Tempo - Wikipedia

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempo

Tempo
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In musical terminology, tempo [tmpo] ("time" in Italian; plural: tempi [tmpi]) is the speed or
pace of a given piece or subsection thereof, how fast or slow. Tempo is related to meter and is
usually measured by beats per minute, with the beats being a division of the measures, though
tempo is often indicated by terms which have acquired standard ranges of beats per minute or
assumed by convention without indication. Tempo may be separated from articulation, or
articulation may be indicated along with tempo, and tempo contributes to the overall texture. While
the ability to hold a steady tempo is a desirable skill, tempo is changeable, and often indicated by a
conductor or drummer. While practicing, an electronic or mechanical device, a metronome, may
indicate the tempo, as one usually works one's way up to being able to perform at the proper tempo.
In other words it is the speed at which a passage of music is or should be played.

Contents
1
2
3
4

Measuring tempo
Musical vocabulary for tempo
Understood tempo
Beats per minute
4.1 Extreme tempos
4.2 Beatmatching
5 Measures per minute
6 Italian tempo markings
6.1 Basic tempo markings
6.1.1 Additional terms
6.2 Common qualifiers
6.3 Mood markings with a tempo connotation
6.4 Terms for change in tempo
7 Tempo markings in other languages
7.1 French tempo markings
7.2 German tempo markings
7.3 English tempo markings
8 Tempo markings as movement names and compositions with a tempo indicator name
9 See also
10 References
11 Sources
12 External links

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Measuring tempo
A piece of music's tempo is typically written at the start of the score,
and in modern Western music is usually indicated in beats per minute
(bpm). This means that a particular note value (for example, a quarter
note, or crotchet) is specified as the beat, and that the amount of time
between successive beats is a specified fraction of a minute. The
greater the number of beats per minute, the smaller the amount of
time between successive beats, and thus faster a piece must be
played. For example, a tempo of 60 beats per minute signifies one
beat per second, while a tempo of 120 beats per minute is twice as
rapid, signifying one beat every 0.5 seconds. Mathematical tempo
markings of this kind became increasingly popular during the first
Electronic metronome,
half of the 19th century, after the metronome had been invented by
Johann Nepomuk Maelzel, although early metronomes were
Wittner model
somewhat inconsistent. Beethoven was one of the first composers to
use the metronome; in the 1810s he published metronomic
indications for the eight symphonies he had composed up to that time. [1]
With the advent of modern electronics, bpm became an extremely precise measure. Music
sequencers use the bpm system to denote tempo.
Instead of beats per minute, some 20th-century composers (e.g., Bla Bartk, Alberto Ginastera,
and John Cage) specify the total playing time for a piece, from which the performer can derive
tempo.
Tempo is as crucial in contemporary music as it is in classical. In electronic dance music, accurate
knowledge of a tune's bpm is important to DJs for the purposes of beatmatching.

Musical vocabulary for tempo

Some musical pieces do not have a mathematical time indication. In classical music it is customary
to describe the tempo of a piece by one or more words. Most of these words are Italian, because
many of the most important composers of the 17th century were Italian, and this period was when
tempo indications were first used extensively and codified.[2]
Before the metronome, it was difficult to specify the tempo of a composition; attempts were made
using pendulums or the human pulse.[3] Yet, after the metronome's invention, musicians continued
to use these words, often additionally indicating the mood of the piece. This blurred the traditional
distinction between tempo and mood indicators. For example, presto and allegro both indicate a
speedy execution (presto being faster), but allegro also connotes joy (from its original meaning in
Italian). Presto, on the other hand, simply indicates speed. Additional Italian words also indicate
tempo and mood. For example, the "agitato" in the Allegro agitato of the last movement of George

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Gershwin's piano concerto in F has both a tempo indication (undoubtedly faster than a usual
Allegro) and a mood indication ("agitated").

