The Bilingual Brain

ELEMENTARY FOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATION
The Bilingual Brain: How foreign language study affects

childhood learning and implementing it into the United States primary education system.
Jessica Durham
Global Connections
Instructor: Gregory Falls
December 16, 2016
Abstract
Foreign language study is a crucial aspect of a childs education as it is the basis to
understanding other cultures and the increasing globalization of the world. The average
American student is behind in his or her language study globally and not only does this greatly
decrease a childs ability for future success in the global marketplace but it is detrimental to the
childs overall development. Foreign language study increases the size of the brain and aids its
development through strengthening the neurons that play a large role in executive function,
thought, memory, and other cognitive skills. It also improves a childs learning through altering
his or her thinking pathways and increasing mental flexibility; therefore a child benefits in all
subjects, learning in unconventional methods with aid to a more creative learning process, giving
the child higher order thinking skills and complex problem solving abilities. The American
education system does not place much importance on foreign language education, despite the
United States governments need for human capital with a proficiency in a second language and
the increasing percentage of jobs linked to foreign trade. Foreign language study is necessary for
survival in a global society, it impacts children fundamentally from birth in every aspect of life,
and must be implemented into the American students education from the time the student enters
primary school.
Table of Contents
Abstract
Table of Contents
Introduction 4
Limitations
Literature Review
Discussion
10
Impacts of Early Age of Acquisition of Foreign Languages 10

Impacts of Bilingualism on the Makeup and Functions of the Brain
Learning Process Changes due to Bilingualism
14
American Foreign Language Education Compared Globally 15

English as a Global Language
21
Overall Benefits of Bilingualism 23

Conclusion
26
References 27
Appendix 1 36
Appendix 2 39
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Introduction
The United States education system should implement foreign language education
beginning in elementary school because of the immense benefits to a childs neural development
and learning pathways. Language is the basis to thought, communication, and culture. In our
increasingly global society, an understanding of foreign languages is essential to understanding
different cultures and thus becoming more understanding of these differing cultures and people.
However, foreign language education is lacking in the United States compared to other nations.
In comparison to most of the world, the United States begins its foreign language learning far
later, in late middle school or early high school, rather than as soon as the child enters the school
system. Furthermore, children are able to learn foreign languages far easier from a young age
than they are in high school, which exposes a flaw in how the United States teaches foreign
language. Children under the age of six are able to learn as many foreign languages as they can
have equal exposure to, simply due to the natural ability of their brains. It is completely natural
for a child to learn two or more languages simultaneously, which is why they are able to quickly
achieve native fluency if exposed to more than one language. Not only does this natural language
learning ability exist in children, but learning a second language reaps many neural benefits for
the child and increases his or her cognitive flexibility. These benefits only further improve a
childs learning pathways and also lead to a multitude of other benefits. Children in the United
States need to be exposed to foreign language classes as soon as they enter school, as it is
imperative to give children a means to reach all of the benefits to the brain and to overall
education foreign language provides.
Limitations
LimitedResources:Theauthorfoundthatmanyresourcesonforeignlanguageresearchwerein
booksordatabasesthatshedidnothaveaccessto.Theauthorfoundmanypiecesofresearch
fromexpertsinthefiledthroughresearchpaperspublishedbydistinguishedauthors,whothen
citedtheprimaryresearcherintheirpaper.Theauthordidnothaveaccesstothedirectsourcesof
theprimaryresearchersandthereforeoccasionallyfounddifficultyinunderstandingtheirentire
stanceontheissueofforeignlanguageeducationforchildren.
PersonalBias:Theauthortakesthepositionofarguingforanincreaseofforeignlanguage
studyattheelementaryschoollevel.Theauthorretainsabiasinfavorofforeignlanguage
educationduetoherhighschoolandherextremeinterestinforeignlanguages.
TimeConstraint:Theauthorsresearchonthistopicspannedapproximatelytwomonths.The
topicdiscussedhasanextensiverangeofresearchandresourcesonthetopic,andwithmore
timetheauthorcouldlookmoreindepthintoagreatnumbermoreoftheseresources.Withmore
time,theauthorwouldalsohavetheabilitytoconductmoreextensiveresearchandpollsonthe
topic,aswellasinterviewotherexpertsinthefield.
PersonalResearchDiversity:Theauthorconductedherownresearchthroughtelephone
interviewswithinternationalstudentsandsurveyedAmericanhighschoolstudentsthroughan
onlinepoll.Theauthorsgatheredresearchlackedthediversityofapollnationallytakenwould
have,astheauthoronlyhadtheabilitytoreachstudentsinherlocalarea.Amajorityofthe
respondentscamefromtheauthorshighschool,whichhasanacademyfocusedonforeign
languagestudyandglobaleducation,andthereforeamajorityoftherespondentshadabiasthat
leanedtowardsapositiveopinionofimplementingmoreforeignlanguageeducation.
LiteratureReview
Thesourcesusedforresearchallconnecttotheoverarchingtopicofpromotingan
increaseofforeignlanguageeducationinAmericanelementaryschools.Thesourcesaredivided
intosixtopics,whichbeginwiththebasisofachildsnaturalabilitytolearnforeignlanguages
andrelatesthistothechildsimprovedbrainfunctionandlearningpathways,discussestheflaws
intheAmericaneducationsysteminrelationtoforeignlanguage,andfinisheswithconcluding
howforeignlanguagebenefitstheindividualasawhole.Themajorityofthesourcesinthe
beginningoftheresearcharescientificstudiesandresearchrelatedtothebrain,andlaterthe
sourcesarebasedmoreinnormativeresearchincludinginterviewsandarticlesthatexposethe
opinionsofnativeEnglishspeakersonforeignlanguagestudy.
InthepublishedresearchbytheNationalResearchCouncil,TheBenefitsofSecond
LanguageStudy,thebookbyHelenaCurtainandCarolDahlberg,LanguagesandChildren:
MakingtheMatch:NewLanguagesforYoungLearners,GradesK8,4thEdition,addressesa
childsnaturalabilitytolearnforeignlanguages.Thisarticlesetsthebasisfortheargument
discussedinthisresearchbyrevealingthatchildrenhaveanaturalabilitytolearnasmany
foreignlanguagesastheyhaveequalexposuretoduringchildhood,anddonothavelanguage
confusionthatdelaysdevelopment.
