Basic Electro Acoustics and

Sound Reinforcement

What is sound ?

pressure [bar]

1.5

Sound is a variation of air pressure with time, which propagates in an

elastic medium like air. Compared to the static air pressure of 100,000
Pascal (1 bar) the alternating part of the pressure (i.e. the sound pressure) is very small. At only 100 Pa (134 dB SPL) the limit of human hearing is reached.

1
0.5

Wavelength and frequency

time

amplitude

The frequency of a signal describes the number of oscillations per

second (unit: Hz = 1/s). As the wave propagates with constant velocity,
its wavelength can be defined as l = c / f where l = wavelength, c =
speed of sound (343 m/s) and f = frequency.
One wavelength is the distance which the wave travels during one oscillation. The frequency range of audible sound covers about 10
octaves, from 16 Hz to 16 kHz. The corresponding range of
wavelengths covers 20 m to 2 cm (visible light covers just one octave,
ca. 400 - 800 nm).
Propagation of sound
The velocity c of propagation (spreading) of a sound wave is approximately 343 m/s (it changes with the air temperature). This is about 767
MPH or 1235 km/h. The wavefront therefore needs about 3 ms to
travel one metre. In a homogeneous medium sound proceeds along a
straight line; however atmospheric effects may deflect the sound wave.

Temp. C

C [m/sec.]

1/c [ms/m]

- 10

324

3.09

330

3.03

10

337

2.97

20

343

2.92

30

349

2.86

40

355

2.81

Speed of Sound vs. temperature

Refraction by temperature layers

In the same way as light, sound waves are refracted at the boundary
layer between two media. The reason for this is the different speed of
sound in different media. In particular this occurs between layers of air
with different temperature.
Refraction by wind
The wind speed at the ground is low and increases with height. For that
reason also the speed of propagation of sound changes with the height
above the ground. This results in a refraction effect, which deflects the
sound travelling against the wind upwards and thus limits the reach of
the sound source in this direction.
The same effect causes sound waves spreading with the wind to be deflected downwards. In this way also obstacles between source and
listener can be overcome.

cold air

warm air (audience

Refraction by temperatures layers

Refraction by variation of the wind speed

(2.0E)

Page 2 - 8

1 kHz

2 kHz

4 kHz

8 kHz

0.35

2.5

Damping with propagation in air (dB per

100 m; approx. for temperatures > 15C
and humidity > 50%).

F [Hz]

31

11.0 m

63

5.49 m

125

2.74 m

250

1.37 m

500

69 cm

1000

34 cm

2000

17 cm

4000

8.6 cm

8000

4.3 cm

16000

2.1 cm

Damping
Even with undisturbed propagation in air the sound wave will lose energy. The loss is proportional to the covered distance and increases with
the frequency. Remote sources therefore suffer a level drop at high frequencies (in addition to the distance related level drop). With high humidity this effect increases.
Reflection, diffraction and absorption
The size of the wavelengths is typically close to that of the objects in our
surroundings. When a sound wave hits a hard surface, different effects
occur, depending on the relationship of wavelength to the size of the
object.

Reflection
If the wavelength is very small compared to the object, the sound wave
will be reflected by the object. A flat surface will reflect the sound wave
like a mirror reflects light. Uneven surfaces will produce a diffuse reflection.

Frequency and wavelength

Diffraction
Diffraction describes the phenomenon whereby the original direction of
the sound wave is 'bent' by an object. Diffraction occurs when the object and the wavelength are approximately the same size.
Objects considerably smaller than the wavelength of the sound do not
have much effect on the propagation of the wavefront. The sound
wave does not 'notice' the object.

Diffraction by a gap
Diffraction by horn and cabinet

No effect with small objects

Absorption
If a sound wave hits a soft, elastic or porous object it will be absorbed
to a greater or lesser extent. The absorption factor is frequency dependent and describes the percentage of sound energy (not pressure)
which is absorbed by the surface. The rest will be reflected. Again the
size of the object is relevant. A small absorber cannot eliminate low frequencies.

