Biology 1006 & 1017: Scientific Writing

Scientific Writing
You will not be required to compose one complete formal lab report in the first year
biology lab. However, over the course of the semester, you will be asked to write a few
of the key sections that belong in a formal lab report. The experience you gain in writing
these sections, including the feedback you receive (READ YOUR FEEDBACK), will
serve you well in future courses, as many of the expectations and guidelines for
scientific writing are standard across courses in this department.
Please note: in addition to being assessed according to criteria for content and
structure, it is expected that each section of a formal lab report will be written in
grammatically correct English, commensurate with the level of first-year at an english
language university. In first year biology lab, your writing skills will be assessed on
everything you submit for marking. As such, you will want to follow these three key
pieces of advise whenever you are writing:
1.
Double-check you have adhered to all stated guidelines and expectations for
content and structure;
2.
Proofread to check for units, typos, and errors of grammar and/or spelling;
3.
Proofread again!
The aim of this Scientific Writing document is to provide you with much of the
information you will need to compose a thorough, thoughtful, properly formatted formal
lab report. Included in this document are guidelines and hints you may find helpful for
writing each section of a report. These guidelines are comparable to those prescribed
by other science courses (especially 2nd year biology labs), as well as by refereed
scientific journals. You will want to follow these guidelines closely when composing the
different sections of a report as these guidelines comprise the marking keys that will be
used to assess your finished products.
During this course, you will be asked to write three of the most important sections of a
formal lab report - the Materials and Methods section, the Results section, and the
Discussion section. The following pages details information pertaining to content and
structure for each of these three sections.

Miscellaneous
The information contained here is applicable to all writing you do in this course.
Be sure that your document is typed in 12-point font and it is double-spaced. It should
be formatted with 1 borders in the portrait layout, and the pages should be
numbered.
Your document should demonstrate thoughtful word selection. Wherever possible,
choose to use words that are descriptive, accurate, and informative.
Be careful using words that sound the same but are spelled differently (e.g., to, too,
and two; its and its; there, their, and theyre).
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Biology 1006 & 1017: Scientific Writing

Avoid using contracted words wherever possible. Generally, contracted words are too
casual for formal writing.
Be sure to use wording that accurately encapsulates the meaning you are trying to
communicate - say what you mean and mean what you say!
Be sure that, wherever appropriate, numerical values are accompanied by units.
Sentences should not begin with numbers. Numbers from 1-9 are usually written as
words (e.g., one, two, etc.), while numbers 10 and greater are expressed numerically.
Sentences should not begin with a conjunction (e.g., and, but, if). Be careful using
vague words such as this, it, and they. Whenever possible, be more specific about
what you are referring to, and try to keep subjects and verbs close together.

Ensure scientific names are spelled and italicized correctly - Genus

name is capitalized, species name is not, both are italicized (e.g.,
Homo sapiens).
Be consistent with spelling, grammar, and formatting.
Proofread! Proofread! Proofread!

Materials & Methods

A good M&M section is a concise yet descriptive account of the materials, conditions
and manipulations involved in your experiment. Based on what you write in this section,
your reader should be able to replicate your experiment, including your results. This
means that you need to find the line between providing enough detail for someone to
use this section as her/his own protocol, and providing a lot of excess, irrelevant, and/or
unnecessary information. Please note: lab-based experiments are inherently different
than field-based experiments, consequently, you will want to pay attention to any
content/formatting guidelines that may be specific to the type of experiment you are
writing about. E.g., details pertaining to weather conditions, location, time of day, etc
are irrelevant to the constant, consistent environment inside the lab. It is, therefore,
unnecessary to make note of these points when writing up a M&M section for a
molecular biology/biochemistry experiment that you will have in Biology 1006.
The M&M section of a report will:
Accurately and succinctly describe your experimental procedure, including
The samples/organisms you used;
The media/reagents you used;
The major/interesting equipment you used;
The experimental variables you identified;
The sampling protocol (i.e., how measurements/observations were made).
Outline
reagents using concentration values - your reader may want to scale up/down

your recipe(s), in which case concentration values are necessary (volumes, less so).
Mention relevant experimental conditions including incubation times and
temperatures, as well as spin speeds and durations.
Describe how data were collected and analyzed (e.g, totaled, averaged, graphically
analyzed to detect trends), but save the results of such analyses for the Results
section.
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Biology 1006 & 1017: Scientific Writing

Include a reference to the source of the protocol.