AresearchpaperwrittenbyChristophePallier,CriticalPeriodsinLanguage
Acquisition,discussesWilderPenfieldandLamarRobertsresearchonthecriticalperiodof
languageacquisition.ThisresearchisknownastheCriticalPeriodHypothesis,whichstatesthat
theageoflanguageacquisitionisimportantinultimateproficiencyofthespeaker.Thisresearch
iscriticaltotheauthorsargumentbecauseitvalidatesthatchildrenneedtostartearlyonintheir
educationtohavethebestopportunitytogainnativelikefluency.
Astudyconductedbythe Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital through The
Neuro at McGill University and Oxford University and published by McGill University
discovered that the brain structure is modified when a child learns a second language. The cortex
of neurons that play a major role in thought, language, consciousness, and memory is enlarged
when a child learns a foreign language. The positive modification of the childs brain structure
begins the argument of the benefits that an individual receives when learning a foreign language.
A study of third and fifth graders in Louisiana Public Schools, as told by Joseph Dumas
in "Learning a Second Language: Exposing Your Child to a new World of Words Boosts Her
Brainpower, Vocabulary and Self-Esteem, revealed that regardless of race, gender, or past
academic achievement, students taking foreign language classes scored higher on the English
section of the Louisiana Basic Skills Test than the students not in foreign language classes and
overall outperformed their monolingual peers across all core subjects. This information gives
another vital benefit to a childs education when they are studying a foreign language.
AccordingtoresearchpublishedbytheNationalResearchCouncil,knowledgeofa
secondlanguagefacilitatestravel,enhancescareeropportunities,andenablesonetolearnmore
aboutdifferentcultures.Thisissignificanttotheresearchbecauseitbeginstorevealtheother
impactsofstudyingaforeignlanguageoutsideoftheneuralbenefitsandenhancedlearning
processes.
TheUnitedStatesGeneralAccountingOfficepublishedresearchstatingtheneedofthe
UnitedStatesforfluentspeakersoflanguages,specificallylesserknownlanguagessuchas
ChineseorArabic.ThissourcerevealsthemajorflawoftheUnitedStateseducationpolicyfor
foreignlanguages.TheUnitedStatesgovernmentneedsmorebilingualworkersyetithasnot
madethenecessarystepstowardscreatingabilingualworkforce,byimplementingmandatory
foreignlanguagestudyatanylevel.
AnothersourceofpublishedresearchbytheNationalResearchCouncil,TheBenefitsof
SecondLanguageStudy,thepervasivelackofknowledgeofforeignculturesandforeign
languagesthreatensthenationalsecurityoftheUnitedStatesandthreatensitsabilitytocompete
intheglobalmarketplace.Thissourcerevealsanotherreasonwhyforeignlanguagestudyisso
important,nationalsecurityoftheUnitedStatesandtheUnitedStateslosingitsabilityto
competeeconomicallyinthe21stcenturyworld.
Interviewsconductedbytheauthorwithfourstudentsinforeigncountries,theUnited
Kingdom,Spain,Jordan,andIsrael,revealedtheperspectivesofstudentsgloballyonforeign
languagestudy.Thethreestudentswhohadmandatorylanguagestudyfromprimaryschooluntil
graduation(thestudentsfromJordan,Spain,andIsrael),heldforeignlanguagestudyatahigh
valuewherethestudentfromtheUnitedKingdomfeltthatforeignlanguagestudywasnot
importantunlesstheindividualhadajobthatrequiredit.Thissourcenotonlyrevealedhowa
studentsschoolspolicyonforeignlanguagestudyimpactedhowmuchthestudentvalued
foreignlanguage,butitalsorevealedthetypicalmindsetofanativeEnglishspeakingstudent.
AccordingtoDavidThomasoftheDailyMail,in,Why do the English need to speak a
foreign language when foreigners all speak English? native English speakers do not need to
learn a foreign language because foreigners mostly already learn and are fluent in English. His
opinion in the article is a common opinion of many native English speakers in both the United
Kingdom and the United States. His article is used to identify this opinion that generally serves
as a reason used by Americans to not study foreign language, and then is disputed using other
sources.
Inthearticle,EnglishasaGlobalLanguage,byLukeMastin,theideaofEnglishasa
linguafrancaisexplored.ThearticlerejectsthenotionthatnativeEnglishspeakersshouldnot
learnaforeignlanguagebecausehebelievesthatEnglishmaynotalwaysbeadominatingglobal
languageandthereforeAmericansneededtolearnasecondlanguage.Thisarticlesupportsthe
researchbyrejectingclaimsofnativeEnglishspeakersthatarguethatothercountriesalready
speakingEnglishandareabletocommunicationwiththemsotheydonotneedtolearnaforeign
language.
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Discussion
Impacts of Early Age of Acquisition of Foreign Languages
Childrenlearnlanguageinanextensiveuniversalpattern.(Lust&Yang,n.d.).Theage
ofexposureandacquisitioncanbedirectlyrelatedtoacquiredlevelofproficiency.This
phenomenonisexploredthroughtheCriticalPeriodHypothesis,whichnotonlyrelatesfluency
totheacquisitionage,butalsostatesthattheolderonestartstolearnalanguage,thesmallerthe
oddsofgaininganativelikemasteryofthelanguage(Penfield&Roberts,1959).Simplyput,
theearlierlanguagelearningbegins,themorenativelikethespeakerisabletobecome.
Thelearningexperiencesofachilddeterminewhich(neural)connectionsaredeveloped
andwhichnolongerfunction.Thatmeanswhatiseasyandnaturalforachildlearninga
languagecanbecomehardworkforanolderlearner.(Curtain&Dahlberg,2004).