(2.0E)

Page 3 - 8

Surface

125 Hz

250 Hz

500 Hz

1 kHz

2 kHz

4 kHz

Concrete

1.5

Wood floor

15

11

10

Wood panel on studs

30

25

20

17

15

10

50 mm foam rubber absorber panel

15

27

63

91

100

100

50 mm glass fibre absorber panel

26

60

95

100

100

100

Examples for the absorption factor (%)

Sound pressure and level

Ratio

dB

0.1

- 20

10

+ 20

100

+ 40

+6

+ 10

+ 14

Level [ dB SPL] = 20 log

Ratio of sound pressure or

voltage values expressed in
the logarithmic measure dB.

Distance

Sound level is decided up with a logarithmic scale in the same way as

the frequency scale, perceived frequency differences being scaled in
octaves, perceived sound level differences being scaled in decibels (dB).
However the decibel itself is not a real unit but a factor relative a reference level. Only with the given reference level does the dB become a
unit. Thus dBu stands for electrical signal levels relative to 0.775 Volt.
dB SPL stands for sound pressure levels relative to 0.00002 Pascal
(threshold of hearing, nominally 0 dB SPL).
The formula to convert sound pressure to dB SPL is:

dB-Level relative to 1 m

2m

-6

3m

- 10

5m

- 14

10 m

- 20

20 m

- 26

30 m

- 30

50 m

- 34

sound pressure

0.00002 Pa

The sound pressure of a loudspeaker is proportional to its input voltage

(in the linear operating range of the speaker). This means that an increase in the input level of 6 dB (double the input voltage or 4 times the
input power), causes 6 dB more sound pressure (double sound pressure
or 4 times the acoustic power).
Level drop over distance
With increasing distance the sound power radiated by a loudspeaker
covers a larger area. This means the sound pressure is inversely proportional to the distance from the source. The formula above also describes this relation. At a distance of 10 m the sound pressure level is
20 dB lower than at 1 m.
The table on the right shows the relationship of linear (metres) on the
left to logarithmic (decibels) on the right. With only a few values from
the table it is possible to estimate the drop in level for different distances quite accurately. Multiplying figures in the left column equals
adding them in the right column.
Example: What's the level drop after 60 m ?
60 = 2 x 3 x 10 hence 6 dB + 10 dB + 20 dB = 36 dB.

Level drop over distance

(2.0E)

Page 4 - 8

120 dB

2 x 120 dB = 126 dB

126 dB

Addition of sound waves

Depending on the wavelength, the distance between the sound sources
and the listening position, different effects will occur.

100 W

2 x 100 W = 200 W

400 W

Two subwoofer producing coherent signals

have double the efficiency of the single cabinet

Subwoofer array for maximum

horizontal directivity

Coherent signals
Say you have two sound sources producing the same signal with
identical phase relation and amplitude. If the distance between the
sources and their size is considerably smaller than the wavelength (by a
factor of at least 2 or 3), a 6 dB increase in level will be achieved in all
directions (twice the sound pressure). This relation is valid if two subwoofers are placed side by side or directly above each other. If the
overall size of the cluster is say 1.2 m the efficiency of the system is
doubled below about 100 Hz (wavelength 3.4 m).
The summation of levels is done according to the dB table; three equal
sources will give an increase in SPL of 10 dB, four sources will give +12
dB etc.
Larger arrays will produce a certain amount of directivity, because only
in the plane at right angles to the column do all speakers produce in
phase signals. As you go off that plane, there will be cancellation to a
certain extent. For example a vertical column will have narrower vertical and broader horizontal dispersion. The frequency above which a
useful directivity may be expected is:
F = 250 / column length in meters
When the systems are placed on a hard surface (floor), the effective
vertical extension of the array is doubled by the mirror sources.