Be written in third person past tense (e.g, the overnight bacterial culture was
centrifuged at maximum speed for five minutes to pellet the cells. The resulting
supernatant was discarded).
NOT contain a list (in sentence form or in bullet points) of materials and equipment
used. Instead, this information should be incorporated into your protocol and
communicated to your reader in the text of this section.
NOT provide volumes of reagents used, except when communicating a quantity of a
substance that cannot be done in any other manner (e.g., rather than stating that 10ml
of 50mM NaCl was used in the experiment, you should state what the final
concentration of NaCl was in that particular part of the procedure)
NOT include mention of any theory, objectives, results or conclusions, or any
interpretations of results (i.e., you will not give meaning to any results).
Sample Materials and Methods section:
All Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) smolts were obtained from Clarke and
Sons Hatchery. The fish were all siblings derived from the same parents
in a single mating. Fish of approximately the same size were selected for
this experiment (45-55 grams). Fish were transferred to our experimental
facility in St. Andrews, N.B., and were left to acclimate for one week prior
to initiating the experiment. One hundred fish were maintained in each of
four identical tanks that received filtered seawater from the Bay of Fundy.
Water was then either heated, chilled, or left at ambient temperature to
supply each of the four tanks of fish. Water temperatures were 12.5,
15, 17.5, and ambient temperature. Each tank had an overhead
sodium light that emitted 500 micro-Einsteins of light on a 12-hour daylight
cycle. Fish were fed a commercial diet (Clarkes Salmon Special) and
feed was provided in excess to ensure maximal potential growth. Fish
were anesthetized at monthly intervals to determine length and weight of
fish. The experimental treatment groups could not be replicated due to
space limitations in our facility. Fish were retained for use in other
research following termination of our study.

Results
This section of a report is where data and observations are presented and summarized.
It is important that you 1) present your results in the text portion of the section before
you offer these data in the format of a table and/or figure, and 2) refer to your table and/
or figure in your text. It is expected that this section begin with text.
The Results section of a report will:
Be located immediately after your M&M section, not necessarily on a new page.
Begin with text.
Contain a summary, not a regurgitation, of your experimental results (see the bullet
below about raw data).

Biology 1006 & 1017: Scientific Writing

Make reference to any tables/figures before such tables/figures are found in the
report.
Include the outcomes of any data analyses (e.g., averaged spec measurements,
trends detected after spec measurements were plotted on a graph).
Be written in past tense.
NOT include raw data (e.g., spectrophotometer measurements).
NOT include any interpretations of your data (e.g., no bacterial growth was observed
on the TSA plates that contained 50mg/ml of ampicillin - this is ok! What is not ok: no
bacterial growth was observed on the TSA plates that contained 50mg/ml of ampicillin
because the ampicillin prevented the growth of bacteria - this statement includes a
possible interpretation!)
NOT include any theory or conclusions.
NOT include any mention of how experimental conditions may have impacted your
results - this should be saved for the Discussion section
Sample Results section:
No mortality was observed in fish in the 12.5, 15, and ambient
temperature conditions during the first month.
However, 5% of fish
maintained at 17.5 died during the first month of the experiment. Fish
mortalities in the groups maintained at ambient, 12.5, 15, and 17.5
were 0%, 1%, 1%, and 4% respectively over the the remaining three
months of the experiment. There was a significant difference in fish
mortality with fish maintained at 17.5 suffering the greatest losses
(p<0.05; ANOVA).
There was significant different in the mean mass of salmon, with the 15
group having the highest mean mass from one month onwards. The mass
of these fish was significantly higher than other groups at the 2-, 3-, and 4month time-points (p<0.0001; ANOVA).
Fish in the ambient water
temperature group had a significantly smaller mass than those in other
groups at the 2-, 3-, and 4-month time-points (p<0.001; ANOVA). It was
noted that uneaten feed was abundant in tanks of fish maintained at
17.5 at both the 3- and 4-month time-points.

Data Presentation: Tables & Figures

1. Titles for Tables & Figures
Each table and figure within a report must have its own unique title. This title may be
accompanied by a caption that allows the table/figure to stand alone such that your
reader does not have to rifle through your report to find meaning. What this means is
that each title, when examined along with the table/figure, needs to be completely selfexplanatory. It may help to think of the title as a summary of the story that the table/
figure is trying to tell your reader. A good title:
Is a complete what-where-why statement.

