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GRAMMAR
NOUN
According to Meaning
A. Proper Noun
a specific name of a place , a person, or a thing
E.g.:
Manila Hotel
Colgate
Filipinos
Mars
B. Common Noun
a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a
general sense
E.g.:
2
sign
town
miles
weather
C. Abstract Noun
a noun which names anything which you can not
perceive through your five physical senses
E.g.:
Afterthought
Childhood
Justice
Schizophrenia
D. Count Noun
refer to things that can be divided up into smaller
units which are separate and distinct from one
another
E.g.:
Table
Chair
Word
Remark
Jewelry
F. Collective Noun
An armory of aardvarks
An agenda of tasks
An armada of ships
An army of caterpillars
An army of frogs
An atlas of maps
A bale of turtles
A band of men
A bank of circuits
A bank of monitors
A barren of mules
A battery of tests
A bed of clams
A bed of oysters
A bed of snakes
4
A belt of asteroids
A bevy of beauties
A bevy of quail
A bevy of swans
A bill of particulars
A blessing of unicorns
A bloat of hippopotami
A boast of soldiers
A boo of surprises
A book of Mormons
A bouquet of flowers
A bridge of admirals
A brigade of soldiers
A brood of hens
A buffoonery of orangutans
A bunch of grapes
A bury of conies
A business of ferrets
A business of flies
A cackle of hyenas
A calendar of saints
A cast of actors
A cast of falcons
A cast of hawks
A cavalcade of horsemen
A cete of badgers
A chain of islands
A chorus of angels
A circus of fighter
A clank of tanks
A class of students
A cloud of bats
A cloud of gnats
A cloud of grasshoppers
A clowder of cats
A cluster of grasshoppers
A clutch of chicks
A clutch of eggs
A clutter of cats
A clutter of starlings
A college of electors
A colony of ants
A colony of beavers
A colony of gulls
A colony of penguins
A colony of rabbits
A company of parrots
A company of soldiers
A congregation of people
A congregation of plovers
A congregation of worshipers
A conspiracy of ravens
A constellation of stars
A constituency of voters
A convocation of eagles
A corps of cadets
A coven of witches
A covey of quail
A crowd of onlookers
A cruft of hackers
A cry of hounds
A cry of players
A culture of bacteria
A deck of sailors
A descent of woodpeckers
A dilation of pupils
A dissimulation of birds
A division of soldiers
A dole of doves
A donut of data
A down of hares
A draught of fish
A dray of squirrels
A drift of hogs
A drift of swine
A dropping of pigeons
A drove of cattle
A dule of doves
A drumming of grouse
An erst of bees
An evensong of choirboys
An exaltation of larks
A fall of woodcocks
A field of racehorses
A fistful of dollars
A flap of nuns
A fleet of ships
A flight of cormorants
A flight of doves
A flight of stairs
A flight of swallows
A float of crocodiles
A flock of sheep
A flotilla of ships
A fluther of jellyfish
A galaxy of stars
A galaxy of starlets
A gang of hoodlums
A glossolalia of Pentecostals
A government of Episcopalians
A grist of bees
A grove of trees
A hailstorm of gunships
A hand of bananas
A heap of trash
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A herd of elephants
A herd of horses
A herd of wrens
A hill of beans
A hive of bees
A host of angels
A host of sparrows
A huddle of lawyers
A huddle of players
A husk of hares
An immersion of Baptists
A kindle of kittens
A labor of moles
A leap of hares
A leap of leopards
A leash of foxes
A mask of raccoons
A mass of priests
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A maze of canyons
A meeting of Quakers
A membership of Presbyterians
A mess of officers
A mob of kangaroo
A muscle of marines
A muster of peacocks
A muster of soldiers
A muster of storks
A nest of mice
A nest of rabbits
A nest of vipers
A nest of wasps
An observance of hermits
An orchestra of musicians
A pack of hounds
A pack of wolves
swimming)
A pantheon of gods
A parade of penguins
A parliament of owls
A parliament of rooks
A party of jays
A passel of brats
A patch of flowers
A patter of footsteps
A peal of bells
A peep of chickens
A piddle of puppies
A pile of dung
A piteousness of doves
A pitying of turtledoves
A plague of locusts
A platoon of soldiers
A plump of waterfowl
A pod of seals
A pod of whales
13
A pomposity of professors
A pontificality of prelates
A prattle of parrots
A prickle of hedgehogs
A prickle of porcupines
A pride of lions
A radiance of cardinals
A raft of widgeon
A rafter of turkeys
A range of mountains
A rope of pearls
A round of drinks
A route of wolves
A rumble of artillery
A rumpus of baboons
A run of poultry
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A school of fish
A sedge of cranes
A sea of bishops
A shoal of bass
A shoal of shad
A shrewdness of apes
A siege of herons
A singular of boars
A skulk of foxes
A slate of candidates
A slew of homework
A sloth of bears
A smack of jellyfish
15
A sneak of weasels
A sounder of swine
A squad of soldiers
A stable of prostitutes
A staff of employees
A stand of flamingo
A stand of trees
A stench of skunks
A storm of paratroops
A streak of tigers
A string of ponies
A superfluity of nuns
A swarm of bees
A tangle of tricksters
A team of athletes
A team of horses
A team of oxen
16
A totter of giraffes
A tribe of goats
A tribe of monkeys
A tribe of natives
A trip of dotterel
A trip of goats
A troop of kangaroo
A troupe of performers
A ubiquity of sparrows
An unkindness of ravens
A wake of vultures
A walk of snipe
A wealth of information
A wisdom of owls
A wisp of snipe
17
II.
According to Form
A. Gender
1. Masculine
2. Feminine
3. Common
18
Child
Student
Applicant
Candidate
4. Neuter
Female
boy
girl
son
daughter
king
queen
actor
actress
nephew
niece
waiter
waitress
prince
Princess
Master
Mistress
Brother
Sister
Uncle
Aunt
Lord
Lady
Man
Woman
Husband
Wife
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Prince
Princess
Bull
Cow
Rooster
Hen
Stag
Doe
Drake
Duck
Fox
Vixen
Gander
Goose
Lion
Lioness
Ram
Ewe
Bachelor
Spinster/bachelorette/maid
Bullock
Heifer
Dog
Bitch
Drone
Bee
Horse
Mare
Jew
Jewess
Wizard
Witch
Heir
Heiress
Manager
Manageress
Poet
Poetess
Shepherd
Shepherdess
Benefactor
Benefactress
Hunter
Huntress
Emperor
Empress
Traitor
Traitress
Ox
Cow
Mayor
Mayoress
Tiger
Tigress
Monk
Nun
Gentleman
Lady
Duke
Duchess
Abbot
Abbess
Adulterer
Adulteress
Author
Authoress
Monitor
Monitress
Baron
Baroness
Murderer
Murderess
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Enchanter
Enchantress
Prophet
Prophetess
God
Goddess
Host
Hostess
Sorcerer
Sorceress
Host
Hostess
Canon
Canoness
Patron
Patroness
Count
Countess
Peer
Peeress
Dauphin
Dauphiness
Poet
Poetess
Deaconess
Deaconess
Proprietor
Proprietress
Prior
Prioress
Giant
Giantess
Heir
Heiress
Shepherd
Shepherdess
Hunter
Huntress
Priest
Priestess
Songster
Songstress
Instructor
Instructress
Inventor
Inventress
Executor
Executrix
Testator
Testatrix
Administrator
Administratrix
Hero
Heroine
Landgrave
Landgravine
Margrave
Margravine
Don
Donna
Infant
Infanta
Signor
Signora
Sultan
Sultana
B. Number
21
-es
Minute
Minutes
Box
Boxes
Ship
Ships
Witness
Witnesses
Tree
Trees
Church
Churches
Boat
Boats
Dish
Dishes
Doll
Dolls
Fox
Foxes
Bay
Bays
Buzz
Buzzes
Key
Keys
Quiz
quizzes
2. Irregular
Knife
Wife
Half
Leaf
Calf
Wolf
Thief
Life
Shelf
Self
Loaf
Elf
Sheaf
Scarf
Hoof
Some nouns
-f or fe changed to -ves
Knives
Wives
Halves
Leaves
Calves
Wolves
Thieves
Lives
Shelves
Selves
Loaves
Elves
Sheaves
Scarves
hooves
change the vowel sound in
becoming plural:
E.g.:
singular plural
fireman firemen
foot
feet
goose
geese
louse
lice
man
men
mouse
mice
tooth
teeth
23
woman women
singular
child
ox
-o becomes -os
plural
auto
autos
children
kangaroo kangaroos
oxen
kilo
kilos
-o becomes -oes
hero
heroes
memo
memos
potato
potatoes
photo
photos
tomato
tomatoes
piano
pianos
torpedo torpedoes
pimento
pimentos
veto
pro
pros
solo
solos
soprano
sopranos
studio
studios
tattoo
tattoos
video
videos
zoo
zoos
echo
echoes
embargo embargoes
vetoes
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plural
buffalo
buffalos/buffaloes
cargo
cargos/cargoes
halo
halos/haloes
mosquito mosquitos/mosquitoes
motto
mottos/mottoes
no
nos/noes
tornado
tornados/tornadoes
volcano
volcanos/volcanoes
zero
zeros/zeroes
E.g.:
singular plural
cod*
cod*
deer
deer
fish*
fish*
offspring offspring
perch*
perch*
sheep
sheep
trout*
trout*
*Notice that these are names of fish. Many fish have irregular plural
forms. Salmon, pike, halibut and tuna are further examples, but
one shark becomes two sharks.
E.g.:
singular
plural
barracks
barracks
crossroads
crossroads
dice/die
dice
gallows
gallows
headquarters headquarters
means
means
series
series
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species
species
singular
alga
English plural in
plural
use
algae
amoeba amoebae
amoebas
antenna antennae
antennas
formula formulae
formulas
larva
larvae
nebula
nebulae
vertebra
foreign
nebulas
vertebrae
E.g.:
singular
plural
corpus
corpora
genus
genera
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E.g.:
singular
foreign
English plural in
plural
use
alumnus alumni
bacillus
bacilli
cactus
cacti
focus
foci
fungus
fungi
nucleus
nuclei
octopus
octopi
radius
radii
cactuses
funguses
octopuses
stimulus stimuli
syllabus syllabi
terminus
syllabuses
termini
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singular
addendum
addenda
bacterium
bacteria
curriculum
curricula
datum
data
erratum
errata
medium
media
memorandum memoranda
ovum
ova
stratum
strata
symposium
symposia
curriculums
memorandums
symposiums
singular
apex
Foreign
English plural
plural
in use
apices
apexes
appendix appendices
appendixes
cervix
cervices
cervixes
index
indices
indexes
matrix
matrices
matrixes
vortex
vortices
singular
plural
analysis
analyses
axis
axes
basis
bases
crisis
crises
diagnosis
diagnoses
emphasis
emphases
hypothesis
hypotheses
neurosis
neuroses
oasis
oases
parenthesis parentheses
synopsis
synopses
thesis
theses
singular
plural
criterion
criteria
Other
phenomenon phenomena
irregular
automaton
plurals,
automata
30
singular plural
Italian
libretto
libretti
tempo
tempi
virtuoso virtuosi
Hebrew
Greek
cherub
cherubim
seraph
seraphim
schema schemata
3. Compound
can be:
-
One word
E.g.:
Shoelace
Keyboard
Flashlight
Applesauce
Notebook
Bedroom
-
Hyphenated:
Sky-scraper
Boy-friend
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Baby-sitter
Editor-in-chief
Great-grandfather
-
Two words:
Police officer
Seat belt
High school
Word processor
Post office
C. Cases
1. Nominative/ Subjective
32
2. Objective
3. Dative
4. Possessive
33
E.g.:
Rias shoes
Singers microphone
34
The
geese's
food
supply
was
endangered.
queens
lady-in-waitings
president-elects
finance
III.
According to Function
A. Subject of the Sentence
35
E.g.:
With his friends
Under the table
C. Direct Object
E.g.:
The children ate all the cookies.