Subwoofer arry for maximum vertical directivity

(long throw)

Out of phase signals

If two sound sources produce an identical signal but out of phase (180
phase shift), both signals will cancel each other out, either partly or - if
the signals are exactly the same level - completely.

Mirror sources virtually extend the

column

12
0

12
24
36

Comb filter effect

If a point is reached with sound from two sources producing the same
signal, but at a different distance, a so-called comb filter effect will occur. The reason for this effect is that when the wavelength of a frequency is a multiple of the path difference, the signals from both
sources are in phase (i.e. phaseshift 0 or 360, 720, etc.) and add up
completely. For frequencies which arrive out of phase (i.e. phaseshift
180 or 540, 900, etc.) there will be cancellation. The extent of the
comb filtering depends on the relative levels of both signals at the
listening point. The most serious cancellations occur slightly off the
centre axis between two speakers where both signals arrive with almost
the same level but with a 180 phase shift.

48
12
0

B
A

12
24
36

48
12
0
12
24
36

48

Frequency response of two interfering signals

with different lengths (comb filter effect)

(2.0E)

Page 5 - 8

Power ratio

dB

+3

+5

+7

10

+ 10

100

+ 20

Non coherent signals

Signals of different sources with no defined phase relation are called
not coherent. In this case there is no perfect addition of the sound pressure, but the sound power of the different signals must be summed
(double the power equals +3 dB sound pressure). This is valid when a
point is reached by many sound sources or their reflections. Another
case of non coherent addition (i.e. power addition) occurs when different sound signals (background noise, music, speech) arrive at one point.
Level distribution in the audience area
Here are some diagrammatic examples which show what factors determine the level distribution along the room axis - from first seat to last.

Level gain in dB with increased acoustic power by

more sources or hogher electrical input power.

110 dB/1 m

-30 dB
-6 dB
2m

30 m
24 dB

104 dB

80 dB

Distance related level drop along the audience

area

Level drop over distance

Independent of the type of loudspeaker used, it's level will decrease
with distance according to the dB table. As an example we'll use a
room with a length of 30 m. The first listeners are located 2 m from the
stage.
Here the first row to last row level difference is 24 dB - unacceptable
for a real sound system.
However, the difference of distances can be reduced by 'flying' the
loudspeaker. At a height of 8 m above the audience the resulting difference in level is only 12 dB.

110 dB/1 m

-18 dB

8m

Vertical directivity
Taking into account the vertical dispersion of the speaker system, the
level distribution can be improved significantly. In the following example
the loudspeaker is just 2 m above the audience (compared with 8 m in
the last example) and has a level drop of -12 dB at 40 off axis. This is
roughly the behaviour of a system with a nominal 40 vertical dispersion (-6 dB at +/- 20)

-30 dB

2m

30 m
12 dB

92 dB

80 dB

Improved coverage with a flown speaker system

However this arrangement is only useful if the loudspeaker's sound

character does not change appreciably from its on axis to -40 response, which means that the system must be a constant directivity (CD)
design over a very wide frequency and angle range.

110 dB/1 m

40
2m

-10 dB

-30 dB

2m
sphere:
40 system:

30 m

100 dB

20 dB

80 dB

88 dB

8 dB

80 dB

Improved coverage with vertical CD-design

Horizontal coverage
The horizontal coverage angle of the loudspeakers used should not be
larger than that necessary to cover the audience area. Sound radiated
in other directions puts energy into the diffuse sound field which will
make speech intelligibility worse.
If a single system does not provide enough coverage, more cabinets
can be put together in an array. This requires good constant directivity
characteristics in the single loudspeaker, to keep the overlap regions as
small as possible without causing any coverage gaps.
When a horizontal coverage of 90 is required, it can be achieved with
a single 90 system (-6 dB at +/- 45) or with three 35 systems with a
30 angle between the cabinets. The latter solution gives clearly more
sound pressure and a sharper level drop at the edge of the covered
area. The disadvantage is the comb filtering around the centre axis
between two cabinets in the array. In these areas there cannot be perfect coherent addition of the sources (this is the reason for the angle
between two cabinets being smaller than the nominal coverage angle
of the single systems).
(2.0E)

