1.

LightingTerms

Inartificiallighting,manytechnicaltermsandunitsareusedtodescribeandillustrate
thepropertiesoflightsourcesandtheeffectsthatareproduced.

1.1. LuminousFlux
Luminousfluxdescribesthetotalamountoflightemittedbyalightsource.This
fluxismeasuredinLumen(lm).

1.2. Luminousefficacy
Luminousefficacydescribestheluminousfluxofalampinrelationtoitspower
consumptionandisthereforeexpressedinlumenperwatt(lm/W).

1.3. Luminousintensity
An ideal pointsource lamp radiates luminous flux
uniformly into the space in all directions; its
luminous intensity is the same in all directions. In
practice, however, luminous flux is not distributed
uniformly.Thisresultspartlyfromthedesignofthe
light source, and partly on the way the light is
intentionallydirected.Itmakessense,therefore,to
have a way of presenting the spatial distribution of luminous flux, i.e. the
luminous intensity dis tribution of the light source. The unit for measuring
luminous intensity is candela (cd). The candela is the primary basic unit in
lightingtechnologyfromwhichallothersarederived.Thecandelawasoriginally
defined by the luminous intensity of a standardized candle. Later thorium
powderatthetemperatureofthesolidificationofplatinumwasdefinedasthe
standard;since1979thecandela
hasbeendefinedbyasourceofradiationthatradiates1/683Wpersteradianat
afrequencyof5401012Hz.

1.4. Illuminance
It indicates the amount of
luminous flux from a light
source falling on a given
area.

AverageilluminanceEmiscalculatedfromthe

Horizontal illuminance Eh and vertical illuminnance Ev in interior spaces are

relativetothelocationofthecalculationsurfacewithinaroom.

TheilluminanceatapointEpiscalculatedfromtheluminousintensitylandthe
distanceabetweenthelightsourceandthegivenpoint

1.5. Luminance

Whereas illuminance indicates the amount of

luminous flux falling on a given surface,
luminance describes the brightness of an
illuminatedorluminoussurface.Luminanceis
definedastheratioofluminousintensityofa
surface (cd) to the projected area of this
surface(m2).

Theluminanceofaluminoussurfaceistheratioofluminousintensitylandthe
projectedsurfaceareaAp.

Theluminanceofanilluminatedsurfacewithdiffusereflectanceisproportional
totheilluminanceandthereflectanceofthesurface.

1.6. Reflectance
As might be expected, there is a relationship
betweentheamountoflightincidentonasurface

andtheamountoflightreflectedfromthesamesurface.Thesimplestformofthe
relationshipisquantifiedbytheluminancecoefficient.Theluminancecoefficientis
theratiooftheluminanceofthesurfacetotheilluminanceincidentonthesurface
and has units of candela/lumen. The luminance coefficient of a given surface is
dependent on the nature of the surface and the geometry between the lighting,
surfaceandobserver.

Thefollowingtableillustratesthephotometricquantitieswiththeirrelated
units:

Measure
Luminousflux

Luminous
intensity

Illuminance
Luminance

Reflectance

Definition

That quantity of radiant flux which

expresses its capacity to produce visual
sensation

The luminous flux emitted in a very

narrow cone containing the given
directiondividedbythesolidangleofthe
cone,i.e.luminousflux/unitsolidangle.
Theluminousflux/unitareaatapointon
asurface
Theluminousfluxemittedinagiven
direction divided by the product of the
projected area of the source element
perpendicular to the direction and the
solid angle containing that direction, i.e.
luminousintensity/unitarea
The ratio of the luminous flux reflected
fromsurfacetotheluminousfluxincident
onit

Units
lumens(lm)

candela(cd)

lumen/m2
candela/m2

2. LightingCharacteristics
2.1. Colortemperature

Giventhatthecolorofthelighthasanimportant
influence on the color impression of the area,
the color temperature of the light source plays
an essential role. To enable an objective
comparison of the color impressions from
various sources, subjective terms such as the
popularwordscoolandwarmareinadequate.
Aprecisescaleisrequiredandgivenbytheterm
correlated color temperature; the color
gradationofthelightiscomparedwiththelight
emittedbyanintenselyheatedironbarofwhich
thetemperatureisknown.Inthisway,thelight
colorcanbespecifiedbyavalueinKelvin(K).A
lowcolortemperaturerepresentswarm,yellow,
orangeorredlightandahighcolortemperature
cool,blueorvioletlight.

Fourcategories,asapracticalguideline,are:

2.1.1. (25002800Kwarm/cosy)
The color from incandescent lamps, (compact) fluorescent lamps in the
colors827and927andtheSDWTWhiteSONlamp.Generallyusedfor
intimate and cosy environments where the emphasis is on a peaceful
relaxingambience.

2.1.2. (28003000Kwarm/neutral)
Thecolorfromhalogenlamps,color830and930(compact)fluorescent
lamps and MASTERColour 830 lamps. Used in places where people are
active,requiringawelcomingcomfortableambience.

2.1.3. (30005000Kneutral/cool)
The light color from 840 and 940 fluorescent lamps as well as
MASTERColour 942 and MHN metal halide lamps. Usually applied in
commercialareasandofficeswherealookofcoolefficiencyisdesired.

2.1.4. (5000Kandabovedaylightandcooldaylight)
The light color that best matches natural daylight, such as fluorescent
colors850,865,950and965andthenewActiVivacolors451and452.

2.2. Colorrendering

The perception of surface colors, the

color rendering of the light, depends on
the color content of the incident light.
The light emitted by a light source is
composed of a mixture of colors, all in
different intensities. A change in the
color mixture and intensity yields a
different color rendering. Cool daylight
and incandescent lamps have fully
natural color rendering properties. The
same is true for halogen lamps. The
reason for this is the continuous
spectrumofthesources,whichistypical
for filament lamps. Most gas discharge
sources,however,haveaninterruptedor
line spect rum. This has an influence on
the quality of their color rendering properties, which vary from very poor,
with sodium gas discharge lamps, to excellent, with the color 90 De Luxe
seriesfluorescentandMASTERColour942lamps.
When selecting a particular lamp type, a clear understanding of the color
rendering properties is essential. A fair indication is given by the color
renderingindex(CRI),whichisastandardizedscalewith100asthemaximum
value. Colors are best shown under a light source with the highest color
renderingindex.Incidentally,itisonlyworthwhiletocompareCRIvaluesof
lampsofsimilarcolortemperature.
Inpractice,threecolorrenderingcategoriesarenormallyfound.
CRI between Ra 90 and 100. Excellent color rendering properties.
Applicationsaremainlythosewherecorrectcolorappraisalisacriticaltask.
CRIbetweenRa80and90.Goodcolorrenderingproperties.Applicationsin
areas where critical color appraisal is not the primary consideration but
wheregoodrenditionofcolorsisessential.

CRIbelowRa80.Moderatetopoorcolorrenderingproperties.Applications
in areas where the quality of color rendering is of minor importance. The
choiceinfavorofaparticularcolorrenderingclassdoes,ofcourse,depend
onthedemandsthatanapplicationmakesonalamp.Forexample,aCRIof
Ra60isinadequateforshoplighting,butisqualifiedasgoodforfunctional
roadlighting.
2.2.1. Areasofapplication

Correct light impressions and correct rendering of colors assists us in

recognizing our surroundings. The color climate of an artificiallylit space is
determinedbylightcolortemperatureandcolorrendering.Roomfurnishings
ofwoodandfabricsinwarmcolorsrequirewarmlightinginthecolors827or
927. For pleasing light the colors 830 and 930 are most suitable for many
applications.Themorebusinessliketheinteriorsare,thecoolerthelightcan
be. Furniture using chromium, glass and marble, or in black and white, is
emphasizedbytheneutrallightcolors840and940.Colors865and965are
best used in environments where there is a high daylight content. For
(compact)fluorescentlampsitismosteconomicaltochoosethecolors830
and840astheyproducethehighestlightoutput.Colors927,930,940and
950,ontheotherhand,givethebestcolorrendering.

3. Electriclight
3.1. Incandescent
The incandescent lamp is operated by
heating a filament in the lamp to a high
temperature, so that it emits light. The
basicprincipleofthelampmaybesimple
butthetechnologyrequiredtomaintain
afilamentatahighenoughtemperature
togivesignificantamountoflight whilst
ensuringthelamphasareasonablelifeis
highly complex. The basic and most
popular form of the lamp is the General
LightingService(GLS)lamp.
The filament design is critical in setting
up the operating characteristics of the
lamp. The length of the filament wire is
largelydeterminedbythesupplyvoltage,
whilst the thickness of the wire is
determined by the operating current
ofthelamp.Thefilamentiscoiledto
reduce heat convection to the filling
gas. There are various forms of
filament coiling with the coiled coil
beingoneofthemostcommon.
The filament must be robust enough to withstand the shocks and vibration
thatthelampreceivesduringitslifeandatthesametimeberigidenoughso
that it does not droop. Support wires can help prevent the filament from
droopingbuttheyconductheatawayfromthefilamentandthusreducethe
efficiency of the lamp.Therefore normal service lamps are made withhard
brittlefilamentsthatonlyneedafewsupportwires.Lampsforroughservice
are made with a softer more malleable filament but have several support
wires.Thebulbisgenerallymadeofasoftsodaglassanditssizeissetsothat
itdoesnotgettoohotandthetungstenthatevaporatesfromthefilament
duringthelifeofthelampdoesnotblackenthebulbtoomuch.Thegasfilling
ofthelampispresenttoreducetherateatwhichthetungstenevaporates
and thus make the lamp last longer. To minimize the heat losses from the
filament noble gasses are used as the primary fill gases. Most lamps have

argon based filling but some high performance lamps use krypton. In
addition to the noble gas filling most mains voltage lamps have a small
percentageofnitrogenaddedtothefillingtohelpsuppressarcingattheend
oflife.Therearemanyvariationsonthisbasiclamptype.Theyaredesigned
to run on voltages between 1.5 and 415 volts at wattages between 1 and
1,000watts.Thereisalsoawidevarietyofbulbshapesincludinglampswith
builtinreflectors.