Understood tempo
In some cases (quite often up to the end of the Baroque period), the conventions that governed
musical composition were so strong that composers didn't need to indicate tempo. For example, the
first movement of Bach's Brandenburg Concerto No. 3 has no tempo or mood indication
whatsoever. To provide movement names, publishers of recordings resort to ad hoc measures, for
instance marking the Brandenburg movement "Allegro", "(Allegro)", "(Without indication)", and so
on.
In Renaissance music, performers understood most music to flow at a tempo defined by the tactus
(roughly the rate of the human heartbeat).[4] The mensural time signature indicated which note
value corresponded to the tactus.
Often a particular musical form or genre implies its own tempo, so composers need place no further
explanation in the score. Thus, musicians expect a minuet to be at a fairly stately tempo, slower
than a Viennese waltz; a perpetuum mobile quite fast, and so on. Genres imply tempos. Thus,
Ludwig van Beethoven wrote "In tempo d'un Menuetto" over the first movement of his Piano
Sonata Op. 54, though that movement is not a minuet. Popular music charts use terms such as bossa
nova, ballad, and Latin rock in much the same way.
Note that not only did tempos change over historical time and even in different places, but
sometimes even the ordering of terms changed. For example, a modern largo is slower than an
adagio, but in the Baroque period it was faster.[5]

Beats per minute

Beats per minute (bpm) is a unit typically used as a measure of tempo
in music and heart rate. The bpm tempo of a piece of music is
conventionally shown in its score as a metronome mark, as illustrated
to the right. This indicates that every one minute there should be 120
beats (or crotchets). In simple time signatures, it is conventional to
show the tempo in terms of the note duration on the bottom. So a 4
4
would show a crotchet (or quarter note), as shown to the right, while a
2 would show a minim (or half note).
2
A bpm of 120
In compound time signatures, the beat consists of three note durations
6 time signature), so
(so there are 3 quavers (eighth notes) per beat in a 8
6, 9,
a dotted form of the next note duration up is used. The most common compound signatures: 8
8
and 12
,
therefore
use
a
dotted
quarter
note
to
indicate
their
bpm.
8

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Exotic time and particularly slow time signatures may indicate their bpm tempo using other note
durations. bpm became common terminology in disco because of its usefulness to DJs, and remain
important in the same genre and other dance music.
In this context the beats measured are either quarter
notes in the time signature (sometimes ambiguously
called down-beats), or drum beats (typically
120 bpm tempo
bass-drum or another functionally similar synthesized
sound), whichever is more frequent. Higher bpm
Problems playing this file? See media help.
values are therefore achievable by increasing the
number of drum beats, without increasing the tempo
of the music. House music is faster around 120128 bpm (from regular house music to UK garage),
trance music ranges from 125 to 150 bpm,[6] and drum and bass generally ranges between
150180 bpm. Psytrance is almost exclusively produced at 145 bpm, whereas Gabber can exceed
180220 bpm. Speedcore can exceed 200 -1000+ bpm.
120 bpm tempo

Extreme tempos
More extreme tempos are achievable at the same underlying tempo with very fast drum patterns,
often expressed as drum rolls. Such compositions often exhibit a much slower underlying tempo,
but may increase the tempo by adding additional percussive beats. Extreme music subgenres such
as speedcore and grindcore often strive to reach unusually fast tempos. The use of extreme tempo
was very common in the fast bebop jazz from the 1940s and 1950s. A common jazz tune such as
"Cherokee" was often performed at quarter note equal to or sometimes exceeding 368 bpm. Some
of Charlie Parker's famous tunes ("Bebop", "Shaw Nuff") have been performed at 380 bpm plus.
John Coltrane's "Giant Steps" was performed at 374 bpm.

Beatmatching
Beat-matching is a technique DJs use that involves speeding up or slowing down a record to match
the tempo of a previous track so both can be seamlessly mixed.
DJs often beatmatch the underlying tempos of recordings, rather than their strict bpm value
suggested by the kick drum, particularly when dealing with high tempo tracks. A 240 bpm track,
for example, matches the beat of a 120 bpm track without slowing down or speeding up, because
both have an underlying tempo of 120 quarter notes per minute. Thus, some soul music (around
7590 bpm) mixes well with a drum and bass beat (from 150185 bpm).
When speeding up or slowing down a record on a turntable, the pitch and tempo of a track are
linked: spinning a disc 10% faster makes both pitch and tempo 10% higher. Software processing to
change the pitch without changing the tempo, or vice versa, is called time-stretching or pitchshifting. While it works fairly well for small adjustments ( 20%), the result can be noisy and
unmusical for larger changes.

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Measures per minute

The speed of a piece of music can also be gauged according to measures per minute (mpm) or bars
per minute, the number of measures of the piece performed in one minute. This measure is
commonly used in ballroom dance music.

Italian tempo markings

The definitions of the Italian tempo markings mentioned in this section can be found in the Harvard
Dictionary of Music and/or the online Italian-English dictionary, both of which are listed in
Sources.