My professor recommended a good book.
E.g.:
36
My grandfather is a farmer.
The woman whom you are looking for is she.
E.g.:
We consider our puppy our baby.
My aunt calls my uncle sweetheart.
F. Indirect Object
E.g.:
The salesperson sold the company new computers.
The child drew his mother a picture.
G. Appositive
38
PRONOUN
A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. You use
pronouns like "he," "which," "none," and "you" to make your sentences
less cumbersome and less repetitive.
Grammarians classify pronouns into several types, including the
personal pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun, the interrogative
pronoun, the indefinite pronoun, the relative pronoun, the reflexive
pronoun, and the intensive pronoun.
Types of Pronoun:
Personal Pronouns
Person
First Person
Second Person
Third Person
Number
Singular
Plural
Familiar
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Relative
Subject
we
thou
you
you
he, she,
they
who
them
whom
their, theirs
whose
it
Object
me
us
thee
you
you
him, her,
it
our, ours
thy, thine
your,
your, yours
yours
Reflexive/
myself
ourselves
Thyself
yourself yourselves
Intensive
his,
hers, its
himself, themselves
herself,
itself
40
We
They
Who
II.
41
It
Us
Them
III.
Mine
Yours
His
Hers
Its
Ours
Theirs
Demonstrative Pronouns
indicate whether they are close or far, in space or time, from the
speaker in the moment of speaking
43
Singular
Plural
Near
Far
This
That
These those
Relative Pronouns
used to add information in defining relative clauses and nondefining relative clauses
Defining relative clauses the relative pronoun can be
either the subject or the object of the relative clause
44
Which
That
No relative
pronoun
Subject
Object
pronoun
Who
That
No
pronoun
Subject
object
relative Whom
pronoun
(or
no
relative
pronoun)
as
object
in
45
When
we
add
information
about
people,
we
46
Which
That
Indefinite Pronoun
pronoun
that
refers
to
one
or
more unspecified
or
47
pronoun
meaning
example
an additional
or different
have another?
singular
another
person or thing
anybody/anyone
anything
no matter what
person
question?
no matter what
thing
each
every one of
two or more
people or
things, seen
separately
either
one or the
other of two
people or
me.
things
enough
as much or as
Enough is enough.
many as
needed
everybody/everyone all people
everything
all things
little
a smaller
amount
Rohe)
much
a large amount
neither
not one and not I keep telling Jack and Jill but
the other of two neither believes me.
people or
things
nobody/no-one
no person
nothing
one
no single thing,
not anything
an unidentified
person
other
a different
person or thing
from one
already
mentioned
somebody/someone
an unspecified
or unknown
49
something
person
an unspecified
or unknown
thing
you
an unidentified
person
(informal)
plural
both
two people or
things, seen
together
few
and lived.
things
fewer
a reduced
number of
people or
things
many
a large number
of people or
things
others
several
they
other people;
not us
people in
general
(informal)
singular or plural
all
the whole
All is forgiven.
quantity of
something or of
some things or
people
any
no matter how
Is any left?
much or how
many
more
a greater
quantity of
something; a
greater number
of people or
things
most
none
the majority;
Most is lost.
nearly all
not any; no
person or
persons
some
an unspecified
Here is some.
quantity of
something; an
51
unspecified
number of
people or
things
such
of the type
already
mentioned
Some people say that "none" should always take a singular verb,
even when talking about countable nouns (e.g. five friends).
They argue that "none means no one and "one" is obviously
singular. They say that "I invited five friends but none has come"
is correct and "I invited five friends but none have come" is
incorrect. Historically and grammatically there is little to
support this view. "None" has been used for hundreds of years
with both a singular and a plural verb, according to the context
and the emphasis required.
Reflexive Pronoun
to indicate that the person who realizes the action of the verb is
the same person who receives the action
Subject Reflexive
Singular
Plural
myself
You
yourself
He
himself
She
herself
It
itself
We
ourselves
52
You
yourselves
They
themselves
For example:
I cut my hair myself.
* In this example "I" does the action of cutting the hair
and at the same time "I" gets the action of the hair being
cut.
We defended ourselves brilliantly.
* In this example the reflexive pronoun "ourselves" refers
back to the subject of the sentence.
John talks to himself when he is nervous.
* In this example "Himself" refers to John.
For example:
Because she was not hungry when the cake
was served, Ellen saved herself a piece.
* In the independent clause, "Ellen" is the
subject and "herself" is a reflexive pronoun
acting as the indirect object. This sentence
is grammatically correct.
John and myself are going to the movie.
* In this sentence, "John" and "myself" are
the subjects. Reflexive pronouns cannot be
53
For example:
For example:
I did it myself.
Examples:
He washed himself.
She looked at herself in the mirror.
54
Intensive Pronouns
Myself
Ourselves
We
Themselves
Them
Yourselves
You
Herself
She
Himself
He
Examples:
55
VERB
A verb tells about an action or a state of being. It connects the
subject with information about that subject. In syntax, a verb is a
word belonging to the part of speech that usually denotes an action
(bring, read), an occurrence (decompose, glitter), or a state of being
(exist, stand). Depending on the language, a verb may vary in form
according to many factors, possibly including its tense, aspect, mood
and voice. It may also agree with the person, gender, and/or number
of some of its arguments (subject, object, etc.).
56
I.
Types of Verb:
A. Action Verbs
E.g.:
Muskrats swim in marshes.
We built a fantastic sandcastle.
B. Linking Verbs
be
feel
lie
look
remain
seem
smell
sound
stay
taste
C. Auxiliary Verbs
E.g.:
Ms. Sothros is reading our stories.
We should dig for buried treasure.
II.
Forms
A. Regular and Irregular Verbs
1. Regular Verbs
E.g.:
Clean: cleaned
finish: finished
58
use: used
paint: painted
stop: stopped
carry: carried
2. Irregular Verbs
A
Infinitive
Simple Past
Past Participle
arise
arose
arisen
awake
awakened / awoke
awakened / awoken
backslide
backslid
backslidden /
backslid
be
was, were
been
bear
bore
born / borne
beat
beat
beaten / beat
become
became
become
begin
began
begun
59
bend
bent
bent
bet
bet / betted
bet / betted
bid (farewell)
bid / bade
bidden
bid
bid
bind
bound
bound
bite
bit
bitten
bleed
bled
bled
blow
blew
blown
break
broke
broken
breed
bred
bred
bring
brought
brought
broadcast
broadcast /
broadcasted
broadcast /
broadcasted
browbeat
browbeat
browbeaten /
browbeat
build
built
built
burn
burst
burst
burst
bust
busted / bust
busted / bust
buy
bought
bought
60
cast
cast
cast
catch
caught
caught
choose
chose
chosen
cling
clung
clung
clothe
clothed / clad
clothed / clad
come
came
come
cost
cost
cost
creep
crept
crept
crossbreed
crossbred
crossbred
cut
cut
cut
daydream
daydreamed /
daydreamt [?]
daydreamed /
daydreamt [?]
deal
dealt
dealt
dig
dug
dug
disprove
disproved
disproved /
disproven
dove / dived
dived
dived / dove
dived
do
did
done
draw
drew
drawn
61
dream
dreamed / dreamt
dreamed / dreamt
drink
drank
drunk
drive
drove
driven
dwell
dwelt / dwelled
dwelt / dwelled
ate
eaten
fall
fell
fallen
feed
fed
fed
feel
felt
felt
fight
fought
fought
find
found
found
fitted / fit
fitted / fit
fit / fitted
fit / fitted
flee
fled
fled
fling
flung
flung
fly
flew
flown
forbid
forbade
forbidden
forecast
forecast
forecast
forewent
foregone
E
eat
F
62
foresee
foresaw
foreseen
foretell
foretold
foretold
forget
forgot
forgotten / forgot
forgive
forgave
forgiven
forsake
forsook
forsaken
freeze
froze
frozen
frostbite
frostbit
frostbitten
get
got
gotten / got
give
gave
given
go
went
gone
grind
ground
ground
grow
grew
grown
hand-feed
hand-fed
hand-fed
handwrite
handwrote
handwritten
hang
hung
hung
have
had
had
hear
heard
heard
hew
hewed
hewn / hewed
63
hide
hid
hidden
hit
hit
hit
hold
held
held
hurt
hurt
hurt
inbreed
inbred
inbred
inlay
inlaid
inlaid
input
input / inputted
input / inputted
interbreed
interbred
interbred
interweave
interwove /
interweaved
interwoven /
interweaved
interwind
interwound
interwound
jerry-built
jerry-built
keep
kept
kept
kneel
knelt / kneeled
knelt / kneeled
knit
knitted / knit
knitted / knit
know
knew
known
J
jerry-build
K
64
lay
laid
laid
lead
led
led
lean
leaned / leant
leaned / leant
leap
leaped / leapt
leaped / leapt
learn
learned / learnt
learned / learnt
leave
left
left
lend
lent
lent
let
let
let
lie
lay
lain
lied
lied
light
lit / lighted
lit / lighted
lip-read
lip-read
lip-read
lose
lost
lost
make
made
made
mean
meant
meant
meet
met
met
miscast
miscast
miscast
misdeal
misdealt
misdealt
65
misdo
misdid
misdone
mishear
misheard
misheard
mislay
mislaid
mislaid
mislead
misled
misled
mislearn
mislearned /
mislearnt
mislearned /
mislearnt
misread
misread
misread
misset
misset
misset
misspeak
misspoke
misspoken
misspell
misspelled /
misspelt
misspelled /
misspelt
misspend
misspent
misspent
mistake
mistook
mistaken
misteach
mistaught
mistaught
misunderstand
misunderstood
misunderstood
miswrite
miswrote
miswritten
mow
mowed
mowed / mown
N
No irregular verbs beginning with "N."