ResearchconductedbyscientistsoutoftheKingsCollegeLondonandBrownUniversity
(2013),afterstudyingthebrainscansof108childrenwithnormalbraindevelopment;foundthat
thedistributionofmyelinisfixedfromtheageoffour(Briggs,2013).Theresearchsuggests
thatthereisacriticalperiodbeforetheageoffour,whereneuralplasticityisgreatest,therefore
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givingachildthebestchanceofgainingproficiencyandthusinfluencingcognitiveskillsthe
most.Researchagreesthatthereisadeclineinachildsabilitytoabsorbaforeignlanguageafter
theageofseven(TheAssociatedPress,2009).Theeffectofageofacquisitionofforeign
languageisundeniable;thelikelihoodofgainingnativelikeproficiencydirectlyrelatestohow
earlythechildisexposedtothelanguage(Singleton,1995).Ageofacquisitionnotonlyaffects
generalproficiencyinthelanguage,butalsohasavisibleeffectonforeignaccent(orlack
thereof)andgrammaticalknowledge(Flege,Munro,&Mackay1995;Oyama1976).According
toKenjiHakuta(1986)asignificantargumentagainsthavingchildrenstudyforeignlanguage
beginningatayoungageisderivedfromresearchstatingthatachildlearningtwolanguagesat
oncewouldcauselanguageconfusionandacognitivedeficit(Hakuta,1986).Thisbeliefin
languageconfusionstemsfromstudiesthatnotedapeculiarbehaviorofbilingualchildren,the
tendencytomixwordsfromtwodifferentlanguagesinthesamesentence.Generally,children
havegoodreasonstocodemix(Pearson,2008).Acommonreasonforthisisthatyoung
bilingualchildrenareusuallylimitedintheirvocabulary,justasmonolingualchildren.Because
ofthis,whenabilingualchildcannotthinkofawordquicklyordoesnotknowthevocabularyto
describehisorherthoughts,heorsheborrowsthewordfromanotherlanguage(Lanza,2004).
Codemixinghasnowbecomeacceptedasanormalpartofthespeechdevelopmentofbilingual
children,thusthesetheorieshavesincebeenwidelyrejected.Evenatinfantry,bilingualchildren
areabletodistinguishbetweentheirdifferentlanguages.Infantsaresensitivetodimensionaland
perceptionaldifferencesinvariouslanguagesandabletotellthemapart.Theycanseparate
distinctrhythmsinparticularlanguagesfrombirth(ByersHeinlein,Burns,&Werker,2010;
Mehler,1988),andcandifferentiatebetweenrhythmicallysimilarlanguagesfromtheageoffour
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months(Bosch&SebastinGalls,1997,2001;Nazzi,2000).Inimmersionsettings,children
canlearntwolanguagessidebysidewithanequalleveloffluency.Overall,childrencananddo
naturallyacquiremultiplelanguagesatonce,whichdisproveslanguageconfusionmyths(Lust&
Yang,n.d.).AccordingtoDr.SusanCurtiss,alinguisticsprofessoroftheUniversityof
CaliforniaatLosAngeles,
Thepowertolearnaforeignlanguageissogreatintheyoungchildthatitdoesntseem
tomatterhowmanylanguagesyouseemtothrowtheirwayTheycanlearnasmanyspoken
languagesasyoucanallowthemtohearsystematicallyandregularlyatthesametime.Children
justhavethiscapacity.Theirbrainisripetodothistheredoesntseemtobeanydetriment
todevelop(ing)severallanguagesatthesametime.
Asawhole,theearlierachildlearnsasecondlanguage,themorelikelytheyaretoquicklyattain
nativelikeproficiency.Inaddition,theageatwhichchildrenstartlearningforeignlanguages
sparksachangeinthemakeupoftheirbrains,andleadstoasignificantbearingontheneural
structureinadulthood(MontrealNeurologicalInstituteandHospitalTheNeuroatMcGill
UniversityandOxfordUniversityStudy,n.d.).Thus,earlyintroductionofbilingualismmodifies
thestructureofthebrainandimpactscognitiveprocesses.
Impacts of Bilingualism on the Makeup and Functions of the Brain
Learning a second language is generally associated with beneficial outcomes on cognitive
functions. As previously stated, the age at which children learn a foreign language can alter the
structure of the adult brain. When a child starts learning a second language after gaining
proficiency in their native or first language, it modifies the brain structure, specifically in the
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brains inferior frontal cortex (McGill, n.d.). The resulting effects are a thicker left inferior
frontal cortex and a thinner right frontal cortex. The cortex is a multilayered conglomerating
block of neurons that majorly impacts cognitive functions such as thought, language,
consciousness, and memory (McGill et.al., n.d.). Foreign language acquisition can also increase
the size of the brain (The Guardian, n.d.). In this research, areas of the brain that grew were
linked to how easy the learners found the language, which was artificially created, but regardless
of that, these immersion learners brains processes were most similar to the brain processes of a
native speaker in the language. Six months following the experiment, when the learners could
not receive more exposure to the language at home, (due to its artificial creation), the learners
brain processes still reflected those of a native speaker. This growth of the brain is related to the
task of acquiring a second language after infancy, and how it stimulates new neural growth and
connections between the newly grown neurons, similar to the ways seen in children acquiring
complex motor skills such as juggling. Again, this critical window for language development is
prevalent to brain expansion, as children after the age of seven begin to lose significant skills for
acquiring language, all due to the decreasing neural plasticity at this age (Pallier, 2007;
Fdration des parents francophones de Colombie-Britannique, n.d.). Research indicates that
children who are exposed to a foreign language at a young age will achieve higher levels of
cognitive development earlier as well (Bialystok & Hakuta, 1994; Fuchsen, 1989). In a study
using neurophysical and behavioral measures with Korean-English bilinguals, results have
revealed that bilingualism enhances the development of executive attention and projects forward
superior performance in comparison to monolinguals on executive attention tests (Yang & Lust,
2004, 2007; Yang, 2007). A study led by Dr. Sujin Yang with children aged four to six compared
with adults was set out to discover whether learning two languages leads to the valuable
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outcomes known as the executive function, the feature responsible for the, selective and
conscious, cognitive functions that aid in completing tasks while facing distraction. According
to the Cornell University Language Acquisition Lab (2009), children who learn a second
language can remain attentive to a subject despite outside stimuli better than monolingual
children. This executive function plays a key role in academic readiness and success in the
classroom (Blair & Razza, 2007; Diamond, 2007). The executive function changes is not the
only thing that cognitive development affects, but it changes many believed ingrained learning
processes, and not only can this change the way foreign languages are studied for the remainder
of a childs education, but it affects learning processes in all subjects, which leads it to be the
basis to reinventing the modern day classroom and education system as a whole.