Basic tempo markings

By adding an -issimo ending, the word is amplified. By adding an -ino or -etto ending, the word is
diminished. The beats per minute (bpm) values are rough approximations, and the correspondance
is neither universal across time or space. One striking example is that Allegretto hastened as a
tempo from the 18th to the 19th century: originally it was just above Andante, instead of just below
Allegro as it is now.
From slowest to fastest:
Larghissimo very, very slow (24 bpm (beats per minute in a 4
4 time) and under)
Grave very slow (2545 bpm)
Largo broadly (4060 bpm)
Lento slowly (4560 bpm)
Larghetto rather broadly (6066 bpm)
Adagio slow and stately (literally, "at ease") (6676 bpm)
Adagietto slower than andante (7276 bpm)
Andante at a walking pace (76108 bpm)
Andantino slightly faster than Andante (although in some cases it can be taken to mean
slightly slower than andante) (80108 bpm)
Marcia moderato moderately, in the manner of a march[7][8] (8385 bpm)
Andante moderato between andante and moderato (thus the name andante moderato)
(92112 bpm)
Moderato moderately (108120 bpm)
Allegretto moderately fast (112120 bpm)
Allegro moderato close to but not quite allegro (116120 bpm)
Allegro fast, quickly, and bright (120168 bpm) (molto allegro is slightly faster than allegro,
but always in its range)
Vivace lively and fast (168176 bpm)
Vivacissimo very fast and lively (172176 bpm)

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Allegrissimo or Allegro vivace very fast (172176 bpm)

Presto very, very fast (168200 bpm)
Prestissimo even faster than Presto (200 bpm and over)
Terms for tempo change:
Rallentando gradually slowing down
Ritardando gradually slowing down (but not as much as rallentando)
Ritenuto immediately slowing down
Stringendo gradually speeding up (slowly)
Accelerando gradually speeding up (quickly)
Additional terms
A piacere the performer may use his or her own discretion with regard to tempo and rhythm;
literally "at pleasure"[9]
A tempo resume previous tempo
L'istesso, L'istesso tempo, or Lo stesso tempo at the same speed; L'istesso is used when the
actual speed of the music has not changed, despite apparent signals to the contrary, such as
2
changes in time signature or note length (half notes in 4
4 could change to whole notes in 2, and
they would all have the same duration)[10][11]
Tempo comodo at a comfortable (normal) speed
Tempo di... the speed of a ... (such as Tempo di valse (speed of a waltz, . 60 bpm), Tempo
di marcia (speed of a march, 120 bpm))
Tempo giusto at a consistent speed, at the 'right' speed, in strict tempo
Tempo semplice simple, regular speed, plainly
Tempo primo resume the original (first) tempo

Common qualifiers
alla in the manner or style of, as in:
alla breve in short style, i.e., duple time, with the half note (minim) rather than the
4
quarter note (crotchet) as the beat; cut time; 2
2 instead of 4; often marked as (see Time
signature)
alla marcia in the manner of a march[12] (e.g., Beethoven, op. 101)
all' ongarese in Hungarian style
alla (danza) tedesca in the style of the Lndler (c. 1800), and similar dances in rather
quick triple meter (see Beethoven, op. 79, op. 130)[13]
alla turca in the Turkish style, that is, in imitation of Turkish military music (Janissary
Music), which became popular in Europe in the late 18th century (e.g., Mozart, K. 331,
K. 384)
alla zingarese in the style of Gypsy music

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assai very much, as in allegro assai, quite fast[14]

ben well, as in ben marcato (well marked or accented)
con with, as in
con bravura with skill[15]
con brio with vigor and spirit[16]
con dolcezza with softness; delicately[17]
con fuoco with fire
con moto with motion
deciso decidedly, decisively
fugato in fugal style, usually part of a non-fugal composition; such passages often occur in
the development sections of symphonies, sonatas, and quartets[18]
in modo in the manner of, in the style of: in modo napolitano (in Neapolitan style), in modo
di marcia funebre (in the manner of a funeral march)
meno less, as in meno mosso (less quickly)[19]
appena almost none, as in appena forte (almost not at all loud)
misterioso mysterious
molto much, very, as in molto allegro (very quick) or molto adagio (very slow)[20]
non troppo not too much, e.g. allegro non troppo (or allegro ma non troppo) means "fast,
but not too much"
non tanto not so much
pi more, as in pi allegro (more quickly); used as a relative indication when the tempo
changes
piuttosto rather, as in piuttosto allegro (rather quick)[21]
poco slightly, little, as in Poco adagio
poco a poco little by little
polacca generic name for Polish dances, usually the polonaise, as in tempo di polacca; note,
however, that the "Polacca" in Bach's Brandenburg Concerto No. 1 shows little resemblance
to the polonaise[22]
primo principal or early, as in tempo primo, the same tempo as at the beginning
quasi almost, nearly, as if (such as Pi allegro quasi presto, "faster, as if presto")
senza without, as in senza interruzione (without interruption or pause), senza tempo or senza
misura (without strict measure)[23]
sostenuto sustained, prolonged
subito suddenly
Note: In addition to the common allegretto, composers freely apply Italian diminutive and
superlative suffixes to various tempo indications: andantino, larghetto, adagietto, and larghissimo.