3.2. Tungstenhalogen
The applications of conventional
incandescent lamps are limited by
their physical size and luminous
efficiency. Raising the filament
temperature to increase the
luminous output has the effect of
increasing the rate of blackening of
the glass envelope, blackening which
is a result of the evaporation of
tungsten from the filament. By
adding a halogen to the gas fill a
chemicaltransportcycleinvolvingthe
reaction of tungsten reduces the
amount of blackening of the
envelope.Itisthenpossibletoreduce
thesizeoflamp,increasethepressureofthefillinggasandtherebylimitthe
lossofthetungstenfromthefilament.

Thechemistryofthetungstenhalogencycleishighlycomplex.Howeverthe
keystagesare:thehalogencombiningwiththetungstenonthewallofthe
lamp(zone3)thetungstenhalidevapormixingwiththefillgasofthelamp
(zone 2) the tungsten halide dissociating close to the filament of the lamp,
leavingthehalogenfreetomigratethoughthefillgastothelampwallagain
and the tungsten being deposited on the filament (zone 1). To enable an
efficientcycleitisnecessaryforthewallofthelamptorunatatemperature
above250C;thismeansthatthebulbhastobemadefromquartzorhard
glass.

Tungstenhalogenlampsaremoreefficientandhavelongerlivescompared
with standard tungsten lamps. Also they are more compact than standard
lamps. However they are more expensive as it is hard to make the quartz
outerbulbanditishardertointroducethegasfillintothelampduetothe
highfillingpressure.

3.3. Fluorescent
Fluorescent lamps are the most commonly used form of discharge lamp.
Theycomeinavarietyofshapesandsizesandareavailableinawiderange
ofcolors.Theoriginalformofthelampwasalongstraighttube.Newforms
of the lamp known as compact fluorescent lamps have been developed
where the lamp tube is bent or folded to produce a smaller light source.
Fluorescentlampsworkbygeneratingultravioletradiationinadischargein
low pressure mercury vapor. This is then converted into visible light by a
phosphorcoatingontheinsideofthetube.Theelectriccurrentsuppliedto
thedischargehastobelimitedbycontrolgeartomaintainstableoperation
ofthelamp.Traditionallythisisdonewithmagneticchokesbutmostcircuits
nowusehighfrequencyelectroniccontrolgear.Electroniccontrolgearhasa
numberofadvantages:first,drivingthelampathighfrequencymaintainsthe
ions in the gas and thus makes the lamp run more efficiently. Secondly, it
reduces the amount of flicker in the lamp and, finally, electronic gear
consumeslesspowerthanamagneticchoke.

Thelampsaremadefromthefollowingmaincomponents.
Thetube:thisismadefromaglasswithahighironcontentsothatanyshort
waveUVradiationthatgetsthroughthephosphorcoatingisabsorbedbythe
glass
Thephosphorcoating:thereareawidevarietyofphosphorsavailable.Each
producesadifferentspectrumoflightandbycarefulblendingofthevarious
phosphors lamp makers can tailor a wide range of lamp colors. The lumen
output of the lamp also depends on the choice of phosphor mix. It is also
important to control the particle size of the phosphor powders and the
thickness of the coating. There are three main types of phosphor mixes
currentlyusedinfluorescentlamps:

Halophosphates: this range of phosphors tend to emit light in a relatively

widebandanditisnormaltouseonlyonephosphorofthistypeatanyone
time. Halophosphates are only reasonably efficient as phosphors and
generallyhavepoorcolorrendering.
Triphosphors: are mixes of three narrow band phosphors. They generally
achieveCIEgeneralcolorrenderingindicesgreaterthan80andhaveahigh
efficacyandgoodlumenmaintenance.
Multiphosphors: are mixes of a number, usually five, phosphors. These
mixesusuallygiveaCIEgeneralcolorrendingindexhigherthan90,however
theefficacyisnormallylowerthanatriphosphormix.
Theelectrodes:generallycoilsoftungstenwirethatarecoatedinamaterial
thatwhenheatedwillgiveoffelectronsreadily.Tostartthelampacurrentis
passed through the coil to heat the emissive coating. However, once the
lampisrunningtheionizedgasatomshittingtheelectrodeprovideenough
energytokeepthecathodehot.Theelectrodesaregenerallysurroundedby
ashieldassomeofthematerialusedtocoattheelectrodeevaporatesduring
the life of the lamp. If the shield was not there the material would be
depositedonthewallofthelampcausingablackringandreducingthelight
output.
Thegasfill:thelampfillismadeupoftwocomponents;anoblegasmixture
andthemercuryvapor.Thenoblegasinthelamphasthreemainfunctions.
First,itreducesthemobilityofthefreeelectronsinthelampandbycareful
controlofthepressure;itoptimizesthenumberofelectronswiththeright
amountofenergytoexcitethemercuryatoms.
Secondly, the gas reduces the rate at which the coatings on the electrodes
evaporate and thus prolongs the life of the lamp. Finally it lowers the
breakdownvoltageofthelampandthusmakesstartingeasier.Mostlamps
useeitheramixtureofargonandkryptonorneonandargon.Theuseofthe
heaver krypton gas makes the lamps slightly more efficient but it is
significantly more expensive. The vapor pressure of mercury in the lamp is
significantly lower than the pressure of the noble gas mixture and it is
controlled by the temperature of the coolest part of the lamp. At the cold
spotofthelampthemercurycondensestoformliquidmercury.Atthispoint
theliquidandgaseousmercuryareinequilibriumandthevaporpressureis
determinedbythetemperature.Asthevaporpressureofmercuryiscritical

to the operation of the lamp, the light output of the lamp varies with
temperature. Most lamps are optimized to run in an environment with an
ambienttemperatureof25C.
However, some of the new types of lamp are set up to run in an ambient
temperature of 35 C. In some lamp types the mercury dose is mixed with
othermetalssuchasbismuthorindium.Thesemetalsformanamalgamwith
themercuryandthisreducesthevaporpressureofthemercuryatanygiven
temperature. This enables the lamp to operate at higher temperatures but
hasthedrawbackthatthelamptakesalongtimetoreachfulloutput.

Therearetwomaintypesoffluorescentlamps;thetraditionallinearlamps
and the compact fluorescent lamps. Linear lamps come in variety of
diametersandlengths.ThemaindiametersoflamparetheT12lampswhich
are38mmindiameter,T8lampswhichare25mmandtheT5typeswhich
are 16 mm. All of these families of lamps come in a variety of lengths and
wattages.Linearfluorescentlampsaregenerallyefficientlightsourceswith
some of the lamps approaching 100 lumens per watt. They also come in a
widevarietyofcolourswitharangeofcolourrenderingproperties.Table3.3
givesasummaryofthemainlampcolours.

Ingeneralcompactfluorescentlampsarelessefficientthanlinearlamps,but
because of their small size, they are suited to many applications where a
smallerlampisneeded.Someofthelampshavethecontrolgearbuiltinto
themandcanberetrofittedintoGLSlampsockets.
3.4Highpressuremercury
In this type of lamp a discharge takes
place in a quartz discharge tube
containing mercury vapor at high
pressure(2to10atmospheres).Someof
the radiation from the discharge occurs
in the visible spectrum but part of the
radiation is emitted in the ultraviolet.
The outer bulb of the lamp is coated
internallywithaphosphorthatconverts
this UV radiation into light. The general
constructionofthelampisshowninthe
figure.
The operation of the lamp is quite
complex and needs to be considered in
threephases:ignition,runupandstable
running.
Firstignition;whenpowerisfirstapplied
to the lamp the voltage is not high
enoughtostrikeanarcbetweenthetwo
mainelectrodes.Ignitionisachievedusinganauxiliaryelectrodeplacedclose
to one of the main electrodes. The auxiliary electrode is connected via a
resistor(typically25,000ohms).Thislimitsthesizeofthecurrentinthearc
formed by the auxiliary electrode so the voltage across the starting arc is
reduced as the current increases. This means that the ions in the arc are
drawn towards the main electrode at the other end of the lamp and these
ionsallowthemainarctostart.
The next stage is the runup. Once the arc has started between the main
electrodes very little light is given out because the mercury pressure is too
lowasthetubeiscool.Thearcinthegasslowlywarmsupthetubeandso

themercuryvapourpressurerisesandthelightoutputincreases.Typicallyit
takesabout4minutesforthelamptoachieve80%ofthefinallightoutput.
Whenthelampreachesstablerunningandnormaloperatingpressureallthe
mercury in the lamp is in the vapour phase. This means that the vapour
pressureofthemercuryiscontrolledbytheamountofmercuryputintothe
lampratherthanthetemperatureofthelamp.
High pressure mercury lamps are made from the following main
components.
Thedischargetubeisgenerallymadeofquartzandhasthemainelectrodes
andthestartingelectrodesealedintoit.
The main electrodes are usually made of tungsten rods which have coil of
tungsten wire wrapped round them. This coil is usually impregnated with
emitter material similar to that used in fluorescent lamps. The auxiliary
electrodeisgenerallywiremadeoutofmolybdenumortungsten.
The fill gas in the discharge tube is commonly argon and a very carefully
controlleddoseofmercuryisalsoadded.Thedischargetubeisfittedintoa
supportframeandthewholeassemblyissealedintotheouterbulb.Thegas
fillintheouterbulbisusuallynitrogenorargonoramixtureofthetwo.The
pressure of this fill gas is controlled to ensure that the arc tube operating
temperatureiscorrect.
The outer bulb is made out of a soft soda
limeglassforlowwattagelamps(upto125
W). High power lamps use a borosilicate
glass outer. There are two common shapes
for the outer bulb the ovoid or isothermal
bulb, and the reflector bulb. Figure below
showsthesetwoshapes.