Learning Process Changes due to Bilingualism
Students studying foreign language show an increase in overall school performance and
exhibit superior problem solving skills (Bamford & Mizokawa, 1991; Hakuta, 1986). Foreign
language study completely transforms the classroom, in all subject areas. Personal opinions vary
on reasoning; a popular opinion is that in every language a person speaks, they have slightly
differing personalities and a new set of vocabulary in which to think. Languages reflect the
cultures of the people they originate from, and therefore each vocabulary set reflects the specific
emotions and cultural norms on human behavior derived from that culture. For example, cultures
surrounding the German and Spanish languages vary greatly in what emotions and behaviors are
deemed acceptable and therefore the languages vocabulary also reflects this. Thus, a person who
is multilingual can think in both sets of vocabularies that inherently behave in different ways
and can find solutions balancing the differing perspectives these languages offer. This leads to
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the conclusion that multilingual students have an increased ability for problem solving and an
ability to think cross-culturally because of their proficiency in multiple languages. Foreign
language study enhances childrens understanding of how language itself works and their ability
to manipulate language in the service of thinking and problem solving, (Cummins, 1981) and
foreign language learners show greater cognitive flexibility, improved problem solving skills,
and greater higher order thinking skills (Hakuta, 1986). In addition to these findings, strong
evidence shows that the time spent on foreign language study also reinforces the core subject
areas in school such as mathematics, social studies, reading, and English language literacy.
Mastering the vocabulary of a second language helps enhance student comprehension in the core
subjects (Saville-Troike, 1984) and these foreign language learners also consistently and often
significantly outperform their monolingual counterparts in core subject areas on standardized
tests (Armstrong & Rogers, 1997; Saunders, 1998; Masciantonio, 1977; Rafferty, 1986; Andrade,
1989). Further, the students who started their foreign language study in elementary school
surpassed those who did not study foreign language in their English reading and language arts
tests (Mavrogenes, 1979). Meaning that not only does foreign language study help the overall
education development of the student, but also directly correlates to advancement in his or her
first language, specifically for English speakers. A study conducted in Louisiana public
elementary schools of 13,200 third and fifth graders showed that regardless of race, gender, or
general academic success level, children taking foreign language classes did better than their
counterparts who were not studying a foreign language on the Louisiana English basic skills test
(Dumas, 1999). This study, along with others, marks another great impact in regards to
revolutionizing the education system; the higher scores applied to all of the students studying a
foreign language, including those students that usually did not score well in the basic core
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subjects. Another finding states that there is a high positive correlation between foreign language
study and improved reading scores for children of average or below average intelligence
(Garfinkel & Tabor, 1991). Therefore, foreign language study, especially beginning at the
elementary school level, can act as a catalyst to jump start ways for all students to find success,
even in places where they usually do not. The means of implementing foreign language study at
an elementary school level in American schools is unconventional in the traditional classroom.
However, it is a direct pathway to modern education and is successful in aiding education across
all subjects, as well as aiding the personal success of many differing students.
AmericanForeignLanguageEducationComparedGlobally
TheUnitedStatesschoolsystemislackinginforeignlanguageeducationacrossthe
board,andthedeficitisonlyincreasingwithtime.Asitseems,theUnitedStateseducation
systemplaceslittlevalueonthestudyofanylanguageotherthanEnglishoroncultural
understanding.ForeignlanguageeducationonlyemergesasimportanttotheAmerican
governmentandpeoplewhendirectthreatsareposedtothefutureofnationalsecurity(National
ResearchCouncil,2007;TheBenefitsofSecondLanguageStudy,2007).Americanstendto
increasepressuretolearncertainlanguagesduringcrisis.Forexample,duringtheColdWarand
RedScareSlaviclanguagesincreasedinstudy,andastheUnitedStatesdeclaredtheWaron
TerrortherewasanoticedsparkinthestudiesofMiddleEasternlanguages(Friedman,2015).
However,thispervasivelackofknowledgeaboutforeignlanguagesnotonlythreatenssecurity
oftheUnitedStatesbutalsothreatensitsabilitytocompeteintheglobalmarketorproducean
informedsociety(TheBenefitsofSecondLanguageStudy,2007).AccordingtoU.S.
SecretaryofEducationArneDuncan(2010),
17
Toprospereconomicallyandtoimproverelationswithothercountries,Americansneed
toread,speak,andunderstandotherlanguages.(Altschuler&Skorten,2012).
While93%ofsecondaryschoolshaveforeignlanguageprograms(Pufahl&Rhodes,2008),
thereisnonationalrequirementforAmericanstolearnaforeignlanguageinpublicschools,but
itcanbeuptostatesdiscretionwhethertheywishtorequiresomeformofforeignlanguage
study(Devlin,2015).Locally,theVirginiaBeachPublicSchoolSystemdoesnotrequirethe
studyofaforeignlanguagetograduatewithastandarddiplomaanditsonlyformofformal
elementaryeducationofforeignlanguageisthepartialimmersionacademyatChristopherFarms
ElementarySchool.TheAmericanforeignlanguagedeficitskyrocketswhenlookingat
elementaryeducation.Only15%ofAmericanpublicelementaryschoolsprovideanyformof
foreignlanguageinstruction(Pufahl&Rhodeset.al.,2008);thepercentageofelementary
schoolsprovidingforeignlanguageeducationdropped24%inthepastdecade,adropthatis
attributedtobudgetcutsforforeignlanguageprograms(Chandler,2014).In2011,Congresscut
thebudgetforforeignlanguageprogramsby40%infiscal2011despitethefederalgovernments