Biology 1006 & 1017: Scientific Writing

Explains what the data is and how it was obtained, including any relevant
organisms or treatments used.
May include a caption that highlights data trends and/or any unusual data.
Is unique to each individual table/figure. As different tables/figures tell different
stories, each should have a different title.
WILL NOT restate the column titles (for a table) or axes labels (for a figure).
WILL NOT use the x versus y formula to describe a figure.
WILL NOT begin with Figure of... or Graph of... or Table of...
2. Tables
Tables can be used within the body of your report to summarize and/or compare
information in a visually meaningful way. Tables are often found in the Results section,
but may also be used to help present information within the Materials & Methods section
of a report. Though you may choose to present raw data in a table, such a table should
be found in an Appendix at the end of your report (remember - no raw data in your
Results section). A visually appealing and meaningful table will:
Include a table number, a title, and (possibly) a caption.
All of which are to be located at the top of your table.
Tables should be numbered consecutively as they appear in your report
(i.e., the first table your reader comes across is Table 1, then Table 2,
etc.).
Include
columns that are well labeled and informative, and will include units of

measurement wherever possible.

Be referred to in the text of your report before it is included in your report.
Be located in your report after, but close to, the portion of text that refers to the
table (possibly on the same page).

3. Figures
As we all know, a picture (figure) speaks a thousand words. Graphs and illustrations,
both of which are types of figures, are excellent ways of summarizing and presenting
information, and visualizing trends within your data.
3.1.

Illustrations, Drawings & Images. Presenting your results in the form of an

illustration/drawing/image is a good choice if a) trying to describe your results
in text would be complicated or too wordy, and/or b) you want your reader to
be able to visually interpret your results for her/himself. Figures of this type
will:
Include a figure number, a title, and (possibly) a caption.
All of which are to be located at the bottom of your figure.
Figures should be numbered consecutively as they appear in your
report (i.e., the first figure your reader comes across is Figure 1,
then Figure 2, etc.).

Biology 1006 & 1017: Scientific Writing

Be drawn in pencil on unlined paper (for illustrations/drawings - e.g., a

representation of a TSA plate from your Transformation lab).
Be a print (or a photocopy of a print) of a photo (e.g., a print of the photo
taken at the end of the Agarose Gel Electrophoresis lab).
Include a scale bar for reference.
Include labels, arrows (where necessary), and a symbol legend (where
necessary).
Be generous in size such that the figure is informative, tidy, well
presented, and all labels are legible. (i.e., It will NOT be cramped).
NOT include any extraneous information, such as calculations.
3.2.

Graphs. Graphs are ideal for visualizing important patterns and relationships
within data. There are a number of different types of graphs, two of which are
described below. Line Graphs are used to plot continuous data. They are the
type of graph you are most likely to use in Biol 1006. An example is a graph
depicting the change in absorbance with increasing concentration. In this
example, if you were to sample the concentration of your reagent anywhere
between one of your pre-determined concentration data points, you could
determine the corresponding absorbance. The change in concentration of
reagent is continuous (and predictable) throughout the data set, and so is its
absorbance. Therefore, the data is plotted with a continuous line. Bar Graphs
are used to plot discrete data. An example is a graph depicting the number of
hours of sunshine per day of the week. In this example, the number of hours
of sunshine on Monday is completely distinct and disconnected from the
number of hours of sunshine on Thursday. The number of hours of sunshine
is discrete on each day; there is no blending from one day to the next.
Therefore, the data is plotted with individual, discrete bars. Both types of
graphs will:
Include a figure number, a title, and (possibly) a caption.
All of which are to be located at the bottom of your figure.
Figures should be numbered consecutively as they appear in your
report (i.e., the first figure your reader comes across is Figure 1,
then Figure 2, etc.).
Be computer generated (i.e., in Microsoft Excel, Numbers, etc...)
Include axes that are well labeled and informative, and include units
(wherever necessary).
The independent variable will be plotted on the x-axis.
The dependent variable will be plotted on the y-axis.
Include
labels and a symbol legend, as necessary.

Include error bars, where appropriate.

In most cases, include a line of best fit (for a line graph). Note: it is
unlikely that you will use a line to directly connect all of your data points
(i.e., a connect-the-dots line that ends up looking like a lightening bolt)
NOT include any extraneous information, such as calculations.

Biology 1006 & 1017: Scientific Writing

Sample Figure:

Discussion
This is arguably the most important section of your formal lab report. It is in this section
that you synthesize and integrate all of the background knowledge, the methodology,
and your data analyses so that you can communicate the significance of your
experiment to your reader. The Discussion section is often written according to a
formula, which is depicted below, in the form of a flowchart.
The Discussion section of a report will:
Begin with a statement that refers to (or reiterates) your hypothesis.
Make specific reference to your data (tables, figures) as you indicate whether your
data support or refute your hypothesis (or are inconclusive).
NOT simply restate the results of your experiment.
Interpret your data, to make generalizations where possible.
Compare your data (be specific) and conclusions to existing information (previous
research) wherever possible.
You will likely be required to compare your findings to data published in peerreviewed scientific literature. Ensure you adhere to established norms for citing
and referencing.
Indicate how this experiment could be either 1) improved upon, or 2) applied to more
advanced research questions.

