Classical Music - Wikipedia

Classical music - Wikipedia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music
Classical music
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Classical music is art music produced or

rooted in the traditions of Western music,
including both liturgical (religious) and
secular music. While a more accurate term is
also used to refer to the period from 1750 to
1820 (the Classical period), this article is
about the broad span of time from roughly the
11th century to the present day, which
includes the Classical period and various
other periods.[1] The central norms of this
tradition became codified between 1550 and
1900, which is known as the commonpractice period. The major time divisions of
Western art music are as follows:
the early music period, which includes
the Medieval (5001400)
the Renaissance (14001600) eras
Montage of classical music composers. From left to
Baroque (16001750)
right:
the common-practice period, which
Top row: Antonio Vivaldi, Johann Sebastian Bach,
includes
George Frideric Handel, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart,
Baroque (16001750)
Ludwig van Beethoven;
Classical (17501820)
second row: Gioachino Rossini, Felix Mendelssohn,
Romantic eras (18041910)
Frdric Chopin, Richard Wagner, Giuseppe Verdi;
the 20th century (19012000) which
third row: Johann Strauss II, Johannes Brahms,
includes
Georges Bizet, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Antonn
the modern (18901930) that
Dvok;
overlaps from the late
bottom row: Edvard Grieg, Edward Elgar, Sergei
19th-century,
Rachmaninoff, George Gershwin, Aram Khachaturian
the high modern (19501969)
contemporary (1945 or
1975present) or postmodern (1930present) eras
European art music is largely distinguished from many other non-European and some popular
musical forms by its system of staff notation, in use since about the 16th century.[2] Western staff
notation is used by composers to indicate to the performer the pitches (e.g., melodies, basslines,
chords), tempo, meter and rhythms for a piece of music. This can leave less room for practices such
as improvisation and ad libitum ornamentation, which are frequently heard in non-European art
music and in popular-music[3][4][5] styles such as jazz and blues. Another difference is that whereas
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most popular styles adopt the song (strophic) form, classical music has been noted for its
development of highly sophisticated forms of instrumental music such as the concerto, symphony,
sonata, and mixed vocal and instrumental styles such as opera[6] which, since they are written
down, can sustain larger forms and attain a high level of complexity.[7]
The term "classical music" did not appear until the early 19th century, in an attempt to distinctly
canonize the period from Johann Sebastian Bach to Beethoven as a golden age.[8] The earliest
reference to "classical music" recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary is from about 1836.[1][9]
Contents
1 Characteristics
1.1 Literature
1.2 Instrumentation and vocal practices
1.2.1 Medieval music
1.2.2 Renaissance music
1.2.3 Baroque music
1.2.4 Classical music
1.2.5 Romantic music
1.2.6 Modern music
1.2.7 High modern music
1.2.8 Contemporary classical music
1.2.9 Postmodern music
1.3 Performance
1.3.1 Gender of performers
1.4 Complexity
2 History
2.1 Roots
2.2 Early period
2.3 Common practice period
2.3.1 Baroque music
2.3.2 Classical era (or period) music
2.3.3 Romantic era music
2.4 20th and 21st centuries
2.4.1 Modern, high modern, and post modern or contemporary music
2.5 Women in classical music
2.6 Timeline of composers
3 Significance of written notation
3.1 Modernist view of the significance of the score
3.2 Criticism of the modernist view
3.3 Improvisation
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4 Relationship to other music traditions

4.1 Popular music
4.2 Folk music
5 Commercialization
6 Public domain
7 Education
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Characteristics
Given the wide range of styles in classical music, from Medieval plainchant sung by monks to
Classical and Romantic symphonies for orchestra from the 1700s and 1800s to avant-garde atonal
compositions for solo piano from the 1900s, it is difficult to list characteristics that can be attributed
to all works of that type. However, there are characteristics that classical music contains that few or
no other genres of music contain,[10] such as the use of a printed score and the performance of very
complex instrumental works (e.g., the fugue). As well, although the symphony did not exist
through the entire classical music period, from the mid-1700s to the 2000s the symphony
ensembleand the works written for ithave become a defining feature of classical music.
Literature
The key characteristic of classical music that distinguishes it from popular music and folk music is
that the repertoire tends to be written down in musical notation, creating a musical part or score.
This score typically determines details of rhythm, pitch, and, where two or more musicians
(whether singers or instrumentalists) are involved, how the various parts are coordinated. The
written quality of the music has enabled a high level of complexity within them: J.S. Bach's fugues,
for instance, achieve a remarkable marriage of boldly distinctive melodic lines weaving in
counterpoint yet creating a coherent harmonic logic that would be impossible in the heat of live
improvisation.[7] The use of written notation also preserves a record of the works and enables
Classical musicians to perform music from many centuries ago. Musical notation enables 2000s-era
performers to sing a choral work from the 1300s Renaissance era or a 1700s Baroque concerto with
many of the features of the music (the melodies, lyrics, forms, and rhythms) being reproduced.
That said, the score does not provide complete and exact instructions on how to perform a historical
work. Even if the tempo is written with an Italian instruction (e.g., Allegro), we do not know
exactly how fast the piece should be played. As well, in the Baroque era, many works that were
designed for basso continuo accompaniment do not specify which instruments should play the
accompaniment or exactly how the chordal instrument (harpsichord, lute, etc.) should play the
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chords, which are not notated in the part (only a figured bass symbol beneath the bass part is used
to guide the chord-playing performer). The performer and the conductor have a range of options for
musical expression and interpretation of a scored piece, including the phrasing of melodies, the
time taken during fermatas (held notes) or pauses, and the use (or choice not to use) of effects such
as vibrato or glissando (these effects are possible on various stringed, brass and woodwind
instruments and with the human voice).
Although Classical music in the 2000s has lost most of its tradition for musical improvisation, from
the Baroque era to the Romantic era, there are examples of performers who could improvise in the
style of their era. In the Baroque era, organ performers would improvise preludes, keyboard
performers playing harpsichord would improvise chords from the figured bass symbols beneath the
bass notes of the basso continuo part and both vocal and instrumental performers would improvise
musical ornaments.[11] J.S. Bach was particularly noted for his complex improvisations.[12] During
the Classical era, the composer-performer Mozart was noted for his ability to improvise melodies in
different styles.[13] During the Classical era, some virtuoso soloists would improvise the cadenza
sections of a concerto. During the Romantic era, Beethoven would improvise at the piano.[14] For
more information, see Improvisation.
Instrumentation and vocal practices