demandforproficientforeignlanguagespeakers(Zehr,2011).Asreflectedinfiscal2016,the
budgetforforeignlanguageeducationwasproposedtoseeabouta3%increase(FiscalYear
2016BudgetSummary,2016,p.56).TheUnitedStateseducationalsystemslackofsupport
towardsforeignlanguageisshockinginlightoftheoverwhelmingbenefitsofbilingualismand
foreignlanguagestudy.Inyoungchildrenalone,thenumerousbenefitstocognitivedevelopment
andlearningbenefitsacrossallsubjectsgivesenoughreasontomakeforeignlanguagestudya
priority,yetthisisnotthecase.Americanstudentsdonotlackthedesiretostudyforeign
languages,buttheyarepartofasystemwhereitcanbeextremelydifficulttolearnalanguage
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efficiently.Inasurveyanalyzinglanguagestudyin100studentsintheVirginiaBeacharea,
100%ofstudentshadstudiedatleastoneforeignlanguageforsomeperiodoftimeand83%of
studentshadstudiedthatlanguageforthreeormoreyears(Durham2016).Outofthosesame
100students,54hadstudiedsomelevelofasecondforeignlanguage.Whencomparedtothe
lengthofforeignlanguagestudyaroundtheworldthreetosixmaximumyearsofstudydoesnot
seemtoprovethatAmericanstudentshaveanydesiretolearnforeignlanguage.However,inthe
Americaneducationsystem,threeormoreyearsofstudyisgoingbeyondtheaverageexpected
leveloflanguagestudyandreachesthecapacityofinstructionavailable,provingthatAmerican
studentsdoinfactpossessthedesiretostudyforeignlanguage.Overwhelmingresultsfromthe
studyconcludedthatthegeneralopinionofAmericansecondaryschoolstudentswasthatafter
completingtheirlanguagestudyinpublicAmericansschools,theyhadnotobtainedfluency.The
resultsrangedfrom74.23%ofstudentsfeelingtheywerenotfluentintheirfirstforeignlanguage
ofstudy,to94.74%ofstudentsfeelingtheywerenotfluentorproficientintheirthirdforeign
languageofstudy.(Durham,2016).Whenaskedifstartingtheirforeignlanguagestudyin
elementaryschoolwouldhaveincreasedtheirfluencyandabilitytogainproficiency,94%of
studentssaidthatitwouldhave.TheresearcherconcludedthattheAmericanforeignlanguage
deficitisnotduetolackofinterestfromAmericanstudents,buttoflawsinpublicforeign
languageeducationandinadditiontoalackofcommitmentandresources.Thegeneral
populationofstudentsagreedthattheyfeltthesystemwasnotadequatelyteachingforeign
languagesnotineducatortechniquesbutbecausethemajorityoftheUnitedStatesdoesnot
begininelementaryschool,ratherinlatemiddleschoolorearlyhighschool(Durham,2016).
TheUnitedStateseducationsystemsforeignlanguagedeficitishighincomparisontoother
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countriesacrosstheworld.AccordingtotheU.S.SecretaryofEducation,ArneDuncan,only
18%ofAmericansreportspeakinganotherlanguageinadditiontoEnglish,while53%of
Europeanspossessatleastaconversationallevelofasecondlanguage(2010).Comparisonsof
studentsacrosstheworldshowthattheiropinionswithregardstoforeignlanguagestudystem
fromhowforeignlanguageisvaluedintheeducationsystemintheircountry.Interviews
conductedwiththreestudentslivingincountrieswhereforeignlanguagestudyisprevalentand
bilingualismiscommonreflectedthatthethreestudentsallfeltforeignlanguagestudywas
extremelysignificanttothemandtheirwaysoflife.Eachcountryrepresentedbytheinterviewed
studentscontrastedtheUnitedStatessysteminsomeway,whetherinlargegapsorslight
differences.ThefirstcountrycomparedwasSpain,becauseofitsstatusasaEuropeancountry
thatdidnotnativelyspeakEnglish.AccordingtoDavidCuadrado(2016),itisverycommonfor
studentstostudyforeignlanguage(specificallyEnglish)sinceitiscompulsoryfromwhena
studententersschoolandforeignlanguagestudyisvaluedatthesamelevelthatsubjectssuchas
physicsandmathematicsare(Cuadrado,2016).Thisinterviewprovidedinterestingviewpoints
becauseforeignlanguagestudyisvaluedatthesamelevelascoreclasseswhereintheUnited
Statesclassessuchasforeignlanguagesandartsprogramsaredeemedlessimportantanddonot
receiveequalattention,oftenresultingineducationalbudgetcuts.Hispersonalopinionof
languagestudywasthat,
Personalmentecreoqueesmuyimportante(estudiaridiomas)porquesaberms
idiomasteabrelaspuertasalmundo.(Cuadradoet.al.,2016).
[Personally,Ibelievethatitisveryimportant(tostudylanguages)becauseknowingmore
languagesistoopenthedoorstotheworld.]
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WhatmakestheSpanishstudythemostrelatedtotheUnitedStatesisthatoveralltheir
populationisnotcompletelybilingual,yetthelevelofpeoplethatspeakEnglishisincreasing,
similartotheUnitedStatesanditsbilingualpopulation.Anotherfactorthetwoshareisthat
bilingualschoolsarebeingcreated,butstillarenotthenorm.(Cuadradoet.al.,2016).Thenext
countrycomparedtotheUnitedStatesforeignlanguageeducationwasIsrael.Similarities
betweentheUnitedStatesandIsraelarerootedinthecausesofbeginningforeignlanguage
study.Aspreviouslyaddressed,foreignlanguageimportanceemergesinspecificcasesof
nationalsecurityintheUnitedStates,andsimilarlyinIsraelspecificlanguagesarestudied
becauseofallianceswithcertainforeignpowers(specificallyEnglishandtheUnitedStates)and
thesecuritythreatsthatphysicallysurroundIsraelsborders(specificallyArabicandbordering
states)becauseIsraelisborderedbyproPalestinianstates.InIsrael,Englishasaforeign
languageismandatoryfromthesecondgradeandasecondforeignlanguage,usuallyArabicand
sometimesFrench,iscompulsoryfromseventhtoninthgradeandoptionalafterwards.(Avirav,
2016).AccordingtoKinneretAvirav,everyoneinIsraelisbilingual,butoldergenerationstend
tobebilingualinArabicwhereyoungergenerationstendtobebilingualinEnglish(2016).The
thirdinterviewconductedwaswithaJordanianstudent.JordanlackssimilaritiestotheUnited
Statessystemofforeignlanguageeducation,theclosestsimilaritybeingthatinthestudents
schoolallclassesaretaughtinEnglish(Ramini,2016).AccordingtoRandRamini,students
speakthreelanguages:Arabic,English,andFrench.Arabicisthenativelanguageofthe
Jordanianpeople,andbothEnglishandFrencharecompulsoryinschool,Englishbeginning
whenastudententersschoolandFrenchbeginningingrade4(2016).Raminispersonalopinion
onlanguagestudyisthat,
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oneshouldspeakmorethanonelanguageinordertocommunicatewithdifferent
people.IfinditextremelysignificanttospeakforeignlanguagesinmycountrybecauseArabicis
notcommonlyspokeninforeigncountries,makingitalmostimpossibletocommunicate
otherwise.(Raminiet.al.,2016).