Page 6 - 8

The better the constant directivity design of the cabinet, the less the
comb filtering.
35

90

Speech intelligibility
35

The speech intelligibility at a particular listening position is mainly determined by the ratio of direct sound to diffuse sound, diffuse sound being the combined room reflections or reverberation.
While direct sound is decreasing with the distance from the source, the
diffuse sound level is almost constant in the whole room. An acceptable
speech intelligibility is ensured when the direct sound is no more than
10 dB below the diffuse level.

35

-6 dB

-45

+45

diffuse sound
-6 dB

-45

+45

Comparison of a single 90 coverage cabinet

with a 3-wide array of 35 cabinets

excellent

direc

level

speech intelligibility
good
fair

bad

Use of delay systems

By using delay systems, not only the level distribution in the audience
area can be improved, but also the ratio of direct to diffuse sound. The
loudspeaker can be aimed specifically at the audience and will therefore throw less energy into the diffuse field, thereby improving intelligibility. Because the stage system no longer has to reach back of the room,
all systems can be driven at lower power.
Beyond the critical distance (this is the point at which diffuse sound level
= direct sound level) the sound of the stage system is strongly influenced by the room acoustics. Speakers closer to the audience (like
delays) have to match this sound character (as well as have their delays
set accurately) if the system is to operate discreetly
and thus maintain the image orientation to the main
stage system.

t sou
nd

diffuse sound

10 dB
distance
diffuse field

free field
critical distance
110 dB/1 m

2m

110 dB/1 m

-24 dB

-10 dB

2m
without delay: 100 dB
+diffuse sound: 86 dB
100 dB
with delay: 100 dB
+diffuse sound: 89 dB
100 dB

15 m

30 m

13 dB

80 dB
86 dB
87 dB

9 dB

86 dB
89 dB
91 dB

(2.0E)

Page 7 - 8

For 'loud' music reinforcement an average level of 100 to 105 dB is

usually sufficient. The peak levels can be 12 dB higher.
Example: a stereo system shall provide a level of 100 dB at a distance
of 20 m. Each system therefore must be capable of 100 dB + 26 dB
(level drop over 20 m) + 12 dB (peak/average ratio) - 3 dB (power
sum L+R) = 135 dB SPL peak (at 1 m).
For speech only systems the required levels are approximately 20 dB
lower.
Dispersion specifications
Polar diagram
The polar diagram shows the level over listening angle in the horizontal
or vertical plane for a given frequency. In the case of 'constant directivity' loudspeakers, the plots for the different frequencies (at least for the
area in front of the cabinet) should look very similar.

90
120

60

150

30

180

210

330

240

300
270

Polar diagram

Q-factor
Q factor describes the directivity of a device at a given frequency, but
does not distinguish between horizontal and vertical directivity. It is the
ratio of sound power radiated on axis to average sound power radiated in all directions. A high Q means high directivity.
Nominal dispersion angle
The horizontal and vertical angle at which the level is -6 dB relative to
the on axis level, e.g. 60 x 40 for a 602-LS. It can also be displayed
against frequency (dispersion against frequency plot or isobar
diagram).

Isobar diagram
Horizontal scale is frequency, vertical scale is degrees off axis, and the
isobar lines represent -6 dB and -12 dB. Constant directivity behaviour
can be shown by parallel isobaric lines. The example shows the dispersion of the d&b C4-TOP cabinet (35 x 35 nominal dispersion).

d&b audiotechnik GmbH, Eugen-Adolff-Str. 134, D-71522 Backnang, Germany, Phone: +49-71 91-96 69-0, Fax: +49-71 91-95 00 00

(2.0E)

Page 8 - 8

D5406.E.02 (04// 2000) d&b audiotechnik GmbH

Level requirements