Mood markings with a tempo connotation

Some markings that primarily mark a mood (or character) also have a tempo connotation:

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Affettuoso with feeling/emotion

Agitato agitated, with implied quickness
Appassionato to play passionately
Animato animatedly, lively
Brillante sparkling, glittering, as in Allegro brillante, Rondo brillante, or Variations
brillantes; became fashionable in titles for virtuoso pieces[24]
Bravura bravely; a brilliant and indulgent demonstration of skill[25]
Cantabile in singing style (lyrical and flowing)
Calando dying away, slowing, diminishing
Caloroso - heart-warming
Cataclismico very loud, short
Dolce sweetly
Dolcissimo very sweetly and delicately
Dolente - sadly, sorrowfully
Energico energetic, strong, forceful
Eroico heroically
Espressivo expressively
Furioso to play in an angry or furious manner
Giocoso merrily, funny
Gioioso joyfully
Grandioso magnificently, grandly
Grazioso gracefully
Incalzando encouraging, building
Lacrimoso tearfully, sadly
Lamentoso lamenting, mournfully
Leggiero to play lightly, or with light touch
Leggiadro lightly and gracefully
Maestoso majestic or stately (which generally indicates a solemn, slow march-like
movement)
Malinconico melancholic
Marcato marching tempo, marked with emphasis
Marziale in a march style, usually in simple, strongly marked rhythm and regular phrases
Mesto sad, mournful
Misterioso mystical, in a shady manner
Morendo dying
Nobilmente nobly (in a noble way)
Patetico with great emotion
Pesante heavily
Pomposo dignified, in grand style
Saltando jumpy, fast, and short
Scherzando playfully
Smorzando dying away, decreasing to nothing in both speed and dynamic
Sospirando listless, with little energy; almost indifferent; as if sighing

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Sostenuto sustained, with a slowing of tempo

Spiccato slow sautill, with a bouncy manner
Tenerezza tenderness
Tranquillamente adverb of tranquillo, "calmly"
Trionfante triumphantly
Vivace lively and fast, over 140 bpm (which generally indicates a fast movement)

Terms for change in tempo

Composers may use expressive marks to adjust the tempo:
Accelerando speeding up (abbreviation: accel.)
Allargando growing broader; decreasing tempo, usually near the end of a piece
Calando going slower (and usually also softer)
Doppio movimento / doppio pi mosso double speed
Doppio pi lento half speed
Lentando gradual slowing and softer
Meno mosso less movement or slower
Mosso movement, more lively, or quicker, much like pi mosso, but not as extreme
Pi mosso more movement or faster
Precipitando hurrying, going faster/forward
Rallentando gradual slowing down (abbreviation: rall.)
Ritardando slowing down gradually; also see rallentando and ritenuto (abbreviations: rit.,
ritard.)
Ritenuto slightly slower, but achieved more immediately than ritardando or rallentando; a
sudden decrease in tempo; temporarily holding back.[26] (Note that the abbreviation for
ritenuto can also be rit. Thus a more specific abbreviation is riten. Also sometimes ritenuto
does not reflect a tempo change but a character change instead.)
Rubato free adjustment of tempo for expressive purposes (literally "theft", so more strictly,
take time from one beat to slow another)
Stretto in faster tempo, often near the conclusion of a section. (Note that in fugal
compositions, the term stretto refers to the imitation of the subject in close succession, before
the subject is completed, and as such, suitable for the close of the fugue.[27] Used in this
context, the term is not necessarily related to tempo.)
Stringendo pressing on faster (literally "tightening")
Tardando slowing down gradually (same as ritardando)[28]
While the base tempo indication (such as allegro) appears in large type above the staff, these
adjustments typically appear below the staff or (in the case of keyboard instruments) in the middle
of the grand staff.
They generally designate a gradual change in tempo; for immediate tempo shifts, composers
normally just provide the designation for the new tempo. (Note, however, that when Pi mosso or