O
offset
offset
offset
66
outbid
outbid
outbid
outbreed
outbred
outbred
outdo
outdid
outdone
outdraw
outdrew
outdrawn
outdrink
outdrank
outdrunk
outdrive
outdrove
outdriven
outfight
outfought
outfought
outfly
outflew
outflown
outgrow
outgrew
outgrown
outleap
outleaped / outleapt
outleaped / outleapt
outlied
outlied
outride
outrode
outridden
outrun
outran
outrun
outsell
outsold
outsold
outshine
outshined /
outshone
outshined /
outshone
outshoot
outshot
outshot
outsing
outsang
outsung
outsit
outsat
outsat
outsleep
outslept
outslept
67
outsmell
outsmelled /
outsmelt
outsmelled /
outsmelt
outspeak
outspoke
outspoken
outspeed
outsped
outsped
outspend
outspent
outspent
outswear
outswore
outsworn
outswim
outswam
outswum
outthink
outthought
outthought
outthrow
outthrew
outthrown
outwrite
outwrote
outwritten
overbid
overbid
overbid
overbreed
overbred
overbred
overbuild
overbuilt
overbuilt
overbuy
overbought
overbought
overcome
overcame
overcome
overdo
overdid
overdone
overdraw
overdrew
overdrawn
overdrink
overdrank
overdrunk
overeat
overate
overeaten
overfeed
overfed
overfed
68
overhang
overhung
overhung
overhear
overheard
overheard
overlay
overlaid
overlaid
overpay
overpaid
overpaid
override
overrode
overridden
overrun
overran
overrun
oversee
oversaw
overseen
oversell
oversold
oversold
oversew
oversewed
oversewn /
oversewed
overshoot
overshot
overshot
oversleep
overslept
overslept
overspeak
overspoke
overspoken
overspend
overspent
overspent
overspill
overspilled /
overspilt
overspilled /
overspilt
overtake
overtook
overtaken
overthink
overthought
overthought
overthrow
overthrew
overthrown
overwind
overwound
overwound
overwrite
overwrote
overwritten
69
P
partake
partook
partaken
pay
paid
paid
plead
pleaded / pled
pleaded / pled
prebuild
prebuilt
prebuilt
predo
predid
predone
premake
premade
premade
prepay
prepaid
prepaid
presell
presold
presold
preset
preset
preset
preshrink
preshrank
preshrunk
proofread
proofread
proofread
prove
proved
proven / proved
put
put
put
quick-freeze
quick-froze
quick-frozen
quit
quit / quitted
quit / quitted
R
read
70
reawake
reawake
reawaken
rebid
rebid
rebid
rebind
rebound
rebound
rebroadcast
rebroadcast /
rebroadcasted
rebroadcast /
rebroadcasted
rebuild
rebuilt
rebuilt
recast
recast
recast
recut
recut
recut
redeal
redealt
redealt
redo
redid
redone
redraw
redrew
redrawn
refit / refitted
refit / refitted
refit (retailor)
refitted / refit
refitted / refit
regrind
reground
reground
regrow
regrew
regrown
rehang
rehung
rehung
rehear
reheard
reheard
reknit
reknitted / reknit
reknitted / reknit
relaid
relaid
relayed
relayed
71
relearn
relearned / relearnt
relearned / relearnt
relight
relit / relighted
relit / relighted
remake
remade
remade
repay
repaid
repaid
reread
reread
reread
rerun
reran
rerun
resell
resold
resold
resend
resent
resent
reset
reset
reset
resew
resewed
resewn / resewed
retake
retook
retaken
reteach
retaught
retaught
retear
retore
retorn
retell
retold
retold
rethink
rethought
rethought
retread
retread
retread
retrofit
retrofitted / retrofit
retrofitted / retrofit
rewake
rewoke / rewaked
rewaken / rewaked
rewear
rewore
reworn
reweave
rewove / reweaved
rewoven / reweaved
72
rewed
rewed / rewedded
rewed / rewedded
rewet
rewet / rewetted
rewet / rewetted
rewin
rewon
rewon
rewind
rewound
rewound
rewrite
rewrote
rewritten
rid
rid
rid
ride
rode
ridden
ring
rang
rung
rise
rose
risen
roughcast
roughcast
roughcast
run
ran
run
sand-cast
sand-cast
sand-cast
saw
sawed
sawed / sawn
say
said
said
see
saw
seen
seek
sought
sought
sell
sold
sold
send
sent
sent
set
set
set
73
sew
sewed
sewn / sewed
shake
shook
shaken
shave
shaved
shaved / shaven
shear
sheared
sheared / shorn
shed
shed
shed
shine
shined / shone
shined / shone
shit
shoot
shot
shot
show
showed
shown / showed
shrink
shrank / shrunk
shrunk
shut
shut
shut
sight-read
sight-read
sight-read
sing
sang
sung
sink
sank / sunk
sunk
sit
sat
sat
slay (kill)
slew / slayed
slain / slayed
slay (amuse)
REGULAR
slayed
slayed
sleep
slept
slept
slide
slid
slid
74
sling
slung
slung
slink
slinked / slunk
slinked / slunk
slit
slit
slit
smell
smelled / smelt
smelled / smelt
sneak
sneaked / snuck
sneaked / snuck
sow
sowed
sown / sowed
speak
spoke
spoken
speed
sped / speeded
sped / speeded
spell
spelled / spelt
spelled / spelt
spend
spent
spent
spill
spilled / spilt
spilled / spilt
spin
spun
spun
spit
spit / spat
spit / spat
split
split
split
spoil
spoiled / spoilt
spoiled / spoilt
spoon-feed
spoon-fed
spoon-fed
spread
spread
spread
spring
sprang / sprung
sprung
stand
stood
stood
steal
stole
stolen
75
stick
stuck
stuck
sting
stung
stung
stink
stunk / stank
stunk
strew
strewed
strewn / strewed
stride
strode
stridden
strike (delete)
struck
stricken
strike (hit)
struck
struck / stricken
string
strung
strung
strive
strove / strived
striven / strived
sublet
sublet
sublet
sunburn
sunburned /
sunburnt
sunburned /
sunburnt
swear
swore
sworn
sweat
sweat / sweated
sweat / sweated
sweep
swept
swept
swell
swelled
swollen / swelled
swim
swam
swum
swing
swung
swung
took
taken
T
take
76
teach
taught
taught
tear
tore
torn
telecast
telecast
telecast
tell
told
told
test-drive
test-drove
test-driven
test-fly
test-flew
test-flown
think
thought
thought
throw
threw
thrown
thrust
thrust
thrust
tread
trod
trodden / trod
typecast
typecast
typecast
typeset
typeset
typeset
typewrite
typewrote
typewritten
unbend
unbent
unbent
unbind
unbound
unbound
unclothe
unclothed / unclad
unclothed / unclad
underbid
underbid
underbid
undercut
undercut
undercut
underfeed
underfed
underfed
77
undergo
underwent
undergone
underlie
underlay
underlain
undersell
undersold
undersold
underspend
underspent
underspent
understand
understood
understood
undertake
undertook
undertaken
underwrite
underwrote
underwritten
undo
undid
undone
unfreeze
unfroze
unfrozen
unhang
unhung
unhung
unhide
unhid
unhidden
unknit
unknitted / unknit
unknitted / unknit
unlearn
unlearned /
unlearnt
unlearned /
unlearnt
unsew
unsewed
unsewn / unsewed
unsling
unslung
unslung
unspin
unspun
unspun
unstick
unstuck
unstuck
unstring
unstrung
unstrung
unweave
unwove / unweaved
unwoven / unweaved
78
unwind
unwound
unwound
uphold
upheld
upheld
upset
upset
upset
V
No commonly used irregular verbs beginning with "V.".
W
wake
woke / waked
woken / waked
waylay
waylaid
waylaid
wear
wore
worn
weave
wove / weaved
woven / weaved
wed
wed / wedded
wed / wedded
weep
wept
wept
wet
wet / wetted
wet / wetted
whet REGULAR
whetted
whetted
win
won
won
wind
wound
wound
withdraw
withdrew
withdrawn
withhold
withheld
withheld
withstand
withstood
withstood
wring
wrung
wrung
79
write
wrote
written
X
No irregular verbs beginning with "X."
Y
No irregular verbs beginning with "Y."
Z
No irregular verbs beginning with "Z."
B. Gerund
80
C. Participle
E.g.:
The cars produced in Japan are nice.
I saw the man coming to the shop.
Going to Texas they expected a better
job.
D. Infinitive
III.
Aspects
simple
perfect
progressive
Perfect
progressive
Tenses
82
Present
Sing/Sings
have + en
Sang
Read
Future
will sing
am/is
sung
singing
singing
am/is/are
has/have been
read
reading
reading
had sung
was/were
had
singing
singing
was/were
had
reading
reading
had read
will
have will
sung
will read
be + ing
has/have
Read/reads has/have
Past
be + ing
have + en
will
singing
have will
read
reading
been
been
general truth
The simple present tense or the ordinary form is the base form
1.
3.
4.
Permanent condition:
Zamboanga is in Mindanao
The President lives in Malacanang.
Tokyo is the capital of Japan.
5.
speaking of it):
I resign from the commission.
7.
events in narration):
Suddenly,
German
plane
dives
vertically
through
our
84
The past tense denotes past action. A regular verb forms its past
1.
2.
3.
5.
6.
Social distancing:
Did you want to sit down and stay a while?
85
whole.
1.
2.
3.
A situation that may obtain the present and will obtain in the
PERFECT ASPECT
The core meaning of the perfect is prior and it is used in
relation to some other point in time.
Present perfect
86
now.
1.
4.
Past perfect
time
1.
or time:
He had already left before I could offer him a ride.
2.
Future perfect
future time.
Formed by adding will have or shall have to the past participle of
the verb.
1.
time:
I will have finished all this editing by 10 in the evening.
2.
PROGRESSIVE ASPECTS
The core meaning of progressive is being imperfective.
Present progressive
1.
Activity in progress:
He is attending a meeting now.
88
2.
A temporary situation:
Gracelle is living with her foster parents.
4.
5.
Expresses future:
My aunt with her husband is coming this summer.
6.
7.
A change in progress:
She is becoming more and more like her mother.
Past progressive
1.
2.
89
4.
Social distance:
I was hoping you could lend me 130 pesos.
Future progressive
1.
future:
He will be taking a test at 8 AM tomorrow.
2.
This aspect implies the sense of prior of the perfect with the
meaning of incompleteness inherent in the progressive aspect.
in the past or that was initiated in the past and continues to happen.
90
1.
up to the present:
Kenneth has been going out with Lizette.
2.
3.
4.
Formed by combining the past perfect tense of the verb and the
1.
past action:
My family had been planning to go on vacation in Hong Kong,
but changed our minds after receiving the brochure on Macau.
91
3.
event:
I had been longing to see that movie, so I was pleased when I
won tickets.
in the future.
Formed by combining the future perfect tense of the verb to be
Voices of Verbs
Voice is used to tell whether the subject of the sentence is acting
or is receiving the action by the verb.
A. Active Voice
Example:
92
B. Passive Voice
93
With passive voice, the verb acts upon the subject. What
would be the subject in a sentence using an active verb
becomes the object.
Example:
the report."
You
can
recognize
passive-voice
expressions
94
Revised
Many customers in the restaurant
found the coffee too bitter to drink, but
they still ordered it frequently.
Revised
95
consultants?)
Types of Moods:
1. Indicative Mood
E.g.:
Little Rock is the capital of Arkansas.
Ostriches cannot fly.
Have you finished your homework?
2. Imperative Mood
96
3. Subjunctive Mood
E.g.:
Incorrect: If I was you, I would run.
Correct: If I were you, I would run.
(The verb follows if and expresses a
non-factual condition.)
97
4. Interrogative Mood
E.g.:
Will you leave me alone?
Can Liz do that?
98
V.
Verb Usage
A. Using Forms of Be
Be Verbs
Present
Past
Am
is
was
are
were
The verbs am and is are singular and used only with singular
subjects. The verb are is used with plural subjects and with the
pronoun you.
Example:
I am very happy.
99
clean.
The kittens are cute.
friend. She is
Andrea Chi.
3. Meeting someone for the first
Good
morning! How
are
you? What is
time.
your name?
Pronouns with Be
Pronoun
Verb Be
am
He
She
is
It
You
We
are
100
They
Contractions of Be
Pronoun +
Be
Be
Cont
racti
on
I am
Im
You are
Youre
He is
Hes
She is
Shes
It is
Its
We are
Were
They are
Theyre
Short Answers
Affirmative
Negative
Contractions
Am I Overweight?
You are.
I am.
Im not.
Is she lonely?
She is.
Is English difficult?
It is.
101
We are.
They are.
HAD
Example:
Example:
here?
arrived.
In the present tense, the verbs have and has are used.
The verb has is used in singular subject. The verb have is
used in plural subjects or with I and you. In the past tense,
only the verb had is used whether the subject is singular or
plural.
102
Contractions of Have
Has + not
Hasnt
Have + not
Havent
I + have
Ive
They +
Theyve
have
Had + not
Hadnt
C. Using Forms of Do
Like the verb have, do verb can be an auxiliary verb or
main verb.
Example: The janitors do the work. (Act as a main verb)
The janitor did fix the table. (Act as an auxiliary
verb)
Forms
DO / DOES
DID
negative forms:
Example:
Example:
week.
103
D. Uses of Modals
Modals
Meaning/Usage
Example
(be) able to
Ability
can
Ability
tonight?
No, you cant. You have
homework to do
Offer
request, instruction
capability
cant
ability
must)
could
possibility or uncertainty
104
suggestion
asking for and giving
permission
unwillingness
dont
need to
not necessary to do
had better
should)
to express although in
clauses
possibility or uncertainty
(formal)
asking for and giving
permission (less usual, more
formal)
may as
well/
might as
well
might
possibility or uncertainty
years.
unreal situation
must
must not
need
neednt
not necessary to do
something (unusual)
106
shall
should
you?
Shall we go to the cinema this
evening?
