also0.85
possible
tocd respectively.
fcd and f
where z is the exural lever arm.
design
the shear reinforcement using stress field models7,13.
4) Thurlimann B., Muttoni A. and Schwartz J. (1989) Design and
Clause 6.2.3 (8) of EC2 reduces the design shear force due
References anddetailing
furtherofreading
to loads applied to the top surface of beams within 0.5d av 2d
reinforced concrete structures using stress fields, Zurich,
General
application
of supports
by = av/2d where av is the clear shear span. Shear
Switzerland:
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
reinforcement needs to be provided within the central of av to
1) British Standards Institution (2004) EN-1992-1-1:2004. Eurocode
2. Design
resist
the reduced
shear method
force. Consideration
Clause be applied
The
STM
is a verydesign
versatile
that canofreadily
to aof concrete structures. Part 1. General rules and rules for
buildings, London, UK: BSI 5) Goodchild C., Morrison J. and Vollum R. L. (2015) Strut-and-tie
6.2.3 (8) shows that the reduced design shear force is equivalent to
wide
range of structures that would otherwise only be designable
with
the tie force F1 of Fig. 11. Clause 6.2.3 (8) is typically less onerous
Models, London, UK: MPA The Concrete Centre
2) Schlaich J. of
and Schfer K. (1991) Design and detailing of structural
than Equation 10, analysis
with both being
less onerous
than Expression
6.59
finite-element
or empirical
design
methods.
The advantage
concrete using strut-and-tie models, The Structural Engineer, 69 (6), pp.
of EC2 for a full discontinuity. It is also possible to design the shear
an
STM over finite-element analysis is that an STM requires113125
load paths
6) Schlaich J., Schfer K. and Jennewein M. (1987) Towards a
reinforcement using stress eld models7,13.
to be clearly identified. Hence, structures can readily be checked for
consistent design of structural concrete, PCI Journal, 32 (3), pp. 74150
3) International Federation for Structural Concrete (2011) fib Bulletin No.
General application
equilibrium.
An STM also has the advantage of clearly identifying
the
61: Design examples for strut-and-tie
models,J.Lausanne,
Switzerland:
b
The STM is a very versatile method that can readily be applied to a
7) Sagaseta
and Vollum
R. L. (2010)
Shear design of short-span
wide range ofrequirements
structures that would
otherwise only beunlike
designable
anchorage
of reinforcement,
finite-element analysis.
, Magazine
Concrete
Research, 62 (4), pp. 267282
4) Thurlimann B., Muttoni A. beams
and Schwartz
J. (1989) of
Design
and detailing
with nite-element analysis or empirical design methods. The
of reinforced concrete structures using stress elds, Zurich, Switzerland:
advantage of an STM over nite-element analysis is that an STM
Summary
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
requires load paths to be clearly identied. Hence, structures can
8) CEB-FIP (1990) Model Code for Concrete Structures, Lausanne,
readily be checked for equilibrium. An STM also has the advantage
Itofisclearly
oftenidentifying
convenient
to base the STM geometry at the ULS5)on
the elastic
Switzerland: CEB-FIP
Goodchild C., Morrison J. and Vollum R. L. (2015) Strut-and-tie
the anchorage requirements of reinforcement,
Models, at
London,
unlike field,
nite-element
analysis.
stress
since this
typically ensures satisfactory performance
the UK: MPA The Concrete Centre
9) British Standards Institution (2005) NA to BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 UK
SLS.
However, some deviation from the elastic solution is permissible.
6) Schlaich J., Schfer K. and
JenneweinAnnex
M. (1987)
a 2. Design of concrete structures. Part 1.
Summary
National
toTowards
Eurocode
consistentcan
design of structural concrete, PCI Journal, 32 (3), pp. 74150
is often
convenient
base the STMis
geometry
at the ULS
on STM geometry
IfItthe
elastic
stresstodistribution
not available,
the
General
rules
and
rules
for
buildings, London, UK: BSI
the elastic stress eld, since this typically ensures satisfactory
2
.
be
developed using the load path method of Schlaich and7)Schfer
Sagaseta J. and Vollum R. L. (2010) Shear design of short-span
performance at the SLS. However, some deviation from the elastic
beams, for
Magazine of Concrete
(4), pp. 267282
solutionCode
is permissible.
If the elasticastress
distribution isrule
not which is useful
Model
19908 suggests
2:1 dispersion
10)Research,
British 62
Standards
Institution (2010) PD 6687-1:2010 Background
available, the STM geometry can be developed using the load path
establishing
the
basic
STM
geometry.
The
axial
resistance
of
struts
in
paper
to
the
National
8) CEB-FIP (1990) Model Code for Concrete Structures,Annexes
Lausanne, to BS EN 1992-1 and BS EN 1992-3,
method of Schlaich and Schfer2. Model Code 19908 suggests a
Switzerland:
CEB-FIP
dispersion
rule which
is useful
establishingof
the
STM w t (in
a2:1
planar
member
equals
thefor
minimum
wbasic
tf
and
which
London,
UK:
BSI
b sb
t st
axial resistance of struts in a planar member equals
wgeometry.
= strutThe
width
at bottom node, w = strut width at top node,
b minimum of wbtfsb and wttfst (in which wb t= strut width at bottom
9) British Standards Institution (2005) NA to BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 UK
the
11) Hendy C. R. and Smith D. A. (2007) Designers Guide to EN 1992
t = member thickness, sb = strut strength at bottom node National
and Annex to Eurocode 2. Design of concrete structures. Part 1.
Eurocode
2: Design
General rules and rules for buildings,
London,
UK: BSIof concrete structures. Part 2: concrete bridges,
st = strut strength at top node). In the absence of shear reinforcement,
London,
UK:
Thomas
Telford
10) British Standards Institution (2010) PD 6687-1:2010 Background
take
st =11ed
sbtruss
= 0.6(1
/250)
.
SFigure
ck
cd and
Simpli
model according
to Schlaich
F
Schfer13
(in German), BetonKalender (Vol 2), Berlin, Germany: Ernst & Sohn, pp.
Further reading
50 I www.concretecentre.com
Further reading
STMs. This is available via the Concrete Centre website:
The Concrete Centre has recently published a guide to Strut-and-tie
www.concretecentre.com
Models5, which gives more information
on how to construct and use
STMs. This is available via the Concrete Centre website:
www.concretecentre.com
19/03/2015 14:19
Concise Eurocode 2
Publication date: 2006
Ref: CCIP-005
Concrete Basements
Publication date: 2012
Ref: CCIP-044
Concrete Buildings Scheme
Design Manual
Publication date: 2009
Ref: CCIP-051
Strut-and-Tie Models
Publication date: 2014
Ref: CCIP-057
Tall Buildings
Publication date: 2014
Ref: CCIP-058
www.concretecentre.com I 51
www.concretecentre.com
Published by MPA The Concrete Centre
Gillingham House, 38-44 Gillingham Street, London SW1V 1HU
Ref: TCC/03/59
ISBN: 978-1-908257-18-5
MPA The Concrete Centre, 2016
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