PHILOSOPHY

0F

THEISM

G I FF O RD L E C TU R E S

THE

D EL I VE RE D B EF O RE T H E U N IV E RS I TY
O F E D I N B U R G H I N 1 8 94 9 6
-

B Y

C A M P B E LL FRA S E R

A L E " AN D E R

HON
E M E R IT US

D C L
.

P RO F E SS OR

IN T H E

O F

LL D
.

O "F O R D

L O G I C A ND

U N IV E R S IT Y

O F

M E T A P H Y S I CS

E D I NB U R G H

E CO N D ED I T IO N AME N D E D
,

NE W

CHA

YORK

S CRIBNER

1 5 3 1 57

F IF T H

1900

AV E NUE

SON

P RE F A CE TO T H E S ECON D E DI T I ON

F O R this edi t ion t he Philosophy o f Theism has been recas t

and to a g rea t ex t en t rewri t ten I t has also b een condensed
in t he preface and throughout t he lectures par t ly by being
purged of redundancies which are perhaps pardonable in
oral communication o f ideas b u t are less sui t ed fo r though t
ful readers ; and i t now appears in o n e volume instead o f
The b ook has b een fur t her modied by occasional i n
t wo
t r o d u c ti o n of new mat t er in t ended to presen t i t s cen t ral
principle in fuller li g ht The w hole has been arranged in
Three Par t s preceded by t wo preliminary lec t ures in which
an expanded Natural Theolo g y is dened and ar t icula t ed in
i t s three lo g ically indemonstrable data A Retrospec t o f th e
cen t ral course o f t hough t follows t he las t Par t
It is hoped t hat these changes m ay make th e book les s
unwor t hy o f the indul g en t recep t ion and sympathe t ic
cri t icism wi t h which the rst edition has b een signally
favoured abroad i n America and in A ustralia no t less than
in t his coun t ry
I n i t s new form i t may also be more
a dap t ed t o assis t reection o n the fundamen t al ques t ions o f
human life in t hose educational insti t utions into which i t
has been received
T h e ve lec t ures in t he First Par t deal with three forms
o f specula t io n each o f which would reduce t he universe of

vi

PR E F A C E

TO

S E C O ND ED I T I O N

reali t y t o O ne S u b s t ance o r Power ; and the lec t ures r ep re

sent t o t al S cep t icism as t he r ed u cti o a d a bsu r d u m alike o f
Universal Ma t erialism Pane g oism and Pan t heism when
t hose Monis t specula t ions are pressed in t repidly into their
issues This Par t is chiey cri t ical and ne g ative
I n t he S econd o r C on s t ru ctive Par t the theis t ic con
c ep t i o n o f t he t hree da t a is unfolded no t as a direc t con
sequence o f deduc t ive or in d uc t ive proof b u t as founded o n
o u r spon t aneous moral faith in O mnipo t en t Goodness a t t he
hear t of t he Whole t aken as an inevita b le (conscious o r
unconsciou s ) presupposi t ion in all human experience t he
reconcilin g principle in o u r intercourse scien t i c o r moral
wi t h t he Power t ha t is universally a t work G o d is pre
supposed an d in a measure revealed in t he presupposi t ions
order and of u niversal adap t ation 3 and is
o f universal
fur t her revealed in the of t en dorm an t b u t indispensable
moral an d spiri t ual implica t es of human experien ce which
need t o b e awakened in t o conscious and prac t ical life by
ex t ernal events an d institu t ion s
Th e reali t y o f human
experience i s foun d t o involve t he reali t y of omnipo t en t
omniscient omnipresen t moral Providence t o which the
emo t ion and will t ha t go to cons t itu t e o u r nal Fai t h
respond s o m aking consciou s or unconscious Reli g ion t he
chief fac t or in the his t ory o f mankind
This Part in a
de g ree unfolds t he me t aphysical r a ti on a le o f theistic fai th
The Third Part comprehends ve lec t ures concern ed wi t h
t he Great E ni g m a o f E vil presen t e d a t leas t o n ou r plane t
which seems t o contradic t t he fundamen t al moral fai t h
and by dis t urbin g t h e reli g ious o r optimis t concep t ion o f
exis t ence leads t o pessimis t scep t icism
The i nmossi b z lz ty
o f an a n omni sci en t in t elli g ence demons t ratin g t he supposed
con t radic t ion and thu s t ransforming o u r universe into an
un t rus t wor t hy u niverse wi t h which o n e can have no in t er
course is the attitu de primarily assume d t owards t his
E ni g ma
Bu t fur t her consi d era t ions are proposed b y
,

'

PR EF A CE

SE C O ND E D I T I O N

To

v ii

which t he di fcul t y seem s to be miti g ate d even to human

apprehension poin t ing t o modes o f escape from t he dismal
al t ernative of a scep ticis m which would involve S cience and
Goodness in a common ruin I n particular there is the
fac t t hat t he universe o r a t leas t t his plane t see m s t o be
adap t ed to the progressive improvemen t o f persons who
have m ade t hemselves b ad sugges t in g t ha t a slo w personal
s t rug g le t owards t he Ideal rather t han original and c o n
s t ant perfec t ion o f persons may be i m plied in ni t e per
sonal agency
There is also the possibili ty o f spiri t ual
advance t hrou g h w hat may appear t o be interference by
O mnipo t en t Goodness wi th the divine na t ural order for
t he res t ora t ion to goodness o f persons w h o have made
themselves bad b u t which m ay really be normal operation
o f t he Universal Power accordin g to incompletely co m pre
hended O rder And las t ly t here i s the room a fforded for
n al adj us t men t an d fo r the sa t isfaction of O mnipo ten t
Love t ha t i s opened t hrou g h t he mystery o f man s physical
disappearance by death in the divinely cons ti t u t ed universe
an d t he consequent ul t ima t e venture o f t heis t ic fai t h o r ex
f
i
n
These
are
examples
o
f
m
iti
g
a
t
ions
o
t
he
Grea
t
t
a
t
o
ec
p

E nigma t ha t is presented o n t his planet an en igma which

if demonstra b ly inconsis t ent with In ni t e Goodness o r Love
would paralyse science an d m oral developmen t o f the Ideal
Man in t he individual
The philosophy ini t ia t ed in t hese lec t ures may perhaps
be called ei t her Hum anised Idealism o r S piri t ualised Na t ur
I t seem s to be t he reasonable a t ti t ude t owards h is
a li s m
o w n life and t he universe for a person like man who is con
ned b y his small share o f experience t o a kn owledge which
real as far as i t g oes is intermedia t e be t ween Unconscious
Nescience an d Divine O mniscien ce I t is for philosophers
in the gradual progress o f philosophy o r
o r t heolo g ians
theology t o sh ow h o w far and under what ar t iculate con
c ep t i o n s even in man s in termedia t e posi t ion h i s i n d i s p en s
,

viii

PR E F A C E

SE C O ND E DI T I O N

To

able n al cr ed eawla may become fo r him i ntelligend a And

as wi t h Pla t o and Aristo t le O ri g en an d Aquinas Berkeley
and empha tically Hegel philosophy is found by di fferent
rou t es to culmin ate in t heology or religion in i t s intel
lec t ual expression If t he universe as realised in human
experience is religiou s in its nal concep t ion philosophy and
t heology at las t unite in t ellec t ually

Na t ural Theology t hus philosophically expanded must

be dis t inguished from t h e natural theolog y which h as of t en
b orne t he n am e
Ab ou t sixty years a g o wi t h t he lat t er

in vie w Lord Macaulay wrote t hus : As respect s n atural

reli g ion i t i s n o t easy t o s ay t ha t a philosopher at the pre
sen t day is more favou rably si t ua t ed t h an Thales or S imon
ides
He has before him j ust t he same evidences o f
desi g n in t h e s t ructure o f t he universe that t he early
Greeks had The discoveries o f modern astronomers and
a n atomis t s have added no t hing t o the force o f t ha t ar g umen t
which a reec t ing m an nds in every beas t bir d insect sh
leaf ower o r shell All t he g rea t eni g mas which perplex
t h e na t ural theolo g ian are the same in all age s The in g en
f
u it
o

i
i
n
t
a
people
emerging
from
bar
b
arism
is
t
o
u
c
e
s
y
propound t hese enigmas
The genius of Locke o r Clarke
is qui t e unable to solve them
The Book o f Jo b shows
tha t long b efore le t ters an d ar t s were known t o Ionia these
vexin g ques t ions were deba t ed wi t h no common skill and
eloquence under t he t ents o f t he Idu m ean I mirs ; nor has
human reason in t he course o f t hree thousand years di s
covered any satisfactory solu t ion o f t he riddles which per
l
e
x ed
n
E
lip
h
az
and
ophar
Natural
t
heology
is
o
t
a
Z
p
progressive s cien ce
Bu t neither is revealed religion
o f the na t ure of a progressive science
A ll divine t ruth i s
according to t h e doctrine o f the Pro t estant Churches r e
corded in certain b ooks ; n o r can all t he discoveries o f all
t he philosophers in t he world add a sin g le verse t o a ny
o f t hese b ooks
I t is plain t herefore that in divini ty there
.

PR E F A C E

SE C O ND E DI T I O N

To

ix

cannot b e a progress analogous t o t hat which is cons t an t ly

t aking place in pharmacy g eology and navi g at ion
A
Chris t ian of t he fth cen t ury with a Bible in his hand is
neither better nor worse situa t ed than a Chris t ian o f the
nineteenth century wi t h a Bible candour and na t ural acute
ness bein g supposed equal I t ma tt ers no t a t all t ha t the
compass printing gunpowder steam gas vaccina t ion and
a thousand other discoveries and inven t ions which were
unknown in t he f t h centu ry are fa m iliar in the nine t eenth
None o f these discoveries and inven t ions has the smalles t
b earin g on t he ques t ion whe t her man is j ustied b y fai t h
alone or whe t her the invoca t ion o f sain t s is an or t hodox
practice I t seems that we h ave no securi t y for t he fu t ure
agai n st the prevalence o f any theolo g ical error t ha t has ever

prevailed in times pas t

The reader will consider how far t he philosophy or t heo
lo g y t o which this b ook i s an in t roduction is consis t en t
with this discouraging view o r with t he unconcilia t ory

dualism which separates na t ural from revealed r e

He
l igio n according to the assu m p t ion o f Lord Macaulay
will j udge whether t he elimina t ion (o n account o f man s
intermedia t e posi t ion ) o f eni g mas which have perplexed
past ages and which s t ill perplex may no t O pen t he way
to a sane progressive exercise o f human reason rooted in
theis t ic fai t h with all t hat t he i s t ic faith i m plies in dis
posin g o f the nal questions which man requires to deal
wi t h somehow Religion o n its in t ellec t ual side is surely
more advanced now t han it was among t he early Hebrews
Fresh reection by successive genera t ions o f
o r in Homer
thinkers upon the inevitable cr ed en d a in order to convert
them more fully or philosophically into i n tellig end a com
b i n e d with advancing interpretation of the divine revela
t ions given in external nature and in the inspired spiri t
laten t in man seems to a fford a m ple S C O p e for progress in
t ha t t heolo gy which in the deepest meaning o f nature is
,

PR E F A C E

"

TO

S E C O ND E DI T I O N

t he mos t n a t ural o f all The eternal gospel of O mnipo t ent

Goodness la t en t in humani t y from t he b eginning is nu
folded i n the divine human na t ure of t he Ideal Man and
is gradually unfolding in human life and his t ory And if
fai t h in O mnipo t en t Goodness wi t h all t hat t his involves
is t he root and sprin g of human experience and science
n o changes in t hat experien ce n o discoveries in science
n o his t orical cri t icism n o fu t ure events in his t ory n ei t her
t hin g s presen t n or t hin g s to come can ever show t he
unreasona b leness o f this nal fai t h o r deprive t he human
race of di vine consola t ion and healing power
.

G O RT O N HAW TH O R ND E N
,

M ID

F eb r u a r y 1 8 9 9

L O T H I AN

P RE F A CE TO TH E F I RS T E DI T I ON

su bj ec t s above all others have a universal in t eres t

O ne o f them always concerns all be in g s bu t especially
all persons in all worlds The o t her is of human concern
only
The former rela t es t o the m oral meaning o f t he
Universe in which each person has to play his par t and
its nal m oral t rus t wor t hiness
It has t o do with t he
ch a r a cter o f the Universal power in con t inuous in t ercourse
wi t h which each person lives in and through his e t hical
personali t y and his environmen t withou t his own leave
t oo b y t he bare fac t of exis t ing under moral conditions
Th e other subj ect is the al t erna t ive o f evanesce n ce o r per
man en c e after Dea t h as applicable t o human persons
Do
t hey all nally lose t heir conscious personali ty in physical
dea t h ; o r do t hey con t inue in self conscious life n o t with
standing t he dissolution o f the body i t may b e wi t h added
in tellectual and spiri t u al power as a consequence of relief
from i t s limiting conditions after t he body has served the
end of perma n en t ly individualisin g t he human spiri t ?
Is o u r environmen t essen t ially physical and non moral or
?
is it ul t im ately divine
Is his visible body the measure
of the continuance o f each man s self conscious personal
ity ? These t wo correlated qu estions underlie human life
Nei t her o f t hem I think can be go t rid o f on the ground
T WO

x ii

PR E F A C E T O F I R S T E DI T I O N

t ha t i t is in t eres t ing only specula t ively

tically indeterminable

or

t ha t it is pra o

Na t ural Theology in t he philosophical meaning o f the

t erm i s face t o face wi t h b o t h these ques t ions For the

word na t ural in t he ancient and lar g e meaning of Na t ure

is applied no t only t o the world o f m a t erial t hings an d t heir
me t amorphoses b u t also to the world of persons o r m oral
agents an d some t imes even t o the su m of real exis t ence

t emporal and t imeless ni t e and divine To follow na t ure

is accordingly t o follow reason in cludin g moral reason
The philosopher h as t o consider wheth er men are doing this
when they are proceedi ng upon t h e religious con ception of
t he universe as its nal con cep t ion ; whe t her t hey are r e
quired by reason t o accept a wholly physical or non moral
concep t ion as t he hi g hes t a tt aina b le ; o r whether t hey need
t o withdraw from every endeavour t o in t erpre t t hemselve s
and t heir surroundings an d mus t su b side in speechless
mo t ionless a g n ostic despair
I t is in a lar g e meaning of
Na t ure t ha t I take t he t erm Na t ural Theolo g y to com
prehen d rati onal t rea t men t o f the universally in teres tin g
problem foun d at t h e roo t of human life
D elibera t e
s t u dy o f i t b elongs t o liberal education especially in t he
condi t ion in which w e n d m odern t hou g h t
It should
be the outcome o f t his remarkable S cottish Founda t ion
b y Lord Gi fford which admits o f s o many benecial
adap t a t ions
I n the followin g lec t ures th e critical reader canno t fail
to nd conclusion s sustained b y reasonings t hat are n o t
fully unfolded and impor t ant ques t ions ei t her passed over
or subj ec t ed to supercial t rea t men t It is hoped however
tha t the order o f th ough t which I have t ried to follo w
m ay lead persons disposed to reect o n a p a t h where
m ore a b undan t frui t may b e g a t hered by their o wn hands
I ven t ure t o as k t h a t t he work may b e looked at in i t s
,

P R E FA CE

F I RS T E DITI ON

To

x ii i

reasoned unity and not as a series o f isolated discussions ;

unbiassed I h ope in its in t ention by any in t erest tha t is
at variance wi t h wha t is t rue The shor t tim e for prepara
tion tha t could b e given by t he academical authorities who
honoured me by t his appoin t ment h as n ot permi tt ed me t o
explore as I could have wished t he vas t and ever increasin g
relative litera t ure T o escape t he c onfusion o f mind apt to
b e produced in t hese circums t ances by much readin g I have
con ned myself t o a sincere exposition o f t houghts gradu
ally reached in a life devoted t o kindred pursui t s S ome of
them have already found expression in a less explicit form
chiey in n o t es and disser t ations included in my edi t ions
of the works o f Berkeley and o f Locke and bio g raphies o f
those philosophers as well as in lec t ures t o studen t s i n
the universi t y of E din b urgh
The religious concep t ion of the universe is adop t ed in
these lectures as its t r u e conception on t he ground t hat
unless the Power universally a t work is O mnipo t en t Good
ness there can be no valid in t ercourse o f Man with Nature
which ins t ead has to be avoided as the ac t ion and revela
t ion of a suspec t ed Power : t he perfect reliabili t y o f the
Universal Power i s presupposed in the reliabili t y o f e x
i
n
r
e
c
T
he
his
t
ory
f
man
is
a
record
of
collision
e
e
o
p
between sceptical dis t rus t o f his na t ure an d environmen t
o n t he o n e side and moral fai t h and hope in an environ
men t that is trus t ed in as ul t ima t ely Divine o n t he o t her
I t presents a competi t ion be t ween nal Doubt and nal
Faith for the deepest place I n t he earlier lectures the voice
of t he S cep t ic is prominent A fter wards Fai t h makes itself
heard as t ha t which must a t las t underlie t he utmos t pos
sible doub t because the indispensable con d ition of any s c ie n
t i c o r moral intercourse wi t h the ever chan g ing universe
of ex t ernal na t ure and m an But sceptical criticis m i s still
valuable fo r unfoldin g t he r a ti ona le o f nal fai t h in the per
fe e t g oodness o f t he Power t hat is universally at work
,

x iv

PR E F A C E

F I RST ED I TI ON

To

Tha t t he me t hod I have adop t ed may be called anthropo

morphic o r an t hropocentric is not I t hink a reasonable
obj ection t o i t if all man s in t ercourse wi t h reali t y mus t b e
under human conditions and i s possi b le s o far only as t he

universe is adaptable by m an
not i n humanly inaccessible
O mniscience T he ul t imate rela t ions o f men in t he fulness
o f t heir spiritual b ein g t o t he reali t ies amon g s t which t hey
were wi t hou t t heir own will in t roduced at bir t h under i n
evi t able in t ellectual and m oral p os t ulates no t O mniscience

as at t he divine cen t re th i s surely is t he only philosophy

o r theolo g y tha t man is able t o enter t ain or t hat is needed
t o sa t isfy his necessi t ies
This is t he realities in their
rela t ion to man when man is reco g nise d as m ore than a
sentien t au t oma t on ye t as less t han omniscien t The d if
c u l t i es found in ul t imate moral fai t h and hope arise lar g ely
from oversi g h t o f wha t humanly limi t e d knowled g e mus t
b e in t he end
Tha t a mix t ure of t he a b stract S pinozism which i g nores
change and philosophises su b sp eci e eter ni ta tis wi t h t h e em
i
i
r
ca
l
a g nos ticism o f D avid Hume which reduces all realities
p
t o inexplica b le successive appearances is in t his cen t ury
working in t he main curren t o f t hou g h t in E urope and
America in sympa t hy with analo g ou s ideas in India and t he
E as t is a consideration which was present t o my mind
S pin oza and Hume were seldom forgot t en Nor was t heir
service t o t r u t h overlooked in t he w ay o f deepenin g an d
vivi fying t he t imi d conven t ionalism which ecclesiastical
t heology sometimes exemplies
It is di fcul t to discuss t he ques t ion s of man and the
univers e in their n al relation s wi t hou t making a large
and unaccep t a b le demand upon t he reec t ive power o f t he

d
rea er a t any rate a grea t er demand t han is made by
a S ociety novel Y et I am well aware t ha t this book falls
far short o f what mi g h t be reached in t his respect by a
more powerful philosophic al imagina tion an d a more lucid
,