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Meno mosso appears in large type above the staff, it functions as a new tempo, and thus implies an
immediate change.) Several terms, e.g., assai, molto, poco, subito, control how large and how
gradual a change should be (see common qualifiers).
After a tempo change, a composer may return to a previous tempo in two different ways:
a tempo returns to the base tempo after an adjustment (e.g. ritardando ... a tempo undoes the
effect of the ritardando).
Tempo primo or Tempo Io denotes an immediate return to the piece's original base tempo
after a section in a different tempo (e.g. Allegro ... Lento ... Moderato ... Tempo Io indicates a
return to the Allegro). This indication often functions as a structural marker in pieces in
binary form.
These terms also indicate an immediate, not a gradual, tempo change. Although they are Italian,
composers typically use them even if they have written their initial tempo marking in some other
language.

Tempo markings in other languages

Although Italian has been the prevalent language for tempo markings throughout most of classical
music history, many composers have written tempo indications in their own language. This section
lists tempo markings from in the Harvard Dictionary of Music or the online foreign language
dictionaries listed in Sources.

French tempo markings

Several composers have written markings in French, among them baroque composers Franois
Couperin and Jean-Philippe Rameau as well as Claude Debussy, Olivier Messiaen, Maurice Ravel
and Alexander Scriabin. Common tempo markings in French are:
Au mouvement play the (first or main) tempo.
Grave slowly and solemnly
Lent slowly
Modr at a moderate tempo
Moins less, as in Moins vite (less fast)
Rapide fast
Trs very, as in Trs vif (very lively)
Vif lively
Vite fast
Erik Satie was known to write extensive tempo (and character) markings by defining them in a
poetical and literal way, as in his Gnossiennes.[29]

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German tempo markings

Many composers have used German tempo markings. Typical German tempo markings are:
Langsam slowly
Lebhaft lively (mood)
Mig moderately
Rasch quickly
Schnell fast
Bewegt animated, with motion[30]
One of the first German composers to use tempo markings in his native language was Ludwig van
Beethoven. The one using the most elaborate combined tempo and mood markings was probably
Gustav Mahler. For example, the second movement of his Symphony No. 9 is marked Im Tempo
eines gemchlichen Lndlers, etwas tppisch und sehr derb, indicating a slowish folk-dance-like
movement, with some awkwardness and much vulgarity in the execution. Mahler would also
sometimes combine German tempo markings with traditional Italian markings, as in the first
movement of his sixth symphony, marked Allegro energico, ma non troppo. Heftig, aber markig
(Energetically quick, but not too much. Violent, but vigorous[31]).

English tempo markings

English indications, for example quickly, have also been used, by Benjamin Britten and Percy
Grainger, among many others. In jazz and popular music charts, terms like "fast", "laid back",
"steady rock", "medium", "medium-up", "ballad", "brisk", "up", "slowly", and similar style
indications may appear.
Tom Lehrer's anthology Too Many Songs by Tom Lehrer, uses fake English tempo markings to
humorous effect. For example, Lehrer specifies that the song National Brotherhood Week should be
played "fraternally," We Will All Go Together be played "eschatologically," and Masochism Tango
be played "painstakingly."

Tempo markings as movement names and compositions with a

tempo indicator name
Often, composers (or music publishers) name movements of compositions after their tempo (or
mood) marking. For instance, the second movement of Samuel Barber's first String Quartet is an
Adagio.[32]
Some such movements may start to lead a life of their own, and become known with the
tempo/mood marker name, for instance the string orchestra version of the second movement of
Barber's first string quartet became known as Adagio for Strings. A similar example is the
Adagietto from Mahler's Symphony No. 5.

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Sometimes the link between a musical composition with a "tempo" name and a separate movement
of a composition is less clear. For instance, Albinoni's Adagio is a 20th-century creative
"reconstruction" based on an incomplete manuscript.
Some composers chose to include tempo indicators in the name of a separate composition, for
instance Bartk in Allegro barbaro ("barbaric Allegro"), a single movement composition.