Biology 1006 & 1017: Scientific Writing

Acknowledge any limitations you experienced while performing the experiment that
may have (knowingly or unknowingly) affected your results.
End with a statement that summarizes your major conclusions.
Sample Discussion section:
We predicted that optimal growth of Atlantic salmon smolts is influenced
by water temperature, and the results of the experiment confirm this
hypothesis. Fish mass was found to be influenced significantly by water
temperature. Overall, fish mass was highest in fish reared at 15 and
lowest in fish reared at ambient water temperatures, as seen in Figure 1.
The fish reared at 15 showed >33% increase in body mass at the
termination of the experiment as compared with fish in the other groups.
These results are compatible with previous studies in a related salmonid
(e.g., brown trout) that documented a temperature of 14.5 as optimal for
growth (Duffy, 2009). According to Duffy (2009), the decreased growth at
warmer temperatures was due to a lack of appetite, and this finding is
supported by our observations of loss of appetite in salmon at 17.5.
The observation of 9% mortalities in the fish reared at 17.5 is
compatible with previous studies that documented decreased respiratory
capabilities at water temperatures >15 (Clarke, 2010). We presume
that these deaths occurred because warmer water is not able to hold as
much dissolved oxygen as is colder water (Campbell and Reece, 2012).
In conclusion, the current study documented optimal growth of Atlantic
salmon smolts at a constant water temperature of 15. While land-based
aquaculture is a more expensive enterprise than is conventional
aquaculture in sea cages, the growth rates that we observed at 15
might support additional cost-benefit analyses to investigate fully the costs
associated with heating and chilling sea water for maintenance of constant
water temperatures of 15. Sea water in the Bay of Fundy range from
2-17 (Clarke, 2008) and so water would require heating and chilling
depending upon the season. The added possibility of reducing infections
by sea lice in land-based facilities might improve salmon growth further
and limit industry losses due to secondary bacterial infections. Our
findings have important consequences that warrant consideration by the
industry in their attempt to optimize commercial production of Atlantic
salmon in land-based aquaculture facilities. However, it should be noted
that our experiment lacked replication and so this experiment should be
repeated to ensure that our results are reproducible prior to changing
industry practices.

Biology 1006 & 1017: Scientific Writing

Biology 1006 & 1017: Scientific Writing

References & Citations

When you are composing your report, you must indicate whose writings you used
(which authors your borrowed from) to provide context, study background information,
formulate a protocol, and give meaning to your data. You may have drawn upon
information found in textbooks, peer-reviewed scientific journal articles, course manuals,
popular media (e.g., newspapers and magazines), websites, or even unpublished
information (e.g., personal conversation with a fellow researcher). You must credit all of
these authors/sources of information, at each point in your report where you use said
information. Failing to do so means that a) you came up with all of that information on
your own (unlikely for an undergraduate student!), and/or b) you are guilty of plagiarism,
and therefore are at risk of receiving a mark of 0 and being expelled from UNB (see the
section on Academic Offenses in the course syllabus).
Note: To confuse matters, many different formatting styles have been established for
citing and referencing. These styles are updated at various points in time. Indeed,
there are scores of books and websites dedicated to different formatting styles (google
Council of Science Editors and American Psychological Association for starters).
Furthermore, different scientific journals have different formatting requirements, similar
to how different instructors/courses have different formatting requirements. You will
always want to be aware of the specific formatting requirements expected of you.
Below are some general guidelines to help get you started.

Citations
A citation is used in the text of your report to indicate to your reader (and yourself!)
when a thought/idea has been borrowed from someone else. Citations:
Make mention of the authors last name (or authors last names) and the year the
information was published.
Can be included either within a sentence, or at the end of the sentence (but still,
technically, inside the sentence - i.e., before the period at the end of the sentence).
Should have a corresponding entry in the Reference section (see below) where your
reader can find all of the necessary details about the source of the information you
used in your report.
Note: you can cite the same source multiple times in your report, but you only
need one entry for it in your Reference list.
Will look the same (i.e., have the same format), regardless of the source of the
information (e.g., a journal article, a book, or a website).
Are almost always used to indicate when you have paraphrased, made reference to,
or summarized information from another source/author.
Almost never will you directly quote a source of information. Though this is
common practice in the Humanities and Social Science disciplines, it is
extremely rare in the Natural and Physical Sciences. In first year biology lab ,
and throughout your undergraduate Science degree, you should plan to cite
other sources of information, not quote them.