PR E F A C E

TO

F I R S T ED IT I O N

"V

and pene t rating intelligence direc t ed by ar t is t ic li t erary

faculty The defect has been largely supplied since E ng
lish literature has been enriched by a t reat ise o n The
Foun da t ions of Belief by Mr Balfour in which t he reader
nds the ba s i s of theology investiga t ed in a manner that
rivals Berkeley or Hume in luminous expression o f su bt le
t ho u gh t Wi t hout ven t urin g t o o ffer observa t ions upon an
argumen t con du c t ed with a somewha t di fferent design I may
express t he sa t isfac t ion with which I have found a sanc t ion
in Mr Balfour s reasonin g s for the equ al nal insolubility of
physical science and theolo g y and for t heir common fo u n d a

t ion in wha t migh t perhap s be called t he au t hority o f

the collective moral reason of m ankind as dis t inguished from
direc t lo gical proof Two other eminen t men o f a ffairs h ave
also added lately t o t he debt which religious t hou g h t owes to
illustrious sta t esmen since Bacon and Leibniz s et t he example
The world m ay be gra t eful t o Mr Glads t one for the cri t ical
exposi t ions in which he has powerfully recommended and
rein t roduced the chief E nglish work o f t he eigh t een t h cen
t ury in the philosophy o f religion thus associa t ing h is nam e
wi t h t ha t of Bishop Bu t ler And t he Duke of Ar gyll with
charac t eris t ic argumen t a t ive s t reng t h and eloquence h as
explaine d t he t eleological concep t ion o f t he universe o n
scien tic grounds in h i s Philosophy of Belief
Tha t in
t he closing years o f t he nine t een t h cen t ury t hree o f t h e
mos t eminent leaders in public affairs should have t hus
placed t hemselves o n the side o f nal Faith in t he
stru g gle wi t h nal D ou b t is no insi g nican t si g n o f t h e
time in t his coun t ry and in t he world
,

U N I V E R S IT Y

OF

E D IN B U R G H

S ep temb er 1 8 9 6

C O N T E N T S

I I

P R E L M NA R Y
L E CT

II

P A GE

V ER SAL P R O B L EM
T H R EE P R I M A R Y D A T A : E G O M A T T E R
TH E

U NI

F R ST

P AR T

AN D

24

GOD

U N T H E I S T I C S P E C U L A T I O N A N D FI NA L S C EP T I C I S M
I

UN

I VE R SA L M A TE R IAL I S M

I3

P AN E G O I S M
III P A N T H EI S M
I V P A N T H E I S T I C U N I TY A N D N E C E S S I T Y
V F I NA L S C E P T I C I S M Z D A V I D H U ME
II

62

76

INO Z

89
1 04

SE C O ND
F I N AL RE A SO N
I

II

II I

AT E N T I N N ATU R E
I D E AL M A N AN I MAG E O F
GO D

IN

AR T

T H E I S T I C FA I TH

WH AT

Is

GO D

GO D

139
154

v ii i

CC NT E NT S

P E R F E CT G O O D N E SS P E R S O N I F IE D
V
O M N I P O TE N T G OO D N E SS
V I O M N I P R E S E N T D I V I N E A D A P T A TI O N
P H I L O S O P H I C A L O R T H E O L O G IC A L O M N I SC I E N C E
V I I I F I NA L FA IT H
IV

166

185

200

216
232

T HI R D

T H E G RE A T E N I G MA

P AR T
OF

T H E I S T I C F AI T H

I E V I L O N T H I S PL AN ET

II T H EI S TI C O P TIMI S M
I I I H U M AN P R O G R E SS
I V MI A CU L O U S I N T E R E R E N C E W HA T I S A MI R A C L E :Z
V T H E F I NA L V E N T U R E O F T H EI S TI C FA IT H
.

26 2

277

A R E T R O S P E CT

IND

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29 1

3 06

3 25

3 33

P HIL O SO P HY

OF

LECTU RE I
THE

THEISM

U N IV ER S AL PR O B LE M

rst words mus t give expression t o the emo t ion P rs o n l

which I feel on nding myself once m ore admi t ted to
S peak o fcially within th e walls of t his an cien t uni
versity wi t h which as s t uden t gradua t e and professor
I have b een connected for sixty years F o r i t is sixty
years in t his November since I rst cast eyes of wonder
o n the ac a demic walls which n o w carry so many memo
ries in my mind an d w h ich t o day are associated wi t h
an extraordinary responsibili t y I n the evenin g o f life
in reluc t ant response t o t he unexpec t ed invi t ation o f the
pat rons o f the Gi fford Trus t I nd myself in the presence
o f my countrymen
called t o s ay hones t ly the best that
may be in me concerning the supreme proble m of hu m an
life our response to which at last de t ermines t he answers
to all questions which can engage the mind o f man N 0
words th a t I can nd are su f cien t t o represen t my sense
of the honour thus conferred o r the responsibility thus
imposed upon one w h o believed tha t he had bid a nal
farewell to appearances in public o f t his sor t in order t o
wind u p his account wi t h this mysterious life of sense
M

It is an appalling pro b lem which confron t s m e and

,

in

PH I LOSO PH Y

THEISM

OF

dee d confron t s us all fo r all mus t practically dispose o f i t

in one way or another ; an d I am now required to han dle
i t in t ellectually O ne may n o t b e ready to s ay wi th P ll ny
t i?
t hat all religions are t he o ffspring o f human weakness and
fear ; and t hat wha t God is if indeed God b e any t hin g
dis tinc t from t he world i n which we nd ourselves it is
beyond man s unders t anding to kno w
Y et even t he
boldes t thinker when confronted by the ul t ima t e pro b
lem o f existence m ay desire to imi t a t e t he philosophic
ca u t ion o f S imonides when he was asked Wha t G o d
was ? i n rst demanding a day t o t hink abou t the
answer then two days more and after t ha t continuously
doubling t he required time when t he t ime already gran t ed
h ad come to an end ; b u t wi t hou t ever nding tha t he w as
able t o produce t he required ans wer ; rather becoming
more apt t o suspec t t hat the answer carried him beyond
t he ran g e of human intelligence
O ften in t hese las t
months I have wished t ha t I could indulge in t his pru
den t procras t ina t ion t akin g not m ore months only but
more years t o ponder t his in nite pro b lem Bu t after
t he threescore years an d ten t his is a forbi d den al ter
native if I am to speak in t his place at all I s ee at
hand

T h e sh ad o w c l o ak d fr o m h ead t o fo o t

/
W h o k e ep s th e k e y s o f al l th e cree d s

T h e na
h u man
b1

Man s ul t ima t e ques t ion abou t his life in t he universe

t
h th
is
a
t
the
heart
o f Theism
Philosophy
asks
wha
t
t
his
pr b l m 0 f
ni
I ll i m i table a g gre g a t e o f ever C hang i n g t h i n g s an d persons
th
r m y really means if indeed i t means anything Wha t i s t he
gi
p r ss d
deepest and trues t in t erpre t ation t ha t can b e pu t b y me
upon t he world i n which I found myself par t icipa t ing
when I became percipien t and wi t h which I have b een
in contac t o r collision ever since I be g an t o live ? O u g h t
a b eni g n meaning o r a malign meaning t o b e pu t upon i t
This is surely the most human ques t ion t hat can b e
raised : no man can avoid g iving some sor t o f response
t o i t in t he mo t ives o f his life if not in philosophic
t hou g ht I n what sor t o f universe divine o r dia b olic

and for wha t purpose if any am I exis t in g

o r in d i fferen t

F o rm s in

e u

THE

U NIV E R S A L PR O B L E M

consciously ? Wha t is t he deepest and t rues t meaning o f

this ever changing universe in which I am now s t rugglin g ?
What t he ori g in and t he ou t come o f its endless ux ? I s
t he Universal Power perfec t ly reasonable and morall y
trus t worthy ? o r is the whole morally chaotic and mis
leadi ng with only transitory semblance o f even physical
order ? o r mus t I remain for ever ignorant and t herefore
unable t o adopt either o f t hose al t erna t ives ?
It is this problem o f the ultimate m eaning an d purpose T h h
o f hu m an life in t he universe or whe t her indeed there is
{ggf gff
any purpose in i t tha t I nd at t h e hear t o f the subj ect ni v rs
t hat h as been in t rusted t o m e for free bu t always rever
e n t i al discussion
I t is a many sided subj ect which each t h gh t
lecturer is invited to discuss a t his o wn point o f View
with the a dvantage to truth o f i ts being thus looked at

o ne
o n many sides
t oo that is m ore than usually dis
t u r b in g feeling an d faith in t his ou t speaking era of E uro
pean and American civilisa t ion
-

ou

When I was asked t o engag e in t his work I turned t o Lor d G i f

f
r
d
s
Lord Gi fford s Deed o f Beques t in the hope t ha t i t migh t t ti n
contai n ar t i culate d i rect i ons W i th regard to t he o bj ect f d l ing
W it h
mat t er t o be investiga t ed the me t hod o f investigation
and the chief end o f the proposed inquiry
I found
under each o f t hese three heads par t icular ins t ruc t ions
bu t m ore o r less ambiguous
A s regards the proposed m a t ter o f in quiry i t seems t o I t i I n n
concern an O bj ect tha t is absolu t ely unique I t canno t
be made Visible or tan g ible ; nor is it even nite as bs l t l y
iq
m
0
1
obj ects studied in natural science are and as the word E t th t
j
o bj ect seems t o I m ply
Th i s un i que O bj ect I f obj ec t i t w h v
m ay be called is thus spoken o f in t he Deed of Foun
da tion
God t he Inni t e t he A ll the First and O nly
C ause the O ne and the S ole S ubstance the S ole Being
t he S ole Reality and the S ole E xis t ence more p ar ti c u

l arl y
t he na t ure an d a t tribu t es o f God and t he rela
t ions which men and the whole universe bear t o God

S cience o f this is called Na t ural Theology in the

widest sense o f the term

Nex t I nd some t hing a b out the me thod o f conduc t ing
,

111

s ru c
or

'

ea

o u e
ue

ec

'

6
T h e I n n

in

gggg

t i c

t his unique inves tiga t ion S tric t scien t ic me t hod is e n

j oined accordin g t o the analogy of t he na t ural scien ces
unres t rained excep t by evidence with consequent obliga
t ion t o follow facts in pursui t of wha t ever is found o n

t he whole t o b e reasonable As t hus : I wish th e l e e

t u r er s t o trea t their subj ec t as a stric t ly na t ural science
the greatest of all possible sciences in one sense t he only

science tha t o f I N FI N I T E B E I N G ; without reference t o or

reliance upon any supposed specia l e xcep t ional o r s o
called miraculous revelation I wish i t to be considered
The lecturers shall be
a s as t ronomy or chemistry is
under n o res t raint wha t ever in their t reat m en t o f their
t heme
F o r example they may freely discus s (and it
may be well t o do s o ) all questions about man s con
c e p t i o n s of God o r t he Innite ; their origin na t ure an d
t ruth ; whe t her man can have any such conceptions ;
whe t her G o d is under any o r what limita t ions ; and s o
o n as I am persuaded t hat n othi n g but g ood can result
from free discussion
The lecturers appointed shall
accordingly be su bj ected t o no tes t o f any kind and shall
no t b e required t o take an oa t h o r to make any promise
o f any kind ; they may be o f any denomination whatever
o r o f n o denomination at all
and
many
earnes
t
an
d
hi
g
h
(
minded men prefer t o b elon g t o n o ecclesias t ical denom
i n ati o n ) t hey may b e o f any religion o r way o f t hinkin g
o r as i t is sometimes sai d they may b e o f n o reli g ion ; or
t hey may b e called scep t ics a g nos t ics o r free thinkers
i t being desira b le t hat the su bj ec t be promo t ed and

illus t ra t ed by di fferen t minds

Finally the code o f directions su ggests t ha t a b road
social purpose o f u tili ty is to be kept in V iew throughou t
the i n qu i ry Th i s I s I ndeed the ch i ef en d o f t hose lec

t u r e s h ip s o n
Natural Theolo g y in the wides t sense of
t he t erm
I t I s i n t elle c t ual enlarge m en t fo r a human

and prac t ical purpose

O ne nds what follows
I
having been fo r m any years deep l y an d rmly convinced
that the t rue knowledge o f G o d that i s o f the Being
Na t ure and A t tribu t es o f the I nni t e o f the A ll o f t he
Firs t an d only Cause the one only S ubstance and Being ;
and t he t rue an d fel t Knowledge (no t mere nominal
,

q ir d
u

gtfif
e

P H IL OS O PH Y O F TH E I S M

s p ir it

wit h

Egg gigl
s

es t

we

mg

ll

nd

ar

p r ogr ess

Ep w 3
e

U NIV E R S A L PR O B L E M

THE

Knowledge ) of the relations of Man an d of the Universe

t o Him 7 bein g I say convinced tha t t his knowled g e
when felt and acted on is t he m eans o f ma n s highest
wellbeing an d the security of his u p ward progress I
have therefore resolved to i ns t i t u t e and found in con
n e c t i o n if possible with the S cot t ish universities lec t ure
S hips fo r the promotion o f the study of t he said subj ec t s
and fo r the t eaching and di ffu sion of sound views regard

ing them among the whole population o f S cotland

This
implies t ha t a man s nal faith or nal doub t shows what
the m an is and makes h i m what he is
,

It is with t his deeply hum a n purpose in View and in L t

ts
f
f
t he scientic S pirit which seeks for tru t h truth only f lly nd
and truth all that we n o w address ourselves to the ul t i h nestl y
ma t e ques t ion about the Unive rsal Power the answer t o

which consti t utes Na t ural Theolo g y i n the widest sense

o f the t erm
We are in quest of the wises t and truest
a ns w er available for a bei ng su ch as m an is t o t his s u
pre m e question What is the ch ar a cter of the Universal
Power with which all experience brings me in t o in t er
course ? Am I obliged i n re ason by the facts and con
d iti o n s o f the case to put nally a religious interpretation
upon the universe ; o r do the facts forbid me t o recognise
any concep t ion hi g her t han the physical called p a r ea:

cell eii ce the

scientic ? E ither w ay I must follo w as

facts and reason oblige me

Things are what t hey are

as Bishop Butler says

and t he consequences of t hem
will be what they will be ; why t h en should we desire
to be deceived ?
Let u s face the fac t s seekin g only
to know what they are and as far as we can wha t they
mean I will give t he re m ainder o f this lecture t o so m e
further consideration o f the obj ect ma t ter method and

utili t y o f Philosophical T h e is ni o r Natural Theology in

the wides t meaning o f the term

e

us

ace

ac

I Look rs t at tha t in man which sugges t s the nal R gni

t i n f th e
human problem The marvel o f his o wn existence and l ti m t
universe in which he nds himself appears a m r v l
o f the
f
th
marvel only to man amon g known sentient beings ; and it
ec o

a e

8
u ni

PH I LOSO PH Y

OF

TH E I S M

v e rs e i s is t his wi t h full consciousness on l y t o the few who reect

Wi t h t he exception of m an as S chopenhauer says n o

b ein g wond er s at its own existence and surroundin g s

By the b ru t e desti t u t e o f self consciousness t he world
and i t s o w n life are felt u ni nqu i ri ngly fel t as a m a tt er o f
course Bu t wi t h m an his o w n life and what i t means
b ecomes a t hough t at which even the mos t degraded may b e
moved t o m arvel Men sho w t hemselves dimly conscious
o f t his in t he rudest forms of religion
A sense of the ever
abidin g presence of t he eni g ma o f existence shown in
t he form o f wonder as t o wha t w e are wha t o u r surround
in g s involve wh y w e are wha t we are w h y so surrounded

and what w e are des t ined t o b ecome at las t is t he chief

m o t ive t o philosophy
I t is t he aw e involved in t he
vague sense o f man s absolu t e dependence upon t h e
Universal Power amids t t h e Immensities and E ternities
and t he sense o f moral responsi b ility fo r t h e way w e con
duc t o u r lives tha t gives rise t o religion
A m r ly
The omnipresence o f Innite Reality gives t heir d i s ti n c
t
ive
ch
aracter
alike
to
philosophy
an
d
t
o
reli
g
ion
It
is
f
th
ni v r
b y t heir con cern with Inni t e Reality that b oth are dis
i
ngu i s h ed from nite physical science
t
We
are
accus
$23 n
t o m e d in scien ces o f t h e ma t erial worl d t o a feelin g o f
p ssib l
satisfaction when w e are able t o refer unexpected even t s
t o visi b le causes o n which they are believed n aturally t o
depend accordin g t o t h e esta b lished n atural order an d by
which they are provisionally explained But it is some
t hing deeper t han desire fo r t his provisional satisfac t ion
t ha t mov es philosophical curiosity For the comple t e o r
nal meaning o f t he inni t e universe o f reali t y canno t be
discovered by referrin g i t t o a na t ural cause in the
w ay material phenomena are referred to natural cau ses
S cience of i t s Universal Power mu st b e t herefore ab s o
l u t e ly uniqu e science
The universe cann ot b e treated
as if i t were only a ni t e t erm in a n atural succession
It i s n o t like a visible event in o n e o f the physic al sciences
which when a place h as b een found for it in t he order o f
ou t ward nature ceases to perplex I n asking a b out t he
Character o f the Power t hat accoun t s for t he t emporal
procession w e are n o t t rying t o nd a physical cause
h u m an

e e

e u

e.