The performance of these lamps is not considered to be very good

nowadays. Their efficiency is around 40 lumens per watt. Their CIE general
color rendering index is between 40 and 50 and they have a very long life
but,becauseofpoorlumenmaintenance,itisgenerallyrecommendedthat
thelampsarechangedafter8,000to10,000hoursofuse.Becauseoftheir
poor performance and the fact that better lamp types are available for
almostalloftheapplicationstheselampsarebeingphasedout.
3.5Metalhalide
Metalhalidelampsweredevelopedasawayofimprovingtheperformance
ofhighpressuremercurylampsintermsoftheircolourappearanceandlight
output.Theyworkbyintroducingthesaltsofothermetalsintothearctube.
Aseachelementhasitsowncharacteristicspectralline,byaddingamixture
ofdifferentelementsintothedischargeitispossibletocreatealightsource
withgoodcolourrenderinginavarietyofcolours.
Therearealotofproblemswithintroducingnewelementsintoadischarge.
First, the element must be volatile and secondly it should not chemically
attackthearctube.Toavoidtheseproblemsithasbecomecommonpractice
to introduce metals into the lamp as metal halides. Metal halides are
generallymorevolatilethanthemetalsthemselvesandthemetalhalidesdo
notattackthearctube.Themetalhalidecompoundbreaksupintothemetal
andhalogenionsatthehightemperaturesinthecentreofthedischargeand
reformsatthelowertemperaturesnearthewallofthetube.
Many different combinations of elements have been used to make metal
halide lamps, Figure 3.21 lists some of the more common combinations of
elementstogetherwiththespectraloutputtheycreate.

Becauseofthedifferinglampchemistrythereisawiderangeoflampsthat
varyintermsoftheirefficacy,colourandelectricalproperties.
Oneofthemainproblemswithmetalhalidelampsthatusequartzdischarge
tubesiscolourstability.Asthecolourofthelightoutputisafunctionofthe
ionspresentinthedischargetube,anychangestothegascompositiondue
to some metals being absorbed by the quartz tube or changes in
temperature in the tube can cause significant colour shifts. These colour
shiftsareparticularlyaproblemforthelowerwattagelamps.Thisproblem
has largely been solved by the introduction of a new material for the
dischargetube.Ceramicorsinteredaluminatubesaremuchmoreresistant
to chemical attack than quartz tubes and can operate at higher
temperatures.Lampswiththesetubesarenowverypopularforlowwattage
(upto150W)metalhalidelamps.
Theconstructionofametalhalidelampissimilartothatofahighpressure
mercury lamp. The key differences are that it is unusual to use an auxiliary
electrode in the lamp, lamp ignition being achieved using a high voltage
pulsefromthecontrolgear.Also,thereisnophosphorcoatingontheouter
bulb.

Thereisavastrangeofmetalhalidelampsranginginpowerbetween20W
toover2kW.ThelampshaveaCIEgeneralcolourrenderingindexbetween
60 and 93 and they have high luminous efficacies, in the range 60 to 98
lumens per watt. For these reasons, this lamp type has many applications
whereacompactlightsourcewithgoodcolourrenderingisneeded.
There are many points to watch for when selecting metal halide lamps as
thereareproblemsassociatedwithsomelamptypesshatteringattheendof
lifeorgivingoffUVradiation.Itisimportantwiththeselampstoensurethat
theluminaireinwhichtheyareusedissuitable.
3.6Lowpressuresodium
Lowpressuresodiumlampsaresimilar
in many ways to fluorescent lamps as
they are both low pressure discharge
lamps. All the differences in
characteristics stem from the use of
sodium in the discharge tube rather
thanmercury.Thekeydifferencesare
the need to run the lamp hotter to
maintain the vapour pressure of
sodium, the need to contain the very
reactive sodium metal; and the fact
that sodium emits its light in the
visible rather than the UV frequency
range, so there is no need for a
phosphorlayer.
There used to be a range of designs
forsodiumlampsbutcurrentlytheU
tubelampisbyfarthemostcommon
type. A typical lamp of this design is
showninthefigure.

Themaincomponentsofalowpressuresodiumlampareasfollows.
The arc tube; this is made of normal soda lime glass with a coating on the
inside of a special sodium resistant aluminoborate glass. Making this ply
glasstubeistechnicallydifficultasgreatcareisneededtoensurethatthere
are no thermal stresses in the final tube that might lead to cracking during
thelifeofthelamp.Somelamptypeshavedimplesinthesideofthemtoact
asreservoirsofsodium.
The gas fill of the tube is neon with about 1% of argon at a pressure of
approximately 1000 Pa. This mixture is used as it has a much lower
breakdownvoltagethanneononitsownandthusmakesstartingthelamp
much easier. Sodium metal is also put into the tube. The sodium vapour
pressureinthetubewhenitisatitsoperatingtemperatureof260Cisabout
0.7Pa.
The outer bulb is of soda lime glass, the inside is coated with a layer of
indium oxide. This layer reflects the bulk of the infrared radiation from the
arctubeandthuskeepsitwarm.Betweentheouterbulbandthearctube
the gas pressure is very low, below 0.01 Pa. To maintain the vacuum a
bariumgetterisused.
Arelativelyhighvoltageisneededtostartanarcintheneonfillgas.Thearc
then slowly warms up the lamp and the discharge tube and the vapour
pressureofthesodiumstartstoriseuntilthelampreachesthermalstability
afterabout15minutes.
Oneofthecuriouspropertiesofthesodiumatomisthepredominanceofthe
energytransitionsassociatedwiththetwospectrallinesat589nmand589.6
nm.Thismeansthatvirtuallyallthevisibleradiationfromthelampisgiven
offinthisverynarrowband.However,sodiumatomswillalsoreabsorband
reemit the radiation very readily; this means that nearly all the light
emergingfromalowpressuresodiumlamphascomefromclosetothearc
tubewall.
Thelightfromalowpressuresodiumlampisawavelengthclosetothepeak
of the photopic sensitivity curve, and as the lamp is relatively efficient at
converting electricity into visible radiation, the lamp is one of the most
efficientlightsourcesintermsoflumensperwatt.Thebestoftherangecan
achieve in excess of 180 lumens per watt. The problems with the lamp are
large size, long runup time and monochromatic light that does not render

colours. The lamp has been mainly used for street lighting but recently the
importanceofsomecolourrenderingonroadshasbeenrecognizedandthe
lampisrarelyusedinnewinstallations.
3.7Highpressuresodium
The high pressure sodium lamp generates light in a discharge through
sodiumvapourathighpressure.Asthevapourpressureofsodiuminalamp
rises the spectrum at first broadens and then it splits in two with a gap
appearingatabout586nm.Thebelowfigureshowsthespectrafromsodium
lampswithdifferentvapourpressures.

As the vapour pressure rises the colour rendering of the lamp increases.
However,thisisattheexpenseofefficacyintermsoflumensperwatt.The
figurebelowshowstheconstructionofahighpressuresodiumlamp.

Themaincomponentsusedintheconstructionofthelampareasfollows.
The arc tube is made of polycrystalline alumina (PCA). This material is
ceramic rather than a glass, this makes it very hard to work as it is not
possibletosoftenitanditishardtocut.PCAisusedbecauseitisresistantto
chemical attack by hot sodium, it is stable at high temperatures and it is
transparent.
BecauseitisnotpossibletoworkthePCAthetubeiscuttolengthandfitted
withendcaps,thefigurebelowshowssomeofthedesignsusedforclosing
theendsofthedischargetube.

Theuseof niobiummetalaspartoftheendcapassemblyiscommon asit

expandswithtemperatureatthesamerateasthePCAtubeandthusdoes
notcausestressesinthelampasitheatsup.
Theelectrodesinthelamparemadefromtungstenrodswithtungstenwire
woundaroundthem,withemittermaterialmadefromoxidesofmetalssuch
asbarium,calciumandyttrium.
The fill gas in the tube is usually xenon at a cold pressure of 3 kPa, which
corresponds to an operating pressure of about 20 kPa. A higher xenon
pressurewouldimprovelampefficacybutmakestartingharderasitneedsa
highvoltagetobreakdown.Sometypesoflampusehighpressurexenonand
use an ignition wire held close to the tube to help starting. There are also
somelampsthatuseargonasafillgas;theyaremucheasiertostartbutare
lessefficientintermoflumensperwatt.Adoseofsodiummercuryamalgam
is used in most high pressure sodium lamps. Mercury is used because its
vapour acts as a buffer gas and helps improve the efficiency of the lamp.
However,themercurycontributesverylittletotheoutputspectrumofthe
lamp.Somelampsarenowmadewithoutmercuryinthem.Theabsenceof
mercurymakesthedisposalofthelampattheendoflifeeasierasthereare
noenvironmentallydamagingsubstancesinthelamp.Themetaldoseinthe
lamp is never fully vapourised and so the pressure of the sodium and
mercuryvapoursinthelampisdependentonthetemperatureofthecoolest
partofthedischargetube.Thismakestheoutputofthelamptemperature
dependentandcanalsogiveproblemsassociatedwiththevoltageacrossthe
tuberisingifthelampgetstoohot.Thecoldspotonmostdischargetubesis
in the area behind the electrode. As this area of the tube is blackened
throughthelifeofthelamp,thecoldspottemperaturetendstorisethrough
life. This can give rise to problems in old lamps where the pressure in the
dischargetuberisestothepointwhereitisnolongerpossibleforthevoltage
availablefromthesupplytosustainanarcinthelamp.
Thedischargetubeismountedintoasupportframeandsealedintoanouter
bulb.Theouterbulbisgenerallymadeofaborosilicateglassandmaybeina
number of different shapes, the figure below shows some of the more
commonshapes.

Thehighpressuresodiumlampisanefficientsourceoflight(efficaciesupto
142lumensperwatt),ithasalonglifewithreasonablelumenmaintenance
andwhilstthecolourrenderingonthestandardlampispooritisacceptable
foranumberofapplications.
Thewhitehighpressuresodiumlamphasaspectrumwithminimaloutputin
theyellow.Thishasthepropertyofmakingalargenumberofcoloursappear
morevividandsothislamphasanumberofapplicationsinretaillighting.

3.8Induction
Induction lamps are essentially gas discharge lamps that do not have
electrodes. Instead the electric field in the lamp is induced by an induction
coil that is operating at high frequency. The only types of induction lamps
that are currently in production are based on fluorescent lamp technology.
Thefigurebelowshowsthelayoutofacavitytypelamp.

Thelampconsistsofaglassbottlewithacavityinitintowhichtheinduction
coil is placed. The glass vessel has a gas filling similar to a conventional
fluorescentlampandthephosphorcoatingontheinsideofthelampisalso
similar.
The induction coil in the centre of the lamp is fed from a high frequency
generator.
An alternative architecture for this
type of lamp is to have the induction
coil wrapped around a toroidal lamp.
Thefigureshowsalampofthistype.

