Chapter 3

Air Pollution Meteorology

What is Meteorology?
Meteorology is the science of the atmosphere. The atmosphere is the media into which
all air pollutants are emitted. Atmospheric processes such as the movement of air (wind) and the
exchange of heat (convection and radiation for example) dictate the fate of pollutants as they go
through the stages of transport, dispersion, transformation and removal. Air pollution
meteorology is the study of how these atmospheric processes affect the fate of air
pollutants.
Knowledge of air pollution meteorology is used to manage and control the release of
pollutants into the ambient air. Managing the release of air pollutants helps ensure that ambient
pollutant concentrations comply with national ambient air quality standards. Knowledge of air
pollution meteorology is essential in order to understand the fate and transport of air pollutants.
Importance of Meteorology
Understanding air pollution meteorology and its influence in pollutant dispersion is
essential in air quality planning activities. Engineers use this knowledge to help locate air
pollution monitoring stations and to develop implementation plans to bring ambient air quality
into compliance with standards. Meteorology is used in predicting the ambient impact of a new
source of air pollution and to determine the effect on air quality from modifications to existing
sources.
When meteorological conditions develop that are not conducive to pollutant dispersion,
governmental air pollution agencies must act fast to ensure that air pollutants dont build up to
unacceptable levels in the air we breathe. When pollutant levels become excessively high, an air
pollution episode results and emissions into the atmosphere must be curtailed.
Example is Donora episode. The towns people were accustomed to receiving some
emissions from the local steel mill, zinc smelter, and sulphuric acid plant. But, they were not
prepared for the dangerously high concentrations of pollutants that built up and became trapped

over the town. The meteorological conditions in Donora during this five-day period (high
pressure system and strong temperature inversion) produced light winds and dense fog. The air
was not able to move horizontally or vertically and just lingered over the town.

Meteorological factors
Air movements influence the fate of air pollutants. So any study of air pollution should include a
study of the local weather patterns (meteorology).
If the air is calm and pollutants cannot disperse, then the concentration of these pollutants will
build up. On the other hand, when strong, turbulent winds blow, pollutants disperse quickly,
resulting in lower pollutant concentrations.
Meteorological data helps:

identify the source of pollutants

predict air pollution events such as inversions and high-pollutant concentration days
simulate and predict air quality using computer models.

When studying air quality, it is important to measure the following factors as they can help
understand the chemical reactions that occur in the atmosphere:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

wind speed and direction

temperature
humidity
rainfall
Solar radiation.

1. Wind speed and direction

When high pollutant concentrations occur at a monitoring station, wind data records can
determine the general direction and area of the emissions. Identifying the sources means
planning to reduce the impacts on air quality can take place.
An instrument called an anemometer measures wind speed. At our monitoring stations, the type
of anemometer we use is a sonic anemometer.
A sonic anemometer operates on the principle that the speed of wind affects the time it takes for
sound to travel from one point to another. Sound travelling with the wind will take less time than
sound travelling into the wind. By measuring sound wave speeds in 2 different directions at the
same time, sonic anemometers can measure both wind speed and direction.
2. Temperature

Measuring temperature supports air quality assessment, air quality modelling and forecasting
activities.
Temperature and sunlight (solar radiation) play an important role in the chemical reactions that
occur in the atmosphere to form photochemical smog from other pollutants.
Favourable conditions can lead to increased concentrations of smog.
The most common way of measuring temperature is to use a material with a resistance that
changes with temperature, such as platinum wire. A sensor measures this change and converts it
into a temperature reading.
3. Humidity
Like temperature and solar radiation, water vapour plays an important role in many thermal and
photochemical reactions in the atmosphere. As water molecules are small and highly polar, they
can bind strongly to many substances. If attached to particles suspended in the air they can
significantly increase the amount of light scattered by the particles (monitoring aerosols). If the
water molecules attach to corrosive gases, such as sulfur dioxide, the gas will dissolve in the
water and form an acid solution that can damage health and property.
Reporting of the water vapour content of air is as a percentage of the saturation vapour pressure
of water at a given temperature. This is the relative humidity. The amount of water vapour in the
atmosphere is highly variableit depends on geographic location, how close water bodies are,
wind direction and air temperature. Relative humidity is generally higher during summer when
temperature and rainfall are also at their highest.
Measuring humidity uses the absorption properties of a polymer film. The film either absorbs or
loses water vapour as the relative humidity of the ambient air changes. A sensor measures these
changes and converts them into a humidity reading.
4. Rainfall
Rain has a 'scavenging' effect when it washes particulate matter out of the atmosphere and
dissolves gaseous pollutants. Removing particles improves visibility. Where there is frequent
high rainfall, air quality is generally better.
If the rain dissolves gaseous pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide, it can form acid rain resulting in
potential damage to materials or vegetation.
The gauge registers rainfall by counting small amounts of rain collected. When rain falls into the
funnel, it runs into a container (the tipping bucket) divided into 2 equal compartments by a
partition.
The design of the tipping bucket makes one compartment tilt downward and rest against a stop
when it is empty, positioning the other compartment under the funnel ready to receive rain water.

When a set amount of rain has drained from the funnel into the upper compartment the bucket
tilts the opposite way so that the compartment containing the rain comes to rest against the stop
on the opposite side. The collected water then empties out and the other compartment starts to
fill.
The instrument calculates the quantity and intensity of rainfall using with the area of the funnel
and the number and rate of bucket movements.
5. Solar radiation
It is important to monitor solar radiation for use in modelling photochemical smog events, as the
intensity of sunlight has an important influence on the rate of the chemical reactions that produce
the smog. The cloudiness of the sky, time of day and geographic location all affect sunlight
intensity.
An instrument called a pyranometer measures solar radiation from the output of a type of silicon
cell sensor.

Solar radiation
Solar energy runs the engines of the earth.
It heats its atmosphere and its lands, generates its winds, drives the water cycle, warms its
oceans, grows its plants, feeds its animals, and even (over the long haul) produces its fossil
fuels. This energy can be converted into heat and cold, driving force and electricity.
While the solar radiation incident on the Earth's atmosphere is relatively constant, the
radiation at the Earth's surface varies widely due to:
i.
ii.
iii.

atmospheric effects, including absorption and scattering;

local variations in the atmosphere, such as water vapour, clouds, and pollution;
latitude of the location; and

iv.

the season of the year and the time of day.

Insolation
The amount of incoming solar radiation received at a particular time and location in the
earth-atmosphere system is called insolation.
It depends on

Solar constant
Transparency of the atmosphere
Daily sunlight duration
Angle at which the sun's rays strike the earth

Solar Constant
The solar constant is the average amount of radiation received at a point, perpendicular to the
sun's rays, that is located outside the earth's atmosphere at the earth's mean distance from the
sun.
Transparency of the atmosphere
The emitted radiation is depleted as its passes through the atmosphere. Different atmospheric
constituents absorb or reflect energy in different ways and in varying amounts.
Transparency of the atmosphere refers to how much radiation penetrates the atmosphere and
reaches the earth's surface without being depleted.

Transparency is a function not only of cloudiness, but also of latitude.

The sun's rays must pass through a thicker layer of reflecting-scattering atmosphere at middle
and high latitudes than at tropical latitudes.

This effect varies with the seasons, being greatest in winter (in the northern hemisphere)
when the earth's axis is tilted away from the sun causing the sun's rays to be low on the
horizon.

The general reflectivity of the various surfaces of the earth is referred to as the albedo.
Albedo is defined as the fraction (or percentage) of incoming solar energy that is reflected
back to space.
Solar Incidence Angle
An angle between suns rays and an imaginary line perpendicular to the surface maximum
solar gain is achieved when incidence angle is 0.

Tangent in morning and approximately perpendicular in afternoon angle depends on surface.

Solar radiation
It is important to monitor solar radiation for use in modelling photochemical smog events, as
the intensity of sunlight has an important influence on the rate of the chemical reactions that
produce the smog.

The cloudiness of the sky, time of day and geographic location all affect sunlight intensity.
An instrument called a pyranometer measures solar radiation from the output of a type of
silicon cell sensor.
Basics of Air movement
Air pressure differences cause the movement of air
Air moving parallel to the ground is called wind
Air moving up or down is called a current.
Pressure isobars

Areas of
equal
pressure

Air generally moves from the poles to the equator, this is because air flows from high
pressure to low pressure
High pressure forms when cold air sinks (at the poles)
Low pressure forms when warm air rises (at the equator)
But the air doesnt flow in a straight line

Coriolis Effect
Causes air to move in a curved path. It is caused by the Earth spinning on its axis

The Earth spins fastest at the equator, and slowest near the poles. As air moves from the
equator to the pole, it will travel east faster than the land beneath it causing the air to follow a
curved path.
Rotation
Coriolis force horizontal deflection force (fcor)

Acts at right angles to the motion of the body. Is proportional to the velocity of the moving
body.Northern hemisphere turns body to the right. Southern hemisphere turns body to the
left.
Frictional Force

Movement of air near surface is retarded by effects of friction (ff) due to surface roughness or
terrain. Opposite to wind direction. Wind direction is perpendicular to Coriolis. Directly
reduces wind speed and consequently reduces Coriolis force (which is proportional to wind
speed). Friction force is maximum at earths surface. Decreases as height increases. Effect
on tall stack not consistent. Effect negligible with strong winds > 6 m/s. Effect at lower
speeds < 6 m/s more significant.
LAND AND SEA BREEZE
Because land surfaces heat and cool quicker than the sea or other water bodies, temperature
gradients develop that can result in the generation of localised wind flows. A sea breeze
develops during the day as the air over the land warms more quickly than the air over the
sea. It rises, bringing in an onshore breeze, with a return flow aloft.
At night the opposite occurs and a land breeze develops, flowing towards the sea under an
area of subsidence. Sea breezes are generally strongest during the day in summer and land
breezes strongest during winter nights. They can both have significant effect s on air
quality over urban areas, as they are recirculating air currents that can return pollutant s
(instead of remove them) to an area fro m which the y were released earlier in the day .

Sea breeze at day time

Land breeze- at night
Valley breeze
Mountain and valley winds are generated due to similar heating and cooling mechanisms to
sealand breezes.
During the day the air above a slope is heated and becomes warmer than neighboring air at
the same height above sea level, but further above the ground. It rises due to convection,
and up slope mountain winds occur.

At night the mountain slopes cool more quickly than the surrounding air, and the cool air
drains down the slope, generating valley winds. This heating and cooling often results in
closed circulation patterns, which can trap and/or recirculate air pollution in the mountain
valley system .

Factors likely to increase level of air pollution

Calm conditions (Stable)

Low level emission sources
Temperature inversions
High buildings and narrow streets

Factors responsible for scavenging of Air pollutants

These conditions encourage dispersion of pollutants

Windy or turbulent conditions
High level of vegetation
High level of emission sources such as smoke stack
Rain

Parcel of air
Well-defined body of air (a constant number of molecules) that acts as a whole. Not readily
mix with the surrounding air. The exchange of heat between the parcel and its surroundings
is minimal.The temperature within the parcel is generally uniform. The air inside a balloon is
an analogy for an air parcel.

What is Adiabetic Cooling?

When air rises is encounters lower pressure. Momentarily, as the air parcel rises, it has a higher
pressure than the surrounding molecules. This means that there is more force exerted by the
molecules inside the parcel than is being exerted by the molecules outside the parcel and the
parcel expands.

This means there is more force exerted from inside the parcel than there is from the outside and
the parcel expands.

In order for the parcel to expand it has to push away (displace) the surrounding molecules. Thus,
the molecules inside the parcel must some of their internal energy in order to do this work.

Since the temperature is a function of the internal energy, when the internal energy decreases,
then the temperature decreases. Thus, the rising parcel expands and cools. This process is
called adiabatic cooling.

Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate (DALR)

The dry adiabatic lapse rate is a fixed rate, entirely independent of ambient air temperature.
A parcel of dry air moving upward in the atmosphere, then, will always cool at the rate of
9.8C/1000 m, regardless of its initial temperature or the temperature of the surrounding air.
To determine the change in temperature with respect to elevation due to adiabatic expansion
Atmosphere considered a stationary column of air in a gravitational field
Gas is a dry ideal gas
Ignoring friction and inertial effects
(dT/dz) adiabatic perfect gas = - (g M/ Cp)
Where,
T = temperature
z = vertical distance
g = acceleration due to gravity
M = molecular weight of air
Cp = heat capacity of the gas at constant pressure

( dT/dz) adiabatic perfect gas = -0.0098C/m = -0.980 C/100 m

(Can be approximated as -10C/100 m)
or
( dT/dz) adiabatic perfect gas = -5.4F/ft
Change in Temperature with change in height.
Important is ability to resist vertical motion: stability. Comparison of to actual
environment lapse rate indicates stability of atmosphere. Degree of stability is a measure of the
ability of the atmosphere to disperse pollutants
Lapse Rate
The Lapse rate is the negative of temperature gradient. In other words Lapse rate can be defined
as a decrease in temperature with respect to altitude.
Dry adiabatic lapse rate =
Metric:
= - 1C/100m or
SI:
= - 5.4F/1000ft

Stability conditions
The actual temperature profile of the ambient air shows the environmental lapse rate.
Sometimes called the prevailing or atmospheric lapse rate, it is the result of complex
interactions of meteorological factors, and is usually considered to be a decrease in temperature
with height.

Figure _: Environmental lapse rate

Atmospheric stability affects dispersion of pollutants. Temperature/elevation (dT/dZ)
relationship is principal determinant of atmospheric stability
There are 4 common scenarios (Cases/Types) of atmospheric stabilities.
Stable atmospheric stability means
Little vertical mixing
Pollutants emitted near surface tend to stay there
Environmental lapse rate is same as the dry adiabatic lapse rate

Figure_: Atmospheric stability concept

1. Super adiabatic Lapse Rates (Unstable): characteristics of this stability condition
are

Occur on sunny days

Characterized by intense vertical mixing

Excellent dispersion conditions

Environmental lapse rate >

i.e. Actual temp. gradient is more negative

Small parcel of air displaced approximates adiabatic expansion

Heat transfer is slow compared to vertical movement

At a given point, Tparcel > Tsurrounding air

less dense than surrounding air

Parcel continuously moves upward.

2. Neutral Stability condition: Rate of change of Temperature is similar (nearly equal) to the
adiabatic lapse rate. Results from: Cloudy conditions, Elevated wind speeds, Day/night
transitions, and Describes good dispersion conditions. Environmental lapse rate is same as

the dry adiabatic lapse rate. A parcel of air carried up or down will have same temp as
environment at the new height. No tendency for further movement
3. Isothermal Lapse Rates (Weakly Stable): Characterized by no temperature change with
height. (dT/dZ= constant) Atmosphere is somewhat stable. Dispersion conditions are
moderate.
Environmental lapse rate < . Greater temperature gradient. No tendency for further vertical
movement due to temperature differences. Any parcel of air will return to its original position.
Parcel is colder than air above moves back
4. Inversion (Strongly stable): Inversion is defined as increase in temperature with respect to
height. Characterized by increasing temperature with height.

Figure __: Types of stability

Objective questions
Q1. Meteorology is science of _________________.
Q2. Knowledge of air pollution meteorology is essential in order to understand the ______of
air pollutants.

Q3. If ELR is greater than DALR atmospheric condition is ______________.

Q4. If ELR is equal to DALR atmospheric condition is ______________.
Q5. If ELR is less than DALR atmospheric condition is ______________.
Q6. If ELR is very very less than DALR atmospheric condition is ______________.
Q7. _________________ stability condition is most favorable for dispersion of pollutants.
Q8. The environmental, or prevailing, lapse rate can be determined from the __________.
Q9. The dry adiabatic lapse rate is ______.
Q12. The actual temperature profile of the ambient air can be used to determine
the_____________ lapse rate.

Theory questions
Q1. Define meteorology and discuss importance of the same.
Q2. Explain stability conditions?
Q3. What is adiabatic cooling?
Q4. Define the following
1. ELR
2. Atmospheric Stability condition
3. Lapse rate
Q5. Write a note on
1.DALR 2. ELR

Types of inversions
There are three major types of inversion:
1. Subsidence Inversion (Figure__ (a))
2. Radiation Inversion (Figure__ (b))
3. Combination of subsidence and radiation (Figure__ (c))

1. Subsidence Inversion: Occurs high above emission sources. Associated with high-pressure
systems. Inversion layer is formed aloft. Covers hundreds of thousands of square kms. Not
contribute to short term air pollution problems i.e. contribute to long term air pollution
problems. Persists for several days and greatly contribute to long term accumulation of
pollutants. Gets broken by strong winds at that altitude.
Sinking air in large high pressure cells warms adiabatically. Elevation of base of inversion
varies from about 200m to around 1000m.

2. Radiation Inversion: - Surface layers of the atmosphere during the day receive heat by
conduction, convection and radiation from the earths surface and are warmed. This results in
temperature profile in the lower atmosphere that is represented by a negative lapse rate.
These types of inversions are intensified in river valleys. Cause pollutants to be trapped.
Breakup after sunrise. Occurs in winter season in India. Most likely to occur during windless
and cloudless nights.

3. Combination of radiation and Subsidence inversion: It is possible for subsidence and

radiation inversions to appear in the atmosphere at the same time. Joint occurrence of these
two types of inversions leads to a special phenomenon called Trapping of plume.

Wind Velocity Profile

Friction retards wind movement. Friction is proportional to surface roughness. Location and size
of surface objects produce different wind velocity gradients in the vertical direction. Area of
atmosphere influenced by friction few hundred m to several km above earths surface.
Wind speed varies by height. International standard height for wind-speed measurements is 10
m. Dispersion of pollutant is a function of wind speed at the height where pollution is emitted.
But difficult to develop relationship between height and wind speed
Maximum
height of wind
profiles indicate
where effects of
surface
roughness end
and where
gradient wind
begins

Calculating Effective Stack Height Wind Speed: Deacons power law

The surface wind speed is different at the effective stack height, which is used in the Gaussian
model. At elevation z1, wind speed u1 is given by the following equation and table.

Where:
u = wind speed at altitude z, m/s
z1 = effective stack height or altitude at which wind speed is needed, m
z= height above surface at which wind speed is measured, m (usually 10 meters)
p = exponent is a function of atmospheric stability class

Objective Questions
Q1. Radiation inversion gets broken by _______________________.
Q2. Subsidence inversion persist for ____________________.
Q3. As per Deacons power law, Wind speed at any height is given by ____________.
Q4. Stability class ___ refers to neutral stability condition.
Q5. ____ stability class refers to most unstable condition.
Q6. . ____ stability class refers to most stable condition.
Q7. In Deacons law value of exponent p in rough terrain, for neutral stability condition is
__________. (similar objective questions for all values).
Q8. An ____________________ acts as a lid on vertical air movement.
Q9. When the earth's surface cools rapidly, such as between late night and early morning under
clear skies, a ____________________ inversion is likely to occur.

Theory questions
Q1. Discuss in detail three types of inversions with neat sketches.
Q2. What is power law of Deacon? What is its use?

Wind Rose
To create a wind rose, average wind direction and wind speed values are collected at a site, at
short intervals, over a period of time, e.g. 1 week, 1 month, 1 year or longer. The collected wind
data is then sorted by wind direction so that the percentage of time that the wind was blowing
from each direction can be determined.
Presented in a circular format, the wind rose shows the frequency of winds blowing from
particular directions over a particular period. The length of each "spoke or segment" around the
circle is related to the frequency that the wind blows from a particular direction per unit time.
Each concentric circle represents a different frequency, starting from zero at the center to
increasing frequencies at the outer circles. A wind rose plot may contain additional information,
in that each spoke/segment is broken down into color-coded bands that show wind speed ranges.
Wind roses typically use 16 cardinal directions, such as north (N), NNE, NE, etc., although they
may be subdivided into as many as 32 directions. In terms of angle measurement in degrees,
North corresponds to 0/360, East to 90, South to 180 and West to 270.