See also
A capriccio
Alla breve
As Slow as Possible
Bell pattern
Half-time (music)
Multitemporal music
Stop-time

References
1. Some of these markings are today contentious, such as those on his "Hammerklavier" Sonata and Ninth
Symphony, seeming to many to be almost impossibly fast, as is also the case for many of the works of
Schumann. See "metronome" entry in Apel (1969), p. 523.
2. Randel, D., ed., The New Harvard Dictionary of Music, Harvard University Press, 1986, Tempo
3. Randel, ed., 1986, Metronome
4. Haar, James. The Science and Art of Renaissance Music. Princeton University Press. p. 408.
ISBN 1-40-086471-2.
5. music theory online: tempo (http://www.dolmetsch.com/musictheory5.htm), Dolmetsch.com
6. Snoman (2009), p. 251.
7. American Symphony Orchestra League (1998). Journal of the Conductors' Guild, Vols. 1819. Viena:
The League. p. 27. ISSN 0734-1032 (https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0734-1032)
8. William E. Caplin; James Hepokoski; James Webster (2010). Musical Form, Forms & Formenlehre:
Three Methodological Reflections. Leuven University Press. p. 80. ISBN 905-867-822-9.
9. Apel (1969), p. 42; for the literal translation see the online ItalianEnglish dictionary at
WordReference.com.
10. "Istesso tempo" entry in Sadie (2001).
11. For a modern example of L'istesso, see measures 4 and 130 of Star Wars: Main Title, Williams (1997),
pp. 3 and 30.
12. Apel (1969), p. 505.
13. Apel (1969), p. 834.
14. Apel (1969), p. 61.
15. Online ItalianEnglish dictionary at WordReference.com.
16. Apel (1969), p. 112.
17. The American History and Encyclopedia of Music, W.L. Hubbard (ed.); c. 1908
18. Apel (1969), p. 334.
19. Apel (1969), p. 520.

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20. Apel (1969), p. 537.

21. Apel (1969), p. 680.
22. Apel (1969), p. 683.
23. Apel (1969), p. 763.
24. "Brillante" entry in Sadie (2001).
25. "Bravura" entry in Sadie (2001).
26. "Ritenuto" entry in Sadie (2001).
27. Apel (1969), p. 809.
28. David Fallows. "Ritardando". In L. Root, Deane. Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford
University Press. (subscription required)
29. Gnossiennes music sheet (http://imslp.org/wiki/Special:ImagefromIndex/03007), IMSLP Music Library
30. Apel (1969), p. 92.
31. Italian translation, WordReference.com; German, Apel (1969).
32. Heyman, Barbara B. (1994-05-12). Samuel Barber: the composer and his music. Oxford University
Press. p. 158. ISBN 0-19-509058-6.

Sources
Books on tempo in music:
Epstein, David (1995). Shaping Time: Music, the Brain, and Performance. New York:
Schirmer Books. ISBN 0-02-873320-7.
Marty, Jean-Pierre (1988). The tempo indications of Mozart. New Haven: Yale University
Press. ISBN 0-300-03852-6.
Sachs, Curt (1953). Rhythm and Tempo: A Study in Music History. New York: Norton.
OCLC 391538.
Snoman, Rick (2009). The Dance Music Manual: Tools, Toys, and Techniques Second
Edition. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Press. ISBN 0-9748438-4-9.
Music dictionaries:
Apel, Willi, ed., Harvard Dictionary of Music, Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. The
Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1969. ISBN
978-0-674-37501-7
Sadie, Stanley; John Tyrrell, eds. (2001). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,
2nd edition. NewYork: Grove's Dictionaries. ISBN 1-56159-239-0.
Examples of musical scores:
Williams, John (1997). Star Wars: Suite for Orchestra. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Corp.
ISBN 978-0-793-58208-2.

External links

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Tempo - Wikipedia

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempo

Research group specializing in rhythm, timing, and tempo, University of Amsterdam

(http://www.hum.uva.nl/mmm/)
Tempo Terminology, Virginia Tech department of music (http://www.music.vt.edu
/musicdictionary/appendix/tempo/tempo1.html)
Tempo indications for social dances (http://www.beatsperminuteonline.com/en/home
/bpm-beats-per-minute-reference-for-dance-genres)
Tempo variation among and within 300+ recorded performances of Beethoven's 'Eroica'
Symphony (http://www.grunin.com/eroica)
Dolmetsch article on tempo (http://www.dolmetsch.com/musictheory5.htm)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tempo&oldid=757422492"
Categories: Musical terminology Rhythm and meter Temporal rates
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