10

PH I LOSO PH Y

TH E I S M

OF

Can you think Clean t hes t ha t your u sual phlegm and

philosophy have been preserved in s o wide a step as you
have t aken when y o u have compared t he universe to
h ouses S hips furniture m achines ; and from t heir simi
l ar i t y in some circums t ances inferred a similarity in t heir
causes ? Though t desi g n intelli g ence such as w e discover
i n m e n and other animals is n o m ore than o n e o f th e
innu m erable S prings an d principles in the universe which
as well as a hundred o t hers such as heat and cold a t tr ac
t ion and repulsion fall under daily observation It is a
natural cause by which so m e particular parts o f n ature
w e nd produce al t era t io n s o n other parts
Bu t can a
con clusion with any proprie ty b e t ransferred from [ nite "
parts to the [innite "whole
D oes not the grea t [ inni t e "
disproportion bar all comparison or in ference ?
Bu t
allowing t hat w e are to take the opera t ions o f one par t
o f n ature u po n ano t her par t fo r the foundation of o u r
j udgment concerning the origin of t he whole (which never
can be admitted ) yet w h y select s o minute so weak s o
bounded a cause o r principle as t he reason an d desi g n
o f ani m als livin g upon this planet is found to b e ?
Wha t
peculiar privilege has t his lit t le agitation of t he b rain
which w e call though t that we must t hus make i t the
model o f the whole universe ? S o far from admit t in g
tha t the opera t ions of a par t can a fford us any j ust con
elusion concerning the [inni t e "whole I will n ot allow
any o n e part to fo rm a rule fo r another part if t he latter
be very remote fro m the former
A nd if th ough t as
we may well suppose b e con ned m erely t o this narrow
corner and has even here s o limi t ed a S phere o f ac t ion
with wha t propriety can we assi g n i t for t he original
cause o f all thin g s
The narrow views o f a peasan t who
makes his domestic econ omy the rule for t he government
o f kingdo m s is in co m parison a pardonable sophis m
B ut
were w e ever s o much assured that a thought o r reason
resembling t he human were to be found thro u ghou t the
whole universe and were i ts activi t y elsewhere vastly
greater t han i t appears o n this globe ; yet I cannot see
why the operations o f a world n o w constituted arranged
adj us t ed can with any propriety be ex t ended to a world
,

'

TH E U N I V E R S A L PR O B L E M

11

which was in i t s embryo sta t e an d only advancing t owards

tha t cons t itu t ion and arrangemen t Nature w e nd from
possesses an in nite number o f
o u r li m ited experience
springs and principles which incessantly discover them
selves o n every change in her position and situation
A nd wha t n e w and unkn own principles would actua t e
her in so new and unknown a situation as that of the
formation o f a Universe we cannot wi t h ou t the u t most
te m erity pre t end t o deter mine
S o far David Hume
No t withs t anding this obstacle t o o u r co m prehen sion o f T h p r s
the Character of the Universal Power t here are facts in 225222
experience that in t ensify the longing fo r some idea of f d th i n
l
ld
what life in this evolvin g world in whic h w e nd o u r ft jg
y
selves practically means fo r u s and what it is nally to h m n i
1
issue in
Wha t probably quickens t his desire an d
1
rouses men out o f the sensuous indi fference prod u ced by p i b fjm
t he mere custo m of living is in the rst place the su ffer
i n g and s i n t hat seem t o be chaotically mixe d up with
life o n t his plane t ; and in the n ext place the vanity that
appears to be s t amped upon each person s S hare in t he
whole t ransaction throu g h the fac t t ha t he is confron t ed
by his approaching death E vil and death are chief d if
c u l t i e s moreover in t he w ay o f a solution
If this em
bodied life o f ours i n which withou t being a b le to avoid
it w e become individually for a t ime a t least part o f
t he universe if this life were endless and unmixed with
s i n and pain the interest man could take i n t he ultimate
problem would be S pecula t ive T he great enig m a o f E vil
would not t hen dis t urb the divine h armony
Neithe r
should w e be confronted by t he mystery o f o u r o wn
prospective disappearance from the scene
,

ea

el

ll

11

d i e t o

s ee

T o s l eep p e r c h an c e t o d r ea m ay , t h e r e s th e r u b
F o r i n t h at s l ee p o f e at h w h at d r e am s m ay c o m e ,
W h en w e h a v e s h u fe o ff th i s m o r tal c o i l ,

M u s t g i v e u s p au s e

Philosophy h as been descri b ed as medi t ation upon

d ea t h
It is an expansion o f wha t the gen tle and r e
l igio u s E nglish essayis t represen t ed accor d ing to popular
.

12
T h e my s
t er y o f
en
e
in
i i ua
i e

d l ss
dvd l
lf
.

PH I LOSO PH Y

THEIS M

OF

concep t ion in t he V ision of Mirza

Bu t fai t h in t heir
own immor t ality seems incredible to those w h o are accus
t o m e d t o take the pos t ula t es o f modern ma t erialism
alone for re g ula t in g their nal interpreta t ion of m an
The world i n whic h w e are is foun d t o be in cons t an t
chan g e : all t ha t is individual seems n a t ural ly t ransi t ory
Is it not con t rary to t he analo g ies of experience to s u p
pose t ha t I who la t ely began to live shall never cease

to live t ha t I shall n ever b e refunded in t o t he u n c o n

scious exis t ence from which I w as evolved when I was
?
?
born
Mus t n ot all t hat is generable b e perishable
If
?
I am immor t al mus t n o t I have e xis t ed before my bir t h
A n d if my existen ce t hen noways concerns me n o w as
li tt le n eed my existence after m y death concern me n ow
Unconsciousness before the na t ural bir t h of our bodies
su gg ests unconsciousness when t he or g anisation na t urally
dissolves What arguments can j ustify expec t ation o f a
sor t o f existence which can no way rese m ble wha t any

living m e mb er of the human race has experien ced ? When

it i s asked says the sceptic

whether Agamemnon
Th ersi t es Hannibal V arro and every stupid clown that
ever exis t ed in Italy S cy t hia Bactria or Guinea is n ow

alive can any man think tha t a s crutiny of na t ure will

furnish ar g uments strong enough to a nswer so s t range a
ques t ion in t he a fr ma t ive
Moreover how can endless
personal existen ce b e reconciled with a se n se o f personal
identi t y ; o r with t he faintest memory in an in ni t e fu t ure
of the immor t al person s immeasura b le past ? It is di f cult
for a grown man t o iden tify himself with t he new b orn
b abe which he once w as how is this di f c u lty increased
?
f
when t he person has b ecome millions o years old
Wha t
practical identity can there b e betwee n myself n o w and
myself a hundred millions of years hence ? And above
all wha t means a co n scious life that is endless or in nite
thus t ranscending years and t ime ? I S no t an i n ni te
su cces s i on o f conscious states
o r o f events of any sor t
impossible ? A t any ra t e what scien t i c verication of a
conclusion s o stupendous is possible ? E ven t he crucial
instance o f a m a n w h o has died and been res t ored t o life
t elling his experien ce of what followed his death fails :
.

U NIV E R S A L PR O B L E M

THE

13

he could no t have had experience o f endlessness I t

is questions o f this sor t that the mystery o f dea t h is
ap t to sugges t t o t hose who assu m e tha t the physically
scientic in terpre t ation of the w orld mus t be it s deepes t
in t erpre t a t ion
Man s position in rela t ion t o the nal question which P l t l
gives rise t o philosophy and which evokes religious faith $ 3 3;
and hope suggests Plato s parable o f the Cave Which in tmt e
t hings are an allegory fo r in them the philosophic Greek
izl h f
ga
gures the contrast be t ween the realities beyond and the
cons t an t succession o f changes within this transi t ory em
bodied life S o tha t with respect to what really exists
men in t his mortal state are not unlike those who are
g e t ting educa t ed in a Cave ; looking o n the shadows o f
things with their e yes turned away from t he light which
r eve a ls t he reality outside
Man s interest in a set t le m en t of his nal problem is G d n d
m
th
perhaps connected by S chopenhauer to o ex clusively with m rt l ity

a vague des i re fo r some k i nd o f ex i stence af t er phys i f m n

cal dea t h
We nd he says t hat the interest which
philosophies and religions inspire has always its stronges t
hold in the do g ma o f some kind of existence after dea t h ;
and although the mos t recent systems seem t o make the
exis t ence o f God t he main poin t and defend t his m os t
zealously ye t in reality t ha t is because t hey have con
n e c t ed their fai t h in a fu t ure life with God s existence
and regard the o ne as inseparable from t he o t her O nly
o n accoun t o f this supposed future life is the existence o f
F o r if o ne could sustain belief
G o d important to man
in one s o w n unending exis t ence in some o t her way than
by faith in God s existence t hen zeal for the exis t ence
o f G o d would cool ; a nd if con versely the absolu t e i m
possibili ty o f a future life fo r m a n were proved t heo
logical zeal would give place t o complete t heological
indi fference A lso if we could prove that o u r continued
exis t ence af t er death was absol u t ely inconsis t en t with
t he existence o f G o d men would soon sacrice God to
t heir own immor t ality and become zealous for atheism
in order t o re t ain t h eir h O p e of a future life
But does n o t all t his proceed upon a wrong idea o f
fo r

a o s a

1 0

us

rrl

e 1

'

14

PH I L O SO P H Y O F T H E I S M

A nni v s e wh a t should b e sough t for when we t es t the reasona b le

w it h o t
ness
Does
it
o f faith and hope in the Universal Power ?
G d
n o t involve a m iscon cep t ion of wha t o u g h t to be meant
by the word G o d ? F o r a u niverse e m ptied of God is reall y
a universe withou t m eaning law or order ; withou t reason
ei t her omnipresent in i t o r somehow suprem e over it
and that is therefore eve n physically uninterpre t able ;
wi t hou t t rus t wor t hy ac t ive moral r e ason at the root of its
t herefore ultimately chao t ic evolutions I t is a universe
which m ay possibly be charged with purposeless future
misery t o men an d to all other sentien t beings m isery
innitely transcendi ng tha t which t he most wretched
h ave experien ced in t he pas t I t is a universe in which
we must live withou t reasonable hope ; and o n t h e s u p
posi t ion that each person s life in it mus t be endless it
m a y become t o all an endless hell from which t here is
n o escape in t o unconsciousness Wi th ou t perfec t moral
order and goodness personied a t its cen t re m an would
be in a w orse condition t han t hat o f the scep tic whose

tho u g h t s are paraphrased by Pascal

Who h as sent m e
into t his scen e in which I n ow n d myself I kno w

not he proclai m s in despair ;

wha t the t rue nal
meaning o f my surroundings may be I know not ; what
I really am myself I know n o t I am in a bewilderin g
and terrify ing ignora n ce o f all things : I kno w not how
t o interpret any of th e experience t hrou g h which I pass
E n compassed by t he fathomless and fr ig h t ful abysses o f
Immensity and Et ernity I n d myself chained t o this
o n e little corner o f their boundless extent ; withou t under
standing w h y I am here rather th an there existin g n ow
rather than t hen ; wi t h unknowable Power all around
which m ay at any m oment cause me t o disappear like
a shadow The s u m o f my knowledge after the utmos t
e xperience t hat I can have o f t he i n nite universe in
which I am livin g is that I must soon die : my highes t
wisdo m seems to consist in nothin g b e tt er than a fruit
less meditation upon the mystery o f my o w n dea t h
Fai t h in the omnipresent supremacy o f active moral

Reason fai t h in G o d is t he o ne un con di t ional human

hope
er

THE

N I V E R S A L PR O B L E M

15

It is t old o f Bishop B u tler tha t o ne day in conversa A i ns n

nv rs
t ion wi t h his friend Dean Tucker he pu t t h e ques t ion
Whe t her nations as well as individual men might no t be

?
liable t o ts o f insanity
I tho u gh t little a t t he t ime

o f that o dd conceit of the Bishop

th e Dean remarks ;

bu t I o w n I could no t avoid thinking o f it afterwards

and applyin g it to many cases o f nations and their rulers
Bu t ler s o d d conceit may suggest a ques t ion not unlike
his with re g ard no t to nations only but to the ever
chan g in g Universe in which we are living and partici
pating May no t t he supposed cosmos to a dim per
be the manifestation o f
ce p ti o n o f whic h w e all awake
irra t ional o r even o f innitely cruel Power ? We h ave n o
guarantee agai n s t the virtual insanity o f t he Universe
w hen we lose moral reason in t he Universal Power
Under such condi t ion s can w e even j ustify t he vu lgar
faith which in daily life an d in the previsions and
veri ca t ion s of science t akes for g ranted without proof
t hat man i s livin g in an in t elligible physical syste m the
even t s in which are t to be reasoned about an d c o n
ver t ed into physical science ? For i t may then be tha t
h e is living in wha t may turn o u t a t last a physical
?
C haos ins t ead o f a physical Cosmos
O rder in t he past
is n o securi ty t hen for order in th e fu t ure M ay n ot the

postulate of order in na t ure n a t ural l aw in t hings b e

a mis t ake for what at last is purposeless unreason a t the
heart o f t he whole ?
Much philosophical and religious though t in t he pas t A bs l t
is the issue o f endeavours to nd the best answers to
questions like t hese Reecting m e n h ave been moved im
to inquiry because they wanted to nd reaso n able security

n
o
w
t
as
that t he supposed C osmos
nally C haos s o that
t he world and human faculties m ight be trus t ed in This
is the do m in an t note of absolute Idealism which in its
o wn w ay seeks to s h ow t hat experience is coherent in the
organic u nity o f reason s o that n o rightly exercised hu man
being can be put to permanent confusion by irrationality
in the Univers a l Power
I S moral faith in the Universal Power the hi g hes t phil Q s ti n s
W h mh
?
osophy and if s o what does this fai t h involve
Is i t o u r
u

o u e

ue

16

PH I LO SO PH Y

OF

TH EIS M

r l mos t reasonable at t i t ude demanded b y an d su fficien t for

Th l g
Y
u e ideal ?
I S t he immeasura b le
human
na
t
ure
in
i
t
s
tr
W d
n th
real i ty i n wh i ch I n d myself l i v i ng and movi ng an d
n
e st m
1
havin
g
my
being
roo
t
ed
in
A
c
t
ive
Moral
Reason
an
d
9
[if 3 1 5
o f t rus t ; o r is i t hollow an d
t
herefore
absolutely
worthy
t
n
o
t
o
g
Si d
hopeless b ecause a t last wi t hou t meaning or even mean
in g ill ? A ccordin g to the answers t o t hose ques t ions our
surroundings and o u r fu t ure are viewed wi t h an i nera di
ca b le hope o r wi t h li t erally unu tt erable because to t al

doub t and despair I t is t hose questions t ha t Na t ural

Theolo g y i n the wides t sense o f t he term has t o an swer

at u a

eo O

ea

11

O ur M
t

ggggfw

lt t i
b
y
?
$ str i t
e

9 31

r
m et h d
1y

n at u e d
o

s el en c e ,
'

I I Think nex t a b ou t the Me t hod o f procedure w e are

expec t ed t o follow when we are t rying t o nd t he answers
Lord Gi fford s D eed o f Foundation recommends o n e way
while i t
o f dealing wi t h t he nal problem of exis t ence
part i cularly warns u s a g ai nst ano t her as I ncons i s t en t W i t h
g enuine in quiry and honest t hou g h t The nal problem
of o u r Universe is t o be disposed o f w e are t old accord

ing t o the s t ric t ly na t ural method of science ; accord

ing to me t hods as n a t ural as t hose adop t ed in t he

sciences of as t rono my and chemis t ry which are mentioned
This is one ins t ruction The o t her is t ha t
as examples

w e are to pursue t he inquiry

withou t reference to o r
reliance upon any supposed special exceptional or s o

called miraculous revelation

E ach of t hese condi t ions s o s t a t ed seems t o involve
am b i g ui t y
I n t he rs t place i t seems as I have already said t hat
t his wholly uniqu e science of t he Universe cann ot b e a
science o f n atural causes in the same way as as t ron omy
and chemistry are sciences o f na t ural ca u ses For these
t wo and o t hers like them are sciences of por t ions o f
ex t ernal na t u re ; t heir facts receive the required explana
t ion in inductively ascer t aine d laws in which the inferred
cause is presentable in sense an d t t o b e experi men t ed
B u t Inni t e B eing the Final Principle o f the uni
on

verse t ha t in vir tue o f which t he universe is a universe

an d which keeps i t a universe th i s cannot be t reated as

only a por t ion o f na t ure For t ha t would b e t o dives t i t

"

A mb ig

I t) "