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Biology 1006 & 1017: Scientific Writing

Formats
Source with one author: cite the authors last name and the year of publication.
Source with two authors: cite the first authors last names (in the order indicated on the
original article), and the year of publication.
Source with more than two authors: cite the first authors last name followed be et al.
(short for et alia, hence the period after al.), and the year. The phrase et al. is latin for
and others and should be italicized.
Examples
Citation at the beginning of a sentence:
Hawsworth and Rose (1970) assessed the impact of poor air quality on lichen diversity
in industrialized areas of northern England.
Citation at the end of a sentence:
The negative effects of air pollution on lichen growth were extensively reviewed by Ferry
et al. (1973).
Notice how the date of the publication is included within the sentence (i.e.,
before the period marking the end of the sentence).

Citation at the end of a sentence (most common):

Lichen growth is adversely affected by airborne pollutants (Ferry et al., 1973).
Multiple citations within a sentence:
The structure of the rabbit H-protein cDNA is similar to that reported in the human
(Koyata and Hiraga, 1991), cow (Fujiwara et al., 1990), and chicken (Fujiwara et al.,
1986).
The late-onset phenotype of nonketotic hyperglycinemia is the most rare and mildest
form of the disease; mild neurological symptoms develop in preschool age, school age,
or in adolescence (Bank and Morrow, 1972; Flannery et al., 1983; Steinman et al.,
1979).
Note: correct punctuation is important when formatting your citations! Be consistent!
Note: some students feel an inexplicable (and erroneous) need to alphabetize authors
names within a citation. Resist this urge! Being listed as the articles first author is a
sign of respect, and is a time-honoured method for acknowledging the person who
made the biggest or most important contribution to a body of work. To reshuffle the
authors names to satisfy your desire for order is disrespectful, incorrect, and will cause
you to lose marks.
However! When listing multiple citations (as in the last example above), you should list
them in alphabetical order by the first authors last name - Bank comes before Flannery
which comes before Steinman.

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Biology 1006 & 1017: Scientific Writing

References
References are entries made at the end of your report detailing all of the listing
information for each of the citations you used in your report. Each citation made in your
report should have a corresponding entry in your Reference section. Similarly, no
entries should be made in your Reference section unless you have included them as a
citation in your report (if you did not cite it, you should not include it in this section). This
section is an essential part of your report as it a) communicates to your reader where all
the different pieces of the puzzle (your report) originated, and b) provides the reader
with the details necessary to track down more information pertaining to any of the ideas
conveyed within your report. Formatting guidelines will differ according to different
established styles of referencing (CSE, APA, this instructor, that instructor - as
mentioned above). The two most important things to keep in mind when putting
together a well-regarded Reference section (i.e., one that will earn you full marks) are:
1. Punctuation is so, so, soooo important!
2. Consistency in formatting is essential.

Note how all the different entries are listed in

alphabetical order by the first authors last name entries are not listed using bullets or numbers

Example Reference section

journal
article

Black, A.B. and Jones, C.D. 1997. The effects of chemicals X and
Y on plant growth and development. Journal of Armchair Botany,
32:13-27.

website

Filson, R.P. July 1987. Island Biogeography and Evolution: Solving

a phylogenetic puzzle using molecular genetics. Date retrieved:
August 15, 2008. http://www.ucmp.berkley.edu/forsec/Filson.html

chapter
in a
book

Gooday, G.W. 1982. Cation adsorption by Lichens. In:

Sourcebook of Experiments for the Teaching of Microbiology.
Primrose, T.J. (Editor). Academic Press. New York, U.S.A. (pp.
82-84).
author of chapter is indicated, as is the editor of the book
Hale, M.E. 1979. How to know the lichens. 2nd Edition. William
C. Brown Publishers. Dubuqe, U.S.A. 246 pp.
book title is underlined

book

journal
article

Smith, E.F., White, G.H., Black, A.B., and Jones, C.D. 1998.
Dietary preferences of North American wild catfish populations.
Journal of Fishy Business, 129(3):1029-1047.
Journal title, journal volume

Note how the different authors within one article are NOT
listed in alphabetical order! They are listed in the same
order as they are found in the original article

(journal issue): pages of the

article within the journal

Note: the margins for the example above have been altered to allow for room for
comments and tips. The margins for your Reference section should be the same as
they are for the rest of your report.
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