Induction lamps have many of the same properties as fluorescent lamps.

Theyare,however,slightlylessefficient.Thebigadvantagewiththistypeof
lampislonglife.Thisisbecausetherearenoelectrodestofailandtheinside
of lamp does not get coated with material that has been vapourised away
from the electrodes. A number of lamps of this type have rated lives of
100,000 hours. These lamps are more expensive than conventional
fluorescent lamps so they tend to be used in places where it is difficult to
changelampsandthuslonglifeisanimportantrequirement.
3.9Lightemittingdiodes
LEDsareavailableinawidevarietyof sizes,coloursandpowerratingsand
developmentisproceedingatarapidrate.WhilstLEDscomeinavarietyof
styles,thefigurebelowillustratestwocommonforms.

The main components of a LED are as follows. The chip of semiconductor

material in the centre of the lamp may be made of a wide variety of
materials. Differing materials result in a different colour of light being
produced.Thetablebelowlistssomeofthemorecommonlyusedmaterials.


The chip ismounted onto one of the leadin wires. In high power LEDs the
mountingisdesignedinsuchawayastoconductheatawayfromthechip.
The other lead wire is bonded to the chip generally connecting to a very
smallareaclosetotheactualsemiconductorjunction.Thewholedeviceis
thenpottedinaplasticresin,usuallyepoxy.
LEDs generally have a long life and may last up to 100,000 hours. LEDs
generally emit light in a relatively narrow band so that most LEDs produce
lightthatisasaturatedcolour.ItispossibletomakewhiteLEDsbyusinga
blueorultravioletchipandputtingaphosphorcoatroundit.Whitecanalso
beachievedbycombiningamixtureofred,greenandbluechips.
LEDshavealotofapplicationsassociatedwithsignalsandsignage.Theuse
ofsaturatedcoloursintheseapplicationsisarealbonus.Thiscoupledwith
theeaseofproducinglightinanumberofsmallunitsmeansthatLEDsare
replacinganumberofotherlightsourcesintheseareas.Itisalsopossibleto
makelampsthatareaclusterofLEDsofdifferentcolours.Bycontrollingthe
outputs of the different colours it is possible to make a lamp that can
producelightinawidevarietyofcolours.Atthetimeofwriting,whiteLEDs
are making fast technical progress but have not proved to have that many
applicationsintheareaofgenerallightingasthelumenpackagestendtobe
smallandtheirefficacydoesnotcomparefavourablywithothersourcessuch
asfluorescentlamps.

4.Electriclightsourcecharacteristics
There are a number of key properties of lamps that need to be considered
whenchoosingwhichlampisrightforaparticularapplication.Thefollowing
sectionslisttheseproperties.
4.1Luminousflux
Inanylightingapplicationtheamountoflightthatisneededisakeydecision
that has to be made. From this it is then possible to work out how many
lampsofgivenratingareneeded.Therearelampswithlumenoutputsless
than1lumenthroughtolampswithoutputsinexcessof200,000lumens.In
mostapplications,itistheaveragemaintainedilluminancethatisimportant
so it is important to consider the lumen maintenance through life at the
sametimeastheinitialluminousflux.
4.2Powerdemand
Itisimportantinanylightingschemetoknowwhatthetotalpowerdemand
isgoingtobesothattheelectricalinfrastructurecanbecorrectlydesigned.
The power consumed by the lamp is important. However with many lamp
typesitisimportantalsotoconsidertheimpactofthecontrolgearaswell.In
mostcasesitwillbethetotalcircuitwattsthatisimportantratherthanthe
lamp wattage. One further complication with some lamp types is that the
voltage and current waveforms are not exactly in phase with one another.
Thusthevoltsmultipliedbytheampsinthecircuitmaybehigherthanthe
watts.Thepowerfactorofthecircuitisdefinedbythefollowingequation:

Mosthighwattagelampcircuitsaredesignedtohaveapowerfactorgreater
than 0.85. The other factor that may affect the sizing of the cables that
supplyalightinginstallationisthecurrentrequiredduringtherunupofthe
lamps.Withsometypesoflampthiscanbeoverdoublethenominalrunning
current.Whenusinglightingcontrolsthepowerdemandismoredifficultto
predictasthepowerconsumedmaybereducedattimeswhenfulloutputis
notrequiredfromthelamp.

4.3Luminousefficacy
Luminous efficacy is usually expressed in terms of lumens per watt. Many
lamp manufacturers produce lumens per watt figures for their lamps.
However, for discharge lamps and other lamps requiring some form of
control gear, these figures may be misleading as they refer to the power
consumedinthelamponlyanddonotconsiderthepowerlostinthecontrol
gear. All the values quoted in this chapter for efficacy are based on total
circuitwatts.Efficacyisaprimaryconcernwhenselectingalamp.Ingeneral,
if a range of lamps suitable for a particular installation then it is the most
efficientthatshouldbeused.
4.4Lumenmaintenance
Thelightoutputofmostlampsdecreasesasthelampsgetolder.Withsome
relatively short life lamps this is not a problem as they fail before the light
outputhasfallensignificantly.
3.4.5Life
Itisnormalwhenconsideringthelifeofalamptotalkaboutthepercentage
oflampsthatwillsurviveafteracertainnumberofhoursofoperation.This
valueisknownasthelampsurvivalfactor(LSF).
Otherfactorsinaparticularinstallationmayaffectthelifeofthelampused.
These factors include the switching frequency, the supply voltage, the
ambienttemperatureandpresenceofvibration.
Itisoftenthecasethatthecombinedeffectofthenumberoflampfailures
coupledwiththereducedlumenoutputofthelampsmakesitnecessaryto
replace the lamps in an installation. Sometimes lamp makers quote an
economic service life for lamps, this generally is the point where the LSF
multipliedbytheLLMFfallsbelow0.7.
4.6Colourproperties
The colour of the light produced by a lamp is generally described by two
parameters; the correlated colour temperature and the CIE general colour
rendering index. respectively For most applications there is a minimum
requirement for thecolour rendering properties of the lamps used and the
correlated colour temperature of the source is generally chosen for the
atmospherethatthelightingisdesignedtoproduce.

4.7Runuptime
Whenalampisswitchedonittakesacertainamountoftimetoreachfull
lightoutput.Theusualmeasureusedtoassessrunuptimeisthetimethatit
takesforalamptoreach80%ofitsfulloutput.ForaGLSlampthismightbe
afractionofasecond,whileforlowpressuresodiumthiscouldbeasmuch
as20minutes.Forsomeapplicationssuchasroadlightingtherunuptimeis
not important. However, for occasionally used rooms in a home it is very
important.
4.8Restriketime
Whensomegasdischargelampsgooutduetoaninterruptioninthemains
supplyitisnotpossibletorestartthemuntilthelamphascooleddown.This
may take several minutes. The use of lamps with a long restrike time may
causeproblemsinsomeinstallationsduetothepossibilityofasmallpower
outagecausingalongblackout.
3.4.9Otherfactors
There are also many other factors that impact upon the use of lamps in a
particularapplication.Thesefactorsincludethefollowing.
Lamp size: some lamps are too large for certain applications, whilst some
smalllampsmayproducetoohighaluminanceforothers.
Dimming:itisnotpossibletodimalllamptypesandsometypesmaybeonly
dimmeddowntogivenpercentageoftheiroutput.Dimmingforsomelamps
mayrequiretheuseofspecialcontrolgear.
Ambient temperature: not all lamps will run at a given temperature. For
examplesomecompactfluorescentlampsarenotsuitableforoutdooruseas
theywillnotstartiftheyaretoocold.

5.Luminaires
5.1Basicrequirements
Aluminaireistheapparatuscontainingthelightsource.Aluminaireisdesignedto:

Connectthelightsourcetotheelectricitysupply
Protectthelightsourcefrommechanicaldamage
Controlthedistributionoflight
Beefficient
Withstandtheexpectedconditionsofuse
Besafewhenusedintherecommendedmanner.

Tomeetthesedesignobjectivesitisnecessarytoconsidertheelectrical,mechanical,
optical,thermalandacousticaspectsofluminaires.
5.1.1Electrical
Electricalwiring
The internal wiring of a luminaire has to be capable of handling the electrical current
and the thermal conditions in the luminaire. The cross sectional area of the wire will
determinethemaximumallowablecurrent.IEC598specifiesaminimumcrosssection
of 0.5 mm2 although this may be reduced to 0.4 mm2 where space is severely
restricted.
The wire itself can be solid or stranded. Solid wire is easier to hold in position and to
strip,makingitsimplertoinstallinaluminaire.However,solidwireisnotsuitablefor
luminaires that are subject to vibration or for luminaires that may be frequently
adjusted.Forsuchluminaires,strandedwireisbetter.
Both types of wire are covered with insulating material. The choice of insulation
materialislargelydeterminedbyitsheatresistance.Thewiringofaluminairehastobe
capableofwithstandingnotonlytheairtemperaturesinsidetheluminairebutalsothe
surface temperatures of components that the wiring may contact, such as lamps,
controlgearandlampholders.PVCinsulationthatisheatresistantupto90C,105C
and115Cisavailable.Wherehighertemperaturesmaybeexperienced,siliconrubber
(170to200C)andPTFE(250C)insulationmaybeused.Additionalthermalinsulation
canbeachievedbycoveringtheelectricalinsulationwithaglassfibresleeve.