N
u

at u

r l
a

r l
a

in

ph y si al
c

Zi

e nc es

18

PHIL OSO PH Y O F TH E I S M

na t ural science must be formed by me thodical o b

servation o f even t s in nature and freely formed inference s

foun ded t hereon s o the t heology which is natural

must be determined by fac t s and by principles o f reason
known t o be t rue in their o w n light n o t dogm atically
assumed o n the infalli b le aut h ority o f a Church o r of
books assum ed t o express infallibly the divine purpose
We know t ha t t here i s n o such do g matically imposed
au t hority fo r an infalli b le as t ronomy o r an infallible
chemis t ry which would supersede rational inves t iga t ion
In like manner b lind relian ce o n supposed infallibili t y
b iblical o r tradi t ional in m at t ers o f religious t hought mus t
b e put aside by the Gi fford lecturer s o tha t all the t hree

sciences
t he t wo physical ones now named an d the
unique science o f the Universal Power must alike make
their nal appeal to reason in experien ce ; n o t t o t radi
t i o n a l au t hority p er s o which can never b e the fin a l
court o f appeal for a reasona b le b eing o n any question
na t ural o r supern atural Wha t i s meant see m s to be
tha t r ea s ona b leness mus t nally direct us in this as in
every t hin g else if w e are reasonable bein g s
B t l it r
S o I do no t in t erpret the terms of this Founda t ion as
unphilosophically
pu
t
ting
an
arbi
t
rary
restrain
t
up
n
f
ng
fivgfg
o
reason by W i th d r a w m g from o u r regard part o f what I s
ins p ir
ti n
f n

n g those
repor
t
ed
in
the
history
t
he
world
includi
of
p rt f th
r rd d S i g nal examples of rel i gi ous exper i ence i n Palesti ne and
1
elsewhere
which
claim
to
be
the
issue
o f wha t is called
3 323
superna t ural in t erposi t io n
The Church and t he Bible
presen t spiri t ual experien ces about G o d which s om eh ow
certain m en have ac t ually expressed in words o r in
ritual an d which (s o far ) are fac t s in the history o f man
Whether natur a l o r super n atural in any o f the several
meanings o f t hose ambiguous t erms t his recorded ex
ff
of
e
r i e n c e is a portion o f his t ory
I
t
i
still
t
he
o
ice
s
p
reason to j udge under what con di t ion s i t is reasonable t o
accep t recorded human experience as revelation o f G o d
and also to in t erpre t the words in which t he e x p e ri
en ce is recorded Whatever God h as revea l ed is cer
t ainl y t ru e ; w e ar e obliged in reason to accep t it for
in doin g s o we are accepting reason itself
B ut t hat
,

0r

ec o
3

3 11 0 8

11

THE

U N I V E R S A L PR O B L E M

19

t his o r tha t which claims to b e divine i s divine can

n ot be assumed blindly : reason m us t j udge whe ther it
is reasonable s o to accep t it Reason indeed can never
permi t u s to rej ec t a greater evidence in order t o em
brace what is less eviden t nor allo w us to en ter t ain
proba b ility in opposi tion to absolu t e cer t ain t y N o evi
dence t hat any church o r book is divi n e can be more
clear an d cer t ain t han are the universal and necessary
principles o f reason ; and t herefore nothing that is d e
m ons tr a b ly i n consi sten t wi t h what is reaso n able h a s a righ t
in reason to be received in faith B u t whatever i s divine
revela t ion can claim assen t in th e name of nal reason
which is itself the inspiration o f God
O ne nds much need for S ocratic qu es tioning when t he W h t i

terms na t u ral and supernatural are O pposed to o n e $ 3 2t

another Wha t conception of n a t ure is taken when ng r

theology is called natural and as such admitted to

acade m ical treatmen t as philosophically queen amon g t he
sciences ? Can there be a di fference in kind between
wha t happens naturally and anything tha t is supposed

t o make its appearance superna t urally i h an ultimately

reasona b le universe ? Must no t all that can enter in t o
t he his t ory of t he planet and its inhabi t an t s be regarded by

the theis t as na t ural i n the wide m eaning o f nature ?

and must n o t all possible events whe t her called natural
o r superna t ural be consis t en t wi t h the di vine intellec t ual
order ? Nay i s n o t supern aturalness in another Vie w
the characteristic o f man s o far as m an is a moral agen t
and to t hat ex t en t independent o f physical nature ? Is
not miracle W hen th e term is applied to a physical

event
t he resurrection of a dead man a relative
term dependent o n t he limitations o f hu m an experience
an d hu m an intellec t ual g rasp ; s o t hat in p ropor t ion as
man s intelligence and experien ce are widened events
called superna t ural or m iraculous would be seen by the
eye of reason to t ake t heir places in t he perfect order o f

bu t a t a point o f View perhaps transcending the

o
d
G
S hare of scienti c knowledge in wh i ch a hum a n i nt ell i
gence can participa t e ? In the V ie w o f perfect Intelligence

f
can any even t s ay t he resurrec t ion o a dead man b e
.

11

h a

20

P H IL OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

miraculous and not ra t her in natural c onformity with

omnipresen t reason and purpose ? Looked a t from the
cen tr e o f t hings is it no t true tha t ei t her nothin g should
be called supernatural o r all should be called superna t ural
A dim idea of this sor t was perhaps in Bishop Bu tler s
mind whe n h e sugges t e d tha t t here can b e n o absurdity
in supposing beings in the universe whose capacities an d
knowledge may be s o ex t ensive as that the whole Chris
tian dispensation commonly called superna t ural or mir
ac u l o u s m ay to them appear na t ural ; as na t ural as th e
visible course of things appears t o u s If all that happens

o r can happen
in na t ure is t he i m mediate issue and
expression of omnipresen t ac t ive reason t he dis t inctio n
b etween na t ural and supernatural seems in t h e end to
disappear ; but no t t herefore t he dis t inc t ion b e t w een wha t
is m erely physical o r sensuous and wha t is S piritu al ; nor
is th e ra t ional possi b ility shu t o u t o f events b y man fo r
ever incalcula b le
I F it h
Locke accordin g to Hume w as t he rs t Christian who
ven
t
ured
openly
to
asser
t
th
a
t
f
a i th was n othing but a
$ 58 33?
species o f r ea s on an d tha t religion intellectually con
s i d er e d w as a branch of philosophy
O mnipresen t r a
t i o n al order no t irra t ional and capriciou s in t erference
with ra t ional order must b e presupposed a t the fo u n d a

t ion o f all revelatio n s of the charac t er o f the Univer

sal Power whe t her the revela t ions are called na t ural o r
superna t ural This i s n o t inconsis t en t wi t h t he principle
on which Goe t he o bj ected t o Hegel for t ransformin g
the Chris t ian religion into philosophy namely t hat
philosophy has really nothin g to do wi t h it ; inasmuch
as Chris t ianity i s sus t ained no t by p h ilosophy bu t b y
b ei ng found in experience t o have a migh t of i ts own by
which dej ec t ed su ffering humanity is re eleva t ed from
t ime t o time For in this which af t er all is an ar g u
m e n ta ti ve appeal t o experience t he spiri t ual effi ciency
o f Chris t iani t y
proved b t he consequences o f its en
,

III Fur t her Lor d Gi fford s Dee d gives a moral mo tive

THE

U NIV E R S A L PR O B L E M

21

for his encoura g emen t of Natural Theology in i t s wide I l l s tr

m
meaning It was because he sa w in true knowledge o f s, n
p
God the means o f man s h i ghes t welfare a n d secur i ty for d n f
his upward progress ; and also that t his knowledge could B
gigt
be t hus valuable only when i t w as reasonable convic t io n p n

m
n
l

really fel t an d ac t ed o n not merely S pecula t ion ab

i gn
And I think Efii f
s t r ac t e d from human life and social regard
it may be gran t ed t hat the ul t imate concep t ion of life
in i t s relations to O m n ipresen t Po wer which a man (con
s c i o u s l y o r unconsciously ) acts under is t hat which chiey
makes him wha t he i s Take so m e obvious illus t ra t ions
I f a m an fully accepts a nal conception o f t he universe
which makes him only t he passi ve subj ect o f blindly
necessi t a t ed natural evolution m orali t y and immorality
become meaningless words and F atali s m as t he logical
i s also the practical issue
Again our conduct and o u r
j udgments of hu m an action m ust di ffer widely as the
wholly material o r the spiri t ual t he pessi m ist o r t he
opti m ist concep t ion of existence governs our lives Also
unless we presuppose omnipresent Goodness in the uni
versal evolution we cannot j us t ify any in t erpre t ation put
upon events by science : i t is all physical chaos under a
t emporary sembla n ce o f cosmos ; deceptive chaos with a
present pre t ence o f order
u

l e ce

ce o

ou r

lo

It mus t surely be w i th a sense of weighty prac t ical T h ni v

issues that we address ourselves t o the considera t ion o f
the supreme problem which in fain t outline I have now b tr t d
i
put before yo u
In t he t reatment of it either of t w o giggl f

obj ects may be pro m inen t

It m ay be treated b istori m t p h j a
l
l

)
a
f
cally as an investig t ion o t he religions o f the world in
their natural evolu t ion in a historical science and psycho
logical analysis o f Religion ; or it may be t rea t ed meta
physically as an examination o f the ultimate foundations
o f t he religious conception o f the universe
in a Phil
osophy o f Theism I n S co tland bo t h t hese courses were
followed by D avid Hume
The o n e is exemplied in
his Na t ural His t ory o f Religion a pioneer o f that
S cience o f Religion which is characteristic o f the nine
t e en t h century ; the o t her is the subj ect o f Hume s Dia
eu

er

ea e

e a

ca

22

PH I LOSO PH Y

THEISM

OF

lo g nes concernin g Natural Religion in which we are

brough t face t o face with t he me t aphysical questions
which underlie reli g ion an d all human experience
I th
Lecturers o n th e Gi fford Foundation in this an d the
t h l gi l
n
o
t
her
S
cot
t
ish
Universi
t
ies
have
hi
t
her
t
o
I
t
hink
i
n
p ti n
D eeply
c lin e d to th e historical t reatment o f Reli g ion
o f th e
ni
v rs n
in
t
eres
t
in
g
as
tha
t
is
it
l
aves
in
the
b
ackground
the
e
n
h on
supre m e human q uestion especially in a s cep t ical age
i m nd
bs r d
t he t ru t h o r validi t y o f Religion in any of its develop
m en t s Can i t be philosophically j us t ied ? Is it a per
m anen t a tt i t ude of human na t ure consisten t with reason
if not t he culmina t ion o f reason in man ? C an tru t h in
su ch m atters or if n o t in any mat t er be ei t her na t urally
I s t he religious con
o r superna t urally reache d by man ?
c ep t i o n o f t he universe a pro t rac t ed illusion characteristic
b u t an
o f certain lower st ag es o f human development
anachronism in a civilisa t ion like that o f modern E urope
and America which demands veried prevision under a
physical o r mechanical con cep t ion o f the universe as the
only le g itima t e cri t erion of reali t y ?
Th m t
I propose to take the second of these t wo poin t s of View
ph y s i l
an
d
s o to deal m etaphysically with the nal human prob
p i nt s f
v i w p r o m lem This involves inquiry in t o foundations o f the di ffer
in n t in

f
en
t
n
al
in
t
erpretations
existence
all
religious
if
o
this
religion means va g ue recognition by m an o f Po wer in the
Co s
universe tha t is superior to his o wn not all properly
theis t ic Philosophy of Theism n ot Natural His t ory of

r
Religion is o u subj ect yet with the his t ory t aken in
occasionally in illustra t ion o f the philosophy The moral
interes t of the his t ory lies in the validity and worth of
t he faith Reli g ion presupposes tha t human experience
demands a deeper in t erpreta t ion t han t hat o ffered in the
concep t ions o f na t ural science
Theistic faith claims for
man an obligation in reason to recognise t he universe
as supremely or nally a m oral and spiritual unity R e
l igi o u s phenomena are insu f cien t ly treate d when re g arded
only as transitory physical growth o r evolution t he s c ien
t i c ordering o f which is t aken for our whole intellec tual
concern with t hem O ne still wan t s to be satised regar d
ing their practical and their e t ernal validity O n e wan t s
,

eo o

co

ca

ce

e a

ac

e a

ca

ur e .

U N I V E R S A L PR O B L E M

THE

23

nd whe t her he is obedien t t o t he inevitable limita

t ions o f hu m a n knowled g e when he ventures to put a
religious m eanin g upon experience an d trea t s this as its
m ost real meaning
I S lial faith in O mnipoten t Good
n ess a reasonable sta t e o f the human m ind and even an
i ndispensable m oral postulate of human e xperience ?
In wha t follows I will try t o supply so m e inci t ement Ai d s t
r
ti n
and direction to reec t ion upon o u r nal a t ti t u de t owards n
n l
the universe frankly facin g dif culties tha t are apt to t t it d t
w r d s th
occur to thoughtful persons always seeking to keep reali t y ni v rs
hones t ly in view and satised to make the best o f g limpses
o f reali t y t ha t m a
be
within
our
reach
in
t
his
embodied
y
life
to

our

ec

24

L E C T U R E II
T H REE P R I MA RY D A TA :

E GO

M A TTE R AN D
,

GOD

THE ul t ima t e pro b lem o f existence in t he vague form

in which i t was presen t ed in las t lec t ure m ay seem
to evade in t ellectual g rasp
I t mus t b e fur t her ar
t i on f t h
t i c u l at e d before i t can b e t aken hold of for orderly
medi t a t ion an d inves t iga t ion A n advan ce towards t hi s
is m ade when w e reco g nise t hat t he innite reality o f
which w e are par t into which we are all born and th e
meaning an d purpose of which philosophy an d religio n
are especially co ncerned wi t h presents t hree primary
da t a
E ach o f t h es e j m en seem t o b e o b liged in som e
degree t o recognise but wi t h innumerable di fferences in
their individual conceptions The t hree data make thei r
appearance in t he very words o f Lord Gi fford s Deed

which dene the province o f Na t ural Theology in t he

For the words represen t i t

w ides t meaning of t he t erm

as comprehending knowledge o f God s nature and att r i

bu t es
knowledge o f the rela t ions o f m en t o God
and

knowledge o f the rela t ions which the whole universe

bears t o God
Here we have men ex em p l i ed by
each man for himself in his own private consciousness ;
t hen t he material world outside eac h conscious ego ; and
fo r the n al syn t hesis
G o d I n ni t e or Universal
Power
T h e thr e
But although these three da t a are commonly pos t ula t ed
as dis t in g uisha b le existences i t is n o t to be supposed tha t

d iff r ntl y
existence
su b s t ance
reali ty
and suchlike
n cei v e d
t erm s are applied t o each o f t he t hree in the sam e
Ult imat e

e e

co

26

PHIL OS O PH Y O F TH E I S M

h appy in prop ortion to t he due ackn owledgmen t of all

the t hree
C onfused conceptions o f the three are an

o
f
inexhaus t ible source
t wo ex t remes superstition and
scepticis m
.

Take Locke s accoun t o f the foundation o f certainty as

t
o
the
E
go
Ma
tt
er
and
God
It
is
given
expressly
in
332?
rti l t d three chapters o f the fourth book of his E ssay : bu t
by LO k
indeed t he wh ole E ssay conver g es and rests in t h e

en d upon wh at Locke calls man s t hreefold knowledge

I choose Locke among philosophers fo r
o f exis t en ce
this purpose b ecause h e gives expression more than most
of them to the uncriticised convictions o f the co m m on
mind ; and b efore n atural science and theological ideas
were m odied either by the conception of universal
physical evolution or by the philosophical criticism o f
Kant and the dialec t ic o f Hegel
I wan t t o present
Locke s homely ar t icula t ion of the ul t ima t e problem o f
the universe a s a preparation fo r the considera t ion o f
more pre t entious philosophical speculations which try to
resolve the three primary da t a in t o one He pu t s t he
case in the ninth chapter o f t he four t h book o f the
E ssay and by implica t ion in t he t wen t y third chapter
o f t he secon d book

T he t

h r ee

cu a e

'

In Locke s view t he mos t o b vious o f the three nal

l
cer
t
ain
t
ies
is
E
go
the
ass
u rance o n e has o f his o wn exis t
figfgg gf;
ence This arises when he reco g nises h i ms elf t o be some
wn x i s t
e nc
ri s s how more than a succession o f conscious s t ates as t he
invisible personal cen t re t o which alone a portion o f t he
conscious experien ce th at is i n process in the universe
must be referred as being his own private and con

As for o u r own exis t ence he

t i n u o u s conscious life

w e perceive it so plainly and so cer t ainly t ha t

says
i t neither needs nor i s capable of any proof For noth
ing can be m ore eviden t t o me than my own exi stence
I think I reason I feel pleasure and pain : can any
s t a t es be more evident t o me t han my o w n
o f these
existence ? If I doub t o f all other things tha t very
doub t makes me perceive my own exis t ence E xperience

H o w th e

e a

T HR E E PR I M A R Y D A TA

27

t hen convinces us t hat w e have an in t uitive knowledge

an internal infallible perception
o f our o wn existe n ce

tha t we are
Bk
iv
ch
ix
)
(
I n this pos t ula t e Locke is g iving expression to t he u n T h d t
criticised conviction o f the human mind E nigmas tha t
underlie t he da t um are left t o the speculating philosopher p s n
111
to disinter They emerge when we proceed to rake Locke s $3g 3
foundation For further reection is provoked to as k
What i s m eant by one s existence as a separate person
tha t s o meth i n
m
r e than a series o f isola t ed conscious
o
g
states which is supposed to be signi ed by the pronoun