The instruments currently used in most classical music were largely invented before the mid-19th
century (often much earlier) and codified in the 18th and 19th centuries. They consist of the
instruments found in an orchestra or in a concert band, together with several other solo instruments
(such as the piano, harpsichord, and organ). The symphony orchestra is the most widely known
medium for classical music[15] and includes members of the string, woodwind, brass, and
percussion families of instruments. The concert band consists of members of the woodwind, brass,
and percussion families. It generally has a larger variety and amount of woodwind and brass
instruments than the orchestra but does not have a string section. However, many concert bands use
a double bass. The vocal practices changed over the classical period, from the single line
monophonic Gregorian chant done by monks in the Medieval period to the complex, polyphonic
choral works of the Renaissance and subsequent periods, which used multiple independent vocal
melodies at the same time.
Medieval music
Many of the instruments used to perform medieval music still exist, but in different forms.
Medieval instruments included the wood flute (which in the 21st century is made of metal), the
recorder and plucked string instruments like the lute. As well, early versions of the organ, fiddle (or
vielle), and trombone (called the sackbut) existed. Medieval instruments in Europe had most
commonly been used singly, often self accompanied with a drone note, or occasionally in parts.
From at least as early as the 13th century through the 15th century there was a division of
instruments into haut (loud, shrill, outdoor instruments) and bas (quieter, more intimate
instruments).[16] During the earlier medieval period, the vocal music from the liturgical genre,
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predominantly Gregorian chant, was monophonic, using a single, unaccompanied vocal melody
line.[17] Polyphonic vocal genres, which used multiple independent vocal melodies, began to
develop during the high medieval era, becoming prevalent by the later 13th and early 14th century.
Renaissance music
Many instruments originated during the Renaissance; others were variations of, or improvements
upon, instruments that had existed previously. Some have survived to the present day; others have
disappeared, only to be recreated in order to perform music of the period on authentic instruments.
As in the modern day, instruments may be classified as brass, strings, percussion, and woodwind.
Brass instruments in the Renaissance were traditionally played by professionals who were members
of Guilds and they included the slide trumpet, the wooden cornet, the valveless trumpet and the
sackbut. Stringed instruments included the viol, the harp-like lyre, the hurdy-gurdy, the cittern and
the lute. Keyboard instruments with strings included the harpsichord and the virginal. Percussion
instruments include the triangle, the Jew's harp, the tambourine, the bells, the rumble-pot, and
various kinds of drums. Woodwind instruments included the double reed shawm, the reed pipe, the
bagpipe, the transverse flute and the recorder. Vocal music in the Renaissance is noted for the
flourishing of an increasingly elaborate polyphonic style. The principal liturgical forms which
endured throughout the entire Renaissance period were masses and motets, with some other
developments towards the end, especially as composers of sacred music began to adopt secular
forms (such as the madrigal) for their own designs. Towards the end of the period, the early
dramatic precursors of opera such as monody, the madrigal comedy, and the intermedio are seen.
Baroque music
Baroque instruments included some instruments from the earlier periods (e.g., the hurdy-gurdy and
recorder) and a number of new instruments (e.g, the cello, contrabass and fortepiano). Some
instruments from previous eras fell into disuse, such as the shawm and the wooden cornet. The key
Baroque instruments for strings included the violin, viol, viola, viola d'amore, cello, contrabass,
lute, theorbo (which often played the basso continuo parts), mandolin, cittern, Baroque guitar, harp
and hurdy-gurdy. Woodwinds included the Baroque flute, Baroque oboe, rackett, recorder and the
bassoon. Brass instruments included the cornett, natural horn, Baroque trumpet, serpent and the
trombone. Keyboard instruments included the clavichord, tangent piano, the fortepiano (an early
version of the piano), the harpsichord and the pipe organ. Percussion instruments included the
timpani, snare drum, tambourine and the castanets.
One major difference between Baroque music and the classical era that followed it is that the types
of instruments used in ensembles were much less standardized. Whereas a classical era string
quartet consists almost exclusively of two violins, a viola and a cello, a Baroque group
accompanying a soloist or opera could include one of several different types of keyboard
instruments (e.g., pipe organ, harpsichord, or clavichord), additional stringed chordal instruments
(e.g., a lute) and an unspecified number of bass instruments performing the basso continuo bassline,
including bowed strings, woodwinds and brass instruments (e.g., a cello, contrabass, viol, bassoon,
serpent, etc.).
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Vocal developments in the Baroque era included the development of opera types such as opera seria
and opra comique, oratorios, cantatas and chorale.
Classical music
The term "classical music" has two meanings: the broader meaning includes all Western art music
from the Medieval era to the 2000s, and the specific meaning refers to the art music from the 1750s
to the early 1830sthe era of Mozart and Haydn. This section is about the more specific meaning.
Classical era musicians continued to use many of instruments from the Baroque era, such as the
cello, contrabass, recorder, trombone, timpani, fortepiano (the precursor to the modern piano) and
organ. While some Baroque instruments fell into disuse (e.g., the theorbo and rackett), many
Baroque instruments were changed into the versions that are still in use today, such as the Baroque
violin (which became the violin), the Baroque oboe (which became the oboe) and the Baroque
trumpet, which transitioned to the regular valved trumpet. During the Classical era, the stringed
instruments used in orchestra and chamber music such as string quartets were standardized as the
four instruments which form the string section of the orchestra: the violin, viola, cello and double
bass. Baroque-era stringed instruments such as fretted, bowed viols were phased out. Woodwinds
included the basset clarinet, basset horn, clarinette d'amour, the Classical clarinet, the chalumeau,
the flute, oboe and bassoon. Keyboard instruments included the clavichord and the fortepiano.
While the harpsichord was still used in basso continuo accompaniment in the 1750s and 1760s, it
fell out of use in the end of the century. Brass instruments included the buccin, the ophicleide (a
replacement for the bass serpent, which was the precursor of the tuba) and the natural horn.
The "standard complement" of double winds and brass in the orchestra from the first half of the
19th century is generally attributed to Beethoven. The exceptions to this are his Symphony No. 4,
Violin Concerto, and Piano Concerto No. 4, which each specify a single flute. The composer's
instrumentation usually included paired flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, horns and trumpets.
Beethoven carefully calculated the expansion of this particular timbral "palette" in Symphonies 3,
5, 6, and 9 for an innovative effect. The third horn in the "Eroica" Symphony arrives to provide not
only some harmonic flexibility, but also the effect of "choral" brass in the Trio. Piccolo,
contrabassoon, and trombones add to the triumphal finale of his Symphony No. 5. A piccolo and a
pair of trombones help deliver "storm" and "sunshine" in the Sixth. The Ninth asks for a second
pair of horns, for reasons similar to the "Eroica" (four horns has since become standard);
Beethoven's use of piccolo, contrabassoon, trombones, and untuned percussionplus chorus and
vocal soloistsin his finale, are his earliest suggestion that the timbral boundaries of symphony
should be expanded. For several decades after he died, symphonic instrumentation was faithful to
Beethoven's well-established model, with few exceptions.
Romantic music
In the Romantic era, the modern piano, with a more powerful, sustained tone and a wider range
took over from the more delicate-sounding fortepiano. In the orchestra, the existing Classical
instruments and sections were retained (string section, woodwinds, brass and percussion), but these
sections were typically expanded to make a fuller, bigger sound. For example, while a Baroque
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orchestra may have had two double bass players, a Romantic orchestra could have as many as ten.
"As music grew more expressive, the standard orchestral palette just wasn't rich enough for many
Romantic composers." [18] New woodwind instruments were added, such as the contrabassoon,
bass clarinet and piccolo and new percussion instruments were added, including xylophones, snare
drums, celestes (a bell-like keyboard instrument), bells, and triangles,[18] large orchestral harps, and
even wind machines for sound effects. Saxophones appear in some scores from the late 19th
century onwards. While appearing only as featured solo instruments in some works, for example
Maurice Ravel's orchestration of Modest Mussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition and Sergei
Rachmaninoff's Symphonic Dances, the saxophone is included in other works, such as Ravel's
Bolro, Sergei Prokofiev's Romeo and Juliet Suites 1 and 2 and many other works as a member of
the orchestral ensemble. The euphonium is featured in a few late Romantic and 20th-century works,
usually playing parts marked "tenor tuba", including Gustav Holst's The Planets, and Richard
Strauss's Ein Heldenleben.
The Wagner tuba, a modified member of the horn family, appears in Richard Wagner's cycle Der
Ring des Nibelungen and several other works by Strauss, Bla Bartk, and others; it has a
prominent role in Anton Bruckner's Symphony No. 7 in E Major.[19] Cornets appear in Pyotr Ilyich
Tchaikovsky's ballet Swan Lake, Claude Debussy's La Mer, and several orchestral works by Hector
Berlioz. Unless these instruments are played by members doubling on another instrument (for
example, a trombone player changing to euphonium for a certain passage), orchestras will use
freelance musicians to augment their regular rosters.
Modern music
Modern music is a philosophical and aesthetic stance
underlying the period of change and development in
musical language that occurred from 1890 to 1930, a
period of diverse reactions in challenging and
reinterpreting older categories of music, innovations
that lead to new ways of organizing and approaching
harmonic, melodic, sonic, and rhythmic aspects of
music, and changes in aesthetic worldviews in close
The Dublin Philharmonic Orchestra performs
relation to the larger identifiable period of
Tchaikovsky's Fourth Symphony
modernism in the arts of the time. The operative
word most associated with it is "innovation" (Metzer
2009, 3). Its leading feature is a "linguistic plurality", which is to say that no single music genre
ever assumed a dominant position (Morgan 1984, 443).
High modern music
High modern music was developed from 1930 to 1975. Electric instruments such as the amplified
electric guitar, the electric bass and the ondes Martenot appear occasionally in the classical music
of the 20th and 21st centuries. Both classical and popular musicians have experimented in recent
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decades with electronic instruments such as the synthesizer, electric and digital techniques such as
the use of sampled or computer-generated sounds, and instruments from other cultures such as the
gamelan.
Contemporary classical music
Contemporary classical music is the period that came into prominence in the mid-1970s. It includes
different variations of modernist, postmodern, neoromantic, and pluralist music.[20] However, the
term may also be employed in a broader sense to refer to all post-1945 musical forms. [21]
Postmodern music
Postmodern music is a period of music that appeared at about the same time as other types of
contemporary classical music; i.e around 1975. It shares characteristics with postmodernist
artthat is, art that comes after and reacts against modernism.
Many instruments that in the 2010s are associated with popular music filled important roles in early
classical music, such as bagpipes, vihuelas, hurdy-gurdies (hand-cranked string instruments), and
some woodwind instruments. On the other hand, instruments such as the acoustic guitar, once
associated mainly with popular music, gained prominence in classical music in the 19th and 20th
centuries in the form of the classical guitar. While equal temperament gradually accepted as the
dominant musical temperament during the 18th century, different historical temperaments are often
used for music from earlier periods. For instance, music of the English Renaissance is often
performed in meantone temperament. As well, while professional orchestras and pop bands all
around the world tune to an A fixed at 440 Hz in the 2010s, during the 17th and 18th century, there
was a great variety in the tuning pitch, as attested to in historical pipe organs that still exist.
Performance
Performers who have studied classical music
extensively are said to be "classically trained". This
training may be from private lessons from
instrument or voice teachers or from completion of a
formal program offered by a Conservatory, college
or university, such as a B.mus. or M.mus. degree
(which includes individual lessons from professors).
In classical music, "...extensive formal music
education and training, often to postgraduate
[Master's degree] level" is required.[22]
Youth concert band in performance
Performance of classical music repertoire requires a