Uncertainty
107
direct
should + be and adjectives Its odd that he should ask
describing chance, including you so many personal
odd, strange, typical, natural, questions.
interesting, surprised,
surprising, funny (=odd) and
What a coincidence.
after in case to emphasise
unlikelihood
If..should
will
Assumption
request (can and could are Will you go to the shop for
more common)
me?
Ill take grans pearls then.
intention or willingness
You wont!
I will!
Order
Insistence
wont
expression
Refusal
request (can and could are Would you go to the shop for
would
more common)
me?
certainty in a suppressed
conditional sentence
wouldnt she?
I would never agree to that.
(even if he asked me)
I wouldnt agree to that. (even
if he asked me.)
Meaning
Example
-ate
animate, calculate
-fy
Make, do
fortify, simplify
-en
make or become
deepen, harden
-ise, -ize
to become like
motorize, computerize
109
Sometimes verb forms are not used as verbs but are used as
other parts of speech. A verb form that is used as another part of
speech is called a verbal. There are three kinds of verbal.
subject)
111
114
6. Do not use want in, want out, want on, want off, or want
through.
E.g.:
Jack wants in. (incorrect)
Stop. I want off. (incorrect)
Jack wants to join. (correct)
Stop. I want to get off. (correct)
H.
I.
116
ADVERB
An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a
phrase, or a clause. An adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause,
or degree and answers questions such as "how," "when," "where," "how
much".
While some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic "ly"
suffix, most of them must be identified by untangling the grammatical
relationships within the sentence or clause as a whole. Unlike an
117
To what extent?
I.
went
to
the
Bears'
house yesterday.
I am going to tidy my room tomorrow.
My mother lived in France for a year.
B. Adverbs of frequency or number
come before the main verb (except the main verb "to
be")
E.g.:
We usually go shopping on Saturday.
I have often done that.
She is always late.
119
C. Adverbs of Place
D. Adverbs of Manner
G. Adverbs of Reason
Indicates reason
E.g.:
Therefore he left.
Hence we agreed.
H. Adverbs of Interrogation
121
I. Adverbs of Relation
II.
Forms of Adverbs
122
b. Irregular adverbs
Some adverbs of the types that do not end in-ly are always, in,
later, once, away, up, often, and ever.
Examples:
He is in.
You are often absent.
You go up.
He will come later.
They went out.
I met her once.
Adjective
Adverb
Examples: Compare
Raul is a fast worker.
He couldnt walk
123
Examples:
He took a backward step.
Can you write backward (s)?
The homeward journey (s) was pleasant.
They traveled homeward (s) by boat.
He believes in forward buying.
Please move forward (s).
III.
Position of Adverbs
124
IV.
125
Examples:
Still, meanwhile, then, finally, also, and however.
One can usually identify a conjunctive adverb by its use immediately
after a semi-colon as a way of joining the two clauses. An example of a
sentence using a conjunctive adverb to join two discrete elements is:
Example:
It seemed as though time had stopped in anticipation; finally,
in a sudden
126
2. with adjectives:
How tall are you?
How old is your house?
3. with much and many:
How much are these tomatoes?
How many people are coming to the party?
4. with other adverbs:
How quickly can you read this?
How often do you go to London?
3. Relative Adverbs - relates or refers back to its antecedent.
Examples:
This place where we met him.
He does not tell me the reason why he was absent.
Explanation: The adverb where joins two clauses and it relates or
refers back to the antecedent place; the adverb why also joins two
clauses and relates to the antecedent reason. They are relative
adverbs.
4. Independent Adverbs - modifies a verb, an adjective, another
adverb, phrasal modifier and sentence modifier.
Examples:
1. The woman laughed heartily.
127
concealed.
3. His partner told him he should walk more cautiously in the
future.
The adverb more is modifying another adverb,
Functions of Adverbs
a. Intensifier
Emphasizers:
128
Amplifiers:
Downtoners:
b. Adjuncts
129
c. Disjuncts
When the adverb does not fit into the flow of the clause, it is called a
disjunct or a conjunct and is often set off by a comma or set of
commas. A disjunct frequently acts as a kind of evaluation of the rest
of the sentence. Although it usually modifies the verb, we could say
that it modifies the entire clause, too. Notice how "too" is a disjunct in
the sentence immediately before this one; that same word can also
serve as an adjunct adverbial modifier: It's too hot to play outside.
Here are two more disjunctive adverbs:
d.
Conjuncts
Examples;
If they start smoking those awful cigars, then I'm not staying.
130
We've told the landlord about this ceiling again and again, and
yet he's done nothing to fix it.
Jose has spent years preparing for this event; nevertheless, he's
the most nervous person here.
I love this school; however, I don't think I can afford the tuition.
ADJECTIVE
An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing,
identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the
noun or the pronoun, which it modifies.
In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:
The truck-shaped balloon floated over the treetops.
Mrs. Morrison papered her kitchen walls with hideous wallpaper.
The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.
The coalmines are dark and dank.
Many stores have already begun to play irritating Christmas music.
131
Forms
Adjectives related to nouns and verbs
-ent
impeccable
-ful
paternal
outrageous-ate
-ory
intelligent
immaculate
-ous
truthful
-ist
obligatory
Communist
-some
winsome
-an
-ant
Anglican
fragrant -less
-ive
-wise
impressive
useless
-y
streetwise
misty
Words which are not adjectives can also have these endings.
132
We can attach non-, pro- and anti- to the beginning of some nouns,
and like and friendly to the end to create adjective forms, e.g. a
pro-/anti-democracy movement, a business-like manner, a user-friendly
computer manual.
Participle Forms
In the following examples boring and bored are parts of the verb (to)
bore.
Am I boring you? I havent bored you, have I?
Boring is the present participle and bored is the past participle. Many
adjectives have the same form as participles (e.g. boring, bored,
broken, closed, exciting, excited).
Multiword Adjectives
Many adjectives are made up of two parts (usually connected by a
hyphen). These two-part adjectives are multiword adjectives.
written
noun and past participle:
oriented
133
Comparative-Superlative Forms
Adjectives have three degrees of comparison, namely: positive,
comparative, and superlative. We add er to the end of most short
adjectives to make the comparative from, and to make the superlative
form we add est or st.
Group 1
Examples:
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
134
pretty
prettier
thick
prettiest
thicker
long
thickest
longer
Group 2
longest
Examples
bad
worse
worst
good
better
best
little
less
many
more
most
much
more
most
least
Group 3
Examples:
careful
more careful
most careful
stupid
more stupid
most stupid
honest
more honest
most honest
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Types
Possessive Adjectives
A possessive adjective (``my,'' ``your,'' ``his,'' ``her,'' ``its,''
``our,'' ``their'') is similar or identical to a possessive pronoun;
however, it is used as an adjective and modifies a noun or a noun
phrase, as in the following sentences:
I can't complete my assignment because I don't have the textbook.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective ``my'' modifies ``assignment''
and the noun phrase ``my assignment'' functions as an object. Note
that the possessive pronoun form ``mine'' is not used to modify a noun
or noun phrase.
What is your phone number.
Here the possessive adjective ``your'' is used to modify the noun
phrase ``phone number''; the entire noun phrase ``your phone
number'' is a subject complement. Note that the possessive pronoun
form ``yours'' is not used to modify a noun or a noun phrase.
The bakery sold his favourite type of bread.
In this example, the possessive adjective ``his'' modifies the noun
phrase ``favourite type of bread'' and the entire noun phrase ``his
favourite type of bread'' is the direct object of the verb ``sold.''
After many years, she returned to her homeland.
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137
When the librarian tripped over that cord, she dropped a pile of
books.
In this sentence, the demonstrative adjective ``that'' modifies the noun
``cord'' and the noun phrase ``that cord'' is the object of the
preposition ``over.''
This apartment needs to be fumigated.
Here ``this'' modifies ``apartment'' and the noun phrase ``this
apartment'' is the subject of the sentence.
Even though my friend preferred those plates, I bought these.
In the subordinate clause, ``those'' modifies ``plates'' and the noun
phrase ``those plates'' is the object of the verb ``preferred.'' In the
independent clause, ``these'' is the direct object of the verb ``bought.''
Note that the relationship between a demonstrative adjective and a
demonstrative pronoun is similar to the relationship between a
possessive adjective and a possessive pronoun, or to that between a
interrogative adjective and an interrogative pronoun.
Interrogative Adjectives
An interrogative adjective (``which'' or ``what'') is like an
interrogative pronoun, except that it modifies a noun or noun phrase
rather than standing on its own (see also demonstrative adjectives and
possessive adjectives):
Which plants should be watered twice a week?
138
Indefinite Adjectives
An indefinite adjective is similar to an indefinite pronoun,
except that it modifies a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase, as in the
following sentences:
Many people believe that corporations are under-taxed.
The indefinite adjective ``many'' modifies the noun ``people'' and the
noun phrase ``many people'' is the subject of the sentence.
I will send you any mail that arrives after you have moved to Sudbury.
The indefinite adjective ``any'' modifies the noun ``mail'' and the noun
phrase ``any mail'' is the direct object of the compound verb ``will
send.''
They found a few goldfish floating belly up in the swan pound.
In this example the indefinite adjective modifies the noun ``goldfish''
and the noun phrase is the direct object of the verb ``found'':
139
Preposition
A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other
words in a sentence. The word or phrase that the preposition
introduces is called the object of the preposition.
A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical
relationship of its object to the rest of the sentence as in the following
examples:
The book is on the table.
The book is beneath the table.
The book is leaning against the table.
The book is beside the table.
She held the book over the table.
140
141
in
this
sentence,
the
preposition
"in"
introduces
aboard
about
above
across
after
against
along
amid
among
anti
around
as
142
at
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
besides
between
beyond
but
by
concerning
considering
despite
down
during
except
excepting
excluding
following
143
for
from
in
inside
into
like
minus
near
of
off
on
onto
opposite
outside
over
past
per
plus
regarding
144
round
save
since
than
through
to
toward
towards
under
underneath
unlike
until
up
upon
versus
via
with
within
without
145
When the goal is not a physical place, for instance, an action, "to"
marks a verb; it is attached as an infinitive and expresses purpose.
The preposition may occur alone or in the phrase in order.
146
147
Completion
Position
of an
of
Action
Subject
Jean is
on(to) the
on the
floor.
floor.
(8) Susumu
Susumu
dived in(to)
is in the
the water.
water.
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Uses of "to"
Examples:
(9) I refuse to allow you to intimidate me with your threats.
(10) I'd like to ask her how long she's been skiing.
(11) I plan to graduate this summer.
(12) Henry had to pay his tuition at the Bursar's office.
Except for transfer, all the verbs in (2b) can take toward as well as to.
However, "to" suggests movement toward a specific destination, while
149
Uses of "onto"
150
2. Some verbs of motion express the idea that the subject causes
itself or some physical object to be situated in a certain
place (compare #15-17 above).
Of these verbs, some take only "on". Others take both on and onto,
with the latter being preferred by some speakers.
(19) The plane landed on the runway. (not onto the runway)
(20) Sam hung the decoration on the Christmas tree. (not onto
the tree)
(21) He placed the package on the table. (not onto the table)
(22) Joanna spilled her Coke on the rug. (not onto the rug)
(23) Samir moved the chair on(to) the deck.
151
152
is an unattainable goal')
Uses of "into"
153
154
This use of "into" is like the use of onto illustrated in (24)-(27) and
(29).
Surface
Prepositions in this group indicate that the position of an object
is defined with respect to a surface on which it rests.
Area/Volume
Prepositions in this group indicate that an object lies within the
boundaries of an area or within the confines of a volume.
at ....... point
on ....... surface
in .......
area/volu
me
1) My car is at
the house.
2) There is a new
roof on the
house.
3) The house is
in Tippecanoe
county.
Using "at"
157
it defines Sue's location with respect to the fair rather than some
other place. In 6a), at exhibits its cause/effect relationship with to,
which cannot be used here: arrival at a place is the result of going to
it. 7a) and 7b) show that with certain verbs of motion at may be used
with the same meaning as its directional counterpart to, that is,
direction toward something.