I ? T his is the riddle o f personality T he personal

pronoun in s o far as i t means t his some t hing more

m eans somethin g t ha t cannot be perceived by the senses
o r pictured
Mus t it therefore be discharged fro m lan
g uage as e m p t y sound ? T his is the w ay t he personal
pronoun h as been sometimes t rea t ed David Hu m e fo r
example dismissed all ter m s as j ar g on t o which no i mag
i n ati o n could be attached ; and o n this principle he virtu

ally dispensed with the personal pronoun I

For after
trying t he experi m en t he sa i d he could never li g ht upon
anythin g perceptible o r i m aginable correspo n din g to I
only isola t e d and transitory conscious states
; s o he con
cluded t hat if any one pre t ended t o think th a t the Eg o
was some t hing more than t he single perception or feeling

o f t h e moment
it was impossible t o reason with him
If any one perceives something S i m ple and con t inued

which he calls himself I am cer t ain he asserts tha t

t here is no such percep t ion o f continuous exis t ence in
me But this negative certain t y of Hume is confronted
by t he di fcul ty tha t if the personal pronoun si g nies
nothing more than isola t ed m omentary perceptions there
must b e as many persons or egos as there are moment a ry
perceptions ; each momentary percep t ion in wha t is com

mo u ly called one s m ind constitu t in g a separate person

whose personal life lasts only as lon g as the momentary
consciousness las t s I t i s further confronted by the fact
that t he mysterious ego inevitably reappears by implica
t ion in t he words and actions even o f the sceptical philo
sopher wh o is t hus obli ged in fact to acknowledge as
,

a um

er o

0"

P H I LOS O PH Y

OF

TH E I S M

re al more than can be presen t ed i n sense or pic t ured i n

sen s u ous imagination
There are other eni g mas involved in o u r o w n exis t enc e
E ni g m s
i n v lv e d
tha
t
lie
m ore o n the surface t h an t he on e n o w su g ges t ed
i n th i d
gradual evolution and nal destiny o f t h e
w n The origin
f
i n d iv i d l
invisible
an
d
continuou
s
Eg
o
t
he
relations
o f t he Eg o
;
xist n
of wh i ch w e are conscious to its visible organism ; t h e
need and na t ure of its connection wi t h Ma t ter are
amon g t he ques t ions sug g ested b y the meaning o f th e
personal pronoun which modern thou g h t presses upon
Locke is sa t ised wi t h g iving emphatic expression
us
t o his S pontaneous convic t ion o f his own exis t ence S i
.

ea

our o

ua

ce

n on r og a s ,

i ntellig o

He deals m ore analy t ically with percep t ion of t hin g s

h

presen
t
t
o
the
senses
t
he
second
of
t
he
t
hree
primary
b l h gs
data Con t ac t and collision with ou t ward t hings is found
dvd l
o u r awakin g int o
t
o
b
e
the
occasion
if
not
t
he
ori
g
in
of
p rs on s
x i st t an irresis t ible conviction o f o u r personali t y For that
sid m
convic t ion involves a perception of some t hin g outside each
e g o to which the personal s t a t es are found rela t ed E very

ac t o f sensuous percep t ion gives us Locke says

an

f
equal view o f both par t s o Nature the corporeal and the
S piri t ual
Whils t I know b y seei n g an d hearin g that
t here is som e corporeal bein g wi th ou t me t he obj ec t o f
t ha t sensa t ion I do more certainly kno w also t ha t t her e
is some S piritual being wi th i n me that sees and hears

t ha t o bj ec t
S o he nds t ha t t he human ego b ecomes

simul t aneou sly possessed o f t his irresistible assuran ce

o f t h e ou t side exis t ence o f t hin g s visi b le and t a n g i b le ;
thin g s which canno t b e appropria t ed by t he e g o as state s
o f itself in t he way t ha t its o wn pas t and presen t feelings
and t h ough t s are appropriated Bu t i t is impor t an t t o

remark t ha t i t is a por t ion o f ou t ward exis t ence very

limi t ed in ex t ent and duratio n which is supposed by Locke

r
t o be perceived withou t need o possibility of proof over
and above t he spon t anei t y o f t he sensuous perception i t self
and t he certainty which t his spon t anei t y is t aken t o i n
volve The obj ec t spon t an eously perceived is limi t ed b e

cause t he w orld o f ou t ward t hin g s is in cons t an t chan g e

And t he uc t uating obj ec t s are fel t to be certainly real
bl f

T h e e ie
t at mo v
a
e t in
a nd i n
i i ua

ou

TH R EE PRIM A R Y D AT A

29

nly (s o Locke assumes ) durin g the momen t in which each

ou t ward thing by actually opera t ing upon our senses in

a manner for ces u s to p er cei ve i t then and there existing
A ccordingly when an outward o bj ec t is withdrawn t o a
d is t ance fro m on e s organ s o f sense o r separated by an
interval of t i m e Locke assumes that o n e h as no absolu t e
certain t y o f i t s still conti n u ed existence
I t s absen t
e xis t ence at least in t he form it had when it w as pres
e n t can only be inferred and with a probabili t y varied
according t o circu m s t an ces When o n e is loo/si ng at the
s u n he mus t have perfect assurance that t he s u n is th en
really exis t i n g : t his is the spon t aneous certainty o f i m
m ediate perceptio n But when a t ni g h t he is only expec t
in g its reappearance in the morni n g this exp ecta ti on is
nothing more than probable convic t i on of t he continued
exis t ence of the absen t s u n : the solar syste m Locke
would s ay might con ceivably be dissolved before m orn
ing ; and there is n o unconditional guarantee t ha t this
may not actu ally happen
I nnumerable enig m as underlie Locke s infallibly cer E nigm s
i n v l v d in

t ain sensuou s percep t ion o f ou t ward things

enig m as p r p t i n
s carcely apprehended by h i m especially in the forms in
f t h ing s
x
i
s
t
i
ng
h
w
w ich they n o appear in scien t ic and reli g ious thought
tw rd l y

Take an example He tells us tha t we have an irre

o f the presen t corporeal reality of all
s i s ti b l e assurance

thin g s t ha t are actually operating upon our senses

especi ally upon t he senses of sigh t and touch as long
a s they persist in
actually operating upon those senses
Here a question of far reaching S igni cance arises which
Locke touches only incidentally In wha t meanin g o f the

a mbi g uous words

power
opera t ion an d cause m ay
any things of sense be said t o op er a te either o n o n e an
Have I reason fo r supposing that an
o t her o r o n m e ?
ato m o r a mass of atoms can be ri g htly called an ag en t ;
a lth ough in common and also in scienti c language bodies

i
are so spoken o nay are even supposed by materialis t s
t o be t he on ly a g ents in the chan g es cons t an t ly going o n
i n the universe ? Locke at any rate hesita t es to incl u de

active power in the complex idea we are j usti ed in

forming of ma ter i a l subs t ance ; although he falls into the
o

e ce

ou

PH I L OSO P H Y O F T H E I S M

popular m o d e of expression ; for he occasionally speaks o f

Bu t he sug g ests wi t h characteristic

b odi es opera t i n g

caution in the part o f th e E ssay where the powers o f

substances are expressly treated o f tha t ma t erial s u b

stances are n o t s o entirely active powers or a g en t s as

Indeed
o u r hasty t houghts are ap t to represen t t hem
whether m atter be not wholly destitu t e of active power

m ay be wor t h considera t io n
Bu t if t ha t be s o the soli d
m ovable thin g s by which we are surrounded can be only
the natural occ a sions not the origin o f o u r percep t ions o f
t hem He begins to see that we mu st look else where t han
t o t hin g s visible an d tan g ible for the po w er t ha t direc t s
t he cha n ges which the na t ural scien ces are gradually
learning to explain
It is only es t ablished order o f
procedure in external na t ure n o t cau sation proper t ha t
t h ose s ciences are concerned with Natural science i s
only articulate applica t ion o f o u r faith that in nature
t h e f u ture will s o resemble th e past that we t hrough
m ay with practical safe t y to some exten t
t h e past
forecast the fu t ure But our interpre t ations are of t en
mistaken when tested by t he issue ; and even i n t hose
cases in which they are veried by experimen t it is only
pro b able veri cation n ot uncondi tional certain ty t ha t
on e is landed i n The concrete past can n ever make t he
concre t e future kn own in t he way abstrac t premisses
make know n an abstract conclusion in a m at hem atical
de m onstra t ion We do n o t know all the powers which
de t ermine changes o r the possible action of the Universal
Power A ccordi ng ly w e cannot be said to kn ow u ncon
d i ti on a lly even th at the sun will rise t o morrow
An

accident as in o u r ignorance w e migh t call it may

occur to the solar sys t em in the in t erval s o tha t there

may be no t o morrow in the ordinary m ea ning All

physical science o f ou tward thi n gs is sus t ained at last

in undemonstrable fai t h
D l it y f
Never t heless with mys t eries like th ese wrapped up in
l g
nd
this duality of conscious person an d n u
the
t
wo
da
t
a
f
gtf
conscious thin g are t aci t ly assumed but by most persons
in a s i n on r oga s i n tellig o state of m ind S o o n e may s ay
t hat h e has na t ural assurance of his own exis t ence as a

ua

el

TH R E E PR I M A R Y D ATA

31

separa t e self conscious e g o ; and also na t ural assurance o f

t he e xis t ence of thi ng s ou t side as long as they are present
to his senses He nds when he ac t s that he canno t rid
himself of either o f t hese as workin g convictions and he
nds t ha t each is the correlative o f the other
S till t his dual universe in which I nd myself is re F init
d
l
it y
cognised as i n comp lete when o n e thinks of it as consisti ng nd th
on ly o f the ego and the ou t side world the occasion t o p r s
p
i
n
t
i
p
s
f
m
the ego o f innu erable pains and pleasu res Locke e x S m h ing
t
presses the comm on feeli ng o f t his incompleten ess dim I n nit
in many when he nds hi mself u n able t o think o f his
own existence wi t hout also recognisin g the existence o f

S ome t hing E ternal o r Innite m ore and other than

t h e e g o more and other than t he outer world o f t hi n gs
He nds himself as certain of the reality o f this E ternal
S omething as certain t o o that this E ternal S omethi ng
mus t be E ter n al Mind as he is certain of any con clusion
in mathematics He nds himself even surer t hat an

E tern al Mind exists than he i s that an y thing else ou t

side o f himself exis t s ; and he believes th at every other

human bein g wh o makes the trial must n d that this is s o

It is as certain in reason h e says tha t there is a God

as i t i s cer t ain that the O pposite angles made by t he
intersection o f t w o strai g h t lines are equal o r as tha t the

three angles o f a triangle are equ al t o tw o right a ngles

Y e t while the existence o f t he Universal Power the
supreme factor of experience beco m es conscious certainty
in all wh o reect the cert a inty Locke grants needs r e
ec t i o n to awak e n it
Without du e reec t ion a m a n m ay
re m ain as ignoran t of Divine Rea l ity as a stranger to
geo m e t ry may remain ignoran t o f the demons t ration s
and even the axioms o f E uclid altho u gh they lie laten t
in th e minds o f all I n like ma n ner many persons never
recognise necessity in experience fo r the exis t ence o f
Divine Mind
But it must be re m embered that the
o t her t wo d ata our o w n exis t ence and tha t o f outside

things are also only obscurely recognised although all

acknowle dge them in feelin g an d action
Now h o w does conviction o f the existence o f E ternal L k s
nt
f
Mind rs t en t er a human mind ? G o d cannot o f course
-

ua

e u

oc

ac c o u

32
h o w we
co

me to

fr
E rn l
M d
in e
te
in

PHIL O SO PH Y O F T H E I S M

be presented to o u r senses ; n o r indeed can any o t her

e g o t han my o wn b e present to me in the way the

invisible ego is
Here i s Locke s answer
I canno t
wan t a clear proof t ha t G o d exis t s as lon g as I carry
myself abou t with me
F o r each man knows t ha t he
individually exists
and he also knows tha t h e has not
existed always It is therefore in evita b le to him as a
rational bein g t o conclude t ha t S ome t hing m ust have
exis t ed from e t ernity
t his being of all absurdities
t he grea t est in t he eye o f reason t o imagine t ha t pure
No t hing the perfec t ne g ation and absence of all b ei n g s
S hould ever produce any real exis t ence I canno t m yself
b e this Et ern al S ome t hin g seein g that m y o w n exis t ence
as I know had a b e g inning ; an d whatever had a beginning
mus t h ave been produced by somethi n g else ; and i t mus t
have got all t h at belongs to i t s existence from t ha t other
being Further I nd tha t I am a t hinking b ein g : there
fore t his S omething the original source o f my existence
i t being as imp ossible tha t
must be a thinking being t oo
what is wholly void of knowledge and operatin g blindly
and withou t any percep t ion S hould produce a kno win g
being such as I am as i t is impossible that a triangle
should m ake itself three an g les bigger than t wo ri g h t
ones
This arg umen t af t erwards elabora ted by S amuel
Clarke is in subs t ance as o ld as A ristotle

Nevertheless E ternal
Mind when reco g nise d by
Locke as t he t ransla t ion of t he E ternal S ome t hing is t his
with an i mportan t qualica t ion
A m I permit t ed by

reason t o think of the E ternal S omething as Mind

such as I nd conscious in myself ? I s t he E ternal Mind

conscious mind o r is the ter m consciousness applic

able t o t he E ternal Power ? A re w e obli g ed to suppose
in wha t is called G o d an individual conscio u s life in
which subj ect an d obj ect are distin g uished as i n human
consciousness ? May we t hink o f E tern al Mind as a s ep
ara t e conscious life continually passing through conscious
chan g es ? and if s o what is t he ground in reason for so
t hinking ? H o w do w e know t hat t he E ternal Power i s
an operative conscious life and s o eter n ally ? A S t o
this Locke S hows charac t eris t ic cau t ion
The Et ern al
,

C an t h e

E t er n a l
Po w er b e
r egar d ed
a
s el f
cons i u s
M in d
s

c o

34

P H IL OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

nite fac t s only ; and which a s ni t e raises anew i n

stead o f n ally foreclosing the previous questio n as to the
c ause o f i ts exis t ence
Th e supposed g ods o f poly t heism
are nite therefore dependen t an d un t t o satisfy t he
need fo r absolute support or t o mee t man s sense of i n
comple t eness i n all that is ni t e The essence o f t h e
meani ng o f th e word G o d is necessarily wan t ing in

t hem When G o d i s taken t o be a conclusion from

the world ins t ead of a presupposition involved in all
reasonable interpretation o f the world the term is then
used in an un t heistic meaning ; an d s o far as this applies
to poly th eis t ic reli g ions th ey are in t his respect untheistic
We m ust n o t take the opera t ion of o n e nite b eing
upon another nite bein g as an alogy fo r forming an
inni t e conclusion God is n o t t o be t hou g h t of as on e
amon g inn umerable individuals material and spiritual
which make u p the universe but as O n e in whom all

have t heir individu al being O ne incomprehensi b le under

g enus o r species absolu t ely unique incapa b le o f b eing
classed
,

M o r l i ty
ph y s i l
sin
nd r l i
gi n
a

ca

c e

ce,

The three primary data of reali ty are severally t he

occasions o f morality science an d reli g ion
My o wn
exis t ence implied in the reco g ni t ion o f my continuous
personality and in the power which I refer t o myself
w hen I acknowledge perso n al respon sibili t y calls forth
ideals o f duty t o m an and God and a ffords material for
moral jud g ments E xternal nature a t leas t as presented
in o u r se n suou s experience is non moral : ye t withou t
t he medium supplied by ex t ernal thin g s as si g ns I see m
t o have no m eans o f discovering the exis t ence o f other
persons ; still less o f receiving from them o r communi
cating t o t hem ideas : s o t hat but for a material world
there would be n o room for th at exercise and develop
men t o f intelligence which in t er p re t ation o f visible na t ure
requires and o n which individual and social pro g ress de
pend : th e m aterial world non m oral in i t self is a medium
and also a medium through which
o f social intercourse
persons are individualised and morally educated Then
too without faith and h O p e in the Universal Power
.