However,Ramini(2016),notedthatEnglishisthemostcommonforeignlanguageandiswidely
understoodinJordan.Interestingly,insomeprivateschoolswhereallclassesaretaughtin
English,includingherown,Englishhasbecomethefirstspokenlanguagebysomestudents,
beforeArabic.Eachoftheseindividualcountriesrecognizesthebenefitsoflearningforeign
languageareincreasesinbrainfunctioningandgrowthaswellasglobalcommunication,
competency,andincreasedcompetitivenessofcitizensintheglobalmarketplace.Oneisableto
concludethatfromtheseforeignschoolsystemsteachingforeignlanguageinthesamewayas
coresubjectsandrankingthematthesamelevelofimportanceofothercoresubjectsthatforeign
languageisbeingtaughtmoreeffectivelythanitisintheUnitedStates.Thiscanalsobe
concludedfromobservingeachstudentsnativelikefluencyinEnglish,hisorhersecond
languagewhilelessthan1%ofAmericanadultsareproficientinforeignlanguagetheylearned
inanAmericanclassroom(Friedmanet.al.,2015).Thisprovesthatsomefactorinhowforeign
languageistaughtintheforeignschoolsystemsarecreatingthiseasiergainedandmaintained
languageproficiency.Thetwomainfactorsthatimpactifaforeignlanguageislearnedand
absorbedquicklyareinstructionaltechniquesandageofacquisition.However,theissuewiththe
UnitedStatesforeignlanguageprogramsarenotfailedtechniquesinteachingthelanguage.
Childrenlearninginanimmersionsettingshowanoverallsuccessinacquiringgrammatical
knowledgesimilartothatinmonolingualsandalsoeasilygainnativelikepronunciationand
22
proficiency(Lang,2009).Thesameforeigneducationsystemscomparedteachthroughmethods
ofimmersion(Avirav,Cuadrado,&Ramini,2016).ThereforethefaultintheUnitedStates
foreignlanguageeducationisfailingtomandateforeignlanguageeducationwhenastudent
enterselementaryschool.ApossiblewaytoexplainwhytheUnitedStatesdoesnothave
sufficientforeignlanguageprogramsistoevaluatetheeffectsoftowhatspeakingEnglishasa
nativelanguagedoestoapersonsperspectiveonforeignlanguagelearning.
EnglishasaGlobalLanguage
English is the most widely spoken language globally. While languages such as Mandarin
Chinese and Hindi greatly outnumber English in native speakers, English is the largest spoken
language as a whole native and nonnative speakers combined with a total of 1.5 billion
speakers globally (The most spoken languages worldwide (speakers and native speaker in
millions), 2016). With the number of nonnative English speakers increasing, many native
English speakers believe that learning a foreign language is unimportant, since it is already
possible for them to communicate with many other people globally without having to learn a
second language themselves. According to David Thomas, writer for the Daily Mail newspaper,
It (English) unites the whole world in the way no other language can. Its arguably the
major reason why our little island has such a disproportionately massive influence on global
culture All those foreigners who are so admirably learning another language are learning the
one we already know. So our school pupils dont need to learn any foreign tongues. (2012).
This view is not an uncommon one across the United Kingdom or the United States. An
interview with a Northern Irish student revealed that this view is also one shared by the students
(Durham, 2016). When asked her personal opinion on the importance of studying foreign
language, the student answered,
23
I think it (learning a foreign language) is only important if your career requires it, I dont
think it is needed for the majority of people. (Doherty, 2016). Currently, communication
internationally is possible for monolingual English speakers; however, native English speakers
and Americans still need to learn foreign language. While English retains lingua franca status
presently, that does not guarantee it will always be a global language. The English language
gained global dominance because of the power and influence English speaking nations had,
starting with English imperialism and continued on today through the United States continuing
hold of global dominance (Mastin, 2011) but a shift in global dominance away from the United
States could cause a shift in language loyalties in what is taught as a foreign language.
Continuing with the idea that the United States hold on global dominance created the English
languages transition into becoming a global language, a change in the United States language
make up could facilitate a change in the dominance of the English language. Almost fifty percent
of the United States population growth is made up of Hispanic and Latino Americans (Mastin
et.al., 2011). As the American population sees a rise in these ethnicities, it could also see a rise in
the Spanish language usage, especially because the United States does not have an official
language. With the dilution of Englishness (Mastin et. al., 2011) in the United States the
English language may lose precedence in the world. Another reason English may lose its global
language status is that many countries seek to preserve national identity and culture through
language. Imposing a language on people will receive backlash, especially the English language.
To give millions a knowledge of English is to enslave them. (Gandhi, 1908). Ex-colonized
countries seek to reject the English language as a way to reject their past colonialism. All of these
possibilities factor into the possible eventual decrease of English as a lingua franca. But
monolingual English speakers need to learn foreign languages for other reasons as well. A
24
common opinion is that laziness and arrogance can result from native English speakers not
learning foreign language, a trait that many people believe is already common of the English and
Americans. Knowing a foreign language leads to an understanding of the culture identified with
that language. Cultural understanding leads to positive impacts on international politics and
business relations abroad. As previously stated, foreign language learning also has numerous
benefits on the brain and learning processes across subjects. Bilingualism not only has cognitive
benefits, but also can lead to an increased competiveness in the job market and university
acceptances. Combined with the uncertain future of the English language as a global language
and the numerous undeniable benefits of studying foreign language, every argument for
monolingual English speakers not learning another language is rejected.
OverallBenefitsofBilingualism
Overall,bilingualismgivesastudentbenefitsstartingintherestructuringofthebrain
functionsandcontinuingonintheireducationalandprofessionalcareers.Besidesenhanced
comprehensionandabilitiesincoresubjects(SavilleTroike,1984)foreignlanguagestudygives
studentsbenefitsthatdonotdirectlycorrelatetogrades.Foreignlanguagelearnershavebetter
memorizationandlisteningskillsincomparisontomonolingualstudents(Lapkin,1990).