159
160
3. Several common uses of in and on occur with street. The first two
follow the general pattern of in and on usage. The third is an idiom
that must be learned as a unit.
he's poor.)
161
162
in the car
on the bus
on the plane
on the train
on the ship
At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the time of day:
163
In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with years, with seasons:
Extended time
To express extended time, English uses the following prepositions: since, for,
by, fromto, from-until, during,(with)in
She has been gone since yesterday. (She left yesterday and has not
returned.)
I'm going to Paris for two weeks. (I will spend two weeks there.)
The decorations were up from spring until fall. (Beginning in spring and
ending in fall.)
I watch TV during the evening. (For some period of time in the evening.)
We must finish the project within a year. (No longer than a year.)
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Place
To express notions of place, English uses the following prepositions: to talk
about the point itself: in, to express something contained: inside, to talk about
the surface: on, to talk about a general vicinity, at
.
165
Close to a point
To express notions of an object being close to a point, English uses the
following prepositions: near, by, next to, between, among, opposite.
You go buy the tickets and I'll watch for the train.
If you wish for an "A" in this class, you must work hard.
167
Above
Across
Against
ahead of
along
among
behind
168
below
beneath
beside
between
From
In front
of
Inside
off
169
out of
through
toward
under
within
CONJUNCTION
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You can use a conjunction to link words, phrases, and clauses, as in the
following example:
I ate the pizza and the pasta.
Call the movers when you are ready.
Coordinating Conjunctions
You use a coordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so," or
"yet") to join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses. Note that you
can also use the conjunctions "but" and "for" as prepositions.
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a coordinating
conjunction:
Lilacs and violets are usually purple.
In this example, the coordinating conjunction "and" links two nouns.
Daniel's uncle claimed that he spent most of his youth dancing on rooftops and
swallowing goldfish.
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Here the coordinating conjunction "and" links two participle phrases ("dancing
on rooftops" and "swallowing goldfish") which act as adverbs describing the
verb "spends."
Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and indicates the
nature of the relationship among the independent clause(s) and the dependent
clause(s).
The most common subordinating conjunctions are "after," "although," "as,"
"because," "before," "how," "if," "once," "since," "than," "that," "though," "till,"
"until," "when," "where," "whether," and "while."
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a subordinating
conjunction:
After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.
The subordinating conjunction "after" introduces the dependent clause "After
she had learned to drive."
If the paperwork arrives on time, your cheque will be mailed on Tuesday.
Similarly, the subordinating conjunction "if" introduces the dependent clause
"If the paperwork arrives on time."
Gerald had to begin his thesis over again when his computer crashed.
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Correlative Conjunctions
(Technically correlative
conjunctions consist
simply of a
173
Here the correlative conjunction "either...or" links two noun phrases: "a Jello
salad" and "a potato scallop."
Corinne is trying to decide whether to go to medical school or to go to law
school.
Similarly, the correlative conjunction "whether ... or" links the two infinitive
phrases "to go to medical school" and "to go to law school."
The explosion destroyed not only the school but also the neighbouring pub.
In this example the correlative conjunction "not only ... but also" links the two
noun phrases ("the school" and "neighbouring pub") which act as direct
objects.
Note: Some words which appear as conjunctions can also appear as
prepositions or as adverbs.
174
DETERMINERS
Determiners are words that are used with nouns to clarify the noun. They can
clarify:
o
to state possessives
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Possessives: my, your, our, their, his, hers, whose, my friend's, our
friends', etc.
Quantifiers: few, a few, many, much, each, every, some, any etc.
Articles
The is used with noncountable nouns that are made more specific by a limiting
modifying phrase or clause:
178
a broken egg
an unusual problem
Note also that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate
membership in a profession, nation, or religion.
I am a teacher.
Leo is an Australian.
Demonstratives are words that are use to indicate which entities a speaker
refers to, and distinguishes those entities from others.
The demonstratives in English are this, that, these, and those, possibly
followed by one(s) in case of pronouns
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Demonstratives
Demonstratives can be used as pronouns or adjectives. They are sometimes
referred to as demonstrative adjectives or demonstrative pronouns. When they
are used as adjectives they modify the noun.
"This" is used for singular nouns that are close to the speaker.
"That" is used for singular nouns that are far from the speaker.
"These" is used for plural nouns that are close to the speaker.
"Those" is used for plural nouns that are far from the speaker.
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(There're) many of my
to the window.
181
tonight.
Quantifiers
Quantifiers are words that are used to state quantity or amount of something
without stating the actually number.
Quantifiers answer the questions "How many?" and "How much?"
Quantifiers can be used with plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns.
Quantifiers must agree with the noun. There are 3 main types of quantifiers;
quantifiers that are used with countable nouns, quantifiers that are used with
uncountable nouns and quantifiers that are used with either countable nouns
or uncountable nouns.
The following quantifiers will work with count nouns:
many trees
a few trees
few trees
several trees
a couple of trees
none of the trees
The following quantifiers will work with both count and non-count nouns:
all of the trees/dancing
some trees/dancing
most of the trees/dancing
enough trees/dancing
a lot of trees/dancing
lots of trees/dancing
plenty of trees/dancing
a lack of trees/dancing
In formal academic writing, it is usually better to use many and much rather
than phrases such as a lot of, lots of and plenty of.
There is an important difference between "a little" and "little" (used with noncount words) and between "a few" and "few" (used with count words). If I say
that Tashonda has a little experience in management that means that although
Tashonda is no great expert she does have some experience and that
experience might well be enough for our purposes. If I say that Tashonda has
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little experience in management that means that she doesn't have enough
experience. If I say that Charlie owns a few books on Latin American literature
that means that he has some books not a lot of books, but probably enough
for our purposes. If I say that Charlie owns few books on Latin American
literature that means he doesn't have enough for our purposes and we'd better
go to the library.
Unless it is combined with of, the quantifier "much" is reserved for questions
and negative statements:
Not much.
Note that the quantifier "most of the" must include the definite article the
when it modifies a specific noun, whether it's a count or a non-count noun:
"most of the instructors at this college have a doctorate"; "most of the water has
evaporated." With a general plural noun, however (when you are not referring to
a specific entity), the "of the" is dropped:
Many a young man has fallen in love with her golden hair.
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INTERJECTION
An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion. It is not
grammatically related to any other part of the sentence.
186
PUNCTUATION
The following sections will help you understand and use different types of
punctuation more effectively in your writing. This chapter begins with the
comma, the punctuation mark which usually causes writers the most trouble,
before turning to other types of punctuation.
The Comma
Comma usage is in some respects a question of personal writing style:
some writers use commas liberally, while others prefer to use them sparingly.
Most modern North American style guides now recommend using fewer
commas rather than more, so when faced with the option of using a comma or
not, you may find it wise to refrain.
For instance, the use of a comma before the "and" in a series is usually
optional, and many writers choose to eliminate it, provided there is no danger
of misreading:
We bought scarves, mittens and sweaters before leaving for Iceland.
(comma unnecessary before "and")
We ate apples, plums, and strawberry and kiwi compote. (comma needed
before "and" for clarity)
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Comma Usage
1.
188
189
5.
Do not use a comma to separate a verb from its object or its subject
190
Do not use commas to set off words and short phrases (especially
introductory ones) that are not parenthetical or that are very slightly so:
[WRONG] After dinner, we will play badminton.
[RIGHT] After dinner we will play badminton.
Do not use a comma before the first item or after the last item of a series:
[WRONG] The treasure chest contained, three wigs, some costume
jewellery and five thousand dollars in Monopoly money.
[WRONG] You should practice your punches, kicks and foot sweeps, if
you want to improve in the martial arts.
191
[RIGHT] The treasure chest contained three wigs, some costume jewellery
and five thousand dollars in Monopoly money.
[RIGHT] You should practice your punches, kicks and foot sweeps if you
want to improve in the martial arts.
The Semicolon
You will usually use the semicolon to link independent clauses not
joined by a co-ordinating conjunction. Semicolons should join only those
independent clauses that are closely related in meaning.
Abdominal exercises help prevent back pain; proper posture is also important.
The auditors made six recommendations; however, only one has been adopted
so far.
Do not use a semicolon to link a dependent clause or a phrase to an
independent clause.
[WRONG] Although gaining and maintaining a high level of physical
fitness takes a good deal of time; the effort pays off in the long run.
[RIGHT] Although gaining and maintaining a high level of physical fitness
takes a good deal of time, the effort pays off in the long run.
Generally, you should not place a semicolon before a co-coordinating
conjunction that links two independent clauses. The only exception to this
guideline is if the two independent clauses are very long and already contain a
number of commas.
192
[WRONG] The economy has been sluggish for four years now; but some
signs of improvement are finally beginning to show.
[RIGHT] The economy has been sluggish for four years now, but some
signs of improvement are finally beginning to show.
It may be useful to remember that, for the most part, you should use a
semicolon only where you could also use a period.
There is one exception to this guideline. When punctuating a list or
series of elements in which one or more of the elements contains an internal
comma, you should use semicolons instead of commas to separate the
elements from one another:
Henry's mother believes three things: that every situation, no matter how
grim, will be happily resolved; that no one knows more about human
nature than she does; and that Henry, who is thirty-five years old, will
never be able to do his own laundry.
The Colon
Writers often confuse the colon with the semicolon, but their uses are entirely
different.
When to Use a Colon
The colon focuses the reader's attention on what is to follow, and as a
result, you should use it to introduce a list, a summation, or an idea that
193
somehow completes the introductory idea. You may use the colon in this way,
however, only after an independent clause:
He visited three cities during his stay in the Maritimes: Halifax, Saint
John and Moncton.
Their lobbying efforts were ultimately useless: the bill was soundly
defeated.
My mother gave me one good piece of advice: to avoid wasting time and
energy worrying about things I cannot change.
194
End Punctuation
The punctuation marks that signal the end of a sentence are the period,
the question mark and the exclamation mark.
You use the period, by far the most common of the end punctuation
marks, to terminate a sentence that makes a statement. You may also use
periods with imperative sentences that have no sense of urgency or
excitement attached:
Without a doubt, Lady Emily was much happier after her divorce.
Turn right at the stop sign.
Bring me a cup of coffee and a cheese danish.
When you want to express a sense of urgency or very strong emotion, you may
end your imperative sentences and statements with an exclamation mark:
Look out below!
Leave this house at once!
I hate him!
195
Exclamation marks are, however, rare in formal writing. Use them sparingly, if
at all.
You should use the question mark at the end of a direct question:
Who's on first?
Where is my flowered cape?
Be careful not to use a question mark at the end of an indirect question.
Indirect questions are simply statements, and therefore end with a period:
I wonder who was chosen as Harvest King in the county fair.
She asked if she could play pinball.
The teacher asked who was chewing gum.
Quotation Marks
The exact rules for quotation marks vary greatly from language to
language and even from country to country within the English-speaking world.
In North American usage, you should place double quotation marks (") before
and after directly quoted material and words of dialogue:
One critic ended his glowing review with this superlative: "It is simply the best
film ever made about potato farming."
May replied, "This is the last cookie."
196
You also use quotation marks are used to set off certain titles, usually
those of minor or short works -- essays, short stories, short poems, songs,
articles in periodicals, etc. For titles of longer works and separate publications,
you should use italics (or underlined, if italics are not available). Use italics for
titles of books, magazines, periodicals, newspapers, films, plays, long poems,
long musical works, and television and radio programs.
Once when I was sick, my father read me a story called "The Happy
Flower," which was later made into a movie entitled Flower Child, starring
Tiny Tim.
Sometimes, you will use quotation marks to set off words specifically referred to
as terms, though some publishers prefer italics:
I know you like the word "unique," but do you really have to use it ten
times in one essay?
"Well" is sometimes a noun, sometimes an adverb, sometimes an adjective and
sometimes a verb.
197
I know you are fond of the story "Children of the Corn," but is it an
appropriate subject for your essay?
"At last," said the old woman, "I can say I am truly happy."