T H R EE PRIM A R Y D ATA

35

which t he universe o f chan g e is presumed t o depend

a n d o n which w e repose as our basis for t ho u g h t and ao
tion b o t h morali t y and na t ural science must be paralysed
I n this divine faith religion is roo t ed ; S O t ha t secular mo
rali t y and n a t ural science become a t las t religious Trus t
in na t ural l aw is faith in God in germ
S upersti t ion and scep t icism are extremes in t o which E mpl s
m
men are led by no t preserving the balance be t ween t he gg g
l
three primary d ata o f reali t y While no one o f the t hree r g r d ing
tl
f
can be wholly explained away consistently wi t h san e iin gf
y
hu m an life any o f t hem m ay be so exa ggerated as to S m
d is t or t the nal conception of life an d the universe
Take examples
A t certain s t ages in man s religious
t here is a disposition t o
a n d intellectual development
wha t is uncommon unexpec t ed ab
s ee G o d only in

n ormal ; and t o refer to what are called n a t ural agents

A ccording t o this assumption
e vents tha t are customary
wha t ever is found t o evolve or grow evolution is another

n ame for grow t h g radually an d regularly is referred

wholly to a supposed power in nature which power

means only the constant na t ural method t hrough which
t h e issue is reached : G o d is recognised only when some
thing happens which seems n ot t o appear gradually o r
unde r n atural l a w S o t he realm of na t ural operation
and the real m in which God is supposed t o O perate come
to be regarded as each excluding the other ; with the r e
s ul t in an unconscious polytheism which makes o n e g od of

n a t ure and another god of supe rnature

I t follows
t hat all scien t ic discoveries o f natural causes o r na t ural
processes are supposed t o exclude God more and more
as the cons t ant agen t in the universe God is seen acting
o nly in what science cannot naturally brid g e over ; and
t hese vacan t intervals o f course b ecome fewer and fewer
wi t h the advance o f science
The need fo r a religious
interpre t ation o f wh at happens in the universe seems t o
diminish wi t h each step onward in natural interpretation :
t h e idea o f the universe as in i t self throu g hout nally
interpre table on ly physically and therefore foreclosing an
ulterior t heolo g ical conception in the end takes t he place
The advance o f science
o f the religious id ea o f t he whole
on

xa

l ee

36

PHIL O SO P H Y

THEISM

OF

b ecomes the paralysis o f religious t hou g ht b ecause t h e

system of n a t ure leaves no room fo r that ar b i t rary viola
tion o f ra t io n al or d er in which supersti t ion and confused
theolo g ical thinking n d t he S ign of t he providen t ial pres
e n ce o f God
When superstition is n o t permitted b y
s cience to re t ain an irregular and capricious universe of
this sor t it s dei t y an d its religion disappear The modern
apprecia t ion o f natural causes after dissolving t he per
s o n i c at i o n s of polytheis m is n ow des t royin g their relics
in i n adequa t ely conceived theism
Th
n
This conception o f God as mechanical and local and
j t
ex
t
ernal
appears
at
the
b
o
tt
om
of
theolo
g
ical
appeals
th t G d
m y b
a g ainst t he presump t ion o f t he a t heist w h o dares to
f n d l s con clude t ha t God does n ot exis t m erely b ecause neither
wh r
l
th
gh n t our eyes nor o u r t elescop es reveal His presence wi t hin
n this
t
he
compara
t
ively
narrow
and
always
nite
space
t
o
which
pl n t
even when ar t icially assisted and o u r i m
o u r senses
If
no
t
foun
d
er e a God
a i n at i o n give positive access
h
g
m ay possibly be found th er e ; i f n o t t he cause o f th i s
which comes within our experience a G o d may possibly
be the cause o f s ometh i ng elsewh er e t ha t man cannot see
If m an does n o t kn ow ever y a g en t in the wide ex panse of
the universe the a g en t that he i s i g noran t of may b e God
I f he cannot assign t he causes o f all tha t he perceives t o
exist the unperceived cause o f t h a t u nknown remainder
may b e G o d If he does n o t know h o w every thing has
b een done in past a g es some o f those doin g s may have
b een the doin g s o f God I n short unless I preclude t he
possi b le exis t ence o f ano t her g od by being omniscient o r
a g od myself I cannot know for cer t ain t ha t t he G o d
whose existence I deny m ay not exist s omewh er e Now a
o d t hat can b e locally an d poten t ially presen t here b u t
g
n o t there in this even t b u t n o t in tha t event ; o r tha t
mi g h t be detected b y a teles cope in some remo t e par t of
space if a powerful enough telescope could b e inven t ed ;

de
t
ec
t
ed
only
in
ex
t
raordinary
even
ts
spoken o f to o
r
o

as a G o d is surely n o t the Unique Divine Reali t y

in which we all live an d move and have o u r b ein g ;

presupposed t aci t ly in all percep tion and self conscious
n ess o r else everywhere an d for ever o u t o f rela t ion t o
,

e co

ec u r e
a

ou

e e, a

ou

TH R EE PR I M A R Y D ATA

37

human life God as Bacon says does not need to work

physical miracles in order t o refute atheists If the whole
n atural course o f t hings does n o t presuppose God as t he
condition of its being even physically in t erpre t able no
extraordinary local manifestations in nature can in them
Wi t h the presupposi t ion g ranted
s elves supply the proof
o f Divine Reason laten t in the hear t o f existence some
e vents in t he his t ory o f t he universe may doub t less be
more tted than o t hers to evoke in t o fuller in t elligence the
correspondin g moral t rus t and adora t ion t ha t are laten t in
man ; but withou t t he t acit pos t ula t e o f God in all per
c e p ti o n and consciousness t his fuller or richer intelligence
o f Dei t y o t herwise evolved by enlarged experience nds
n o adequa t e foundation
Again I s it n ot also an inadequa t e and inconsequen t O might
h
v
b
n
theism that is left to depend nally upo n historical proof f n d
that the cosmical economy of o u r little planet or eve n o f l ng g
l
th
g
h
the solar sys t e m had no natural beginning ; because u nder n t n w
t he conception of na t ural beginning t he re could be no
reason i t i s assumed for the suppositio n of a God
If
the econ omy o f the present solar sys t em mus t rst be
proved by his t oric records to have been formed unnaturally
according t o the common expression by a sudden crea
tive ac t before faith in God can be j ustied the basis
see m s t o o n arrow and t o o precarious to support the c o n
elusion It is not enou g h t o argue fo r E ternal Mind as
s ome have done o n the g rou n d that it can be proved by
the book o f Genesis that t h e visible world originated in
G o d bu t t ha t there is no historical proof that the G o d in
whom it originated Himself had a beginning If we thus
make history settle questions which lie beyond i t s sphere
wha t is t h e di fference in t his respec t be t w een t he solar

sys t em and the causally dependent God its historical

They are both treated in
o rigin is supposed t o prove ?

these arguments as caused causes

A men t al world o r

universe o f ideas as Hume sug g ests requires a cause as

much as does a material world o r universe of obj ec t s In
an abstrac t View they are entirely alike ; and no di f culty
attends the one supposition which is not common to bot h

Is i t not only af t er the ultima t e divineness of

o f t he m
.

a e

ee

ou

o,

ou

33

P H I L OS O P H Y

O F TH EIS M

a ll

na t ural processes has b een presupposed t ha t any ex

n
i
is
foun
d
to
enlar
g
e
and
illus
t
rate
our
concep
t
io
r
n
e
e
ce
p
of

P a mat e

n
11

32 353
11

8 11 ,

P an

a nd

G od

S o much in illus tra t ion o f perplexi t ies in which t hou g h t

b ecomes involved under crude concep t i ons of th e t hree
fundamen t al d a t a and t heir mutual relations The d i f
cul t y o f reconcilin g these t hree exis t ences wi t h o n e
ano t her alon g wi t h the desire for undi fferentiated unity
awakened in speculatin g in t elli g ence leads to Monist
t heories which profess to resolve all tha t exis t s in t o O ne
The theories di ffer according as this o r t hat
o f t he t hree
da t um obtain s exa gg erated an d in the end exclusive r e
cognition
Thus t he ma t erial world which lls t he
horizon o f sense is t aken fo r t he si ngle reali ty in a
nal concep t ion which m akes t h e universe a t last only
a universe o f molecules in m o t ion This is P an m a t er ial
i s m which fancies tha t it nds in Ma tt er what com m o n
conviction refers to t he E go o r to G o d O n the o t her
hand those in whom the introspective ha b it is s t ron g
are apt to in t erpret All as ul t ima t ely modied Ego in
a t heory o f Panegoism o r S olipsism Las t ly d is s ati s fac
tion with a universe of only ni t e beings combined ei t her
with reasoned or wi t h mystical aspira t ion af t er Inni t e
Reali ty disposes t h e courageous thinker o r the pious
mys t i c t o seek for the O ne nei t her in outward t hin g s
wi t h t he P an m a t eri alis t nor in the Eg o wi t h t h e
Pane g ois t b ut in G o d
.

t h el s m

I will n ow endeavour t o occupy each o f t hese t hre e

p e c Monis t poin t s o f View in succession to t ry whether
;
l t n
any o f t hem a ffords t he ul t i mat e concep ti on needed by

g Pl
man
in
his
spiritual
in
t
egri
t
y
Are
men
under
intel
[ mn
m
l nd lectual obl i ga t i on t o accept any o f them as t he nal I n
t l
t e r p r eta t i o n of all t hat exis t s and if s o which o f t hem is
gngg
t hus obligatory ? If supreme regard for reasonableness
?
obliges us to dismiss t hem all wh at al t erna t ives are open
Mus t we abandon the universal problem as o n e which
does n o t admit even of a working human solu t ion ; o u r
nal rela t ion t o it being t he ne g a t ive knowled g e tha t th e

Is

a ny o f
S

u a io

a re

ac e

or

or a

as

'

TH R E E PRIM A R Y D ATA

39

whole is a riddle an e n igma an inexplica b le mys t ery

s o tha t a t last n o j udgment formed about any t hing can be
regarded as more certain t han its contradic t ory ? I S t o t al
scepticism the issue o f the nal rej ection as unreal o f
any one o f the t hree data an d o f at t empts t o explain
m an s life in th e universe in t erms o f o ne only o f t he
t hree ? These are ques t ions which w e have now t o meet
I will b egin by askin g y o u to look a t exis t ence as the
ma t erialis t m ay b e supposed to look a t i t an d inquire
whe t her Universal Materialism is a coherent concep t ion
and t he only human solu t ion o f the Whole
,

LECTURE I

U N I V ER S A L MA TERIALI S M

I N t he infan cy o f philosophical specula t ion as in t he E r ly H el

ni
l
t
early years o f each man s life it is t he world o f solid t mp t s t
and extended things wha t can b e seen and moved
n ll y in
t p t th
t hat is apt to be regar d ed as the o ne only reality an d ni v rs
as wha t alone is entitled t o be called a C ause
S o it
was tha t in the age b efore S ocra t es among t he early
Hellenic in quirers the mys t ery in which w e nd o u r
selves enveloped when we look before and after see m ed
t o be relieved as soon as some ele m en t in ma tt er could
be de t ected o u t of which i t migh t plausibly be conj ec t u red
t hat all originally issued They were satised when they
t ho u gh t t hat they could answer t he nal question about
man and the universe by resolving the Whole in t o some

r
o
r
e
sor t of Visible substance water air
as primary
ma t erial The t otality o f exis t ence was nally iden t ied
with ma tt er ; bu t without ana lysis o f what mat t er ulti m
ately means o r even a dis tinct concep t ion o f ou t ward
ness in relation to self conscious mind The obj ects o f
sense were tacitly credi t ed wi t h powers which seemed to
su b ordin ate the o t her t wo o f t he three primary da t a
It w as among t hings t ha t appeal t o t he senses tha t
Thales Anaximander and o t her con t emporaries sough t
satisfac t ion when their crude experience gave rise to
t heir philosophic wonder This pre S ocra t ic m aterialism
latent in t he universal ux o f Heraclitus d eveloped in
t he atomis m o f Democritus w as idealised and may be seen
a t i t s b est in the magnicen t poem o f Lucre t ius
a

e a

er

re

44

PHIL OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

ri l

O ur own nine t een t h cen t ury nds million s try in g t o

i sm in th
i on in the same w a
g
e
t
satisfact
s
t
ill
turnin
g
for
ex
y;
nt h
ni n t
ent r y
plana t ion t o wh at sense presen t s when they are con
fron t ed by the mys t ery o f t heir o w n life in t he universe ;
or when t heir desire for in t ellectual uni t y rebels a g ains t
t hre e nal existen ces and s t rives t o reduce all plurali t y
t o O ne Modern materialism reco g nising t he i n n u m er
a b le u seful secre t s which the ma t erial world h olds wi t hin
i t and which m odern science is dis closin g t o the i n
crease o f our knowledge an d comfor t in gra t itude for
wha t Matter is apparen tly d oing for u s all is ready
to fall down an d worship its b enefactor and to lose
Man and G o d in t he im m ensity o f ou t ward t hin g s an d
their eternal evo l ution For science o f o u t w ard t h in g s
af t er three centuries of successful experimental in t er
course with the w orld t ha t is presented to the senses has
much to s ay for itself It is able t o s ay tha t i t has
gr adually succeeded wi t h universal consen t in in t er
i
r
n
many
t
hings
tha
t
surround
u
s
in
space
solid
an
d
e
t
p
g
ex t ended ; one kind o f thing th a t w e s e e bein g said
to explain another kind o f t hing t h a t c an also be seen ;
an d it is ready t o contrast the consen t in physical in t er
r
i
o
with
th
e
perplexities
which
metaphysical
in
t
er
e
t
a
t
n
p
pr ot ation o f t he universe is said t o involve S o t rus t is
pu t a t last only o n what is o u tward and tha t can be
veried b y physical experi m en t Wha t can be s o m ade
good o n e is ready to say is boun d t o carry it over t heo
lo g ical dreams which are all t hat we possess when w e
pretend to so m ething superior to sense I seem to b e
the spor t o f illusion when ever I forsake t his safe S phere
t he na t uralis t inquirer insis t s : wha t I see I can also
t ouch ; wha t I tou ch I can make experimen t s upon ; I
can repeat th e experimen t s in ne w circumstan ces an d
then compare a t my leisure t he issues o f v arious calcul
ated experimen t s In this w ay I nd t hat I can fore
s ee physical issues an d anticipate the na t ural b ehaviour
o f t hings
F o r t hese and other reasons I am certain tha t
i n the da t a of the senses I have go t hold of existen ce o n
i t s only real S ide I nd tha t I can u s e tangible and
visi b le experience as t he o n e undoubted t es t fo r in t er
at e

e ee

U NI V E R S A L M AT E R I A LI S M

45

wha
t
ever
happens
tha
t
is
in
t
erpre
t
able
While
I
g
keep o n this pa t h I can walk with a r m in t ellectual step
an d can stake my life o n the certain t y of m y inferences
S uch is the voice o f moder n science o f ex t ernal nature
in evolution when t ransla t ed in t o Universal Materialism
It leads back to what in nai ve and confused fashion w as
the assu m p t ion of Hellenic cos m ologis t s in th e infan cy o f
philos ophical questionin g It i s supposed to de m onstrate
the i ns igni c an c e o f m an in n ature and t here f ore t he base

lessness and u nintelligibili t y o f the theistic hypothesis

when i t pretends to be the last word about the Whole
F o r dogma tic atheis m o r at least theological agnos t icism
is t he inevitable philosophy o f those w h o con ne e x p er i
ence t o external sense disallowing any other experience
or any prin ciple o f harmony deeper t han cus t o m ary su c
cession o f sense appearances
r
i
e
n
t
p

I t was n o t always t hus in t he long in t erval which T h n

th
separates Thales and D emocri t us from the nine t een t h ntrpi
century
A teleological conception of existence tha t n p ti n
i
f
h
n
t
might even b e called a n th r op ocen tr i c or man centred
v rs in
instead o f the earlier or the later materialism pervades H br w
in a s t riking fashion ancient Hebrew literature as w e nd H l
l ni l i t r
have i t in Genesis and other books ; in t ensied in t o a t r
spiri t u al anthropomorphism in the Jewish psalmis t s and
prophets wit h their deep intuition o f t he moral relation
Unique
o f man t o their vividly conceived personal God
as were t he Jews in this respect a t eleological if no t an
anthropocentric concep t ion of t he universe is n o t e xclu
s i ve l
Hebraic
even
in
the
an
cien
t
world
A
mong
t
he
y
Greeks there was a fain t reco g nition by Anaxagoras o f
ac t ive Reason as the supreme cosmic principle superior t o
blin d necessities o f molecular mo t ion and ap t t o su g ges t
a religious conception o f t he relations o f t he Whole By
an emphatic acknowledgmen t of Man ra t her t han out
ward t hings as t he primary obj ect o f human interes t
the moral agent not the s t arry heavens S ocra t es r e
called his followers from exaggerated re g ard for o u t
ward t hings ; he also direc t ed reec t ion to en ds laten t
in reason and connec t ed wi t h man as the chief end I n
e a

ro

ce

co

e u

ce

a u

46

PHIL OSO PH Y

T HEIS M

OF

Greece S ocra t ic reac t ion was inspired b y t he g enius o f

Plato and more ar t iculately t hrou g h the sys t ema t ic i n
t ellige n c e of Aristotle ; while among the Romans t h e
natural theology o f Cicero b ased o n a t heological idea
the world sometimes nds ven t in lan g ua g e t hat
of
might be called an t h r O p o mo r p h i c
B u t i t was t he profound spiri t uali t y of Chris t ianity
occasionally exag g era t ed among C h ris tians t hat reduced
material things to i ns igni c an c e as compared wi t h per
sons in t he ela b ora t e theology or philosophy o f the a g es
of fai t h The conception of the supremenes s o f man in
th e cosmos found a scientic auxiliary in the accep t ed
Ptolemaic as t ronomy with i t s geocen tr i c conception o f the
material universe in which all falls in t o subordinate r e
lation to a man inhabited E ar t h
The destiny of man
t hu s came to be regarded as even t h e nal and eternal
purpose of t he universe ; and it w as assumed i n b ar
mony wi t h t his that t h e Universal Power m ust be a
living S piri t analogou s t o the spiri t foun d incarnate in
m an
A narrow an t hropocentric concep t ion of t he S upreme
Principle of the universe culminated in the middle age
t hought
Monastic separa t ion fro m the
o f E uropean
visible world ; absol u t e separa t ion between what w as a h
s t r a c t e d as secular an d what was abstrac t ed as spiritual
o r b etween state and church ; opposition be t ween na t ure
and superna t ural power o n t he o t her
o n the o n e side
were among i t s symptoms
It produced indi fference to
physical order and t o science o f na t ure ; warfare with
those wh o w ould rule t heir lives by the physical idea
o f law ; an endeavour to live only in consciousness of
superna t ural environment ; man a t the cen t re o f space
seein g t he inni t e e t ernal economy all direc t ed to his

m
w
n
spiritual g overn en t m an s welfare supposed t o be
o
marred by acknowledgmen t o f spirituali ty in secular life
Reli g ion under this ascetic for m o f reli g ious thou g h t
took t he place in medievalism that is n o w claimed for
s ciences of ou t ward n ature
The atomism o f Lu cre t ius
w as exchanged for t he sub t le Christian t heology o f
Aquinas the curious concei t s of the Divina Com
,