proficiency in sight-reading and ensemble playing,
harmonic principles, strong ear training (to correct and adjust pitches by ear), knowledge of
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performance practice (e.g., Baroque ornamentation), and a familiarity with the style/musical idiom
expected for a given composer or musical work (e.g., a Brahms symphony or a Mozart concerto).
Some "popular" genre musicians have had significant classical training, such as Billy Joel, Elton
John, the Van Halen brothers, Randy Rhoads and Ritchie Blackmore. Moreover, formal training is
not unique to the classical genre. Many rock and pop musicians have completed degrees in
commercial music programs such as those offered by the Berklee College of Music and many jazz
musicians have completed degrees in music from universities with jazz programs, such as the
Manhattan School of Music and McGill University.
Gender of performers
Historically, major professional orchestras have been mostly or entirely composed of male
musicians. Some of the earliest cases of women being hired in professional orchestras was in the
position of harpist. The Vienna Philharmonic, for example, did not accept women to permanent
membership until 1997, far later than the other orchestras ranked among the world's top five by
Gramophone in 2008.[23] The last major orchestra to appoint a woman to a permanent position was
the Berlin Philharmonic.[24] As late as February 1996, the Vienna Philharmonic's principal flute,
Dieter Flury, told Westdeutscher Rundfunk that accepting women would be "gambling with the
emotional unity (emotionelle Geschlossenheit) that this organism currently has".[25] In April 1996,
the orchestra's press secretary wrote that "compensating for the expected leaves of absence" of
maternity leave would be a problem.[26]
In 1997, the Vienna Philharmonic was "facing protests during a [US] tour" by the National
Organization for Women and the International Alliance for Women in Music. Finally, "after being
held up to increasing ridicule even in socially conservative Austria, members of the orchestra
gathered [on 28 February 1997] in an extraordinary meeting on the eve of their departure and
agreed to admit a woman, Anna Lelkes, as harpist."[27] As of 2013, the orchestra has six female
members; one of them, violinist Albena Danailova became one of the orchestra's concertmasters in
2008, the first woman to hold that position.[28] In 2012, women still made up just 6% of the
orchestra's membership. VPO president Clemens Hellsberg said the VPO now uses completely
screened blind auditions.[29]
In 2013, an article in Mother Jones stated that while "[m]any prestigious orchestras have significant
female membershipwomen outnumber men in the New York Philharmonic's violin sectionand
several renowned ensembles, including the National Symphony Orchestra, the Detroit Symphony,
and the Minnesota Symphony, are led by women violinists", the double bass, brass, and percussion
sections of major orchestras "...are still predominantly male."[30] A 2014 BBC article stated that the
"...introduction of 'blind' auditions, where a prospective instrumentalist performs behind a screen so
that the judging panel can exercise no gender or racial prejudice, has seen the gender balance of
traditionally male-dominated symphony orchestras gradually shift."[31]
Complexity
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Works of classical repertoire often exhibit complexity in their use of orchestration, counterpoint,
harmony, musical development, rhythm, phrasing, texture, and form. Whereas most popular styles
are usually written in song forms, classical music is noted for its development of highly
sophisticated instrumental musical forms,[6] like the concerto, symphony and sonata. Classical
music is also noted for its use of sophisticated vocal/instrumental forms, such as opera. In opera,
vocal soloists and choirs perform staged dramatic works with an orchestra providing
accompaniment. Longer instrumental works are often divided into self-contained pieces, called
movements, often with contrasting characters or moods. For instance, symphonies written during
the Classical period are usually divided into four movements: (1) an opening Allegro in sonata
form, (2) a slow movement, (3) a minuet or scherzo (in a triple meter, such as 3/4), and (4) a final
Allegro. These movements can then be further broken down into a hierarchy of smaller units: first
sections, then periods, and finally phrases.
History
The major time divisions of classical music up to
1900 are the early music period, which includes
Medieval (5001400) and Renaissance
(14001600) eras, and the Common practice
period, which includes the Baroque
(16001750), Classical (17501830) and
Romantic (18041910) eras. Since 1900,
classical periods have been reckoned more by
calendar century than by particular stylistic
movements that have become fragmented and
difficult to define. The 20th century calendar
period (19012000) includes most of the early
modern musical era (18901930), the entire high
modern (mid 20th-century), and the first 25
years of the contemporary or postmodern
musical era (1975current). The 21st century has
so far been characterized by a continuation of the
contemporary/postmodern musical era.
Periods and eras of