2.
that
television
has
enslaved
and
diminished
an
entire
generation.
3.
marks when they are part of the quotation, and outside when they do not.
Where is your copy of "The Raven"?
"How cold is it outside?" my mother asked.
Note that in North American usage, you should use single quotation marks (')
only to set off quoted material (or a minor title) inside a quotation.
"I think she said `I will try,' not `I won't try,'" explained Sandy.
The Apostrophe
You should use an apostrophe to form the possessive case of a noun or to
show that you have left out letters in a contraction. Note that you should not
generally use contractions in formal, academic writing.
198
The Dash
As noted in the section on commas, you can use a dash at the beginning
and end of parenthetical information. Usually, you will use dashes when you
want to emphasise the information, but you might also use them if the
parenthetical information is too long or abrupt to be set off with commas.
199
I think you would look fine wearing either the silk blouse - the one with
the blue pattern -- or the angora sweater. (abrupt interruption)
The idea of returning to the basics in the classroom - a notion which,
incidentally, has been quietly supported for years by many respected
teachers - is finally gaining some currency with school administrators.
(lengthy interruption containing internal commas)
You can use a dash to conclude a list of elements, focusing them all toward one
point.
Chocolate, cream, honey and peanut butter -- all go into this fabulously
rich dessert.
Dashes also mark sharp turns in thought.
We pored over exotic, mouth-watering menus from Nemo Catering, Menu
du Jour, Taste Temptations, and three other reputable caterers -- and
rejected them all.
200
MODIFIERS
A modifier can be an adjective, an adverb, or a phrase or clause acting
as an adjective or adverb In every case, the basic principle is the same: the
modifier adds information to another element in the sentence.
In this chapter, you will begin by working with single-word modifiers -adjectives and adverbs -- but the information here will also apply to phrases
and clauses which act as modifiers.
Using Adverbs and Adjectives
Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and
sometimes clauses and whole sentences. Adjectives are words that modify
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nouns and pronouns. Be careful not to use an adjective where you need an
adverb. Consider the following sentences, for instance:
[WRONG] Once the test was over, Sharon walked slow out of the
classroom.
[RIGHT] Once the test was over, Sharon walked slowly out of the
classroom.
The sentence needs an adverb, not an adjective, to modify the verb "walked."
[WRONG] We tried real hard to get the muffin mixture perfect.
[RIGHT] We tried really hard to get the muffin mixture perfect.
The sentence needs an adverb, not an adjective, to modify the adjective "hard."
(Note that "really" is an informal substitute for "very", and you should avoid in
in formal essays.)
Using "good," "bad," "well," and "badly."
You might also note the distinctions between "good" and "bad" (which are
adjectives) and "well" and "badly" (which are adverbs):
Shelley plays the piano well and the drums badly.
The actor's performance was good even though he felt bad that night.
"Well" is an adjective only when it refers to health or condition:
She protested that she was well enough to start playing sports again.
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Double negatives involving "not" and "no" are fairly easy to spot and fix.
However, some other adverbs -- for example, "hardly," "scarcely," "barely" -imply the negative, and you should not use them with another negative:
[WRONG] Even though he has lived in Toronto for four years, he does not
have hardly any friends there.
[RIGHT] Even though he has lived in Toronto for four years, he has
hardly any friends there. OR Even though he has lived in Toronto for
four years, he does not have many friends there.
206
Misplaced Words
In general, you should place single-word modifiers near the word or
words they modify, especially when a reader might think that they modify
something different in the sentence. Consider the following sentence:
[WRONG] After our conversation lessons, we could understand the
Squinting Modifiers
A squinting modifier is an ambiguously placed modifier that can modify
either the word before it or the word after it. In other words, it is "squinting" in
both directions at the same time:
208
Split Infinitives
The infinitive form of the verb consists of the word "to" followed by the
base form of the verb: "to be," "to serve," "to chop," etc. Inserting a word or
words between the "to" and the verb of an infinitive creates what is known as a
split infinitive. Prescriptive grammarians, who knew Latin grammar better
than English, once decreed that a split infinitive was an error, but now it is
growing increasingly acceptable even in formal writing. Nevertheless, some
careful writers still prefer to avoid splitting infinitives altogether.
In general, you should avoid placing long, disruptive modifiers between
the "to" and the verb of an infinitive. However, you must use your judgement
when it comes to single-word modifiers. Sometimes a sentence becomes
awkward if a single-word modifier is placed anywhere but between the elements
of the infinitive:
[WRONG] The marketing team voted to, before they launched the new
software, run an anticipatory ad campaign. (disruptive -- the infinitive
should not be split)
[RIGHT] The marketing team voted to run an anticipatory ad campaign
before they launched the new software.
209
Dangling Modifiers
The dangling modifier, a persistent and frequent grammatical problem
in writing, is often (though not always) located at the beginning of a sentence. A
dangling modifier is usually a phrase or an elliptical clause -- a dependent
clause whose subject and verb are implied rather than expressed -- that
functions as an adjective but does not modify any specific word in the
sentence, or (worse) modifies the wrong word. Consider the following example:
Raised in Nova Scotia, it is natural to miss the smell of the sea.
The introductory phrase in the above sentence looks as if it is meant to
modify a person or persons, but no one is mentioned in the sentence. Such
introductory adjective phrases, because of their position, automatically modify
the first noun or pronoun that follows the phrase -- in this case, "it." The
connection in this case is illogical because "it" was not raised in Nova Scotia.
You could revise the sentence in a number of ways:
For a person raised in Nova Scotia, it is natural to miss the smell of the sea.
(the phrase no longer functions as an adjective)
Raised in Nova Scotia, I often miss the smell of the sea. (the phrase functions
as an adjective but now automatically modifies "I," a logical connection)
A dangling modifier can also appear when you place an elliptical clause
improperly:
210
Although nearly finished, we left the play early because we were worried
about our sick cat.
The way this sentence is structured, the clause "Although nearly finished"
illogically modifies "we," the pronoun directly following the clause. An easy way
to rectify the problem is to re-insert the subject and verb that are understood
in the elliptical clause:
Although the play was nearly finished, we left early because we were worried
about our sick cat.
Building Phrases
A phrase is a group of two or more grammatically linked words without a
subject and predicate -- a group of grammatically-linked words with a subject
and predicate is called a clause.
The group "teacher both students and" is not a phrase because the words have
no grammatical relationship to one another. Similarly, the group "bay the
across" is not a phrase.
In both cases, the words need to be rearranged in order to create phrases. The
group "both teachers and students" and the group "across the bay" are both
phrases.
You use a phrase to add information to a sentence and it can perform the
functions of a subject, an object, a subject complement or object complement,
a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.
The highlighted words in each of the following sentences make up a phrase:
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She bought some spinach when she went to the corner store.
Lightning flashed brightly in the night sky.
They heard high pitched cries in the middle of the night.
In early October, Giselle planted twenty tulip bulbs; unfortunately,
squirrels ate the bulbs and none bloomed.
Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves.
PHRASES
A phrase may function as a verb, noun, an adverb, or an adjective.
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Verb Phrases
A verb phrase consists of a verb, its direct and/or indirect objects, and
any adverb, adverb phrases, or adverb clauses which happen to modify it. The
predicate of a clause or sentence is always a verb phrase:
Lorraine is trying to decide whether she wants to go to grad school
or to go to law school.
He did not have all the ingredients the recipe called for; therefore, he
decided to make something else.
After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.
We will meet at the library at 3:30 p.m.
Noun Phrases
A noun phrase consists of a pronoun or noun with any associated
modifiers, including adjectives, adjective phrases, adjective clauses, and other
nouns in the possessive case.
Like a noun, a noun phrase can act as a subject, as the object of a verb or
verbal, as a subject or object complement, or as the object of a preposition, as
in the following examples:
Subject
Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves.
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Object of a verb
To read quickly and accurately is Eugene's goal.
Object of a preposition
The arctic explorers were caught unawares by the spring breakup.
Subject complement
Frankenstein is the name of the scientist not the monster.
Object complement
I consider Loki my favorite cat.
Noun Phrases using Verbals
(By David Megginson)
Since some verbals -- in particular, the gerund and the infinitive -- can act as
nouns, these also can form the nucleus of a noun phrase:
Ice fishing is a popular winter pass-time.
However, since verbals are formed from verbs, they can also take direct objects
and can be modified by adverbs. A gerund phrase or infinitive phrase, then,
is a noun phrase consisting of a verbal, its modifiers (both adjectives and
adverbs), and its objects:
Running a marathon in the summer is thirsty work.
I am planning to buy a house next month.
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Adjective Phrases
An adjective phrase is any phrase which modifies a noun or pronoun.
You often construct adjective phrases using participles or prepositions together
with their objects:
I was driven mad by the sound of my neighbors constant piano
practicing.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "of my neighbors constant piano
practicing" acts as an adjective modifying the noun "sound."
My father-in-law locked his keys in the trunk of a borrowed car.
Similarly in this sentence, the prepositional phrase "of a borrowed car" acts as
an adjective modifying the noun "trunk."
We saw Peter dashing across the quadrangle.
In this sentence, the participle phrase "broken in the scuffle" modifies the
noun phrase "the records."
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Adverb Phrases
A prepositional phrase can also be an adverb phrase, functioning as an
adverb, as in the following sentences.
She bought some spinach when she went to the corner store.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "to the corner store" acts as an
adverb modifying the verb "went."
Lightning flashed brightly in the night sky.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "in the night sky" functions as a
adverb modifying the verb "flashed."
In early October, Giselle planted twenty tulip bulbs; unfortunately,
squirrels ate the bulbs and none bloomed.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "in early October" acts as an adverb
modifying the entire sentence.
We will meet at the library at 3:30 P.M.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "at 3:30 P.M." acts as an adverb
modifying the verb phrase "will meet."
The dogs were capering about the clown's feet.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "about the clown's feet" acts as an
adverb modifying the verb phrase "were capering."
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CLAUSES
Building Clauses
A clause is a collection of grammatically related words including a
predicate and a subject (though sometimes the subject is implied). A collection
of grammatically related words without a subject or without a predicate is
called a phrase.
Clauses are the building blocks of sentences: every sentence consists of one or
more clauses.
Recognizing Clauses
Consider these examples:
Clause
Cows eat grass
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This example is a clause, because it contains the subject "cows" and the
predicate "eat grass."
Phrase
Cows eating grass
This noun phrase could be a subject, but it has no predicate attached to it: the
adjective phrase "eating grass" show which cows the writer is referring to, but
there is nothing here to show why the writer is mentioning cows in the first
place.
Clause
Cows eating grass are visible from the highway
This is a complete clause again. The subject "cows eating grass" and the
predicate "are visible from the highway" make up a complete thought.
Clause
Run!
This single-word command is also a clause, even though it does seem to have a
subject. With a direct command, it is not necessary to include the subject,
since it is obviously the person or people you are talking to: in other words, the
clause really reads "[You] run!" You should not usually use direct commands in
your essays, except in quotations.
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Adverb clause
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Dependent clauses can stand not only for adverbs, but also for nouns and for
adjectives.
Noun Clauses
A noun clause is an entire clause which takes the place of a noun in another
clause or phrase. Like a noun, a noun clause acts as the subject or object of a
verb or the object of a preposition, answering the questions "who(m)?" or
"what?" Consider the following examples:
Noun
I know Latin.
Noun clause
I know that Latin is no longer spoken as a native language.
In the first example, the noun "Latin" acts as the direct object of the verb
"know." In the second example, the entire clause "that Latin ..." is the direct
object.
In fact, many noun clauses are indirect questions:
Noun
Their destination is unknown.
Noun clause
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The question "Where are they going?" with a slight change in word order,
becomes a noun clause when used as part of a larger unit. Like the noun
"destination," the clause is the subject of the verb "is."
Here are some more examples of noun clauses:
About what you bought at the mall
This noun clause is the object of the preposition "about," and answers the
question "about what."
Whoever broke the vase will have to pay for it.
This noun clause is the subject of the verb "will have to pay," and answers the
question "who will have to pay."