Connectiontotheelectricitysupply
There are three approaches commonly used to connect a luminaire to the electricity
supply;theconnectionblock,automaticconnectionandthroughwiring.
The most common method is via a connection block within the luminaire. To prevent
theconnectionbeingaccidentallybroken,thesupplywireshouldpassthroughacable
clampbeforereachingtheconnectionblock.
Luminairesmountedontrunkingsystemsareoftendesignedsothatconnectiontothe
electricity supply occurs when the luminaire is mounted on the trunking. For this to
occurtheelectricalsocketcarryingtheelectricitysupplyispartofthetrunkingandthe
plugiscontainedwithintheluminaire.
The earth pin of the plug is longer than the live and neutral pins so that when the
luminaireis offered upto the track, the earthconnection is made before the live and
neutral,andwhenremovingtheluminaire,theliveandneutralconnectionsarebroken
beforetheearth.
Through wiring is a system for connecting a series of luminaires in parallel across a
supply cable. This reduces the amount of cabling required and speeds up installation.
Thesupplycableshouldhaveacrosssectionof2.5mm2asaminimum,butthewiring
fromtheconnectionblockineachluminairemayhaveasmallercrosssection,typically
0.5or0.75mm2.
Earthing
MetalpartsofClass1luminaires(seeSection4.3.2,Table4.11)thatareaccessiblewhen
the luminaire is installed or open for maintenance or that may become live if the
insulationfailsshouldbepermanentlyconnectedtoanearthterminal.Thewireusedfor
earthingshouldbeatleast2.5mm2incrosssection.
5.1.2Mechanical
Themechanicalintegrityofaluminairedependsonthematerialsusedandthequality
ofitsconstruction.
Materials
Steel

Manyinteriorlightingluminairesaremadefromreadypaintedsheetsteel,whitebeing
the usual paint colour. Where corrosion is a problem, galvanised sheet steel is used.
Whereaverydurablepaintfinishisrequired,enamellingisused.
Stainlesssteel
Stainlesssteelisrarelyusedforluminairebodiesbutitiswidelyusedformanysmall,
unpaintedluminairecomponentsthathavetoremainfreefromcorrosion.
Aluminiumsheet
Aluminiumsheetismainlyusedforreflectorsinluminaires.Itcanhavegoodreflection
propertiesandthephysicalstrengthtoformstablereflectorsofthedesiredform.
Castaluminium
Castaluminiumiswidelyusedforfloodlighthousings.Suchhousingsarelightinweight
and can be used in damp or corrosive atmospheres without any further treatment
providedthatthecorrectgradeofaluminiumhasbeenused.
Plastics
There are many different forms of plastic used in luminaires, either for complete
housings or components. These plastics differ in their transparency, strength,
toughness,sensitivitytoUVradiationandheatresistance.
Glass
Threetypesofglassareusedinluminaires;sodalimeglass,borosilicateglass,andvery
highresistanceglass.Sodalimeglassisusedwheretherearenospecialheatresistance
demands. Where high heat resistance, chemical stability and resistance to heat shock
arerequired,borosilicateglassisused.Highresistanceglasshastheadvantagethatit
can deliver high heat resistance, high thermal shock resistance and great physical
strengtheveninthinsheets.
Ceramics
Some components of luminaires that produce very high temperatures are made of
ceramics.
Construction
All luminaires should be designed to withstand the rigours of transport to the site,
installation and prolonged use. Generally, exterior luminaires need to be more

substantialthanthosedesignedforinterioruse.Someluminairesaredesignedtoresist
the ingress of foreign objects, dust and moisture. Such luminaires have a transparent
frontcoverandallpointsofaccesstotheluminairehaveaseal.Frontcoversareusually
madeofglassorplastic.Wherethereisariskofphysicalimpact,asinasportshall,glass
oracrylicfrontcoversneedtobecoveredwithawirescreen.Ifapolycarbonatefront
coverisused,nosuchscreenisnecessary.Asfortheseals,thesecomeinvariousforms
fromasimplefeltsealtoconvolutednotchedrubberseals.Theeffectivenessofthese
sealsisquantifiedbytheIPclassificationsystem.
5.1.2Opticalcontrol
Opticalcontrolofthelightoutputfromalightsourceisachievedbysomecombination
ofreflectors,refractors,diffusers,bafflesorfilters.
Reflectors
Threetypesofreflectorareusedinluminaires;specular,spreadanddiffuse.
Specularreflectorsareusedwhenapreciselightdistributionisrequired.Theshapeof
thereflectoranditspositionrelativetothelightsourcedeterminethelightdistribution.
Themostcommonshapesforreflectorsarecircular,parabolicandelliptical.
Acircularreflectorwithapointlightsourceatitsfocuswillproducealightdistribution
ofthetypeshowninthebelowfigure,reflectionsfromsomepartsofthereflectorbeing
almostparallelwhilethosefrompartsofthereflectorawayfromtheaxisaredivergent.
Thistypeofcircularreflectorisusedincylindricalformforpicturelightingusingtubular
incandescentandfluorescentlightsources.

The light distribution from a circular

reflector with a point light source at its
focus.

Acircularreflectorwithapointlightsourceatitscentreofcurvatureproducesalight
distributionofthetypeshowninthebelowfigure.Thistypeofreflectoriswidelyused
in projection systems and spotlights to increase the amount of light delivered to the
associatedlenssystem.

Thelightdistributionfromacircular
reflectorwithapointlightsourceatits
centreofcurvature

Aparabolicreflectorwithapointlightsourceatitsfocusproducesaparallelbeamof
reflectedlight.Movingthelightsourceinfrontorbehindthepointoffocuswillcause
the beam to converge or diverge. The parabolic reflector is widely used in spotlight
design either exactly, when the reflector is smooth, or approximately, when the
reflectorisfacetted.

Thelightdistributionfromaparabolicreflector
withapointlightsourceatitsfocus.Thebeam
intensitywillbegreateratthecentrethanatthe
edgecompareconesaFbandAFB.

Anellipticalreflectorwithapointlightsourceatonefocuswillensurethatthereflected
raysallpassthroughthesecondfocus(Figure4.4)Ellipticalreflectorsintroughformare
widelyusedfortubularfluorescentluminaires.

Ellipticalreflectorsshowingthechangeinlightdistributionasthepointlightsourceismovedrelativeto
thefirstfocus(F).

Spread reflectors are deliberately distorted specular reflectors. They can be circular,
parabolicorellipticalincrosssectionandsphericalorcylindricalinform.Thedistortion
takes the form of modulating the specular surface of the reflector by hammering
(peening)toproducearegulararrayofdimples,orbyetchingorbrushingthesurface.
The advantage of this distortion is that it smears out variations in light distribution
caused by inaccuracies in the manufacture of the reflector and the size of the light
source. Spread reflectors are used where a welldefined but even light distribution is
required.
Diffusereflectorsaretheoppositeofspecularreflectors.Unlikeaspecularreflector,the
shape of a diffuse reflector has only a small effect on the light distribution. Diffuse
reflectorsareusedwherethereisaneedtoredirectlightwithaverywidebeam.
Many different materials are used in reflectors. Typical values of reflectance for these
materialsaregiveninthebelowtable.


Diffusers
Diffusers are transparent materials that scatter light in all directions. They provide no
control of light distribution but do serve to reduce the brightness of the luminaire.
Diffusers are commonly made of materials that maximise light scatter and minimise
absorption,suchasopalglassorplastic.
Baffles
Bafflescanhavethreefunctions;tohidethelightsourcefromcommonviewingangles,
toreducetheamountofspilllight,andtocontrolthelightdistribution.
Theextenttowhichthelightsourceishiddenfromviewisquantifiedbytwoangles,the
shieldingangleanditscomplementary,thecutoffangle.Theshieldingangleistheangle
betweenthehorizontalandthedirectionatwhichthelightsourceceasestobevisible.
Thebelowfigureshowstheshieldingangleforasimplefluorescentluminaire.

Ifthepurposeistohidethelightsourceandalsotocontrollightdistribution,thelouvre
ismadefromaspecularlyreflectingmaterialandshapedsoastodirectlightdownwards
andhenceincreasetheshieldingangle.Asageneralrule,thefinerthelouvreandhence
the more the light source is hidden, the lower will be the light output ratio of the
luminaire.

6.Luminairetypes
Thelightingindustryproducesmanythousandsofdifferentluminaires.Givenbeloware
brief
outlinesofthemaintypesofluminaireusedininteriorandexteriorlighting.
Detailsofanyspecificluminairearebestobtainedfromthemanufacturers.
6.1Interiorlighting
Directluminaires
Direct luminaires are luminaires in which the light distribution is predominantly
downward. Such luminaires are typically recessed into or surface mounted on the
ceiling.
They are widely used in offices where the ceiling height is restricted. The usual light
source is a fluorescent lamp, either linear or folded. Many different forms of optical
controlareavailable,fromdiffusersthroughprismaticrefractorstoparabolicreflectors
andlouvres.Consequently,directluminairesareavailablewithawiderangeofluminous
intensitydistributions.Directluminairesareavailableforoperationindirty,corrosiveor
hazardous conditions. Direct luminaires are available with dimming or switching
facilitieslinkedtomanual,occupancysensorandphotocellcontrol.Themostcommon
problems with lighting installations using direct luminaires is the creation of a dark

ceiling and poor illuminance uniformity in obstructed spaces. This problem can be
overcome by choosing direct luminaires with a little upward light output or by having
highreflectionfactorsinthespace.Figure4.10showsadirectluminaire.

Indirectluminaires
Indirect luminaires are luminaires in which the light distribution is predominantly
upward. Such luminaires can be suspended below the ceiling, wall mounted or free
standing.Theyrequireaclean,whiteceilingforefficientoperation.Indirectluminaires
are most practical where the ceiling height is over 2.75 m. The usual light source in
suspended indirect luminaires is a linear fluorescent lamp. Wall mounted and free
standingindirectluminairestendtouseahighintensitydischargelamp.Opticalcontrol
isconfinedtoensuringthatthelightoutputfromtheluminaireiswidelyspreadacross
the ceiling so that no hot spots of high luminance are apparent. While indirect
luminaireshaveahighlightoutputratio,lightinginstallationsusingindirectluminaires
areusuallylessenergyefficientthanthoseusingdirectluminairesbecauseofthelosses
causedbyhavingtousetheceilingasasecondaryreflector.Thisiscompensatedbythe
brightappearanceofthespace,thehighlevelofilluminanceuniformityandtheabsence
ofdiscomfortglare.

Direct/indirectluminaires
Direct/indirectluminairesareluminairesinwhichthelightdistributionisevenlydivided
betweentheupwardanddownwarddirections.Inmanyways,direct/indirectluminaires
provide the best of both worlds. The energy efficiency of a lighting installation using
direct/indirectluminaireswillbehigherthanthatofoneusingindirectluminairesbut
the problems of dark ceilings and poor illuminance uniformity are reduced by the
indirect component. Direct /indirect luminaires are suspended below the ceiling. They
aredifficulttousewheretheceilingheightisbelowabout2.75m.Theusuallightsource
indirect/indirectluminairesisalinearfluorescentlamp.Opticalcontrolisdifferentfor
the two directions of light output, being much tighter for the downward component
thantheupward.Direct/indirectluminairesareavailablewithindividualdimmingofthe
directcomponent.