Bilingualismalsogiveschildrenanabilitytosolveproblemsthroughopenendedthinkingand
devisingmultiplesolutionsandameanstomorecreativethinkingingeneral(Cummins,1981).
Foreignlanguageclassroomsgivestudentswhoarenotaccustomedtoachievementinthe
classroomaplacewheretheyareabletosucceed.Thisthenresultsinforeignlanguagestudents
havingasignificantlyhigherselfimageandselfesteemthandostudentsnotstudyinglanguage
(Masciantonio,1997;Saunders,1998;Andrade,1989).Bilingualisminearlyagesthengoesto
benefittherestofastudentslatereducation.AccordingtotheCollegeBoard,studentswhohad
25
studiedaforeignlanguageforfourormoreyearsoutscoredotherstudentsontheverbaland
mathematicsportionsofthetest(2013).Studentswhowereinrigoroushighschoolprograms
thatincludedthreeormoreyearsofforeignlanguagestudydidnotonlyhaveacompetitive
advantageinuniversityacceptancedecisions,butweremorelikelytoearnbettergradesduring
theircollegecareersandlesslikelytodropoutofuniversity(Horn&Kojaku,2001).
Bilingualismalsoprovidesbetterculturalcompetencyskills.Foreignlanguagestudygives
childrenuniqueinsightintootherculturesinawaynootherdisciplineisableto(Curtain&
Dahlberg,2004)becausethereisnobetterwaytoexperienceculturethanthroughspeakingthe
languageitself.Thisgivesstudentsanopportunitytoexperienceinvolvementwithanother
culturedirectlyandleadstoagreaterawarenessofaglobalcommunityasawhole.Thepositive
impactstudentsacquirewhenreceivingculturalinformationisenhancedwhentheinformationis
receivedandexperiencedthroughforeignlanguagestudyandaccompaniedbyculturally
authenticsituations(Curtain&Dahlberget.al.,2004),especiallyinlanguageimmersionsettings.
Foreignlanguagestudentsarealsogenerallymoretolerantofdifferencesinpeople(Carpenter&
Torney,1974).Theopportunitiesthatstudentsgainthroughknowledgeofaforeignlanguage
anditsresultingculturalcompetenceextendtooutsideoftheclassroomaswell.Knowledgeofa
foreignlanguagefacilitatestravelandenhancescareeropportunities(NationalResearchCouncil,
2007).Bilingualpeoplehaveacompetitiveadvantageintheprofessionalworldbecauseoftheir
knowledgeofforeignlanguages.Recently,theUnitedStatesgovernmenthasexpressedaneed
forworkersfluentinalanguageotherthanEnglish,specificallyinlanguagessuchasChinese
andArabic(U.S.GeneralAccountingOffice,2002).Languagestudyisoftenacriticalfactorin
hiringdecisions(Grosse,2004)andstudentsofforeignlanguageoftenhavebettercareer
26
opportunities(Carreira&Armengol,2001).Thisisnotsurprising,asaccordingtoMohamed
AbdelKader,oneinfivejobsarelinkedtointernationaltrade(Friedmanet.al.,2015).A
multilingualworkforceenhancestheUnitedStateseconomiccompetitivenessabroadandhelps
maintainAmericanpoliticalandsecurityinterests(Marcos&Peyton,2000).Overall,the
benefitsofbilingualismspanoutsideofanearlychildhoodclassroomandaffectapersonforthe
restofhisorherlife.Bilingualismfostersopportunityinschool,worldlylifeexperiencesand
travel,andcareerpaths.
Conclusion
NeglectofforeignlanguageeducationbytheUnitedStatesisdetrimentaltoastudents
braindevelopment,learningabilities,andfuturesuccessesinuniversityandtheglobal
27
marketplace.Thiscanbecounteractedthroughimplementingforeignlanguageprogramsin
UnitedStateselementaryschools,asthisistheprimeageforchildrentobeginstudytoreapthe
benefitstocognitivefunctionsandinherentlearningmethods.Studyingaforeignlanguage
changesachildslearningthroughalteringhisorherthinkingpathwaysandincreasingmental
flexibility;thereforeachildbenefitsacrosssubjects,learninginunconventionalwayswithaidto
amorecreativelearningprocess,givingthechildhigherorderthinkingskillsandcomplex
problemsolvingabilities.Inadditiontothebenefitstoachildsdevelopment,foreignlanguage
studyisessentialtotheAmericanstudentduetoanalwayschangingglobalsociety.Thereisno
guaranteethattheEnglishlanguagewillalwayshaveprecedenceasalinguafranca.Withthe
risingpossibilityoftheUnitedStateslosingitspositionasaglobalpowerandmanycountries
turningagainstthedominanceoftheEnglishlanguageinanattempttorejectneocolonialism,
thereisnoassurancethatEnglishwillpreserveasagloballanguage.Thismeansthatthe
Americanpubliccannotbesecureinalwaysbeingabletocommunicateinternationallyintheir
nativelanguageandneedtostudyforeignlanguagetoresolvethis.Overall,foreignlanguage
studyisnecessaryforsurvivalinaglobalsocietyyetitimpactschildrenfundamentallyfrom
birthineveryaspectoflife.InorderfortheAmericanpublictoreceivethefullbenefitsof
bilingualismtotheirneuralfunctions,learningpathways,selfimage,careers,andeducationasa
whole,foreignlanguageeducationprogramsmustbeimplementedintoAmericanelementary
schoolsandcontinuefortheentiretyofastudentsprimaryandsecondaryeducation.
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Appendix 1
Interview Transcripts
36
37
Student 1: Kinneret Avirav

Location: Modiin, Israel
1. Is the study of a foreign language mandatory at your school, and from what age?
Answer: Yes, English from second grade. From seventh grade you have to take another language,
usually Arabic. Some schools have French that you can choose.
2. How many languages do you speak? (This includes your first/native language, and at any level
of foreign languages, from beginner to fluent).
Answer: Hebrew, native. English, fluent. French, almost fluent. Arabic, somewhat proficient.
3. How common is it to study a foreign language at your school? Usually, how many years does
the average student study a foreign language for?
Answer: English you have to study until you graduate at every school. At most schools you have
to take another language you choose, like Arabic or French, for three years; you can choose to
study it for another three years if you like. Its very common, since every one has to take a
foreign language.