Western classical music
Early
Medieval
c. 5001400
Renaissance
c. 14001600
Common practice
Baroque
c. 16001750
Classical
c. 17301820
Romantic
c. 17801910
Impressionist
c. 18751925
Modern and contemporary

Modern High modern
20th century
c. 18901975
(19002000)
Contemporary Postmodern
c. 1975present
The dates are generalizations, since the periods
21st century
(2000present)
and eras overlap and the categories are
somewhat arbitrary, to the point that some
authorities reverse terminologies and refer to a
common practice "era" comprising baroque, classical, and romantic "periods".[32] For example, the
use of counterpoint and fugue, which is considered characteristic of the Baroque era (or period),
was continued by Haydn, who is classified as typical of the Classical era. Beethoven, who is often
described as a founder of the Romantic era, and Brahms, who is classified as Romantic, also used
counterpoint and fugue, but other characteristics of their music define their era.
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The prefix neo is used to describe a 20th-century or contemporary composition written in the style
of an earlier era, such as Classical or Romantic. Stravinsky's Pulcinella, for example, is a
neoclassical composition because it is stylistically similar to works of the Classical era.
Roots
Burgh (2006), suggests that the roots of Western classical music ultimately lie in ancient Egyptian
art music via cheironomy and the ancient Egyptian orchestra, which dates to 2695 BC.[33] The
development of individual tones and scales was made by ancient Greeks such as Aristoxenus and
Pythagoras.[34] Pythagoras created a tuning system and helped to codify musical notation. Ancient
Greek instruments such as the aulos (a reed instrument) and the lyre (a stringed instrument similar
to a small harp) eventually led to the modern-day instruments of a classical orchestra.[35] The
antecedent to the early period was the era of ancient music before the fall of the Roman Empire
(476 AD). Very little music survives from this time, most of it from ancient Greece.
Early period
The Medieval period includes music from after the fall of Rome to about
1400. Monophonic chant, also called plainsong or Gregorian chant, was
the dominant form until about 1100.[36] Polyphonic (multi-voiced) music
developed from monophonic chant throughout the late Middle Ages and
into the Renaissance, including the more complex voicings of motets.
The Renaissance era was from 1400 to 1600. It was characterized by
greater use of instrumentation, multiple interweaving melodic lines, and
the use of the first bass instruments. Social dancing became more
widespread, so musical forms appropriate to accompanying dance began
to standardize. It is in this time that the notation of music on a staff and
other elements of musical notation began to take shape.[37] This
Musician playing the
invention made possible the separation of the composition of a piece of
vielle (fourteenthmusic from its transmission; without written music, transmission was
century Medieval
oral, and subject to change every time it was transmitted. With a musical
manuscript)
score, a work of music could be performed without the composer's
presence.[36] The invention of the movable-type printing press in the
15th century had far-reaching consequences on the preservation and transmission of music.[38]
Typical stringed instruments of the early period include the
harp, lute, vielle, and psaltery, while wind instruments included
the flute family (including recorder), shawm (an early member
of the oboe family), trumpet, and the bagpipes. Simple pipe
Johannes Ockeghem, Kyrie "Au
organs existed, but were largely confined to churches, although
travail suis," excerpt
there were portable varieties.[39] Later in the period, early
versions of keyboard instruments like the clavichord and
harpsichord began to appear. Stringed instruments such as the viol had emerged by the 16th
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century, as had a wider variety of brass and reed instruments. Printing enabled the standardization
of descriptions and specifications of instruments, as well as instruction in their use.[40]
Common practice period

The common practice period is when many of the ideas that make up western classical music took
shape, standardized, or were codified. It began with the Baroque era, running from roughly 1600 to
the middle of the 18th century. The Classical era followed, ending roughly around 1820. The
Romantic era ran through the 19th century, ending about 1910.
Baroque music
Baroque music is characterized by the use of complex tonal
counterpoint and the use of a basso continuo, a continuous bass
line. Music became more complex in comparison with the songs
of earlier periods.[15] The beginnings of the sonata form took
shape in the canzona, as did a more formalized notion of theme
and variations. The tonalities of major and minor as means for
managing dissonance and chromaticism in music took full
shape.[41]
Baroque instruments including

hurdy-gurdy, harpsichord, bass
viol, lute, violin, and baroque
guitar
During the Baroque era, keyboard music played on the

harpsichord and pipe organ became increasingly popular, and
the violin family of stringed instruments took the form
generally seen today. Opera as a staged musical drama began to
differentiate itself from earlier musical and dramatic forms, and vocal forms like the cantata and
oratorio became more common.[42] Vocalists began adding embellishments to melodies.[15]
Instrumental ensembles began to distinguish and standardize by size, giving rise to the early
orchestra for larger ensembles, with chamber music being written for smaller groups of instruments
where parts are played by individual (instead of massed) instruments. The concerto as a vehicle for
solo performance accompanied by an orchestra became widespread, although the relationship
between soloist and orchestra was relatively simple.
The theories surrounding equal temperament began to be put in wider practice, especially as it
enabled a wider range of chromatic possibilities in hard-to-tune keyboard instruments. Although
Bach did not use equal temperament, as a modern piano is generally tuned, changes in the
temperaments from the meantone system, common at the time, to various temperaments that made
modulation between all keys musically acceptable, made possible Bach's Well-Tempered
Clavier.[43]
Classical era (or period) music
The Classical era, from about 1750 to 1820, established many of the norms of composition,
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presentation, and style, and was also when the piano became the
predominant keyboard instrument. The basic forces required for an
orchestra became somewhat standardized (although they would grow
as the potential of a wider array of instruments was developed in the
following centuries). Chamber music grew to include ensembles with
as many as 8 to 10 performers for serenades. Opera continued to
develop, with regional styles in Italy, France, and German-speaking
lands. The opera buffa, a form of comic opera, rose in popularity. The
symphony came into its own as a musical form, and the concerto was
developed as a vehicle for displays of virtuoso playing skill.
Orchestras no longer required a harpsichord (which had been part of
the traditional continuo in the Baroque style), and were often led by
the lead violinist (now called the concertmaster).[44]
Joseph Haydn
(17321809) c. 1770
Wind instruments became more refined in the Classical era. While

double reeded instruments like the oboe and bassoon became somewhat standardized in the
Baroque, the clarinet family of single reeds was not widely used until Mozart expanded its role in
orchestral, chamber, and concerto settings.
Romantic era music
The music of the Romantic era, from roughly the first decade of the 19th century to the early 20th
century, was characterized by increased attention to an extended melodic line, as well as expressive
and emotional elements, paralleling romanticism in other art forms. Musical forms began to break
from the Classical era forms (even as those were being codified), with free-form pieces like
nocturnes, fantasias, and preludes being written where accepted ideas about the exposition and
development of themes were ignored or minimized.[45] The music became more chromatic,
dissonant, and tonally colorful, with tensions (with respect to accepted norms of the older forms)
about key signatures increasing.[46] The art song (or Lied) came to maturity in this era, as did the
epic scales of grand opera, ultimately transcended by Richard Wagner's Ring cycle.[47]
In the 19th century, musical institutions emerged from the control of wealthy patrons, as composers
and musicians could construct lives independent of the nobility. Increasing interest in music by the
growing middle classes throughout western Europe spurred the creation of organizations for the
teaching, performance, and preservation of music. The piano, which achieved its modern
construction in this era (in part due to industrial advances in metallurgy) became widely popular
with the middle class, whose demands for the instrument spurred a large number of piano builders.
Many symphony orchestras date their founding to this era.[46] Some musicians and composers were
the stars of the day; some, like Franz Liszt and Niccol Paganini, fulfilled both roles.[48]
The family of instruments used, especially in orchestras, grew. A wider array of percussion
instruments began to appear. Brass instruments took on larger roles, as the introduction of rotary
valves made it possible for them to play a wider range of notes. The size of the orchestra (typically
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around 40 in the Classical era) grew to be over 100.[46] Gustav Mahler's 1906 Symphony No. 8, for
example, has been performed with over 150 instrumentalists and choirs of over 400.
European cultural ideas and institutions began to follow colonial expansion into other parts of the
world. There was also a rise, especially toward the end of the era, of nationalism in music (echoing,
in some cases, political sentiments of the time), as composers such as Edvard Grieg, Nikolai
Rimsky-Korsakov, and Antonn Dvok echoed traditional music of their homelands in their
compositions.[49]
20th and 21st centuries

Modern, high modern, and post modern or contemporary music
Encompassing a wide variety of post-Romantic styles composed
through the year 2000, 20th century classical music includes late
romantic, modern, high-modern, and postmodern styles of
composition. Modernism (18901930) marked an era when many
composers rejected certain values of the common practice period, such
as traditional tonality, melody, instrumentation, and structure. The
high-modern era saw the emergence of neo-classical and serial music.
A few authorities have claimed high-modernism as the beginning of
postmodern music from about 1930.[50][51] Others have more or less
equated postmodern music with the "contemporary music" composed
from the late 20th century through to the early 21st century.[52][53]
Women in classical music
Igor Stravinsky, by Pablo

Picasso, collaborators on
Pulcinella (1920)
Almost all of the composers who are described in music textbooks on

classical music and whose works are widely performed as part of the
standard concert repertoire are male composers, even though there has
been a large number of women composers throughout the classical music period. Musicologist
Marcia Citron has asked "[w]hy is music composed by women so marginal to the standard
'classical' repertoire?"[54] Citron "examines the practices and attitudes that have led to the exclusion
of women composers from the received 'canon' of performed musical works." She argues that in the
1800s, women composers typically wrote art songs for performance in small recitals rather than
symphonies intended for performance with an orchestra in a large hall, with the latter works being
seen as the most important genre for composers; since women composers did not write many
symphonies, they were deemed to be not notable as composers.[54] In the "...Concise Oxford
History of Music, Clara S[c]humann is one of the only [sic] female composers mentioned."[55]
Abbey Philips states that "[d]uring the 20th century the women who were composing/playing
gained far less attention than their male counterparts."[55]
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Timeline of composers
Significance of written notation

Modernist view of the significance of the score
The modernist views hold that classical music is considered primarily a written musical tradition,
preserved in music notation, as opposed to being transmitted orally, by rote, or by recordings of
particular performances. While there are differences between particular performances of a classical
work, a piece of classical music is generally held to transcend any interpretation of it. The use of
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musical notation is an effective method for transmitting classical music, since the written music
contains the technical instructions for performing the work.
The written score, however, does not usually contain explicit instructions as to how to interpret the
piece in terms of production or performance, apart from directions for dynamics, tempo and
expression (to a certain extent). This is left to the discretion of the performers, who are guided by
their personal experience and musical education, their knowledge of the work's idiom, their
personal artistic tastes, and the accumulated body of historic performance practices.
Criticism of the modernist view

Some critics express the opinion that it is only from the mid-19th century, and especially in the 20th
century, that the score began to hold such a high significance. Previously, improvisation (in
preludes, cadenzas and ornaments), rhythmic flexibility (e.g., tempo rubato), improvisatory
deviation from the score and oral tradition of playing was integral to the style. Yet in the 20th
century, this oral tradition and passing on of stylistic features within classical music disappeared.
Instead, musicians tend to use just the score to play music. Yet, even with the score providing the
key elements of the music, there is considerable controversy about how to perform the works.
Some of this controversy relates to the fact that this score-centric approach has led to performances
that emphasize metrically strict block-rhythms (just as the music is notated in the score).
Some quotes that highlight this criticism of modernist overvaluing of the score:
"... one of the most stubborn modern misconceptions concerning baroque music is that a
metronomic regularity was intended" (Baroque Interpretation in Grove 5th edition by Robert
Donington)
"The history of this particular idea is littered with dead ends and failed projects. It is high time
these misconceptions are addressed with academic rigour." History of Metaphysics by
Andrew Pyle
"Too many teachers, conditioned to 20th Century ideas, teach Bach and other Baroque music
exactly the wrong way. This leads to what musicologist Sol Babitz calls 'sewing machine
Bach'."[56]
"... tendency to look alike, sound alike and think alike. The conservatories are at fault and
they have been at fault for many years now. Any sensitive musician going around the World
has noted the same thing. The conservatories, from Moscow and Leningrad to Juilliard, Curtis
and Indiana, are producing a standardized product.
[...] clarity, undeviating rhythm, easy technique, 'musicianship'. I put the word musicianship in
quotes, because as often as not, it is a false kind of musicianship a musicianship that sees
the tree and not the forest, that takes care of the detail but ignores the big picture; a
musicianship that is tied to the printed note rather than to emotional meaning of a piece.
The fact remains that there is a dreadful uniformity today and also an appalling lack of
knowledge about the culture and performance traditions of the past." ("Music Schools
Turning out Robots?"[56] by Harold C. Schonberg)
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Improvisation
Improvisation once played an important role in classical music. A remnant of this improvisatory
tradition in classical music can be heard in the cadenza, a passage found mostly in concertos and
solo works, designed to allow skilled performers to exhibit their virtuoso skills on the instrument.
Traditionally this was improvised by the performer; however, it is often written for (or occasionally
by) the performer beforehand. Improvisation is also an important aspect in authentic performances
of operas of Baroque era and of bel canto (especially operas of Vincenzo Bellini), and is best
exemplified by the da capo aria, a form by which famous singers typically perform variations of
the thematic matter of the aria in the recapitulation section ('B section' / the 'da capo' part). An
example is Beverly Sills' complex, albeit pre-written, variation of Da tempeste il legno infranto
from Hndel's Giulio Cesare.
Its written transmission, along with the veneration bestowed on certain classical works, has led to
the expectation that performers will play a work in a way that realizes in detail the original
intentions of the composer. During the 19th century the details that composers put in their scores
generally increased. Yet the opposite trendadmiration of performers for new "interpretations" of
the composer's workcan be seen, and it is not unknown for a composer to praise a performer for
achieving a better realization of the original intent than the composer was able to imagine. Thus,
classical performers often achieve high reputations for their musicianship, even if they do not
compose themselves. Generally however, it is the composers who are remembered more than the
performers.
The primacy of the composer's written score has also led, today, to a relatively minor role played by
improvisation in classical music, in sharp contrast to the practice of musicians who lived during the
baroque, classical and romantic era. Improvisation in classical music performance was common
during both the Baroque and early romantic eras, yet lessened strongly during the second half of the
19th and in the 20th centuries. During the classical era, Mozart and Beethoven often improvised the
cadenzas to their piano concertos (and thereby encouraged others to do so), but they also provided
written cadenzas for use by other soloists. In opera, the practice of singing strictly by the score, i.e.
come scritto, was famously propagated by soprano Maria Callas, who called this practice
'straitjacketing' and implied that it allows the intention of the composer to be understood better,
especially during studying the music for the first time.
Relationship to other music traditions

Popular music
Classical music has often incorporated elements or material from popular music of the composer's
time. Examples include occasional music such as Brahms' use of student drinking songs in his
Academic Festival Overture, genres exemplified by Kurt Weill's The Threepenny Opera, and the
influence of jazz on early- and mid-20th-century composers including Maurice Ravel, exemplified
by the movement entitled "Blues" in his sonata for violin and piano.[57] Certain postmodern,
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minimalist and postminimalist classical composers acknowledge a debt to popular music.[58]

Numerous examples show influence in the opposite direction, including popular songs based on
classical music, the use to which Pachelbel's Canon has been put since the 1970s, and the musical
crossover phenomenon, where classical musicians have achieved success in the popular music
arena.[59] In heavy metal, a number of lead guitarists (playing electric guitar) modeled their playing
styles on Baroque or Classical era instrumental music, including Ritchie Blackmore and Randy
Rhoads.
Folk music
Composers of classical music have often made use of folk music (music created by musicians who
are commonly not classically trained, often from a purely oral tradition). Some composers, like
Dvok and Smetana,[60] have used folk themes to impart a nationalist flavor to their work, while
others like Bartk have used specific themes lifted whole from their folk-music origins. [61]
Commercialization
Certain staples of classical music are often used commercially (either in advertising or in movie
soundtracks). In television commercials, several passages have become clichd, particularly the
opening of Richard Strauss' Also sprach Zarathustra (made famous in the film 2001: A Space
Odyssey) and the opening section "O Fortuna" of Carl Orff's Carmina Burana, often used in the
horror genre; other examples include the Dies Irae from the Verdi Requiem, Edvard Grieg's In the
Hall of the Mountain King from Peer Gynt, the opening bars of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5,
Wagner's Ride of the Valkyries from Die Walkre, Rimsky-Korsakov's Flight of the Bumblebee, and
excerpts of Aaron Copland's Rodeo. Several works from the Golden Age of Animation matched the
action to classical music. Notable examples are Walt Disney's Fantasia, Tom and Jerry's Johann
Mouse, and Warner Bros.' Rabbit of Seville and What's Opera, Doc?.
Similarly, movies and television often revert to standard, clichd excerpts of classical music to
convey refinement or opulence: some of the most-often heard pieces in this category include
Bachs Cello Suite No. 1, Mozart's Eine kleine Nachtmusik, Vivaldi's Four Seasons, Mussorgsky's
Night on Bald Mountain (as orchestrated by Rimsky-Korsakov), and Rossini's William Tell
Overture. The same passages are often used by telephone call centres to induce a sense of calm in
customers waiting in a queue. Shawn Vancour argues that the commercialization of classical music
in the early 20th century may have harmed the music industry through inadequate
representation.[62]
Public domain
Since the range of production of classical music is from 14th century to 21th century, most of this
music (14th to early 20th century) belongs to the public domain, mainly sheet music and tablatures.
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Some projects like Musopen and Open Goldberg Variations were created to produce musical audio
files of high quality and release them into the public domain, most of them are available at the
Internet Archive website.
The Open Goldberg Variations project released a braille format into the public domain that can be
used to produce paper or electronic scores, Braille e-books, for blind people.[63]
Education
During the 1990s, several research papers and popular books wrote on what came to be called the
"Mozart effect": an observed temporary, small elevation of scores on certain tests as a result of
listening to Mozart's works. The approach has been popularized in a book by Don Campbell, and is
based on an experiment published in Nature suggesting that listening to Mozart temporarily
boosted students' IQ by 8 to 9 points.[64] This popularized version of the theory was expressed
succinctly by the New York Times music columnist Alex Ross: "researchers... have determined that
listening to Mozart actually makes you smarter."[65] Promoters marketed CDs claimed to induce the
effect. Florida passed a law requiring toddlers in state-run schools to listen to classical music every
day, and in 1998 the governor of Georgia budgeted $105,000 per year to provide every child born
in Georgia with a tape or CD of classical music. One of the co-authors of the original studies of the
Mozart effect commented "I don't think it can hurt. I'm all for exposing children to wonderful
cultural experiences. But I do think the money could be better spent on music education
programs."[66]
In 1996/97, a research study was conducted on a large population of middle age students in the
Cherry Creek School District in Denver, Colorado, USA. The study showed that students who
actively listen to classical music before studying had higher academic scores. The research further
indicated that students who listened to the music prior to an examination also had positively
elevated achievement scores. Students who listened to rock-and-roll or Country music had
moderately lower scores. The study further indicated that students who used classical music during
the course of study had a significant leap in their academic performance; whereas, those who
listened to other types of music had significantly lowered academic scores. The research was
conducted over several schools within the Cherry Creek School District and was conducted through
the University of Colorado. This study is reflective of several recent studies (i.e. Mike Manthei and
Steve N. Kelly of the University of Nebraska at Omaha; Donald A. Hodges and Debra S. O'Connell
of the University of North Carolina at Greensboro; etc.) and others who had significant results
through the discourse of their work.[67]
See also
List of classical and art music traditions
List of classical music in literature
Nation-specific:
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American classical music