The Toronto fans hope that the Blue Jays will win again.
This noun clause is the object of the verb "hope," and answers the question
"what do the fans hope."
Adjective Clauses
An adjective clause is a dependent clause which takes the place of an
adjective in another clause or phrase. Like an adjective, an adjective clause
modifies a noun or pronoun, answering questions like "which?" or "what kind
of?" Consider the following examples:
Adjective
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Adjective clause
The coat which I bought yesterday
Like the word "red" in the first example, the dependent clause "which I bought
yesterday" in the second example modifies the noun "coat." Note that an
adjective clause usually comes after what it modifies, while an adjective usually
comes before.
In formal writing, an adjective clause begins with the relative pronouns
"who(m)," "that," or "which." In informal writing or speech, you may leave out
the relative pronoun when it is not the subject of the adjective clause, but you
should usually include the relative pronoun in formal, academic writing:
Informal
The books people read were mainly religious.
Formal
The books that people read were mainly religious.
Informal
Some firefighters never meet the people they save.
Formal
Some firefighters never meet the people whom they save.
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This clause modifies the noun "meat" and answers the question "which meat."
About the movie which made him cry
This clause modifies the noun "movie" and answers the question "which movie."
They are searching for the one who borrowed the book
The clause modifies the pronoun "one" and answers the question "which one."
Did I tell you about the author whom I met?
The clause modifies the noun "author" and answers the question "which
author."
Adverb Clauses
An adverb clause is a dependent clause which takes the place of an
adverb in another clause or phrase. An adverb clause answers questions such
as "when," "where," "why.", "with what goal/result," and "under what
conditions."
Note how an adverb clause can replace an adverb in the following example:
Adverb
The premier gave a speech here.
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Adverb clause
The premier gave a speech where the workers were striking.
Hamlet's father.
The adverb clause answers the question "why."
Effect
Hamlet wanted to kill his uncle so that his father's murder would be
avenged.
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SENTENCE
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To determine the subject of a sentence, first isolate the verb and then make a
question by placing "who?" or "what?" before it -- the answer is the subject.
The audience littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled
popcorn.
The verb in the above sentence is "littered." Who or what littered? The
audience did. "The audience" is the subject of the sentence. The predicate
(which always includes the verb) goes on to relate something about the subject:
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what about the audience? It "littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and
spilled popcorn."
Unusual Sentences
Imperative sentences (sentences that give a command or an order) differ
from conventional sentences in that their subject, which is always "you," is
understood rather than expressed.
Stand on your head. ("You" is understood before "stand.")
Be careful with sentences that begin with "there" plus a form of the verb "to
be." In such sentences, "there" is not the subject; it merely signals that the true
subject will soon follow.
There were three stray kittens cowering under our porch steps this morning.
If you ask who? or what? before the verb ("were cowering"), the answer is "three
stray kittens," the correct subject.
Simple Subject and Simple Predicate
Every subject is built around one noun or pronoun (or more) that, when
stripped of all the words that modify it, is known as the simple subject.
Consider the following example:
A piece of pepperoni pizza would satisfy his hunger.
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The subject is built around the noun "piece," with the other words of the
subject -- "a" and "of pepperoni pizza" -- modifying the noun. "Piece" is the
simple subject.
Likewise, a predicate has at its centre a simple predicate, which is always the
verb or verbs that link up with the subject. In the example we just considered,
the simple predicate is "would satisfy" -- in other words, the verb of the
sentence.
A sentence may have a compound subject -- a simple subject consisting of
more than one noun or pronoun -- as in these examples:
Team pennants, rock posters and family photographs covered the boy's
bedroom walls.
Her uncle and she walked slowly through the Inuit art gallery and
admired the powerful sculptures exhibited there.
The second sentence above features a compound predicate, a predicate that
includes more than one verb pertaining to the same subject (in this case,
"walked" and "admired").
Objects and Complements
Objects
A verb may be followed by an object that completes the verb's meaning.
Two kinds of objects follow verbs: direct objects and indirect objects. To
determine if a verb has a direct object, isolate the verb and make it into a
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question by placing "whom?" or "what?" after it. The answer, if there is one, is
the direct object:
Direct Object
The advertising executive drove a flashy red Porsche.
Direct Object
Her secret admirer gave her a bouquet of flowers.
The second sentence above also contains an indirect object. An indirect object
(which, like a direct object, is always a noun or pronoun) is, in a sense, the
recipient of the direct object. To determine if a verb has an indirect object,
isolate the verb and ask to whom?, to what?, for whom?, or for what? after it.
The answer is the indirect object.
Not all verbs are followed by objects. Consider the verbs in the following
sentences:
The guest speaker rose from her chair to protest.
After work, Randy usually jogs around the canal.
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No Direct Object
Did we win?
Subject Complements
In addition to the transitive verb and the intransitive verb, there is a third kind
of verb called a linking verb. The word (or phrase) which follows a linking verb
is called not an object, but a subject complement.
The most common linking verb is "be." Other linking verbs are "become,"
"seem," "appear," "feel," "grow," "look," "smell," "taste," and "sound," among
others. Note that some of these are sometimes linking verbs, sometimes
transitive verbs, or sometimes intransitive verbs, depending on how you use
them:
Linking verb with subject complement
He was a radiologist before he became a full-time yoga instructor.
In this case, as explained above, the adjective "tired" modifies the noun "driver,"
which is the subject of the sentence.
Sometimes, however, the noun will be the object, as in the following example:
I consider the driver tired.
In this case, the noun "driver" is the direct object of the verb "consider," but the
adjective "tired" is still acting as its complement.
In general, verbs which have to do with perceiving, judging, or changing
something can cause their direct objects to take an object complement:
Paint it black.
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able to use all types of sentences in your formal academic writing. Writers who
use only simple sentences are like a truck drivers who do not know how to shift
out of first gear: they would be able to drive a load from Montral to Calgary
(eventually), but they would have a great deal of trouble getting there.
If you use phrases and clauses carefully, your sentences will become
much more interesting and your ideas, much clearer. This complex sentence
develops
major,
central
idea
and
provides
structured
background
information:
Since it involves the death not only of the title character but of the entire royal
court, Hamlet is the most extreme of the tragedies written by the Elizabethan
playwrite William Shakespeare.
Just as a good driver uses different gears, a good writer uses different types of
sentences in different situations:
other information;
a loose sentence will tell the reader in advance how to interpret your
information;
a periodic sentence will leave the reader in suspense until the very end;
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an interrogative sentence will force the reader to think about what you
are writing;
an imperative sentence will make it clear that you want the reader to act
right away.
The Structure of a Sentence
Remember that every clause is, in a sense, a miniature sentence. A simple
sentences contains only a single clause, while a compound sentence, a complex
sentence, or a compound-complex sentence contains at least two clauses.
1.
The most basic type of sentence is the simple sentence, which contains only
one clause. A simple sentence can be as short as one word.
E.g.
Run!
Usually, however, the sentence has a subject as well as a predicate and both
the subject and the predicate may have modifiers. All of the following are
simple sentences, because each contains only one clause:
Melt!
Ice melts.
The ice melts quickly.
The ice on the river melts quickly under the warm March sun.
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Lying exposed without its blanket of snow, the ice on the river melts
quickly under the warm March sun.
As you can see, a simple sentence can be quite long -- it is a mistake to
think that you can tell a simple sentence from a compound sentence or a
complex sentence simply by its length.
The most natural sentence structure is the simple sentence: it is the first
kind which children learn to speak, and it remains by far the most common
sentence in the spoken language of people of all ages. In written work, simple
sentences can be very effective for grabbing a reader's attention or for summing
up an argument, but you have to use them with care: too many simple
sentences can make your writing seem childish.
When you do use simple sentences, you should add transitional phrases to
connect them to the surrounding sentences.
2.
Simple
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= Compound
Canada is a rich country, but still it has many poor people.
Compound sentences are very natural for English speakers; small
children learn to use them early on to connect their ideas and to avoid pausing
(and allowing an adult to interrupt).
Today at school Mr. Moore brought in his pet rabbit, and he showed it to
the class, and I got to pet it, and Kate held it, and we coloured pictures of
it, and it ate part of my carrot at lunch, and ...
Of course, this is an extreme example, but if you over-use compound sentences
in written work, your writing might seem immature.
A compound sentence is most effective when you use it to create a sense of
balance or contrast between two (or more) equally-important pieces of
information.
E.g.
Montal has better clubs, but Toronto has better cinemas.
Special Cases of Compound Sentences
There are two special types of compound sentences which you might want to
note. First, rather than joining two simple sentences together, a coordinating
conjunction sometimes joins two complex sentences, or one simple sentence
and one complex sentence. In this case, the sentence is called a compoundcomplex sentence.
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3.
Compound-complex
The package arrived in the morning, but the courier left before I could
4.
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Compound
My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.
Complex
Although my friend invited me to a party, I do not want to go.
In the first example, there are two separate simple sentences: "My friend
invited me to a party" and "I do not want to go." The second example joins them
together into a single sentence with the co-ordinating conjunction "but," but
both parts could still stand as independent sentences -- they are entirely equal,
and the reader cannot tell which is most important. In the third example,
however, the sentence has changed quite a bit: the first clause, "Although my
friend invited me to a party," has become incomplete, or a dependent clause.
A complex sentence is very different from a simple sentence or a
compound sentence because it makes clear which ideas are most important.
When you write, My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go, or
even, My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go. The reader
will have trouble knowing which piece of information is most important to you.
When you write the subordinating conjunction "although" at the beginning of
the first clause, however, you make it clear that the fact that your friend invited
you is less important than, or subordinate, to the fact that you do not want to
go.
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Canada, considering the free health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low
crime rate, the comprehensive social programs, and the wonderful
winters.
The main point of this sentence is that the writer prefers to live in
Canada, and the writer makes the point at the very beginning: everything
which follows is simply extra information. When the readers read about the free
health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime rate, the comprehensive
social programs, and the wonderful winters, they will already know that these
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are reasons for living in Canada, and as a result, they will be more likely to
understand the sentence on a first reading.
Loose sentences are the most natural for English speakers, who almost
always talk in loose sentences: even the most sophisticated English writers
tend to use loose sentences much more often than periodic sentences. While a
periodic sentence can be useful for making an important point or for a special
dramatic effect, it is also much more difficult to read, and often requires
readers to go back and reread the sentence once they understand the main
point.
Finally, it is important to remember that you have to structure a loose
sentence as carefully as you would structure a periodic sentence: it is very easy
to lose control of a loose sentence so that by the end the reader has forgotten
what your main point was.
The Periodic Sentence
If your main point is at the end of a long sentence, you are writing a periodic
sentence.
Periodic
Considering the free health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime
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The main point of this sentence is that the writer prefers to live in
Canada. At the beginning of this sentence, the reader does not know what
point the writer is going to make: what about the free health care, cheap tuition
fees, low crime rate, comprehensive social programs, and wonderful winters?
The reader has to read all of this information without knowing what the
conclusion will be.
The periodic sentence has become much rarer in formal English writing
over the past hundred years, and it has never been common in informal spoken
English (outside of bad political speeches). Still, it is a powerful rhetorical tool.
An occasional periodic sentence is not only dramatic but persuasive: even if the
readers do not agree with your conclusion, they will read your evidence first
with open minds. If you use a loose sentence with hostile readers, the readers
will probably close their minds before considering any of your evidence.
Finally, it is important to remember that periodic sentences are like
exclamatory sentences: used once or twice in a piece of writing, they can be
very effective; used any more than that, they can make you sound dull and
pompous.
The Purpose of a Sentence
The other classifications in this chapter describe how you construct your
sentences, but this last set describes why you have written the sentences in
the first place. Most sentences which you write should simply state facts,
conjectures, or arguments, but sometimes you will want to give commands or
ask questions.
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1.
will write entire essays or reports using only declarative sentences, and you
should always use them far more often than any other type. A declarative
sentence simply states a fact or argument, without requiring either an answer
or action from the reader. Punctuate your declarative sentences with a simple
period.