4. Does your school value foreign language study/Is foreign language study important at your
school?
Answer: Besides English, I dont think my school really values it. While it is mandatory to study
foreign language, we dont have many options of languages to study and also the classes are very
small as in each class has like ten kids.
(Later conversation with Kinneret concluded her meaning behind the small class being a bad
thing is that many students arent interested in/encouraged to take foreign language. Typically in
an American mindset a small class is usually seen as a good thing, which is why it was further
reviewed after).
5. Do you personally think studying a foreign language is important?
Answer: Yes, I believe it is super important.
(From the authors personal relationships with the Israeli people, she notes that a typical opinion
on learning foreign language is that it is necessary to learn Arabic because of the
countries/groups of people involved in the conflict surrounding Israel speak Arabic. Also,
Hebrew is predominately only spoken in Israel).
6. Is it common to be bilingual in your country?
Answer: Yes, everyone in Israel is bilingual.
Student 2: Rand Ramini
Location: Amman, Jordan
Answer: Yes, English is mandatory starting from kindergarten (at age 6). French is mandatory
starting in grade 4 (at age 9).
Answer: I speak three languages: Arabic, English, and French. Arabic is my first language. I
fluently speak English, as I take all of my subjects in English at school. I have taken French for
three years but I dont speak fluently.
Answer: It is mandatory to study foreign languages. English is mandatory throughout all school
years, French is mandatory from grades 4 to 8, but it is then offered as an option (to study
38
further). Other foreign languages that are offered as options starting in 9th grade are Russian and
Chinese. These are uncommon to take.
school?
Answer: Studying foreign languages are really valued by my school, they usually recommend
taking them when offered as options. It is really important when it comes to English because all
subjects at my school are only taught in English. It is considered as a first language for the
majority of my schoolmates.
Answer: Yes. I believe that one should speak more than one language in order to communicate
with different people. I find it extremely significant to speak foreign languages in my country
because Arabic is not commonly spoken in foreign countries, making it almost impossible to
communicate otherwise.
Yes. English is the most common second spoken language. It is mandatory in all public and
private schools in Jordan. It is widely understood by the middle and upper class. In some private
schools that are dependent on English, it has become the first spoken language by students,
before Arabic.
Student 3: Katie Doherty
Location: Bangor, County Down, Northern Ireland
Answer: Yes, from age 11-16.
Answer: English, native. Spanish, very little/early beginner, French, Intermediate low/Novice.
Answer: It is compulsory for students until age 16, and after that maybe 25% continue study.
school?
Answer: Yes, we have a big modern language department but we only offer Spanish, French, and
German.
Answer: I think it is only important if your career requires it, I dont think it is needed for
majority of people.
Answer: No, I wouldnt say many people are.
Student 4: David Cuadrado
Location: Getafe, Madrid, Spain
Answer: S, en Espaa es obligatorio estudiar ingls desde que empiezas el colegio y puedes
elegir francs o alemn en el instituto pero esa eleccin no es obligatoria, aunque necesitas seguir
estudiando ingls obligatoriamente.
39
[Yes, in Spain it is obligatory to study English from when you start school, and you can choose
(to study) French or German in high school but this isnt obligatory even though continuing to
study English is mandatory.]
Answer: Hablo dos idiomas en el nivel bastante alto y fluente, esos idiomas son el ingls y el
espaol, el espaol es mi idioma natal y en ingls poseo el ttulo de B2 aunque tengo un nivel
C1.
[I speak two languages on a high or fluent level; these languages are English and Spanish.
Spanish is my native language and in English I have a certificate for level B2 even though I am
at level C1, (extremely proficient level, basically fluent).]
Answer: Es muy comn porque el ingls es obligatorio desde la educacin primaria.
[It is very common because English is mandatory beginning in primary school.]
school?
Answer: Es valorada como una asignatura normal, como lo sera matemticas o fsica.
[It is valued as at the same level as any other core subject, the same as math or physicals would
be.]
Answer: Personalmente creo que es muy importante porque saber ms idiomas te abre las puertas
al mundo.
[Personally I think (studying language) is very important because knowing languages opens the
doors of the world for you.]
Answer: Actualmente hay ms gente bilinge que antes porque empezaron a hacer colegios
bilinges, pero sigue sin ser lo ms normal en Espaa, aunque poco a poco el nivel de gente que
habla ingls incrementa.
[Actually there is more bilingual people than before because they started making bilingual
schools, but it is still not normal in Spain, even though little by little the number of people that
speak English is increasing.]
40
Appendix 2
Survey of American Student's Opinions on Foreign Language Study
1. Have you studied a foreign language in middle school/high school?
Yes:98.99%
No:1.01%
2.Howmanyforeignlanguagesdid/areyoustudying?
Noforeignlanguage:2%
1foreignlanguage:42%
2foreignlanguages:39%
3foreignlanguages:13%
4+foreignlanguages:4%
3.Howmanyyearshaveyoustudiedeachlanguagefor?(Ifyouhavestudiedmorethanthree,
choosethethreeyouhavestudiedthelongest)((ChooseOtherifyouhavestudiednoforeign
languageinschool)).
Language1:(TotalResponses:100)
1year:4%
2years:13%
3years:29%
4years:23%
5years(level5oflanguagenotincludingAP):13%
APlevel:18%
1year:13%
2years:46%
3years:19%
4years:11%
APlevel:9%
1year:50%
2years:31%
3years:6%
4years:6%
APlevel:6%
Other:7
4.Doyouspeakthislanguageathome/werealreadyfluentprevioustostudyingtoschool?
(ChooseOtherifyouhavestudiednoforeignlanguageinschool).
Yes:12%
No:88%
Yes:12%
No:88%
Yes:9%
No:91%
Other:5
5.DoyoufeelthatyouarefluentnowAFTERstudyingthislanguageinschool?(Choose
Otherifyouhavestudiednoforeignlanguageinschool).
Yes:26%
No:74%
Yes:13%
No:87%
Yes:5%
No:95%
Other: 5
6. Do you feel that starting your language study earlier (elementary school) would have
increased your proficiency/ made you more proficient/fluent?
Yes: 94%
No: 6%
41
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ELEMENTARY FOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATION