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Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport


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Effects of Sit up Exercise Training on Adipose Cell Size


and Adiposity
a

Frank I. Katch , Priscilla M. Clarkson , Walter Kroll , Thomas McBride & Anthony Wilcox
c
a

Department of Exercise Science

University Health Service , University of Massachusetts , Amherst , MA , 01003 , USA

Department of Physical Education , University of Kansas , Manhattan , KS , 66506 , USA


Published online: 22 Feb 2013.

To cite this article: Frank I. Katch , Priscilla M. Clarkson , Walter Kroll , Thomas McBride & Anthony Wilcox (1984) Effects of
Sit up Exercise Training on Adipose Cell Size and Adiposity, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 55:3, 242-247, DOI:
10.1080/02701367.1984.10609359
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.1984.10609359

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KATCH, CLARKSON, KROLL, McBRIDE, WILCOX

RESEARCH QUARTERLY
FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT
1984, VOL. 55, No.3, PI'.

242-247

Effects of Sit Up Exercise Training


On Adipose Cell Size and Adiposity

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FRANK I. KATCH, PRISCILLA M. CLARKSON,


WALTER KROLL and THOMAS McBRIDE
University of Massachusetts
ANTHONY WILCOX
University of Kansas
The present experiment evaluated the effects of a 27-day sit up
exercise training program on adipose cell size and adiposity. Fat
biopsies were taken from the abdomen, subscapular, and gluteal
sites by needle aspiration in l3 experimental and 6 control male
subjects before and after a five days/week progressive training
regimen. Day 1 consisted of 10 bouts of l O-sec exercise, 7 sit
ups/bout, with Itt-sec rest intervals; on day 27, 14 bouts of 30sec exercise were performed, 24 sit ups/bout with lO-sec rest
intervals. The total number of sit ups done was 5004. Fat cells
were isolated using collagenase and photographed to determine
cell diameter. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed significant
decreases in cell diameter at the three biopsy sites (p<.O 1), but
no significant differences in the rate of change (pre to post) in
cell diameter between sites for the experimental and control
groups (p>.05). Body weight, total body fat (underwater
weighing), and [atfolds and girths remained unaltered. The
results demonstrate that (l) the conventional sit up exercise does
not preferentially reduce adipose cell size or subcutaneous fat
thickness in the abdominal region to a greater extent compared to
other adipose sites, and (2) significant changes in fat cell size
may occur in the absence of changes in fatfolds, girths or total
body composition.

Key words: adipose cellularity, spot reduction, body


composition, sit up exercise, adiposity.

h e needle biopsy procedure to determine adipose


tissue cellularity permits a rather precise quantification of changes in body composition consequent to
nutritional and exercise intervention regimens
(Bjorntorp, Grimby, Sanne, Sjostrom, Tibblin, & Wilhelmsen, 1972; Bjorntorp, Carlgren, Isaksson, Krotkiewski, Larsson, & Sjostrom, 1975; Bray, 1970). Only
a few studies, however, have evaluated the effects of
specific, relatively localized exercise on body composition by examining changes in fat cell size (Bjorntorp, deJounge, Krotkiewski, Sullivan, Sjostrom, &
Stenberg, 1973). A basic issue concerns whether local
"spot" exercise reduces regional fat accumulation at
a particular body site.
Proponents of spot reducing cite such evidence as
significant decreases in triceps subcutaneous fatfolds
following specific arm weight lifting exercise (Olson

& Edelstein, 1968), or reductions in abdominal circumferences by performing 6 daily, 6-sec isometric
contractions (Mohr, 1965). Other investigators, on the
basis of photographic analysis (Schade, Hellebrandt,
Waterland, & Carns, 1962), changes in segment volumes (Carns, Schade, Liba, Hellebrandt, & Harris,
1960), fatfold and girth measures of the active and
inactive arms of tennis players (Cwinup, Chelvam, &
Steinberg, 1971), and fatfold and body density determinations (Noland & Kearney, 1978), report no
significant decreases in fat thickness at selected body
sites or in gross body composition when comparing
the effects of general and localized exercise training.
We are aware of only one study that has used a direct,
invasive procedure to evaluate the effects of selective
exercise training on adipose cellularity. Krotkiewski,
Aniansson, Grimby, Bjorntorp, and Sjostrom (1979)
reported no change in fat cell size or thickness of
adipose tissue in the thigh region following a daily 5week training program consisting of 30 maximal knee
extensions performed on an isokinetic device. The use
of a direct procedure such as the fat biopsy would
seem to offer a better alternative than indirect techniques such as fatfolds or girths to assess selective site
changes; indirect techniques may simply be insensitive
to evaluate true cellular changes in adiposity. This
may be particularly true for fatfolds, where measurement unreliability is a problem inherent in the technique (Katch & Katch, 1980).
In the present experiment, the conventional sit up
exercise was performed in an effort to significantly
reduce fat thickness (and adipose cell diameter) to a
greater extent in the abdominal area than in the relatively unexercised gluteal and subscapular regions.
Proponents of "spot" exercise training would argue
that the conventional hook lying sit up exercise is an
effective aid in helping to reduce fat thickness in the
abdominal region. If such a notion is valid, it follows
that performing a regimen of sit up exercise should
affect adipose measures in the abdominal region to a
greater extent than at other body areas. In the current

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KATCH, CLARKSON, KROLL, McBRIDE, WILCOX

study, a vigorous 27-day sit up training program was


evaluated for changes in cell size, fatfold thickness,
and girths measured by anthropometry.

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Method
The subjects were 19 male volunteers, all Caucasian, who gave informed consent in accordance with
University Human Subjects Review procedures. The
mean age was 19.4 years (SD = 2.3), mean weight was
76.1 kg (SD = 7.3), and mean height was 175.4 ern
(SD = 4.8). Six of the 19 subjects did not participate
in sit up training and served as controls. The 13 experimental subjects were not members of varsity or
intramural sports teams, and none were participants
in any formal exercise programs. There were no significant differences between the experimental and
control subjects for age, height, weight, or percent
body fat (p>.05). The general experimental procedure was a pre-post test design. The 13 experimental
subjects participated in a 27-day sit up exercise program. Adipose cell size and body composition were
measured in both groups before and the day following
the training period.
Determination of Adipose Cell Size

Fat biopsies, approximately 50 mg, were taken from


the abdominal (2.54 ern lateral to the umbilicus), gluteal (upper quadrant) and subscapular sites by needle
aspiration using extraction procedures described by
Lavau, Susini, Knittle, Blanchet-Hirst, and Greenwood (1977). The fat sample was placed in 6 ml of
Krebs ringer phosphate buffer containing 10 mg collagenase, 5 mM glucose and 2% albumin (fraction V).
The tissue was incubated at 37C for 30 min and shaken
gently every 10 min. During this time, all of the fat
cells were freed from the tissue. The cells were then
filtered through a 250 u nylon mesh to separate the
cells and stroma. A 50 ul aliquot of the concentrated
cell suspension was placed on a glass slide and photographed with a Bausch and Lomb photomicroscope
with a yellow filter and 4 x magnification. The film
was projected to the surface of an opaque, 92.3 by
92.3 ern digitizer screen (Science Accessories Corporation, Southport, CT) for a total magnification of
240 x . The diameter of at least 200 adipose cells from
each site were digitized with a sonic pen. The pen
generates a hypersonic impulse that is received by
microphone sensors placed around the perimeter of
the screen. The sensors transmit the impulses to the
digitizer and the X and Y coordinate values are then
input to the computer. Calibration was provided by
a photomicrograph of a stage micrometer taken at the
same time as the adipose cells (l u = .60 mm). The
projections of individual cell diameters were measured to 0.1 mm, which represented the resolution of
the digitizer apparatus. As individual cell diameters

were digitized, they were automatically separated into


odd and even categories to obtain an index of reliability. If the corrected split-half reliability did not exceed r = .85, the sample of 200 adipose cells was
remeasured.
The mean diameter of a minimum of 200 cells was
used as the criterion diameter score for each site on
the pre- and posttests. In a recent study from our
laboratory (Clarkson, Katch, Kroll, Lane, & Kamen,
1980), this method of scoring was the most valid procedure for establishing reliable estimates of cell diameter. In addition, there was no significant difference
among four methods to measure fat cell size (Clarkson, Kroll, Wai, & Kamen, 1981); this includes digitization of the photographs, counting with a Zeiss
particle analyzer, hand measurement of the photographs and measurement of the projected cells on the
digitizer screen.
For the pretest, fat biopsies were taken by a physician at each of the three sites on 2 days at approximately the same time, with no more than 6 days
separating the two biopsy days. This was done to establish a reliable and representative criterion value of
abdominal, gluteal, and subscapular cell diameter.
There were no significant differences in cell diameter
for any of the three sites from Day 1 to Day 2, and
an average of the Day 1 and Day 2 measures was used
as the pretest value.
Body Composition

All measures of body composition on the pretest


were taken on the day following the second biopsy.
Body weight was measured on a beam balance scale
to 50 g. Percent body fat was computed from body
density measured by the underwater weighing procedure (McArdle, Katch, & Karch, 1981) with correction for residual lung volume measured twice in
succession by oxygen dilution (Wilmore, 1969). Testretest reliability of residual volume was r = .97 with
a standard error of measurement of 46 ml. Percentage of body fat was calculated from density (D)
by the Siri equation, percent fat = 495/0 - 450 (Siri,
1961). Total body fat (kg) is percent fat/l00 x body
weight, and lean body weight (LBW) is body weight
- total fat weight.
Subcutaneous fat was measured in triplicate with a
Lange caliper by the same investigator (FK) at the
triceps, subscapula, iliac and abdominal sites on the
right side of the body with the subject standing. The
mean of the three trials at each site was used as the
criterion fatfold score (Katch & Katch, 1980). Selected
girth measures were taken with a doth anthropometric tape of the right and left forearm, biceps relaxed and flexed, calf, and waist (natural contour),
abdomen at the umbilicus, and buttocks. All measures
were taken in duplicate following established proce-

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KATCH, CLARKSON, KROLL, McBRIDE, WILCOX

dures (Behnke & Wilmore, 1974) and the mean of


the two trials used in subsequent calculations. Testretest reliability of all fat fold and girth measures on
pre- and posttests ranged from r = .98 to .99.

performed (Lindquist, 1953). The ANOVA provided


main effect F-ratios for among sites and pre- to post
changes (condition) in fat cell diameter, as well as a
site-by-condition interaction. Significant differences
were found in cell diameter among sites; gluteal cells
were 8.5% larger in diameter than abdominal and
subscapular cells, respectively. Cell diameter for the
abdomen was 7.4% larger than subscapular cell diameter.

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Sit Up Exercise Training

Training consisted of the conventional hook lying


sit up exercise performed on a gym mat with the knees
bent at approximately a 90 angle, hands clasped behind the neck with the elbows pointing in the forward
position, with no external support to hold the feet.
All subjects trained together in the late afternoon.
One of the subjects, experienced in leading exercise
classes, supervised the total time and cadence for each
bout of sit ups. Subjects performed the sit ups in unison to a preestablished cadence, touching the elbows
to the knees on each sit up. A progressive method
was employed to increase the duration of sit ups performed on a given day. Day 1 consisted of 10 bouts
of l O-sec exercise, 7 sit ups/bout, with IO-sec rest intervals between bouts. On successive days, the number
of bouts was increased by 2 until the sixth day, when
20 bouts was achieved. On day 7, the total number of
bouts was reduced to 10, but the exercise duration
per bout was increased to 15 sec. Ten sit ups were
done during this time period. For the next 5 days,
the number of bouts was again increased by 2 per day
until 20 bouts were achieved on day 12. Table 1 outlines the method employed to increase progressively
the number of sit ups during the 27-day training period. On day 27, 24 sit ups were performed for 30
sees on each of the 14 bouts (336 sit ups). The total
sit ups done in the 27-day period was 5004. The cumulative actual time spent to perform the 5004 sit ups
was 2 hr and 3 min, or, on the average, the equivalent
of 4 min 33 sec/day.

Table 1
Progressive Sit Up Training Program-

sec

Bout b

Days
1-6
7-12
13-18
19-24
25-27

Time per
Bout,

10
10
10
10
10

increase
increase
increase
increase
increase

to
to
to
to
to

10
15
20
25
30

7
10
14
15
24

630

900
1260
1350

864

aThe 1O-sec rest interval remained constant between bouts


on all training days.
bThe number of bouts for each 6-day interval was increased
by 2 on successive days. For example, on days 1-6, 10,
12, 14, 16, 18 and 20 bouts, respectively, were performed.
The same was true for days 7-12,13-18 and 19-24. For
the last 3 days, 10, 12, and 14 bouts were performed.

For the pre- to posttest comparisons, cell diameter


decreased significantly (p<.01). The percentage change
in cell diameter was 6.4% for the abdomen, 5.0% for
the gluteal, and 3.7% for the subscapular. Converting
the diameter measure for each cell to an expression
of volume (4.19 x radius"), assuming the cells are
spherical, results in volume decreases of 17.9% for
the abdominal, 14.3% for the gluteal, and 10.6% for
the subscapular cells.
This interaction term (site x condition) was nonsignificant (F = .18; p> .(5), and indicates that although there were significant decreases in cell diameter
resulting from the sit up program, there were no differences in the rate of change for cell diameter between sites. We interpret this to mean that the
significant reduction in fat cell diameter due to an

Results
Changes in Adipose Cell Diameter

Table 2 summarizes the pre- and posttest values of


cell diameter for the three sites. A full model repeated
measures treatments x treatments x subjects was

Table 2
Pre to Posttest Values of Adipose Cell Diameter (N
Post

Pre

20
20
20
20
14

Sit Ups
Completed Total
per Bout Sit Ups

=13)

Diameter
Microns

Mean

SO

Mean

SO

%
Change

Abdomen
Gluteal
Subscapular

82.64
90.31
76.53

16.50
8.77
14.12

77.39
85.79
73.73

15.80
11.11
14.64

6.4
5.0
3.7

.856
.818
.911

p<.01
p<.01
p<.01

apearson product-moment correlation coefficient.


bF-ratio based on full model repeated measures ANOVA. The overall F was significant for the p.re- and posttest
comparison (F = 21.2; P < .01), and for site-to-site differences (F = 15.8; P < .01). The interaction term
was not significant (F = 0.18; P > .05).
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KATCH, CLARKSON, KROLL, McBIUDE, WILCOX

imposed sit up exercise regimen was similar at all


three sites.
Changes in Body Composition
Table 3 presents the pre- and posttest values for
body composition, fatfolds, and girth measurements
for the 13 experimental subjects. There were no significant changes from pre- to posttest in body weight,
body density, percent fat and lean body weight, four
fatfolds, or the six girth measurements (p>.05).

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Discussion
A crucial test of "spot" reducing is whether a significantly greater change occurs in the predominant
body area being exercised compared to the relatively
inactive or unexercised body parts. In the present
study, the fact that there was no difference in the rate
of change in cell diameter among the three sites suggests there was no preferential influence of a possible
lipolytic mobilizing factor or of enhanced adrenergic
responsiveness (Ostman, Arner, Engfeldt, & Kager,
1979). Because cell diameter decreased significantly
at the three sites, it seems reasonable to conclude that
the sit up regimen had a more general than specific
effect on the overall size (diameter and volume) of
the adipose cells. One could take the position, however, that performing the conventional sit up involves
muscle groups other than the abdominals (such as
gluteals or upper back musculature), and therefore
the reduction in cell diameter at the gluteal and scapula sites would support the concept of selective fat

reduction. While there is activation of the lower limb


musculature in addition to abdominals and hip flexors
during the hook lying sit up exercise (Ricci, Marchetti,
& Figura, 1981), there is no evidence that such involvement would playa quantitatively important role
in the primary act of trunk flexion or extension. There
is little reason to doubt that the abdominal musculature is predominantly involved in sit up exercise as
performed in this study (Flint, 1965; Partridge & Walters, 1959).
The lack of change in the fatfold and corresponding girth measures would support the position that
relatively selective exercise training (such as sit ups),
unaccompanied by significant changes in body weight
and body composition, would not preferentially reduce the concentration of fat in a particular body area.
It does seem plausible that fat cell size may precede
observable changes in subcutaneous fat and girth
measures. At the present time, it is not known what
magnitude of change must occur in fat cell diameter
before such changes are reflected in fatfold and girth
measures. The present data suggest that changes in
fat cell diameter less than 6 to 7% are not accompanied by corresponding decreases in fatfolds and
girths.
In the present study, the number of sit ups done
on a daily basis probably exceeds that normally performed by most people involved in recreational exercise programs. Also, the total number of sit ups
performed was increased on successive workout days
to ensure progression in the training program. This

Table 3
Pre to Posttest Changes In Body Composition,
Fatfolds and Girths for the Experimental Subjects (N 13)

Post

Pre
Variable
Body Composition
weight, kg
body density, g/ml
% Fat
total fat, kg
lean weight, kg
Fatfolds, mm
triceps
scapula
iliac
abdomen
Girths, cm
waist
umbilicus
buttocks
forearm
biceps flexed
calf

Mean

SO

Mean

SO

F&

76.96
1.0722
11.67
8.85
67.22

6.90
.0008
3.45
2.46
7.01

76.09
1.0737
11.06
8.44
67.59

7.92
.0010
4.53
3.58
7.48

NS
NS
NS
NS
NS

10.66
12.95
17.89
18.62

2.40
3.37
7.54
6.30

10.15
12.95
18.01
18.62

2.48
3.54
7.58
6.76

NS
NS
NS
NS

83.00
84.55
96.78
28.92
35.23
36.95

5.04
5.30
4.15
1.37
2.87
1.52

84.01
85.23
95.37
28.87
35.32
36.59

4.95
5.73
4.43
1.44
2.91
1.67

NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS

aRepeated measures analysis of variance. Not significant at p<.05. There were no significant
changes for anyof the abovevariables for thesix control subjects, norwerethereanysignificant
differences on the pre-test between the groups for the above measurements.
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KATCH, CLARKSON, KROLL, McBRIDE, WILCOX

was done to increase the relative strenuousness of sit


up exercise. The basic assumption is that the subcutaneous fatty layer in the abdominal region is preferentially affected to a greater extent by exercise of
the underlying abdominal musculature than the buttocks or subscapular regions. All subjects performed
the sit up exercise at the same cadence to ensure a
constant rate of performance. It was of interest to
observe that although subjects complained frequently
of severe localized fatigue, heart rate palpated in the
lying position immediately following the workouts
throughout training did not exceed 130 beats per
minute. In two subjects, heart rate was monitored
electrocardiographically by telemetry on days 7 and
26 of the experiment. For these subjects, with a treadmill-assessed maximal oxygen uptake of 55
ml-kg - Imin - 1and maximum heart rate of 197 beats
per minute, heart rate during sit ups did not exceed
127 beats per minute during any of the bouts performed on a given day. If we assume a work intensity
of 65% max \702 (the same percentage as maximum
heart rate), then for their body weight of 70 kg and
resting \702 of 4.3 ml'kg-1'min- 1, the net kcal cost
for the average daily exercise session of 4 min, 33 sec
is approximately 50 kcal, or 1400 kcal for the 27 -day
training session. Apparently, the metabolic stress of
sit up exercise was not very great, as confirmed in a
recent study (Ricci, Marchetti, & Figura, 1981). It seems
unlikely, therefore, that sit up exercise by itself could
produce a substantive alteration in total body fat content.
Previous studies on the effects of selective site exercise training have relied on gross measures of tissue
change (fatfolds, girths, and volume) as opposed to
the cellular methods employed in this study. Interestingly, the correlations are only moderate between
abdominal and subscapular fat folds and corresponding cell diameters assessed by needle biopsy (Clarkson
et al., 1980). For the 16 male subjects in that report,
the correlation between subscapular fatfold and subscapular cell diameter was r = .76; for the abdominal
fatfold and abdominal cell diameter, the correlation
was r = .71. With only about 50% of the variance
shared in common between these two expressions of
adiposity, it is likely that fatfold assessment of subcutaneous fat thickness can mask true changes in adipose cell size.
In summary, the results of the present experiment
have demonstrated that sit up exercise training did
not preferentially reduce the diameter of abdominal
adipose cells, and did not significantly alter the thickness of the abdominal subcutaneous fat layer or abdominal circumference. If only fatfold and girth
measures are taken, it is possible to mask cellular
changes in adiposity when there are no accompanying
changes in gross body composition. It seems likely that

to reduce the fat content at a given body site, total


body composition must be altered; a relatively selective exercise regimen of sit ups does not solely affect
the specific fat accumulation in the abdominal area.
We conclude that sit up exercise as performed under
the conditions of this experiment will not be effective
in reducing significantly the observable fat thickness
in the abdominal region.

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Submitted: August 27, 1981


Accepted: August 31, 1983

Frank I. Katch, Priscilla M. Clarkson and Walter Kroll are in the Department of Exercise Science and Thomas McBride is with the University
Health Service, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003. Anthony
Wilcox is in the Department of Physical Education, University of Kansas,
Manhattan, KS, 66506.

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