Downlights
Downlights are a form of direct luminaire characterised by a small light emitting
aperture.Downlightsareusuallyrecessedintotheceilingsotheydirectalloftheirlight
output downward. They are widely used in shops, hotels and other places where a
lightinginstallationwithadiscreetappearanceisdesired.Manydifferentlightsources
can be used in downlights, the most common being incandescent, tungsten halogen,
compactfluorescentandmetalhalide.Throughtheuseofreflectors,louvres,lensesand
refractorsmanydifferentbeamspreadsandbeamsizesarepossible(seeSection4.3.2).
Some downlights allow for adjustable aiming which is useful when the intention is
accent lighting. A number of downlights are fitted with decorative elements directly
beneath the downlight aperture to give an impression of brightness to the luminaire.
Themostcommonproblemswithlightinginstallationsusinganarrayofdownlightsto
createuniformilluminationarepoorilluminanceuniformitycausedbyoverspacingand
darkceilings.Careisnecessarytoavoidafirehazardwhenrecessingdownlightsintoan
insulatedceiling.


Spotlights
Spotlightsarenarrowbeamluminaireswithbeamspreadsintherange5to30degrees.
Theyareusuallymountedoneitherabaseplateorlightingtrack.Whentrackmounted,
spotlights can be obtained for operation at mains voltage, low voltage or extra low
voltage,thelatterrequiringtheinstallationofastepdowntransformer.Spotlightsare
widely used in shops, hotels and museums for accent lighting. Spotlights are available
thatuseincandescent,tungstenhalogen,metalhalideandextrahighpressuresodium
light sources of small physical size. Some incandescent and tungsten halogen light
sources can be used as spotlights themselves because they have reflectors giving the
desiredbeamspreadbuiltin.Otherlightsourceshavetousereflectorstoattainoptical
control.Filtersmountedinfrontofthespotlightcanbeusedtochangethelightcolour.
Irises and baffles mounted in front of the spotlight can be used to modify the beam
shape.Careisnecessarywhenusingspotlightstoavoidglaretopassersby.Figure4.14
showsaselectionofspotlights.

Tasklights
Task lights are a necessary part of a task/ambient lighting system. They provide local
lightingofaspecificareabybringingthelightsourceclosertothetask.Thevalueoftask
lightsisthattheyenabletheusertohavesomecontroloftheamountanddistribution
of light on the task by switching or dimming the light source and by changing the
position of the luminaire relative to the task. Typically, the light sources used in task
lights are incandescent, tungsten halogen or compact fluorescent. The degree of
adjustment available can vary widely as can the amount of desk space taken. When
selecting task lights attention should be given to the coverage area for common
positionsandthelikelihood ofglaretotheuser.Figure4.16showsa selectionoftask
lights.

6.2Exteriorlighting
Road lighting luminaires Road lighting luminaires used for lighting traffic routes are
designedtodeliverlighttoaroadsothatthesurfaceisseentobeofuniformluminance
and objects on the road can be seen in silhouette. The light distribution is therefore
dependent on the position of the luminaire relative to the road. Most road lighting
luminairesaremountedoncolumnsplacedatregularintervalsatthesideoftheroador
betweencrashbarriersinthemedian.Afewinstallationsuseacatenarysysteminwhich
theluminairesaresuspendedoverthemedianinacontinuousseries.Forconflictareas
andsubsidiaryroads.Theluminairesaredesignedwithawidelightdistributionsoasto
give a uniform illuminance across the road. The light sources used in road lighting
luminaires are typically low pressure sodium, high pressure sodium or metal halide.
Road lighting luminaires are often provided with adjustable lamp holders and/or
reflectorssoastoallowthelightdistributiontobeoptimisedforthelightsourceand
roadlayout.Twobroadclassesofroadlightingluminairearesemicutoffandfullcutoff.
Theseclassesreflectingadifferentbalancebetweenluminaireefficiencyandthecontrol

ofglare.Roadlightingluminairesneedprotectionagainstdustandmoistureandsoare
classifiedaccordingtotheIPsystem.Theyarealmostalwaysfittedwithaphotoelectric
controlpackage.

Posttops
Post top luminaires are a form of road lighting luminaire but unlike the road lighting
luminaires described above, which are intended for the lighting of high speed traffic
routes, post top luminaires are intended for urban areas, where pedestrians are
considered as important as drivers and the decorative aspect of the luminaire is as
important as the functional. Post top luminaires are available with either rotationally
symmetricorroadlightinglightdistributions,sothatthesameluminairecanbeusedto
light both roads and open pedestrian areas in a city. Post top luminaires take many
different forms, some mimicking traditional styles for historic areas, while others
represent the latest design trends. Because of their use in urban areas, low pressure
sodium light sources are not used in post top luminaires, the most common light
sources being high pressure sodium, metal halide, compact fluorescent and induction
lamps. Post top luminaires need protection against dust and moisture and so are
classifiedaccordingtotheIPsystem.Because
oftheirrelativelylowmountingheights,post
top lanterns are often constructed of
materialsthatresistattacksbyvandals.They
arealmostalwaysfittedwithaphotoelectric
controlpackage.Themostcommonproblem
with post top luminaires is glare. This
problem can be avoided if there is no direct
viewofthelightsource.Figure4.18showsa
selectionofposttopluminaires.

Secondaryreflectors
Secondaryreflectorluminairesaredesignedforuseinpedestrianisedplacessuchascity
squaresandparks.Inthisluminaire,lightisdirectedupfromthelightsourceinoron
the column and then distributed from a large surface at the top of the column. By
changingtheareaandtiltofthereflectingsurface,thelightdistributioncanbealtered.
Secondary reflector luminaires are inevitably inefficient compared to post top
luminaires, but they do not cause glare, are not easily damaged by vandals and can
provideapleasingambience.Figure4.19showstwosecondaryreflectorluminaires.

Floodlights
Floodlightscanbeusedtowashalargesurfacewithlightortopickoutaspecificfeature
ofabuilding.Floodlightsvaryenormouslyintheirsize,powerandlightdistribution.The
smallest floodlights consist of little more than a 150 W linear tungsten halogen lamp
withaspreadreflector.Thelargestconsistofahighintensitydischargelampwithpower
in the kilowatt range and a carefully shaped reflector. The light distribution of a
floodlight can be rotationally symmetric, symmetrical about one axis or asymmetrical
aboutoneaxis.Thisdistributionisusuallyclassifiedasnarrow,mediumorwidebeam.
The light sources used in floodlights include incandescent, tungsten halogen, high
pressure sodium and metal halide. Floodlights need protection against dust and
moisture and so are classified according to the IP system and are often soundly
constructedofmaterialsthatresistattacksbyvandals.

Filtersmountedinfrontofthefloodlightcanbeusedtochangethelightcolour.Barn
doorbafflesmountedonthefloodlightcanbeusedtomodifythebeamshape.Careis
necessarywhenusingfloodlightstoavoidglaretopassersby.
Wallpacks
Astheirnamesuggests,wallpacksaredesignedtobemountedonwallssoastoprovide
a low level of illumination in the nearby area. They are widely used for security and
amenitylighting.Thelightdistributionisusuallywideandisachievedbyacombination
of reflecting and refracting elements. The light sources used in wall packs are usually
low wattage low pressure sodium, high pressure sodium and compact fluorescent.
Wallpacksneedprotectionagainstdustandmoistureandsoareclassifiedaccordingto
theIPsystem(seeSection4.3.2, Table4.10).Becauseoftheirrelativelylowmounting
heights, wallpacks should be solidly constructed of materials that resist attacks by
vandals.Themostcommonproblemexperiencedwithwallpacksisglare.Thisproblemis
muchreducedifthereisnodirectviewofthelightsource.Figure4.21showsaselection
ofwallpacks.

6.3Operatingconditions
TheInternationalProtection(IP)systemclassifiesluminairesaccordingtothedegreeof
protectionprovidedagainsttheingressofforeignbodies,dustandmoisture.Thedegree
ofprotectionisindicatedbythelettersIPfollowedbytwonumbers.Thefirstnumber
indicates the degree of protection against the ingress of foreign bodies and dust. The
secondindicatestheprotectionagainsttheingressofmoisture.

7.Controlgear
Awiderangeoflampsrequirecontrolgearofsomekindtoensurecorrectrunningand,
insomecases,startingofthelamp.Withdischargelampsitisthejobofthecontrolgear
tolimitthecurrentthroughthelampwhereaswithsomeincandescentlampsthegearis
there to reduce the voltage. Some low voltage tungsten lamps need units to supply
them with the correct voltage and LEDs need electronics to limit the current going
throughthem.
7.1Ballastsfordischargelightsources
Generalprinciples

Controlgearfordischargelampshastoperformanumberoffunctions:
limitandstabiliseslampcurrent:duetothenegativeresistancecharacteristicof
gasdischargelamps.Itisnecessarytocontrolthecurrentinthelampcircuit.
ensure that the lamp continues to operate despite the mains voltage falling to
zeroattheendofeachhalfcycle
providethecorrectconditionfortheignitionofthelamp:thisgenerallyrequires
thegeartoprovideahighvoltageandinthecaseoffluorescentlampsrequiresa
heatingcurrenttobepassedthroughtheelectrodes.

Aswellasthesebasicfunctionscontrolgearmayalsohavethefollowingrequirements
placedonit:

Ensureahighpowerfactor
Limittheharmonicdistortioninthemainscurrent
Limitanyelectromagneticinterference(EMI)producedbythelampandballast
Limittheshortcircuitandrunupcurrentstoprotectthelampelectrodesandto
helpthesupplywiringsystem.
Keepthelampcurrentandvoltagewithinthespecifiedlimitsforthelampduring
mainsvoltagefluctuations.

Withelectromagneticcontrolgearseveralseparatecontrolcomponentsmaybeneeded
thesemayincludeballasts,starters,igniters,capacitorsandfiltercoils.
Whenelectroniccontrolgearisuseditiscommontointegrateallthecomponentsinto
one package. The details of the various circuits used are discussed in the following
sections.