Australian classical music
Canadian classical music
French classical music
Indian classical music
Italian classical music
Russian classical music
Classical music of the United Kingdom
Notes
1. "Classical", The Oxford Concise Dictionary of Music, ed. Michael Kennedy, (Oxford, 2007), Oxford
Reference Online. Retrieved July 23, 2007.
2. Chew, Geffrey & Rastall, Richard. "Notation, III, 1(vi): Plainchant: Pitch-specific notations, 13th16th
centuries". In L. Root, Deane. Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press.
(subscription required)
3. Malm, W.P.; Hughes, David W. "Japan, III, 1: Notation systems: Introduction". In L. Root, Deane.
Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
4. Ian D. Bent; David W. Hughes; Robert C. Provine; Richard Rastall; Anne Kilmer. "Notation, I:
General". In L. Root, Deane. Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press.
(subscription required)
5. Middleton, Richard. "Popular music, I, 4: Europe & North America: Genre, form, style". In L. Root,
Deane. Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
6. Julian Johnson (2002) Who Needs Classical Music?: Cultural Choice and Musical Value: p. 63.
7. Knud Jeppesen: "Bach's music grows out of an ideally harmonic background, against which the voices
develop with a bold independence that is often breath-taking." Quoted from Adele Katz (1946; reprinted
2007)
8. Rushton, Julian, Classical Music, (London, 1994), 10
9. The Oxford English Dictionary (2007). "classical, a.". The OED Online. Retrieved May 10, 2007.
10. Kennedy, Michael (2006), The Oxford Dictionary of Music, p. 178
11. Gabriel Solis, Bruno Nettl. Musical Improvisation: Art, Education, and Society. University of Illinois
Press, 2009. p. 150
12. "On Baroque Improvisation". Community.middlebury.edu. Retrieved 2015-11-27.
13. David Grayson. Mozart: Piano Concertos Nos. 20 and 21. Cambridge University Press, 1998. p. 95
14. Tilman Skowroneck. Beethoven the Pianist. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 160
15. Kirgiss, Crystal (2004). Classical Music. Black Rabbit Books. ISBN 978-1-58340-674-8.
16. (Bowles 1954, 119 et passim)
17. Hoppin (1978) p.57
18. "Romantic music: a beginner's guide Music Periods". Classic FM. Retrieved 2015-11-27.
19. "The Wagner Tuba". The Wagner Tuba. Retrieved 2014-06-04.
20. Botstein "Modernism (http://www.grovemusic.com)" 9: The Late 20th Century (subscription access).
21. "Contemporary" in Du Noyer 2003, 272.
22. "Job Guide Classical Musician". Inputyouth.co.uk. Retrieved 2015-11-27.
23. "The world's greatest orchestras". gramophone.co.uk. Retrieved 2013-04-29.
24. James R. Oestreich, "Berlin in Lights: The Woman Question" (http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com
1/18/2017 2:29 PM
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/2007/11/16/berlin-in-lights-the-woman-question/), Arts Beat, The New York Times, 16 November 2007

25. Westdeutscher Rundfunk Radio 5, "Musikalische Misogynie", 13 February 1996, transcribed by Regina
Himmelbauer (http://www.osborne-conant.org/wdrgerm.htm); translation by William Osborne
(http://www.osborne-conant.org/wdr.htm)
26. "The Vienna Philharmonic's Letter of Response to the Gen-Mus List". Osborne-conant.org. 1996-02-25.
Retrieved 2013-10-05.
27. Jane Perlez, "Vienna Philharmonic Lets Women Join in Harmony" (http://www.nytimes.com/1997/02
/28/world/vienna-philharmonic-lets-women-join-in-harmony.html), The New York Times, February 28,
1997
28. Vienna opera appoints first ever female concertmaster (http://www.france24.com/en/20080508-viennaopera-albena-danailova-first-female-concertmaster-austria&navi=CULTURE), France 24
29. James R. Oestrich, "Even Legends Adjust To Time and Trend, Even the Vienna Philharmonic"
(http://www.nytimes.com/1998/02/28/arts/even-legends-adjust-to-time-and-trend-even-the-vienna.html),
The New York Times, 28 February 1998
30. Hannah Levintova. "Here's Why You Seldom See Women Leading a Symphony". Mother Jones.
31. Burton, Clemency (2014-10-21). "Culture Why aren't there more women conductors?". BBC.
32. Vladimir J. Konecni (2009). "Mode and tempo in Western classical music of the common-practice era"
(PDF). Retrieved 17 February 2015.
33. Burgh, Theodore W. (2006). Listening to Artifacts: Music Culture in Ancient Israel/Palestine. T. & T.
Clark Ltd. ISBN 0567025527.
34. Grout, p. 28
35. Grout (1988)
36. Grout, pp. 7576
37. Grout, p. 61
38. Grout, pp. 175176
39. Grout, pp. 7274
40. Grout, pp. 222225
41. Grout, pp. 300332
42. Grout, pp. 341355
43. Grout, p. 378
44. Grout, p. 463
45. Swafford, p. 200
46. Swafford, p. 201
47. Grout, pp. 595612
48. Grout, p. 543
49. Grout, pp. 634,6412
50. Karolyi 1994, 135
51. Meyer 1994, 33132
52. Sullivan 1995, 217
53. Beard and Gloag 2005, 142
54. Citron, Marcia J. "Gender and the Musical Canon." CUP Archive, 1993.
55. Abbey Philips (2011-09-01). "The history of women and gender roles in music". Rvanews.com.
56. "Music Schools Turning out Robots?" (https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1873&
dat=19691019&id=dpMeAAAAIBAJ&sjid=ncsEAAAAIBAJ&pg=874,4160516) by Harold C.
Schonberg; Daytona Beach Morning Journal October 19, 1969
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57. Kelly, Barbara L. "Ravel, Maurice, 3: 191837". In L. Root, Deane. Grove Music Online. Oxford
Music Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
58. See, for example, Sin, Pwyll Ap. "Nyman, Michael". In L. Root, Deane. Grove Music Online. Oxford
Music Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
59. Notable examples are the Hooked on Classics series of recordings made by the Royal Philharmonic
Orchestra in the early 1980s and the classical crossover violinists Vanessa Mae and Catya Mar.
60. Yeomans, David (2006). Piano Music of the Czech Romantics: A Performer's Guide. Indiana University
Press. p. 2. ISBN 0-253-21845-4.
61. Stevens, Haley; Gillies, Malcolm (1993). The Life and Music of Bla Bartk. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
p. 129. ISBN 0-19-816349-5.
62. Vancour, Shawn (March 2009). "Popularizing the Classics: Radio's Role in the Music Appreciation
Movement 192234.". Media, Culture and Society. 31 (2): 19. doi:10.1177/0163443708100319.
Retrieved 24 April 2012.
63. Braille edition of the Open Goldberg Variations (http://www.opengoldbergvariations.org/braille-editionopen-goldberg-variations) ny robertDouglass, Open Goldberg Variations, 23 March 2014
64. Prelude or requiem for the 'Mozart effect'? (http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v400/n6747
/abs/400827a0.html) Nature 400 (August 26, 1999): 827.
65. Ross, Alex. "Classical View; Listening To Prozac... Er, Mozart" (http://query.nytimes.com
/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C05EFDF1239F93BA1575BC0A962958260), The New York Times, August 28,
1994. Retrieved on May 16, 2008.
66. Goode, Erica. "Mozart for Baby? Some Say, Maybe Not" (http://query.nytimes.com
/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C03E0D81131F930A3575BC0A96F958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=3),
The New York Times, August 3, 1999. Retrieved on May 16, 2008.
67. "The Impact of Music Education on Academic Achievement" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on
September 16, 2012. Retrieved February 2012. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
References
Grout, Donald Jay (1973). A History of Western Music. W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-09416-2.
Grout, Donald J.; Palisca, Claude V. (1988). A History of Western Music. Norton.
ISBN 978-0-393-95627-6.
Johnson, Julian (2002), Who Needs Classical Music?: Cultural Choice and Musical Value.
Oxford University Press, 140pp.
Karolyi, Otto. 1994. Modern British Music: The Second British Musical RenaissanceFrom
Elgar to P. Maxwell Davies. Rutherford, Madison, Teaneck: Farleigh Dickinson University
Press; London and Toronto: Associated University Presses. ISBN 0-8386-3532-6.
Katz, Adele (1946; reprinted 2007), Challenge to Musical Tradition A New Concept of
Tonality. Alfred A. Knopf/reprinted by Katz Press, 444pp., ISBN 1-4067-5761-6.
Kennedy, Michael (2006), The Oxford Dictionary of Music, 985 pages, ISBN 0-19-861459-4
Lebrecht, Norman (1996). When the Music Stops: Managers, Maestros and the Corporate
Murder of Classical Music. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-01025-6.
Metzer, David Joel. 2009. Musical Modernism at the Turn of the Twenty-first Century. Music
in the Twentieth Century 26. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN
978-0-521-51779-9.
Meyer, Leonard B. 1994. Music, the Arts, and Ideas: Patterns and Predictions in Twentieth-
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Century Culture, second edition. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN
0-226-52143-5.
Morgan, Robert P. 1984. "Secret Languages: The Roots of Musical Modernism". Critical
Inquiry 10, no. 3 (March): 44261.
Swafford, Jan (1992). The Vintage Guide to Classical Music. New York: Vintage Books.
ISBN 0-679-72805-8.
Further reading
Copland, Aaron (1957) What to Listen for in Music; rev. ed. McGraw-Hill. (paperback).
Grout, Donald Jay; Palisca, Claude V. (1996) A History of Western Music, Fifth edition. W. W.
Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-96904-5 (hardcover).
Hanning, Barbara Russano; Grout, Donald Jay (1998 rev. 2009) Concise History of Western
Music. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-92803-9 (hardcover).
Johnson, Julian (2002) Who Needs Classical Music?: cultural choice and musical value.
Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514681-6.
Kamien, Roger (2008) Music: an appreciation; 6th brief ed. McGraw-Hill ISBN
978-0-07-340134-8
Lihoreau, Tim; Fry, Stephen (2004) Stephen Fry's Incomplete and Utter History of Classical
Music. Boxtree. ISBN 978-0-7522-2534-0
Scholes, Percy Alfred; Arnold, Denis (1988) The New Oxford Companion to Music. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-311316-3 (paperback).
Schick, Kyle (2012). "Improvisation: Performer as Co-composer", Musical Offerings: Vol. 3:
No. 1, Article 3. Available at http://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/musicalofferings
/vol3/iss1/3.
Sorce Keller, Marcello (2011) What Makes Music European. Looking Beyond Sound. Latham,
NJ: Scarecrow Press (USA).
Taruskin, Richard (2005, rev. Paperback version 2009) Oxford History of Western Music.
Oxford University Press (USA). ISBN 978-0-19-516979-9 (Hardback), ISBN
978-0-19-538630-1 (Paperback)
Gray, Anne; (2007) The World of Women in Classical Music, Wordworld Publications. ISBN
1-59975-320-0 (Paperback)
External links
Media related to Classical music at Wikimedia
Commons
Historical classical recordings from the British Library
Sound Archive (http://sounds.bl.uk
/BrowseCategory.aspx?category=Classical-music)
(available only to users in the member countries of the
European Union)
Wikiquote has
quotations related to:
Classical music
Wikivoyage has a
travel guide for
European classical
1/18/2017 2:29 PM
24 of 24
Chronological list of recorded classical composers

(http://www.discogs.com/lists/Classical-Composers/396)
music.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classical_music&oldid=760658675"

Categories: European music Classical music Classical and art music traditions Music history
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Classical Music - Wikipedia

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Classical music is art music produced or