E.g.
Ottawa is the capital of Canada.
The distinction between deconstruction and post-modernism eludes me.
He asked which path leads back to the lodge.
Note that the last example contains an indirect question, "which path leads
back to the lodge." An indirect question does not make a sentence into an
interrogative sentence -- only a direct question can do that.
2.
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4.
5.
You should not usually use an exclamation mark with the word "please"
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not
PARAGRAPH
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Writing Paragraphs
Start with an Outline
A brief outline will make it easier to develop topic sentences and to arrange
your paragraphs in the most effective order.
You should begin your outline by stating the thesis of your paper.
Example of a thesis statement:
The English Civil War was caused by a combination of factors, including
the empowerment and organization of Puritan forces, the absolutist
tendencies of James I and the personal ineptitude of his son Charles I.
Next, list the topic sentences for each of the paragraphs (or sections) of the
paper.
Possible topic sentences from the given thesis statement above:
1.
2.
3.
legislation which would provide guidelines for both religious worship and
political representation.
4.
During his reign in the early 1600s, James I had attempted to silence
Puritan protests and to solidify the role of the monarchy as unquestioned head
of state.
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5.
Charles I's lack of personal diplomacy and his advisers' desire for
personal power gave the Puritans the excuses they needed to declare war on
the monarchy.
You might notice that the topic sentences derive directly from the thesis, and
explain, prove, or expand on each of the thesis' claims.
Once you have an outline at hand, you can follow three steps to help you write
your paragraphs effectively:
1.
Use your thesis to help you organise the rest of your paper.
2.
Write a list of topic sentences, and make sure that they show how the
Eliminate material that is not related to your thesis and topic sentences.
A thesis statement:
tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject
matter under discussion.
is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to
expect from the rest of the paper.
essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way
to understand the war or the novel.
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This is a strong thesis because it takes a stand, and because it's specific.
2. A strong thesis statement justifies discussion.
Your thesis should indicate the point of the discussion. If your assignment is to
write a paper on kinship systems, using your own family as an example, you
might come up with either of these two thesis statements:
My family is an extended family.
This is a weak thesis because it merely states an observation. Your reader
wont be able to tell the point of the statement, and will probably stop reading.
While most American families would view consanguineal
marriage as a threat to the nuclear family structure, many
Iranian families, like my own, believe that these marriages
help reinforce kinship ties in an extended family.
This is a strong thesis because it shows how your experience contradicts a
widely-accepted view. A good strategy for creating a strong thesis is to show
that the topic is controversial. Readers will be interested in reading the rest of
the essay to see how you support your point.
3. A strong thesis statement expresses one main idea.
Readers need to be able to see that your paper has one main point. If your
thesis statement expresses more than one idea, then you might confuse your
readers about the subject of your paper. For example:
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251
This sentence fits in with the topic sentence because it is a description of the
composition of "forget sauce."
In addition, this well-kept industry secret is the reason why ingredients
are never listed on the packaging of victuals sold by these restaurants.
The transitional phrase "In addition" relates the composition of "forget sauce" to
secret fast-food industry practices.
"Forget sauce" has a chemical property which causes temporary amnesia
in consumers.
Now the paragraph moves on to the short-term effect on consumers:
After spending too much money on barely edible food bereft of any
nutritional value, most consumers swear they will never repeat such a
disagreeable experience.
This sentence describes its longer-term effects:
Within a short period, however, the chemical in "forget sauce" takes
effect, and they can be depended upon to return and spend, older but no
wiser.
Finally, I finish the paragraph by "proving" the claim contained in the topic
sentence, that many fast-food chains make their profits from adding a special
ingredient called "forget sauce" to their foods.
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253
Using the transitional word "further" to relate this sentence to those preceding
it, I expand on my topic sentence by suggesting ways a topic sentence is related
to the sentences that follow it.
Topic sentences make a point and give reasons or examples to support it.
Finally, I wrap up the paragraph by stating exactly how topic sentences act
rather like tiny thesis statements.
Dividing your Argument
Starting a new paragraph is a signal to your reader that you are
beginning a new thought or taking up a new point. Since your outline will help
you divide the essay into sections, the resulting paragraphs must correspond to
the logical divisions in the essay. If your paragraphs are too long, divide your
material into smaller, more manageable units; if they're too short, find broader
topic sentences that will allow you to combine some of your ideas.
Look at the list of sentences below:
In preparation for study some students apportion a negligible period of
time to clearing off a desk, a table, a floor; others must scrub all surfaces
and clean all toilet bowls within 50 meters before the distraction of dirt
disappears.
Some eat or pace while they work.
Some work with deep concentration, others more fitfully.
Students might smoke, or chew their nails, or stare blankly at walls or at
computer screens.
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For
most
students
the
process
of
studying
involves
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If we add the first five sentences to this topic sentence we have a unified
but general description of the types of "rituals" or study patterns which are
such an important part of academic life.
For
most
students
the
process
of
studying
involves
Work tends, therefore, to be associated with non-workspecific environments, activities, and schedules. If asked what
space is reserved for learning, many students would suggest the
classroom, the lab or the library. What about the kitchen? The
bedroom? In fact, any room in which a student habitually studies
becomes a learning space, or a place associated with thinking.
Some people need to engage in sports or other physical activity
before they can work successfully. Being sedentary seems to
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257
Work
tends
to
be
associated
with
non-work-specific
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The first point to establish is the grip of the hand on the rod.
This should be about half-way up the cork handle, absolutely firm
and solid, but not tense or rigid. All four fingers are curved around
the handle, the little finger, third finger and middle finger
contributing most of the firmness by pressing the cork solidly into
the fleshy part of the palm, near the heel of the hand. The
forefinger supports and steadies the grip but supplies its own
firmness against the thumb, which should be along the upper side
of the handle and somewhere near the top of the grip. (from
Roderick Haig-Brown, "Fly Casting")
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The topic sentence establishes that the author will use this paragraph to
describe the process of establishing the "grip of the hand on the rod," and this
is exactly what he does, point by point, with little abstraction.
Paragraph Development by Combination
Very often, a single paragraph will contain development by a combination
of methods. It may begin with a brief comparison, for example, and move on to
provide detailed descriptions of the subjects being compared. A process
analysis might include a brief history of the process in question. Many
paragraphs include lists of examples:
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DICTION
Your diction is simply your choice of words. There is no single, correct diction
in the English language; instead, you choose different words or phrases for
different contexts:
To a friend
"a screw-up"
To a child
"a mistake"
To the police
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"an accident"
To an employer
"an oversight"
All of these expressions mean the same thing. That is, they have the
same denotation -- but you would not likely switch one for the other in any of
these three situations: a police officer or employer would take "screw-up" as an
insult, while your friends at the bar after a hockey game would take "oversight"
as an affectation.
Catch Phrases
Under pressure to create (usually against a deadline), a writer will
naturally use familiar verbal patterns rather than thinking up new ones.
Inexperienced writers, however, will sometimes go further, and string together
over-used phrases or even sentences. Consider the following example:
When all is said and done, even a little aid can go a long way in a country
suffering from famine.
The argument is commendable, but its written expression is poor and
unoriginal. First, consider the phrase "when all is said and done." Once, this
phrase was clever and original, but so many millions of writers and speakers
have used it so many times over so many years that the phrase has become
automatic and nearly meaningless. This type of worn-out phrase is called a
catch phrase, and you should always avoid it in your writing, unless you are
quoting someone else: you own, original words are always more interesting.
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connotation
evokes
For example, both "woman" and "chick" have the denotation "adult female" in
North American society, but "chick" has somewhat negative connotations, while
"woman" is neutral.
For another example of connotations, consider the following:
negative
There are over 2,000 vagrants in the city.
neutral
There are over 2,000 people with no fixed address in the city.
positive
There are over 2,000 homeless in the city.
All three of these expressions refer to exactly the same people, but they will
invoke different associations in the reader's mind: a "vagrant" is a public
nuisance while a "homeless" person is a worthy object of pity and charity.
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SPELLING
Spell checkers will catch some kinds of errors, but not all. For example,
they tend to miss homonyms -- words which are pronounced the same way
but spelled differently, such as site/ sight, there/ their/ they're, and its/ it's.
Most spell-checkers, for example, would report no error in the following
sentence, despite the fact that there are three serious spelling mistakes:
Their looking for a new sight when the gopher can build it's home.
The joint influence of British and American spelling on Canadian usage
has provided an additional challenge to Canadian students: Canadians tend to
follow standard British spelling for certain words (axe, cheque), to follow
American spelling for others (connection, tire), and to allow either for yet more
(programme/ program, labour/ labor, neighbour/ neighbor). The important thing
to remember is to be consistent in usage and to follow a regular pattern when
you spell. Don't mix neighbour with labor, for example. Choose one or the other
pattern, and follow it closely. The best way to avoid problems with mixed British
and American spelling is to keep a dictionary handy that shows Canadian
usage.
Although spelling correctly is largely a matter of practice and the
common-sense use of reference materials, there are four standard spelling
rules. Although each has exceptions, if you study these rules carefully, you will
be able to avoid most common errors, even without a spell-checker.
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When the ending "y" is preceded by a vowel ("a" "e" "i" "o" or "u"), "y" does not
change to "i":
journey becomes journeying
trolley becomes trolleys
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MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS
Word Formation
The basic part of any word is the root; to it, you can add a prefix at the
beginning and/or a suffix at the end to change the meaning. For example, in
the word "unflattering," the root is simply "flatter," while the prefix "un-" makes
the word negative, and the suffix "-ing" changes it from a verb into an adjective
(specifically, a participle).
English itself does not use prefixes as heavily as it once did, but many
English words come from Latin, which uses prefixes and suffixes (you can use
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the word affix to refer either to a prefix or a suffix) quite extensively. For
example, the words "prefix," "suffix," and "affix" themselves are all formed from
"fix" by the used of prefixes:
Note that both the "-d" of "ad" and the "-b" of "sub" change the last letter.
Here are some of the most common Latin affixes :
Latin
prefix
Basic meaning
Example words
co-
together
decompress, deplane
de-
dis-
inter-
between, among
non-
not
post-
after
pre-
before
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re-
sub-
under
trans-
Latin
suffix
rerun, rewrite
submarine, subsoil, subway,
subhuman, substandard
transatlantic, transpolar
Basic meaning
Example words
-able,
-ible
likable, flexible
-ation
-ment
Basic meaning
Example words
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a-, an-
without
anti-, ant-
auto-
self, same
bio-, bi-
geo-
hyper-
life, living
organism
Earth; geography
excessive,
excessively
micro-
small
mono-
neo-
new, recent
pan-
all
thermo-,
therm-
heat
Greek
suffix
-ism
-ist
Basic meaning
forms nouns and means the act,
state, or theory of
forms agent nouns from verbs
Example words
criticism, optimism, capitalism
conformist, copyist, cyclist
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-ize
-gram
-graph
-logue,
-log
-logy
-meter,
-metry
monograph, phonograph,
seismograph
shape, form
-phile
-phobe,
-phobia
-phone
audiophile, Francophile
agoraphobe, agoraphobia,
xenophobe, xenophobia
homophone, geophone, telephone,
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Francophone
Apposition
When two words, clauses, or phrases stand close together and share the same
part of the sentence, they are in apposition and are called appositives.
In fact, an appositive is very much like a subject complement, only without the
linking verb:
Subject Complement
Appositive
Subject Complement
Appositive
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Subject Case
He travelled to Newfoundland.
Object Case
Possessive Case
Plural
Those women are concerned about this issue.
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There are, moreover, a few tricky points. First, you may refer to all animals in
the neuter gender, or you may refer to them by their natural gender:
Neuter
What a beautiful dog! Does it bite?
Natural Gender
What a beautiful dog! Does she bite?
Second, you usually assign mythical beings (such as gods) to a natural gender,
even if you do not believe that the beings have actual sexual organs:
God is great. God is good. Let us thank her for our food.
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