Electromagneticcontrolgearforfluorescentlightsources
Chokecoilsusedtobethemostcommontypeofcurrentlimitingdeviceusedwithlinear
andcompactfluorescentlamps.Themostcommoncircuitistheswitchstart,seeFigure
below.

The choke ballast is made from a large number of windings of copper on a laminated
ironcore.Itworksontheselfinductanceprincipleandisdesignedsothatimpedanceof
thechokelimitsthecurrentthroughthecircuittothecorrectvalueforagivenlampand
supply voltages. A range of ballasts is available for different lamps and different
voltages.Alsotheballastdesignhastobechangedifitistooperateatadifferentmains
supplyfrequency.
Tostartthelampitiscommontouseaglowstarter.Theglowstarterswitchconsistsof
oneortwobimetallicstripsenclosedinaglasstubecontaininganoblegas.Theglow
starterisconnectedacrossthelampsoitispossibleforacurrenttopassthroughthe
ballast, through the electrode at one end of the lamp, through the electrode at the
otherendofthelampandbacktoneutral.Whenthemainsvoltageisfirstappliedtothe
lamp circuit, the total mains voltage appears across the electrodes of the starter and
thisinitiatesaglowdischarge.Thisdischargeheatsthebimetallicelementswithinthe
starter and as the electrodes heat up they bend towards each other until eventually
they touch. While the electrodes are touching the current passing through the lamp
electrodespreheatsthem.Whiletheelectrodesinthestarteraretouchingthereisno
glow discharge and so the electrodes cool and separate. At the moment that the
electrodescomeapartthecurrentthroughtheballastisinterruptedcausingavoltage
peakacrossthelamp.Note:theglowstarterdoesnotalwayscreatetheconditionsfor
the lamp to start and sometimes the starting cycle has to be repeated a number of
times.Figuresbelowillustratethestartingprocess.

In addition to the ballast and the starter most fluorescent lamps circuits have a
capacitorconnectedacrossthesupplyterminalstoensureahighpowerfactorforthe
circuit.
ElectromagneticcontrolgearforHIDlightsources
Thereareanumberofdifferenttypesofcircuitsusedforhighintensitydischarge(HID)
lamps;theyvaryaccordingtothetypeoflampanditsrequirementsforstarting.
Themostcommontypeofballastusedisachokeorinductiveballastinserieswiththe
lamp.Thechoke,whichisacoilofcopperwirewoundonalaminatedironcore,limits
thecurrentthroughthelamp.


This type of circuit is used for all high intensity discharge lamps apart from the low
pressuresodiumlamp.Thelowpressuresodiumlamphasalongrunupduringwhich
time the voltage across the lamp needs to be greater thannormal mains voltage;this
hasgivenrisetoanumberofcircuitsforrunningthelampthatprovidethenecessary
voltage.Themostcommonofthesecircuitsistheautoleaktransformer.

Theautoleaktransformerworkslikeanautotransformerincreasingthesupplyvoltage,
butbycarefuldesignofthesecondarywindingitcanalsoactasachoketocontrolthe
currentthroughthelamp.
Mosthighpressuresodiumlampsandmetalhalidelampsrequireahighvoltagepulse
tostartthearcinthelamp.Thisisusuallyprovidedbyanelectronicignitor.Thereare
several types of ignitor circuits, the two most common are the semiparallel and the
superimposedpulsetype

Thesemiparallelignitorreliesonthetappedballastcoiltogeneratetheignitionpulse
whereasthesuperimposedtypeignitorhasitsowncoiltogeneratethepulse.Thesemi
parallelhasmanyadvantagesinthatitconsumesnopowerwhenthelampisrunning,it
ischeaperandlighterbut,asitreliesontheballast,itmayonlybeusedwiththeballast
forwhichithasbeenspecificallydesigned.
Ignitors sometimes have other features built in such as selfstopping ignitors that will
notcontinuallytrytorestrikealampthathascometotheendofitslife.Therearealso
somethataredesignedtoproduceextrahighvoltagesthatcanrestrikehotlamps.
Electroniccontrolgearforfluorescentlightsources
Operating fluorescent lamps at high frequency has a number of advantages and most
moderncontrolgearisnowofthistype.Mostelectronicballastsforfluorescentlamps
are integrated into a single package that performs a number of functions. These
functionsare:

A low pass filter: this limits the amount of harmonic distortion caused by the
ballast,controlstheamountofradiofrequencyinterference,protectstheballast
againsthighvoltagemainspeaksandlimitstheinrushcurrent
Therectifier:thisconvertstheACpowerfromthemainssupplyintoDC
Abuffercapacitor:thisstoresthechargefromeachmainscyclethusprovidinga
steadyvoltagetothecircuitsthatprovidethepowertothelamps
The HF power oscillator takes the steady DC voltage from the buffer capacitor
andusingsemiconductorswitchescontrolledbytheballastcontrollercreatesa
highfrequencysquarewave
Theoutput ofthepoweroscillatorisfedthroughasmallHFcoilthatactsasa
stabilizationcoiltothelamp.

Insomeballaststheelectronicsthatcontrolthepoweroscillatorcanvarythefrequency
at which the power oscillator runs; as the frequency increases the current passing
through the coils decreases and thus it is possible to dim the lamps. Some types of
ballast have a 0 to 10 volt input that is used to regulate the output while some have
digitalinterfaces.
ElectronicgearforHIDlightsources
Making electronic control gear for HID light sources is a complex process. There are
many different lamp types each with different electrical requirements and a limited
rangeoffrequenciesinwhichtheycanbeoperated.Alsomanylamptypesdonotshow
a significant gain in efficiency when operated on high frequencies. For these reasons
electronic control gear has been developed more slowly for HID lamps than for

fluorescentlamps.However,itispossibletogainanumberofbenefitsfromelectronic
gearforHIDlamps.Theseinclude:

Increasedlamplife
Eliminationofvisibleflicker
Bettersystemefficacy
Lesssensitivitytomainsvoltageortemperaturefluctuations
Thepossibilityofdimmingwithsomelamptypes.

Notallthesebenefitsarepossibleforalllamptypesandallcontrolgearcombinations.
However,theavailabilityandqualityofelectronicgearavailableforHIDlampsisrapidly
increasing.
5.1.2Transformersforlowvoltagelightsources
Manytungstenhalogenlampsaredesignedtorunonlowvoltagesthemostcommonof
whichis12volts.Thustheyneedadevicetoreducethesupplyvoltage.Thetraditional
waytodothiswasbyusingatransformer.Figurebelowshowsthevariouscurrentsand
voltagesinatransformerandgivestheapproximaterelationshipbetweenthevoltages,
currentsandthenumberofturnsintheprimaryandsecondarycoils.

Aswellasreducingthevoltagethetransformeralsoisolatesthelampsupplyfromthe
mains.Thismeansthatevenunderafaultconditionthevoltageinthesecondarycircuit
willnotrisesignificantlyabovethenominaloutputvoltageandsoitwillalwaysbesafe
totouchtheconductorsonthelowvoltageside.
Mostmoderntransformersforhalogenlampsinvolveelectronics.Theyusuallycontain
high frequency oscillators to permit the use of smaller transformers that have smaller
powerlosses.Withtheintroductionofelectronicsitispossibletointroduceadditional
featuressuchasconstantvoltageoutputandsoftstartingofthelamps.
DriversforLEDs
LEDsneedtoberunatacontrolledcurrenttoensureproperoperation.Toprovidethis
driversareused.Mostdriverstakemainspowerandprovideaconstantcurrentoutput.
However,itispossibletocontrolsomedriverssothatoutputcurrentisvariedsothat
theLEDmaybedimmed.Inmorecomplexsystemsitispossibletodimthreeseparate
channels separately, so that when red, green and blue LEDs are used together it is
possibletomakecolourchanges.
MostLEDdriverscanmaintaintheirconstantcurrentoutputoverarangeofvoltagesso
itisoftenpossibletoconnectanumberofLEDsinseriesononedriver.
7.2Lightingcontrols
7.2.1Optionsforcontrol
Thereareanumberoffactorsthatneedtobeconsideredinanycontrolsystem;these
aretheinputstosystem,howthesystemcontrolsthelightingequipmentandwhatis
the control process that decides how a particular set of inputs will impact on the
lighting.Thusforacontrolsystemtoworkitmusthave:

inputdevices:suchasswitches,presencedetectors,timersandphotocells
control processes: these may consist of a simple wiring network through to a
computerbasedcontrolsystem
controlled luminaires: the systemmaycontrol luminairesin a number of ways,
from simply switching them on and off to dimming the lamp and in more
complexsystemscausingmovementandcolourchanges.

7.2Inputdevices
Manualinputs
Thesevaryfromsimpleswitchesusedtoturnthelightsonthoughdimmerswitchesand
remotecontrolunitsthatinterfacetoacontrolsystemtolightingcontroldesksthatare
usedintheatres.Thepointoftheseunitsistoallowpeopletocontrolthelightingand
care is always needed in the application of such devices to ensure that users of the
systemcanreadilyunderstandthefunctionofanysuchcontrol.
Presencedetectors
Mostpresencedetectorsarebasedonpassiveinfrared(PIR)detectors,howeversome
devicesarebasedonmicrowaveorultrasonictechnology.PIRdevicesmonitorchanges
intheamountofinfraredradiationthattheyarereceiving.Themovementofpeoplein
aspacewillbedetectedbythemandthiscanbesignalledtoacontrolsystem.Thus,ifa
devicedetectsthepresenceofapersonthiscanbeusedtosignalthecontrolsystemto
switchthelightson,butifthedevicehasnotdetectedanybodyforsometimethiscan
beusedtosignalthatthereisnobodythereandthatthelightscanbeturnedoff.
Timers
Most computerised control systems have timers built in so that they can turn the
lighting on or off at particular times. However, there are also a large number of time
switches available that can turn lamps on an off at given times. There are also timers
usedinstreetlightingthatchangethetimethattheyswitchatthroughouttheyearso
thatthelampsareswitchedatdawnanddusk.
Photocells
Therearemanydifferenttypesofphotocellusedtocontrollighting.Thesimplesttouse
arethosewhichswitchonatoneilluminancevalueandswitchoffatanother;theseare
commonly used to turn exterior lights on at dusk and off at dawn. Some photocells
communicate the illuminance value to the central control system, which uses the
informationtoadjustthelightinginsomeway.Somephotocellsaremountedonceilings
with shields around them so that they only receive light reflected from the working
plane,thismakesthemactlikeluminancemetersandprovidedthereflectanceofthe
working plane remains constant they can be set up to follow the illuminance of that
plane.