Uses of wind rose

1) Sailors use wind rose.
2) Architects do, or should, use wind rose information for the siting of buildings and
stadiums.
3) Wind-power "farms" (wind mills) do extensive wind rose type studies prior to erecting
their wind turbines.
4) Also used for siting of industries in order to minimize impact of air pollution on
neighboring cities.

Plume Behaviour
Plume Behaviour
Dispersion is the process of spreading out pollution emission over a large area and thus
reducing their concentration. Wind speed and environmental lapse rates directly influence the
dispersion pattern.
1. Looping Plume: The looping plume of Figure ___ occurs in highly unstable conditions and
results from turbulence caused by the rapid overturning of air. While unstable conditions are
generally favorable for pollutant dispersion, momentarily high ground-level concentrations
can occur if the plume loops downward to the surface.

2. Fanning plume: The fanning plume (Figure ___) occurs in stable conditions. The inversion
lapse rate discourages vertical motion without prohibiting horizontal motion, and the plume
may extend downwind from the source for a long distance. Fanning plumes often occur in the
early morning during a radiation inversion.

3. Coning plume: The coning plume (Figure ___) is characteristic of neutral conditions or

slightly stable conditions. It is likely to occur on cloudy days or on sunny days between the
breakup of a radiation inversion and the development of unstable daytime conditions.

4. Lofting Plume: Obviously a major problem for pollutant dispersion is an inversion layer,
which acts as a barrier to vertical mixing. The height of a stack in relation to the height of the

inversion layer may often influence ground-level pollutant concentrations during an

inversion. When conditions are unstable above an inversion (Figure ___), the release of a
plume above the inversion results in effective dispersion without noticeable effects on
ground-level concentrations around the source. This condition is known as lofting.

5. Fumigation Plume: If the plume is released just under an inversion layer, a serious air
pollution situation could develop. As the ground warms in the morning, air below an
inversion layer becomes unstable. When the instability reaches the level of the plume that
is still trapped below the inversion layer, the pollutants can be rapidly transported down
toward the ground (Figure 4-23). This is known as fumigation. Ground-level pollutant
concentrations can be very high when fumigation occurs. Sufficiently tall stacks can
prevent fumigation in most cases.

6. Trapping plume: - This type of plume results because of combination of radiation and
subsidence inversion. All emitted pollutants are trapped inside two inversion layers. The
diffusion of pollutant is severely restricted to the layer between the two stable regions as
shown in the figure.

Maximum Mixing Depth (MMD)

The dispersion of pollutants in the lower atmosphere is greatly aided by the convective and
turbulent mixing that takes place. The vertical extent to which this mixing takes place depends
on the environmental lapse rate which varies diurnally, from season to season and is also affected
by topographical features. The depth of the convective mixing layer in which vertical movement
of pollutants is possible, is called the maximum mixing depth (MMD).
The maximum mixing depth (sometimes called the mixing height) is obtained by projecting the
dry adiabatic lapse rate line to the point of intersection with the atmospheric temperature profile
These profiles are usually measured at night or early in the morning. An air parcel at a
temperature warmer than the existing ground level temperature rises and cools according to
adiabatic lapse rate. The level where its temperature becomes equal to the surrounding air gives
the MMD value. Urban air pollution episodes are known to occur when MMD is 1500 m or less.

Summary.of MMD
Parcel heated by solar radiation at earths surface
Rises until temperature T = T
T = particles temp
T = atmospheric temp

Achieves neutral equilibrium, no tendency for further upward motion

Note:- Radiosonde Measurements
A radiosonde (Sonde is French for probe) is a unit for use in weather balloons that measures
various atmospheric parameters and transmits them to a fixed receiver. Radiosondes may operate
at a radio frequency of 403 MHz or 1680 MHz and both types may be adjusted slightly higher or
lower as required.
A rawinsonde is a radiosonde that is designed to only measure wind speed and direction.
Rawinsondes are usually referred to as Radiosondes.
STEPS FOR DETERMINATION OF MAXIMUM MIXING HEIGHT
The following steps can be used to determine the maximum mixing height for a day from a
temperature profile:
1) Plot the temperature profile (ELR), if needed.
2) Plot the maximum surface temperature for the day on the graph for morning temperature
profile.
3) Draw a dry adiabatic line (-1oC/100m) from the point of maximum surface temperature to
the point where it interests the morning temperature profile.
4) Read the corresponding height above ground at the point of intersection obtained in step
2. This is the maximum mixing height for the day.
Objective Questions
Q1. Accurate estimation of the dispersion of pollutants in the atmosphere require a knowledge of
the ___________________________of wind directions as well as _________________.
Q2. __________________ are important for fixing location of new industries.
Q3. Most dangerous type of plume is ____________.
Q4. When inversion exists both below and above stack height, _________________ results.
Q5. ___________________ is, at which temperature of air parcel and ambient air becomes equal
at particular height.
Theory questions
Q1. Write detailed note on Plume Behaviour with neat sketches.
Q2. What is Maximum mixing depth? Explain how do you determine the same?
Q3. Explain in detail wind rose construction and its use.

Plume Rise Formulae

Gases that are emitted from stacks are often pushed out by fans. As the turbulent exhaust
gases exit the stack they mix with ambient air. This mixing of ambient air into the plume is
called entrainment. As the plume entrains air into it, the plume diameter grows as it travels
downwind. These gases have momentum as they enter the atmosphere. Often these gases are
heated and are warmer than the outdoor air. In these cases the emitted gases are less dense
than the outside air and are therefore buoyant.
A combination of the gases' momentum and buoyancy causes the gases to rise. This is
referred to as plume rise and allows air pollutants emitted in this gas stream to be lofted
higher in the atmosphere. Since the plume is higher in the atmosphere and at a further
distance from the ground, the plume will disperse more before it reaches ground level.

1. IS Formula

2. Modified Carson and Moses Formula

3. Hollands Formula

4. Concave Formula

h 2.71[Qh1/2 / u 3/4 ]
Modified by Thomas

h 4.71[Q0.444 / u0.694 ]
5. Davidson and Bryants Formula
1.4

Vs T
h d . . 1

u Ts

Where,
T= Ts-Ta
Objective Questions
1. Plume rise is measures from top of the stack and is measured up to
____________________________.
2. Stack gas temperature is ___________ than the surrounding air.
3. IS: _______ suggested plume rise formula based on Briggs equation.
4. Values of coefficients a and b in case of modified Carson and Moses
equation for unstable stability class are ____ and ____ respectively. (Similar
questions for other two stability categories.)
5. Plume rise is due to _________________ and _______________.
6. Effective stack height = ________________+____________________.
7. True or False?
Plume rise (h) is the height that pollutants rise above a stack and is measured from the top
of the stack to the upper edge of the plume.

Theory questions
Q1. Explain what is Plume rise. Give any three formulae for the same.
Q2. Give IS formula for plume rise.

Visibility and Minimum or safe stack height

The sky is many times engulfed in a brownish-yellow or greyish-white haze due to air pollution.
Such haze can reduce visibility from miles (kilometres) to yards (meters). Mountains or
buildings once in plain sight can suddenly be blocked from view.
Air pollution that reduces visibility is often called haze or smog. The term smog originally meant
a mixture of smoke and fog in the air, but today it refers to any mixture of air pollutants that can
be seen. Smog typically starts in cities or areas with many people, but because it travels with the
wind, it can appear in rural areas as well.
One consequence of smog over any given area is that it can change the areas climate. Certain
dark particles, such as carbon, absorb solar radiation and scatter sunlight, helping produce the
characteristic haze that fills the skies over the worlds megacities. This haze reduces the amount
of the Suns energy reaching the Earths surface, sometimes by as much as 35 percent.
A reduction in sunlight may not be the only thing air pollution inhibits. Some research has
supported the idea that certain air particles are altering rainfall patterns as well.
Visibility
Pollution absorbs and scatters light resulting in sunsets or brown clouds

Minimum Height of Stack

1.

2.

3) Minimum stack height should be at least 30 m.

So, select max of above three values as stack height

Objective Questions
Q1. On a hazy day visibility will be ________.
Q2. The minimum stack height should be ___m.
Q3. Stack height based on SO2 emission rate is given by ____________.
Q4. Stack height based on SPM emission rate is given by ____________.
Theory Questions
Q5. haze can reduces visibility from ____ to ___.
Q1.What is visibility?
Q2. Write procedure for fixing minimum stack height.

Dispersion model
General Structure of Air Pollution Models

Air Pollution modeling: Parameters in Models

1. Source Parameters (Emission Characteristics)
Emission rates of pollutants (mass/time)
Physical location of source
Temperature of gas release
Plume Rise
2. Meteorology
Atmospheric temp.
Atmospheric stability (needed for Dipersion coefficients)
Wind velocity
3. Atmospheric Chemistry
Chemical Reaction in the atm.
Depositions (wet or dry)

4. Surface Parameters (Properties)

Surface geometry, roughness, seas, urban or rural areas etc
Why Use Dispersion Models? (Necessity)
i.

To Predict impact from proposed and/or existing development

ii.

To Assess air quality monitoring data

iii.

To Assess air quality standards or guidelines

iv.

To Evaluate AP control strategies

v.

Evaluate receptor exposure

vi.

Monitoring network design

Assumptions if Gaussian Dispersion Model (GDM)

Gaussian dispersion modeling based on a number of assumptions including

Steady-state conditions (constant source emission strength)

Wind speed, direction and diffusion characteristics of the plume are constant

Mass transfer due to bulk motion in the x-direction

Conservation of mass, i.e. no chemical transformatible tabilityons take place

Wind speeds are >1 m/sec.

Limited to predicting concentrations > 50 m downwind

Pasquills stability table

Stability

Definition

class
A

Stability
class

very unstable- Large

lapse rate
B

Definition

Moderately unstable

Neutral- Less or zero

lapse rate

slightly stable- mild

inversion

slightly unstable

Stable- moderate to
severe inversion

Gaussian dispersion Model (GDM)

GDM assumes that the air pollutant dispersion has a Gaussian distribution, meaning that
the pollutant distribution has a normal probability distribution.

The Gaussian distribution determines the size of the plume downwind from the source.

The plume size is dependent on the stability of the atmosphere and the dispersion of the
plume in the horizontal and vertical directions.

These horizontal and vertical dispersion coefficients (y and z respectively) are merely
the standard deviation from normal on the Gaussian distribution curve in the y and z
directions.

These dispersion coefficients, y and z, are functions of wind speed, cloud cover, and
surface heating by the sun.

How to use GDM?

Follow following steps
i.

Need to know proper orientations of both Source and Receptor:

Source at (0,0,H) and Receptor at (x,y,z) C(x,y,z;H)

ii.

Pollutant Emission Rate from source:

Q (mass of pollutant/time)

NOT Volume flowrate of Stack gas

iii.

Atmospheric Stability Category (A, B, C. etc.)

iv.

Wind velocity at stack height : u

v.

Dispersion Coefficients : y and z (can be determined from graphs)

vi.

Effective Stack height: H = hs + h

Calculation of Plume rise (h ) by any one

formula (Refer lecture on plume rise)

vii.

THEN USE GDM

C(x,y,z;H) =.

Objective Questions
Q1. GDM is used for _____________________
______________________________________.
Q2. y and z values depend upon __________.
Q3. In GDM H is _________ ___________.
Q4. Greater the wind speed and mixing heights _______________ will be the
concentration of pollutants.
Q5. Max ground level concentration is given by _________________ .
Theory Questions
Q1. What are assumptions made in Gaussian dispersion model?
Q2. What is Gaussian dispersion equation? Explain meaning of each and every term in it.
Also give its different forms.
Q3. Write about how to use GDM.
Q4. What is use of Dispersion models?
Q5. Discuss parameters needed for air pollution modeling.