8.Lightingcurves
8.1PolarIntensityCurves
Thisillustratesthedistributionofluminousintensity,incd/1000lm,forthetransverse
(solid line)and axial(dashed line)planes of the luminaire. The curveprovides a visual
guidetothetypeofdistributionexpectedfromtheluminairee.g.wide,narrow,direct,
indirectetc,inadditiontointensity.

8.2CartesianDiagrams
Generally used for floodlights, this indicates the distribution of luminous intensity, in
cd/1000 lm, for the horizontal (solid line) and vertical (dashed line) planes of the
luminaire.Thediagramprovidesavisualguidetothetypeofdistributionexpectedfrom
theluminairee.g.narroworwidebeametc,inadditiontointensity.Theassociateddata
illustratesthebeamangleto10%peakintensity.


8.3IlluminanceConeDiagrams
Usually used for spotlights or lamps with reflectors, the diagram indicates the maximum
illuminance, Elux, at different distances, plus the beam angle of the lamp over which the
luminous intensity drops to 50%. The beam diameter at 50% peak intensity, relative to
distanceaway,isalsoshown.

8.4IsoluxDiagrams
Thecontoursprovidethepointsofequalilluminance,inlux,onthefloororwallplane,
from a specific stated mounting position. The diagram can be used to assess the
distributioncharacteristicsoftheluminaireinadditiontodetermininglightinglevels.

9. LightingCalculations:

The lighting calculation for a given area involves a clear understanding of not
onlythevarioustypesofluminairesavailablebutalsothedifferentfactorsthat
affect the distribution of light from these luminaires. Some of the factors that
affectthelightoutputofaluminaireare:
1. Luminairedesign.
2. Lightsource.
3. Reflector,designandmaterial.
4. Positionoflampsourcewithinluminaire.
5. Reflectordesignandmaterial.
6. Diffuserdesignandmaterial.
7. Qualityandthicknessofglass.
8. Presenceofanywireguards.
9. Environmentalconditions.
10. Frequencyandqualityofmaintenance.
An understanding of the above helps in working out the efficiency of the
luminaireorthelightlossfactorwhichisvitalforcorrectlightingdesign.While
factors 1 to 8 depend upon the luminaire manufacturer. Factors 9 & 10 are
dependantupon the user. The quality of maintenanceand the amount of dust
accumulatedonaluminairecandrasticallyaffectthelightoutput.

Thefactorstobetakenintoaccountforlightingdesignare:
1. Luminairelightdistributiondata.
2. Luminairedescription.
3. Sheildingangleofreflectors.
4. Coefft,ofutilization.
5. Reflectanceofwalls,ceiling,floor.
6. Luminairespacing.
7. Luminairemountingheight.
8. Beamspread.
9. Ambientenvironment.
10. Maintenancefactors.

9.1
LightingcalculationusingLumenmethod:
This method it depends mainly on finding and calculating the utilization
factor.

Bydefinition:
E=Fr/A,(1)
E:Illuminanceatworkingarea(lux)
Fr:Luminousfluxinlumens
A:area(m2)
Taking into consideration that part of the Luminous Flux will reach the
workingplanethen,
UF=Fr/FL,(2)
UF:Utilizationfactor
Fr:Luminousfluxinlumensatworkingplane.
FL:TotalLuminousfluxinlumensfromtheluminaire.
Asaresult,
Fr=UFxFL(3)
Substitutingequation3in1,
E=(FLxUF)/A,(4)
Utilizationfactorisaffectedbythefollowing:
1. Roomsurfacesreflectancefactors(Ceiling,wallsandfloor).
2. Roomdimension.
3. Luminairecharectristics.
Ifthelightingunithavemorethanonelampthen
E=(nxFLxUF)/A,(5)
n:Totalnumberoflampsinthelightingunit
Also,thelightingoutputfromeachlightingunitwillbereducedwithtimedue
tomaintenanceissuessuchasdirt,dust,lampsmalfunctioning,lowerlumen
outputwithtime,etc
Alltheabovewillbeconsideredasonefactor(maintenancefactorMF).

Moreover,andtakingintoconsiderationthetotalnumberofluminaires,the
finalequationwillbe:
E=(NxnxFLxUFxMF)/A,(6),
E:Illuminanceatworkingarea(lux).
N:Totalnumberofluminaires.
n:Totalnumberoflampsinthelightingunit
UF:Utilizationfactor
MF:Maintenancefactor
FL:TotalLuminousfluxinlumensfromtheluminaire.
A:area(m2)
Inordertocalculatetheutilizationfactor,theroomindexshallbecalculated
accordingtothefollowingformula:
Kr=(LxW)/(Hmx(L+W)),(7),
Where:
Kr:Roomindex.
L:Roomlength.
W:Roomwidth.
Hm : Suspension height for lighting unit. The height is measured from the
lightingunithorizontalplanverticallytotheworkingplane.
Inordertostartroomlightingdesignandcalculation,therequiredluxlevel
hastobeknown.Thefollowingtablesillustratingrequiredluxlevelat
differenareas:

ThefollowingTableillustratestherecommendedvaluesformaintenance
factorwithreferencetothesurroundingconditionsandareausage:
AreaCondition

MaintenanceFactor
(MF)
0.8
0.7
0.6

Clean
Unclean
Dirty

PlanningFactor(P=
1/MF)
1.25
1.43
1.67

Afterdeterminingtheroomindexvalue(Kr),thefollowingtablecouldbe
usedtodeterminetheutilizationfactor(UF).
Ceil
ing
LuminairesType

70%

50%

30%

Walls 50% 30% 10% 50% 30% 10% 30% 10%

Room
Index

UtilizationFactors

Direct0/79
MaintenanceFactor

0.6
0.8
1.0
1.25
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0

0.37
0.45
0.49
0.53
0.56
0.61
0.66
0.67
0.71
0.72

0.31
0.41
0.45
0.49
0.53
0.58
0.63
0.65
0.68
0.70

0.27
0.37
0.42
0.46
0.49
0.53
0.60
0.62
0.66
0.67

0.36
0.45
0.49
0.53
0.55
0.60
0.64
0.66
0.69
0.71

0.31
0.40
0.45
0.49
0.52
0.57
0.62
0.64
0.67
0.68

0.27
0.37
0.42
0.46
0.49
0.55
0.60
0.62
0.65
0.67

0.31
0.40
0.45
0.48
0.51
0.56
0.61
0.63
0.66
0.67

0.27
0.37
0.42
0.46
0.49
0.55
0.60
0.61
0.64
0.66

Semidirect25/60
MaintenanceFactor

0.6
0.8
1.0
1.25
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0

0.27
0.35
0.37
0.43
0.46
0.50
0.55
0.58
0.62
0.64

0.25
0.29
0.34
0.38
0.41
0.46
0.50
0.53
0.57
0.60

0.19
0.26
0.30
0.34
0.37
0.42
0.46
0.49
0.53
0.56

0.26
0.33
0.36
0.40
0.43
0.47
0.51
0.53
0.57
0.59

0.22
0.28
0.32
0.36
0.39
0.43
0.47
0.49
0.53
0.55

0.16
0.25
0.29
0.32
0.35
0.40
0.44
0.46
0.51
0.52

0.20
0.27
0.30
0.33
0.37
0.40
0.44
0.46
0.50
0.51

0.18
0.24
0.28
0.31
0.33
0.38
0.42
0.44
0.48
0.49

GeneralDirect39/45
MaintenanceFactor

0.6
0.8
1.0
1.25

0.24
0.29
0.33
0.37

0.19
0.25
0.28
0.32

0.16
0.22
0.26
0.29

0.22
0.27
0.30
0.33

0.18
0.23
0.26
0.29

0.15
0.20
0.24
0.26

0.16
0.21
0.24
0.26

0.14
0.19
0.21
0.24

1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0

0.40
0.45
0.48
0.51
0.55
0.57

0.36
0.40
0.43
0.46
0.50
0.53

0.31
0.36
0.39
0.42
0.47
0.49

0.36
0.40
0.43
0.45
0.49
0.51

0.32
0.36
0.39
0.41
0.45
0.47

0.29
0.33
0.36
0.38
0.42
0.44

0.29
0.32
0.34
0.37
0.40
0.41

0.26
0.29
0.33
0.34
0.38
0.40

Semiindirect66/20
MaintenanceFactor

0.6
0.8
1.0
1.25
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0

0.20
0.24
0.28
0.31
0.34
0.38
0.42
0.45
0.49
0.51

0.16
0.20
0.24
0.27
0.30
0.34
0.38
0.41
0.45
0.47

0.13
0.18
0.21
0.24
0.27
0.31
0.35
0.37
0.42
0.44

0.16
0.20
0.23
0.26
0.28
0.31
0.34
0.36
0.39
0.41

0.13
0.17
0.19
0.22
0.24
0.27
0.30
0.32
0.36
0.38

0.11
0.15
0.17
0.20
0.22
0.25
0.28
0.30
0.34
0.36

0.10
0.13
0.15
0.17
0.19
0.21
0.23
0.25
0.27
0.28

0.09
0.12
0.13
0.15
0.17
0.19
0.22
0.23
0.25
0.27

Indirect80/0
MaintenanceFactor

0.6
0.8
1.0
1.25
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0

0.15
0.19
0.22
0.26
0.28
0.32
0.35
0.38
0.42
0.43

0.11
0.15
0.19
0.22
0.24
0.28
0.31
0.34
0.39
0.41

0.10
0.13
0.16
0.19
0.21
0.25
0.29
0.31
0.36
0.38

0.09
0.12
0.14
0.17
0.19
0.21
0.23
0.25
0.27
0.29

0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.21
0.22
0.25
0.27

0.06
0.09
0.10
0.13
0.14
0.17
0.19
0.21
0.24
0.25

0.04
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.15
0.16

0.03
0.04
0.05
0.07
0.08
0.10
0.11
0.12
0.14
0.15