Ab v ll
in C h ist
o

e a

i an i t y

An th r p
ntr i
n
p
t i n s in
M d i ev l
o

ce

co

ce

i sm

U N I V E R S A L M A T E RI A LI S M

47

media afterwards in t he my t hology o f Mil t on and the

hu m an analogies of Puritan divines
Man s imagined local supremacy under the Ptolemaic Lo l in ig

astronomy encourage d this theological concep t ion o f human $ 3342

life A scientic revolu t ion in men s ideas o f their place
in t he material universe which seemed t o reduce man to
his discovered local i ns igni c an c e and invi t ed us to t hink
o f ourselves as the t ra n si t ory issue o f a n a t ural process
appeared incon sistent wi t h the supremacy o f the reli g ious
idea and an invi t a t ion t o the ato m istic and mechanical
The postula t e that
o n e t o resu m e its o l d n al place
God is a t t he root of the Whole seemed somehow bound
up with a n o w exploded uniqueness in t he local posi t ion
o f man s earth l y home in the m aterial world

ca

S o modern free search a m ong the natural causes per B n

c e p t ib l e by t he senses has been ch anging t he old anthro

ideas
under
the
scien
t
ic
assump
t
ion
that
l
g
l
o c en t ri c
i
p
causation is only re g ular sequence open to experimental
d etection and more o r less sub ject to human con t rol v ers
T h is assump t ion accus t omed t he mind t o physical utili
t ies and a narrow teleological concep t ion see m ed barren
by contrast
The change nds voice in wha t Bacon
an d S pinoza s ay abou t t he fruitfulness of na t ural causes
as compared with the inutility o f nal causes
I t is
a s t he visible means accordin g to which human purposes
may b e carried o u t by men as ministers o f nature that
Bacon se t s a high value o n material or caused causes
and
on
t he science which discloses them : in a nal
he found no t hing which man could employ as
c ause
his instrument o r of which he could be the in t erpre t er
Final causes look unprac t ical : the inscrutable will and
purpose o f a distan t God becomes an asylu m for indolent
neglect of t he useful natural causes which surround us ;
o r a shelter for supersti t ion wi t hdrawing men from ex
n
l
r
i
m
t
a
inquiry
into
the
tex
t
ure
o
f
t
he
web
nature
e
f
e
o
p
in which w e are involved
S o S pinoza argues against
a n t hropomorphism
In this he exceeds B acon w h o com
plains only o f the a b use o f nal causes when they make
us negle c t the causes tha t appeal to o u r senses and
ac o

ca

an d

con

48

PHIL OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

tha t can be adapted to human purposes in t his em

bodied life ; but allowing fo r their value in other aspects
Not so S pinoza who insists that reason t eaches m en t he
futility o f the very idea o f a nal cause in which man is
the end ; and argues tha t un t il men are sa t ised that
l aw in na t ure is not in t ended for th ei r satisfaction they
a re
not likely to b e convince d t ha t reali t y m u st be
measured by disin t eres t ed scien t ic eviden ce No t hing
he says should be concluded t rue o r false because i t is
o r is n o t in har m ony with human interes t s ; an d it is a
profound mis t ake t o call thin g s or events good or b ad
because t hey happen to b e a g reeable or repug n ant t o a
bein g s o insignicant as m an O n the o t her hand Bacon
while he presses th e need for engaging in t he long neglected
search for the causes that may be foun d b y experimen t

within the visible su ccession o f na t ure seein g tha t we

may usefully employ su ch causes when we discover the m
ar g ues also that experimen t al searc h among physical
phenomena m ay even conrm and exalt o u r reco g ni t ion
o f divine purpose
For induc t ive inquiry in t o n a t ural
causes which are t he required condition s of all cha n g es
tha t g o o n aroun d us s o far from dissolvin g fai t h in a
dominan t providence only shows t hat full human satis
fac t ion is n o t a t tained withou t dis cernment o f divine
providence animatin g the na t ural evolu t ion
The cen t uries S ince Bacon and S pinoza h ave wi t nessed
an increasing reac t ion against all forms of t heological
anthropomorphism in t he interes t of a secularly fruitful
search fo r operations o f na t ural causes visible and t an g
ible under laws which interpret our b odily surroundings

an d our bodies besides laws which may be applied b y

men as m ean s fo r making t his a more comfor t able plan
Thus t he vas t m a t erial world as con t aining
e tary abode
the only visible a g en t s o f desirable chan g es h as come to
l l the popular imagination : t hat small portion o f m a tter
which is appropriated by each person as S pecially his body
is reduce d to rela tive i n s igni c an ce The merely physical
interpreta t ion of external nature with i ts tacitly supposed
but undemons t ra t ed fai t h in constant physical order is
nex t assumed to be t he only le g i t imate sor t o f science

Mod

Bas t i o n

c ent

Co

ri

mep tmn

'

5O

P H IL OSO P H Y O F TH E I S M

According t o his innocen t concep t ion God had said Let

there be ligh t s in the r mam e n t of heaven to g ive light

upon the earth

Bu t h o w can s o gran d a spectacle as
modern astronomy puts before us be supposed by any
reasonin g being to have for i ts nal cau se the convenien ce
o f short lived ani m als w h o somehow nd their home o n
this small planet transitory in their successive genera
tions in t h e Homeric imagin a tio n as the leaves which
yearly a ppear and disappear o n the trees of the fores t ?
T h e pro g ress o f m odern astron omy h as been a runnin g
T h s t rr y
commentary o n t he loca l i ns igni c an c e o f men when men
r l t iv
are tho u gh t o f only as individual organisms in the
illimitable material sys t e m found i n possession o f t h e
immensi t y of space
Wha t is the hu m an body invisi b le
sp a
from ano t her plane t in comparison with the innite
m aterial world ? The E arth itself ins t e a d of bein g con
is
c e i ve d as t he solid centre o f all that exis t s in space
n o w recognised as only o n e in a sys t em o f planets more
some immensely larger all revolvin g
o r less like i t self
round a cen t ral s u n o n which t hey and all their contents
depend Then this solar sys t em itself is only o n e a m ong
innumerable other solar systems like itself all i t seems
revolving collec t ively round some u ndiscovered centre
An d even t his enl arged ma t erial syste m m ay b e only a
su b ordinate part of an inconceivably g reater economy ;
which again in its t urn may be an appendage to a greater
still ; and s o on wards and onwards in an unendin g series

fo r w h y should any b oun dary be s et to

o f enlar g emen t s
t he ma t erial con t en t s o f in ni t e space ? Wha t indeed is
t his human a n imal s o much made o f in the an throp o

n
ce tric concep t ion when placed beside t he innumerable
animals whic h may occupy the innumerable worlds t hat
are moving through Immensity ? What is m an that he
should be regarded at all in a Divine Purpose ? A bove
all wha t is m an t ha t he should be the o ne supreme obj ec t
in t ha t Purpose as in t he Christian conception o f r ed em p
tion accordin g to t he medieval interpretation o f i t which
so long limi t ed the t eleological View
T h e i n ig
But if s cien t ic inves t igation of the con t ents o f sp a ce
nm
c an
reduces t he pe t ty organisms o f the race of man from
,

e a

ce

ce

N I V E R SAL M A T E R I AL I S M

5I

upremacy in t he Divine purpose t o inconceiva b le i n f m n

signicance in the material system t his abatemen t o f
human pre t ension is even more di fcul t t o resis t when g ni m
l d
Y
o n e turns to wha t modern science has to tell about the
n Tim
course o f even t s I n ti me A bove all t h i s I S s o I f we
accept the conception of t he causal process according
t o which a constant evolu t ion o f the ma t erial universe
proceeds in wha t for augh t man can know may be an
unbeginning and unending metamorphosis o f its m o l ec
ular constituents If modern astrono m y inaugurated by
C opernicus and Newton has revealed t h e i n s igni can c e
an d
o f man s planet amon g the illi m itable s t arry hosts
t he in nite i n s igni c an c e o f each ephemeral human o r
a n i s m when all i s in t erpreted i n ter m s o f space wha t
g
shall be said of t he revelations of modern geolo g y and
much more o f modern biology ? They seem to S ho w
that all t h e living bodies o n this plane t as well a s
t he planet i t self are transitory issues in continuous
natural processes o f integration and disin t egra t ion
withou t be g inning an d wi t hou t end
S ome of the
present laws according to which t heir changes occur
have been discovered ; and those persons w h o claim t o
be discoverers have thus put s o m e passi n g pleasures
wi thin reach o f those by whom the discoveries m ay be
applied o r have enabled t hem to escape some passin g
p ains ; but n o ul t ima t e accoun t of all t his can be given
Nor can w e t ell whe t her the physical order presumed
withou t proof to be permanent withi n the narro w sphere

o f men s discoveries o f natural

causes is really the ex
pression o f E ternal Reason o r only a n accident d u ring a
brief i n terval within which chaos in human experience
assu m es the semblance o f a permanen t cosmos
In the ligh t of geological and biological d iscovery and T h e l t r
t
f
specula t ion one seems to s e e animal life gradually e vo l v fni ggf t fn
in g in its relative place in t he contin uous natural succes n d d i in
i
t
m
g
S ion in a process according to which lower forms o f living g
i gi i a
matter o n this planet are slowly followed by higher and m i t er
more co m plex E ach generation in this continuous nat
ural evolu t ion i n ni tes i mal ly di fferen t fro m t hat which
preceded i t transmi t s t he inni t esimal di fference to its

re

f VO

ol

se
,

52

PHIL OSO P H Y O F TH E I S M

successors ; and thus o u t o f wha t m ay have been the

common m ass of protoplas m a t an early stage animal
life becomes gradually di fferentia t ed in t o ever multiply
in g species t he human organism t he mos t notable
among t he or g anisms hither t o evolved in the history o f
this plane t
Th e hum an org anisms moreover at the
presen t s t a g e of the un b eginning and endless procession
o f ch anges which t he ma t erial world presents are foun d
t o b e in advance of their remote natural ances t ors in their

in t elli g ence
with perhaps a prospec t according to t he
analo g ies of na t ure of con t inuin g to advance with the
process o f t he suns B u t hu man or g anis m s wi t h t heir
u nique characteris t ic of self conscious life are on l y some
of
the cons t ructions na t urally presen t ed in the u n
b e g innin g and unendi ng evolution or metamorphosis o f
mat t er They see m t o rise in t o life spon t an eously when
the condi t ioning ma t erial causes occur of which or g anisms
o f t his sor t with their self con sciousness are the natur a l
sequence
Bu t t hose physical causes as well as t heir
consequences are t hemselves passive su bj ects o f t he
n atural rules of universal change
Reasonin g by anal
o
b
under
commonly
received
maxi
s
all
em
racin
g
m
gy
materialism m ay accordingly an t icipa t e in the future
his t ory o f this plane t the nal extinc t ion of human
organisms in analo gy wi t h pre cedin g ex t inc t ions o f
inferior races ; with all their works t heir scienti c
discoveries and indeed all S i g ns o f their pas t exis t ence
in the general disin t e g ra t ion o f t he solar sys t em
La t er s t ill t he wh ole m aterial universe may b e refunde d
into the original r e mist o u t of which i t was once
evolved ; or it may all be condensed into o n e s t upendous

f
m
m ass o
olecules ready t o resume another prolonged

course o f na t ural integra t ion o r n a t ural creation with

an issue i t m ay be o f n e w s t ellar and plane t ary sy s
tems o r perhaps of other constructions o f ma t ter u np re
d ic t a b l e because du e t o physical conditions n o w u n
know n and even by u s incon ceiva b le
I n t he n e w
m aterial universe o f that immeasurably remote future
wha t room is there in retrospective t hough t fo r the
pe tt y human organisms o f an immeasurably remo t e past
,

U NI V E R S A L M AT E RI A LI S M

53

wi t h t heir ephemeral records o f social ins t itutions and

social s t rug g les scien ti c discoveries achievements o f
mechanical art humanly admired creations of imagina
t ion religions and philosophies all dissolved and buried
in t he dissolution of the vas t m olecular economy in which
e ven while they existed they were as no t hin g for ever
forgo t ten in the new heavens and n e w earth into which
a universe essen t ially o f molecules has then been trans
formed i n another o f its purposeless metamorphoses ?
These are only materialistic dream s ; bu t t hey are dreams
in analogy with t he universally m a t erialis t ic co n ception
O f existence which I am asking
o u t o try to realise in
y
imagination
Two condi t ions which bo t h play an impor t an t part in I nd estr
s ciences concerned with Mat t er are presupposed bu t no t
unconditionally demonstrated Th e o n e is the in d es tr u c t nd i
i b i li ty o f the material m olecules ; and t he o t her t he conser
vation o f wha t is ambi g uously called energy which m a tter
i s supposed to involve
The indestructibili ty of Ma t ter
and the conservation of E ner g y are as you know hypo
t heses which domina t e modern inferences about t he pas t
and future history o f the molecules which on t he ma t erial
i s t i c conception of man an d the universe form t he ele
m entary totali ty Accordin g ly as long as the m aterial
universe exis t s and i t is presumed to be indestructible
i t must consis t of th e same quantity o f m at t er the same
number of molecules t his t hrough all the m eta mo r
h
o
e
s
s
m
which
these
have
under
g
one
or
a
yet
undergo
p
y
i n the for m o f stellar systems and of living ma tt er in
the various degrees o f life sentient intelligent self c o n
scious which less o r more elaborately organised mat t er
is found t o manifest ; as well as in future issues which
human imagination cannot picture The assumption o f
the indestructibility o f mat t er forbids an inconceivable
transforma t ion of n oth i ng suddenly in t o someth i ng as in
the o l d idea o f sudden creation ; and o b liges us always t o
suppose and seek fo r physical causes presentable to sense
although n o t necessarily perceptible by human senses
when we t ry to account t hrou g h i t s exact material equiv
a l ent
for each new metamorphosis The his t ory of the
,

uc

co l

54

PHIL OSO P H Y O F T H E I S M

universe is therefore a history o f t he natural t ransforma

t ions of wha t already exists molecularly : t he addi t ion o f
absolu t ely new molecules or the absolute extinc t ion o f old
ones are unscien t ic conceptions E ach n ew appearance
in n ature i m plies an equivalent withdrawal o f s ome o t her
appearan ce an d the whole succession i s an endless meta
m orph osis Li g ht reappears in equivalent heat : electricity
in equivalent magnetism : m olecular changes in the livi n g
organism in t heir equivalent s t ates of conscious life : the
b ir t hs and dea t hs of m en an d other livin g or g anis m s have
t heir resultin g compensa t ion : the b ir t hs and deaths of
planets an d suns have dea t hs an d births in something else
corresponding t o t hem
Is C
s
If all t ha t has been and t hat can be must thus be
uy
t o f at last in t erms o f m aterial molecules t he nal
t
hough
gitygz
s o t h at
pro b lem S hould be solved in t h e discovery and ex h au s
ny h m
g
tive
applica
t
ion
o f the u ltima t e law or l aws according t o
inigit
i
wh
ch
the
i
nnumera
b
le
molecular
metamorphoses
pro
i
b
p
ff f
th
The
o ecd
s earch fo r cause is conned t o a search for
n y t hi n g ?
percept i b le cond i t i ons wh i ch constantly precede o r c o n
s tan t l y accompany
e ach perceptible ch a ng e
Causal
sequences are nothing more than the sequences which
As
seem t o b e cons t an t amon g ma t erial phenomena
constan t t hey b ecome a sort of lan g uage in which
n a t ural causes are S ignicant o f their S o called e ffects
T o explai n
and t he e ffec t s o f their s o ca l led causes
the universe nally would be t o read all i t s endles s
cha ng es under their physical laws A n analysis of ex
r
i
n
b
e
in
quest
of
connec
t
ions
that
are
con
s
t
an
t
e
e
c
e
p
comes the only means fo r de t erminin g whe t her this is
th e cause o f t ha t ; not any a p r i or i idea o f the sufciency
o r insu f ciency of this a g ent t o b e t he cause o f this o r
t ha t sort of chan g e Abstrac t ly t hat is t o s ay without
ndi n g t h a t thi s is always in n a t ure ac t ually followed b y

h
t
m a n h as no right t o assume t ha t only t his sort
t a
o f cau se ca n explain t ha t sor t o f e ffec t ; that unorganised
ato ms can o r tha t they canno t account fo r the self
conscio u s life t ha t is found o n this remo t e lit t le planet
E no u gh if experien ce presen t s life rising o u t o f certain
org anic condi t ion s ; and then conscious life appearing in
,

au a

ri o r
e e

U NIV

E R SA L M A T E R I A L I S M

55

more elaborate living organisms : one is b ound hon

O ne is t hen t old to s ee in th e
es tl y t o accept the fac t s
s o related molecules a n d t heir motions the true and only
explanation of the psychical pheno m ena which appear i n
signal or g anisms especially i n t he human and whic h are
vulgarly referred to what is called m ind the abs t ract
word mind a convenien t refuge for human ignorance A t
this poin t o f view any material thing appears a p r i or i
e qually t o r equally un t with any ot h er to be t he cause
o r constant an tecedent of any sort o f chan g e
Causali t y is
only the sort o f sequence that is imagined to be constant ;
and as any event may be imagined to follow any other
apar t fro m experience anything may be t he supposed
cause o f anything tha t happens The falli n g o f a peb b le
may extinguish the sun for au ght we kno w a p r i or i ; o r
the will of a man may disturb t h e planets in their orbits
When I s ee one billiard ball moving in a straight line to
wards ano t her even if motion in the second ball should by
accident be s u ggested to m e as the result of their con t act
mi g ht I not con ceive hundreds o f o t her sorts o f even t s as
well following from tha t particular cause Might not both
the balls remain at absolute rest ? Migh t not the rst ball
re t urn in a straight line o r leap away from the second in
any linear d irection ? All t hese suppositions are c o n c ei v
able Why t hen should we give the preference to o n e of
them which a p r i or i i s n o t more consistent or conceivable
than t he res t ? No a p r i or i reasonings will ever be able
to S how us an unconditional necessi t y in reason for t his
preference
Under this sensu ous and empirical ca u sality as t he T h p ss i
b l i ss s
only hu m an conception o f power ; wi t h survival of t he f ni
physically tt est as its highes t biological illustra t ion v rs f
l
l
s
m
with assumed indestruc t ibility o f ma tt er an d conserva t ion i n m ti n
of energy for working hypo t heses ; and the speculative i n t h m

ni t
postulate of an unbe g innin g and unending succession o f
ss i n
causal inte g ra t ions and disin t e g rations of a universe o f
molecules in perpetual motion with all this pos t ulated
abundant oppor t unity seems to be given i n en dless ti m e
for inni t e variety in the rela t ions of t he m olecules to o n e
another an d for all sor t s o f resulting molecular combina
th e

ue

a u

e o

o ec u e
o

e su c

ce

56

PH I LOSO PH Y

TH E IS M

OF

t ions These when they emerg e as far as man can see

b efore t rial may each be a cause o f any sor t o f e ffect
S O u n der t his ul t imate conceptio n o f the universe wha t
for b ids tha t in th e course o f time one of the innumerable
issues o f molecular colloca t ion migh t b e t hat actually
presen t ed by the universe o f in dividual t hin g s and persons
in which we nd ourselves living in the economy o f which
the human or g anism form s a p a rt and into which each
man has been n aturally introduced
The universe of
m olecules at t his sta g e of i t s te m poral evolution includes
t hose m olecular or g anisms which while t hey las t are
foun d in experience to be the physical causes o f di fferent
degrees o f life ; in the more rened elaborations t he
natural causes of sentien t life ; and in due t ime even o f
life tha t is self conscious
n
Under t his m a t erialistic concep t ion t he universe seems
S lf
n
to
be
completely
emptied
of
those
alleged
striki
g
e
x
f
ig gfg
p s d f
amples of divine adaptation o f n atural means to hum an
f ls
ends
in
which
under
another
nal
conception
this
visible
sp i l
world of ours on ce seemed t o abound ; wh i ch I mpressed
m i
i
re n ? ordinary minds w hen presen ted b y Cicero o r Paley ; o r
gi n s w h i h
earl i er s ti ll by t he Hebre w poet t o whom the heavens
t m n}

d eclare d the glory of God and t he r m am e n t showed

Egigfi t H i handywork Under the Hebrew concep t i o n o f
s
hi st r y f

m l
l s t hings day unto day w as uttering t his higher speech
m m mn

and nigh t unto night this higher knowled g e

As the Jew
looks at it there is no speech n or lan g uag e where this
Divine V oice is not heard : t heir line is g on e out throu g h
all the ear t h and their words to the end o f t he world
Under the m olecular n al idea of existence on th e
con t rary t h e heaven s and the e arth with all their livi n g
and intelligen t population declare t he powers o f i n
numerable m aterial m olecules in the in nity of their
possible rela t ions in th e eternal succession O u t of any
natural cause a ny sor t o f issue insentien t mass o r living
or g anis m sentient or self conscious life for all we can

a
predic t
r i or i
is
able
to
attain
t
o
its
actual
but
p
ephemeral existence as naturally as any o ther
That
t he motion o f o n e billiard ball should be t he nat u ral
sequence o f contact with another billiard ball in motion
.

oo

es

o e

ee

ec a

o ec u ar
e

B a

l ll

ll

o ecu e

'

58

P H I L OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

universe conceived as ultimately m olecules in motion

w h o recognises no t hing in metaphysical implicates o f
experience tha t t ranscends this hypothesis accepts it u n
appalled in th e in t repid spiri t of science He is ready

t o s ay that things are what they are an d are not other

t hings b ut this wi t h his eye t urned exclusively to
phenom ena o f m atter in t heir relations o f n atural
sequence
Man and his ma t erial or g anism are a b solu t ely identied
in this nal interpretation o f the u niverse in which man
consequen t ly b eco m es one o f i t s most insignican t i t ems :
his S piri t ual existence is measured by t he size and c o n
The consciou s
t i n u an c e o f his body which i s himself
lives o f men especial ly those who h ave b een evolved in
t his advanced era o f the universal history are the m os t
remarka b le manifesta t ion s of psychical phenomena tha t
come within man s experience ; bu t even t his sor t is
invariably embodied : o u r only ex ample of self consciou s
life is t h e hum an or g anism in i t s lit t le more than momen
t ary ex is t ence With a human organism na t urally g iven

th e spiri t ual life of man mysteriously springs for t h like

t he appearance o f t h e genius wh en Aladdin ru b bed his
lamp in the E as t ern story o r like any o t her na t ural fact
which appears in its due season
It is thus that man is reduced from th e fan cied heigh t
o f a moral agen t w h o
mus t be i n d ep en
s o far as suc h
dent o f phys i cal law t o t he extent o f h i s m oral respons i
b il i ty : he is identied with those a g gre g ates o f atom s in
t he na t ural evolution which di ffer from the lifeless things
of inorganic n a t ure only in the fact o f their or g anic con
n ec t i o n wi t h pleasurable o r painf u l feelin g
and their
o t her au t oma t ic conscious s t a t es manifes t ed in t he course
o f m olecular ch an g es of which t he organism and i t s s u r

roundings are the subj ect s invisi b le sta t es as wholly

automatic o r dependent on molecular mo t ions as the

visible changes in t he org anisms t hemselves

Man

physical intellectual moral w e are told is as mu ch a

par t o f nature as purely a product of t he cosmic process
as t he humblest weed
Therefore men a t t heir best
present only t his ephemeral consciousness which emerges
,

T h e mat e

an ,

ism

in

an

h s
u

gifl y p

w ed i s
a

tr y

p rt

al

[ 23 32
3

11

31 1

of

U NIV E R S A L M A T E R I A LI S M

59

from the always indi fferen t and often cruel n atural

mechanism wi t hin which withou t t heir o wn leave they
nd t hemselves in extricably involved I n c o nso lat o ry to
the individu al as t his discovery of what he i s and the
world in which he is m ay be it i s inexhau stible in
resources o f physical explanation
I t explains as a
physical consequence o f relations among molecules which
occur in t he course o f their history m an s illusion t ha t
he can ever be morally free from natural l a w an d r e
sponsible fo r what he does For t h e illusion is found in
invariable se quence t o certain organic s t ates which ar e
t hemselves the issu e o f inn u m erable molecular m o t ions
and colloca t io n s that have occurr ed in t h e history of t h e
material universe The su fferings through which sentient
beings o n t his pl an et pass and the sins with which men
are charged are in this way seen in t heir innite i n s ig
n i can c e as only phenomena in the succession o f natural
cha n g es amon g t he a t oms which for ever o c cupy the i m
m e ns ity o f space t hey are n o t more S igni can t ul t ima t ely
than t he pains or pleasures o f insects t o o m inu t e to be
seen by the microscope in t he summer sunshine n o w seem
to us Good and evil right and wron g meri t and demerit
self sa t isfac t ion and remorse are scien tically discovered
t o be words which have acquired their misleading mean
ing a t an inferior era in this world s history ; thro u g h
man s na t ural i g norance a t the time t ha t he is only an
i t em in the unbeginning and unending succession o f
molecular changes which Universal Materialism assumes
t o be nally c o extensive wi t h reality
,

Y e t at ano t her point o f Vie w if any t hing migh t be

t he cause o f any t hing because it m ay conceivably be i ts
predecessor might one n o t at t ribute to the molecules
into which t he universe is resolved all the at t ribu t es o f
man and even those t hat are attributed to God ? A n d
if Deity may b e t hus la t en t in the molecular universe
is i t more than a ques t ion o f n ames as b et ween this
omnipo t ent and omniscient Ma t ter on the o ne hand an d
the God of pantheism o r even of theism o n the other
Where is t he universal materialist t o stop in wha t he
,

D ei c at i o n
0 f m at t e

60

PHIL OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

a tt ri b u t es t o Ma t ter if he may a tt ri b u t e t o i t t he rational

acts and moral experience o f a human b ody ? O ne asks
in reply what t he materialist w h o ar g ues thus m eans by
Mat t er ? It mus t mean more t han molecular motion

But the molecularl y constituted dei ty o f Universal

T h e t r an s
Materialism has it seems caused a t one sta g e in the de
M r l it y vel o p m en t of m an wha t are discovered to be illusions
u nder la t er evolved conceptions to which the laws o f
na t ure are now au t oma t ically conductin g scienti c men
concep t ions
t o o which may in their turn be all as
na t urally dissolved la t er on in t he pro g ressive evolu t ion
Amon g st t hose illusory n atural produc t s may hereaf t er
come t o be included the m oral ideas which presuppose the
impor t ance o f the race o f man as compared say wi t h a
race o f animalcu l es and th e e t hical presupposi t ions from
which men infer t he need fo r individual sacrice o n b e
half o f the race for t he sake o f a longer survival o f the
whole Conscience begin s to appear as an ar ticial device
fo r the prolonga t ion o f the race i t was na t urally generate d
at that inferior stage in t he his t ory o f the molecules a t
which hu m an organisms were na t urally induced to clai m
a unique digni t y an d impor t ance B u t s cien t i c disin t er

itself a physical sequence on occasion o f

e s t e d n es s
cer t ain molecular m otions comes afterwards t o s ee tha t
t he m an and the reptile are alike insignicant bein g bo t h
the transi t ory ou t come of universal physical l a w To call

moral or spiritual
a n agent in a dis t inc t ive sense

is t o apply a misleading pre dica t e ; for the a g ency

can b e only t he physical l a w under which a certain
con di t ion o f the human b rain is constan t ly accompanied
by t he delu sion t ha t love and will and conscience are
someho w superior t o brain o r to t he molecules on which
all ul t imately depends F o r i t is a natural law tha t a t a
cer t ain stage in its evolution the organis m which consti
t u t e s man becomes what we call eth i ca l and subj ect to
t he delusion t hat man is free to struggle against evil
T h e tr ns
But more t han dissolution o f morality would follo w
1
from
premisses
which
yield
a
wholly
molecu
l
ar
solu
t
ion
233 311211
R s n
of t he problem o f self conscious life in a m olecular uni
i f indeed any conclusion abou t any t hin g could b e
verse
,

o a

ea o

U N I V E R S A L M AT E RI A L I S M

6I

consis t ently drawn in such a universe F o r reason itself

reason to which science is won t to a ppea l as the supreme
t ribunal is transformed in t o one o f t he innumerable
t ransitory issues o f purposeless or g anic condi t ions In
t ellige nc e wi t h science as i t s product an d conscience
with morality as i t s product co m e t o be conceived as
only t ransitory natural outcomes of m olecular conditio n s
The t hinki n g an d observi ng processes th em s e l ve s t hose
processes t hrou g h which t he materialis t nds tha t c o n
scious mind in all its states is vir t ually molecules in
motion are only a par t o f the m olecular process Human
in t elligence and hu m an conscien ce are only modes of the
ephemeral phenomena t o which the molecular universe in
i t s e t ernal ux of molecules and a g gregates o f m olecules
is supposed t o be giving birth at di fferent st ag es in the
course o f its evolution Its veried inferences as well as
its unproved hypotheses are all alike transitory illusions ;
i f w e are n o t allowed to presuppose in the primary data
m or e t han molecules t ha t seem under cer t ain conditions
t o transfor m themselves into self conscious life And
thus Monis m a t least in t he for m o f Universal Material
ism itself disappears along with conscious in t elligence
i n the abyss of Universal Nescience
.

Can we accept as a solution of the universe and o f man A s i n

nd d t y
as a part of it th i s which asks us habitually to think o f i d nt l
t he W hole as nally purposeless molecular ag g rega t ion and i ss s f
m l
l
r
motion wherein intelligence an d conscience are t ransi m otions
t ory issues bu t which in the nal darkness o f Universal
Materialism can while they las t put in no claim to de t er
mine the interpretation O f the whole ? Can what is
com m only meant by Matter co n sistently claim t his nal
universality and supremacy ? We shall consider wha t
invisi b le consciousness has t o s ay for itself when thus
confronted in this remo t e corner by a universe o f only
molecules and molecular sequences
,

re

c e

ce

acc

ue

o ecu a

LECTU R E

II

PA N E G O I S M
T

h e e x ag

ger at i o n
t h e U ni
a M
e
t er i al i st

v rs l

of

H U MA N organisms and their self conscious life appear at

th e poin t o f view o f atomism o r m o l ec u l is m t o b e only
par t an d a very insignicant par t o f the t ransi t ory
n a t ural issue o f the universe o f m ole cules in mo t ion
They emerg e for a time in a rem ote and pe tt y corner
O f immensity under t hose par t icular physical condi t ions
which are found t o give rise t o a conscious or g anism

m a tter tr a n sfor m ed i n to consci ou sn ess according

Mind
t o ma t erialism is o n e a mo ng innumerable o t her t ran s
forma t ion s which molecules t emporarily under g o ; n o t in
itself more signi can t than any other o f t he m any sorts
o f quan t i t ative di fference in size shape o r arran g ement
o n which consciou s
o f molecules and molecular masses
life as well as all t he o t her qualities of t hin g s are on
this concep t ion o f exis t ence ass u me d t o depend S imi
l ar ly as re di ffers from water and water from g old o n
account o f supposed differen ces in the size shape mo t ion
an d consis t ency of their respecti ve consti t uent mole cules
di fferences which mi g ht be described with precision if
o n e could construct microscopes powerful enough to r e
veal t hem s o o n the same condi t ion those special
characteristics of molecular or g anisation which give rise
to consciousness when th ey happen t o b ecome ac tual
migh t in like m anner b e observed in detail
This is
the universe of the m aterialis t as i t rises in ima g ina
tion when t he da t um o f a material world is t aken b y
philosophy as the one nal datum
-

PA N EG O I S M

63

Bu t has the percipien t and self conscious life b y which

man is characterised wi t h i t s scientic and moral o u t
come which has s t ar t ed up in this re m ote plane t ary
corner o f the ma t erial world no t hing more t han this
?
to s ay for i t self
The invisible self conscious E go does no t so soon force
i t self upon attention as t he boundless and endless world
o f ou t ward things presented t o t he senses does
A t least
t he E go does n o t ob t rude itself upon t h e u n re ec ting as
exclusively entitled t o be called r ea l Its assu m ed real
i t y seems instead to resolve int o transitory modes o f the
solid and extended or g anis m s presen t ed to t he senses
Reection upon conscious life follows in the wake o f
spontaneous consciousness ; fo r thought mus t have appro
ri a t e experience in the for m of spiritual states already
p
passed through before i t begins to express spiritual life
in ter m s of science o r to s ee the immense philosophical
signicance o f livin g Mind
-

W h at

th e

of

9 990 ?

T he

ex ag
0

p o st l

u at e

fifg ih
r

at o f

ec on

an

th e

b ab y n ew t o ea r th an d sk y
W h at t i m e h i s t end er p al m i s p r e s t
A g ai n st t h e c i r c l e o f t h e b r ea s t
H as n e v e r t h o u g h t t h at t h i s i s I
T he

B u t a s h e g ro w s , h e g at h e r s m u c h ,

A n d l ea r n s t h e u s e o f I an d m e ,
A n d n s I a m n o t w h at I s e e,
A n d o th e r t h an t h e th i n g s I t o u c h ;

So

r o u n d s h e t o a s ep a r a t e m i n d

F r o m w h en c e c l ea r m em o r y m ay b egi n
,

O r a g ain

D a r k i s t h e w o r l t o t h e e t h y s el f ar t th e r ea s o n w h y

F o r i s H e n o t al l , b u t t h o u , t h at h as p o w e r t o fee l I am I

A ccordingly outward t hings are ap t to b e exaggera t ed T h t

n
into th e one nal for m of existence sooner t han t he i n ggi g
dividual and invisible ego I n t h e early sta g es of man s i nt t h
i w rd
his t ory h e is more ready to suppose t ha t consciousness can
be refunded into the universe o f ou tward t hings than t hat
t he universe o f outward t hings can b e refunded into his
e ou

e
:

'

64

PHIL OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

self conscious percep t ions We are all in our childish

years m ore or less ma t erialists And w e nd t he ma t erial
is t point of View the favourite one in th e childhood of the
race of man
In early Hellenic S pecula t ion S ocra t e s
awoke t he sense of individuality an d personali t y B u t
it was with t he rise o f Chris t iani t y t hat t he idea of t h e
individual person unfolded into moral distinctness The
Chris t ian Fa t hers found so m e t hing in a self conscious
person t hat was inadequa t ely expressed in t he Hellen i c
an d Roman t hou g h t of t he pre Chris t ian world
Great
is t he revela t ion g iven in mem ory o n e nds A u g ustine

ex claiming in his C onfessions

grea t is memory in
all its depth an d m anifold intensity ; t he stran g e reality
revealed in it is my mind ; and my mind i s myself Fear
and amazemen t overcome me when I t hink of this Ye t
m en go a b roa d t o g aze upon moun t ains an d waves b road
rivers wide oceans and t he courses o f t he s t ars and o ver

look th ems elves t he crowning wonder

In the thousan d
years after A u g ustine o n e nds many u tterances in har
mony wi t h t his And the supreme signican ce o f t he Eg o
survived t he modern reac t ion a g ains t scholas t ic t hought
I n the new con cep t ions o f t he universe and the ulti m a t e
meanin g o f life which s t rug g led in t o exis t ence in the
mind o f D escartes th e wa t chword was Cogi to ergo su m :
E go su m cogi ta ns
No t
E go was t he o n e essen t ial fac t
a t oms but ego was t aken as t he primary elemen t in the
u niverse His o wn invisible self is wha t is nearest t o
each person and his world is the world which depends
upon h is consciousness This was t he s t artin g point o r
b irth o f t he new philosophic spiri t which s o strenuously
asser t ed i t self in t he seventeen t h century The more this
invisible fac t i s pondered t he more o n e seems t o see the
dependence o f t he u niverse o n i t S o t he Eg o conscious
an d percipient comes by degrees to absorb ou t ward
t hings con vertin g an otherwise illusory outwardness into
real inwardness
Like Ac taeon changed in t o t he stag
an d t hen torn to pieces b y his hounds on Mount C ith eero n
t h e once t o o ob t rusive world of molecules is at las t s w al
lowed u p in t he world of one s o wn conscious life or per
o wn

s o n a l it y

66
The

at e o f

an u n p er
c eived

m at er i a l
wo

rl d

P H IL OSO P H Y O F T H E I S M

C onsider wha t would become o f the world that is r e

vealed in vision and t ouch the world which is the obj ec t
of daily interest t o every hu m an being which is t he
means when scien t ically interpreted o f advan cing man s
comfort and o n which society an d civilisation depend
wh a t would become of this solid an d expanded world
o f all the physical an d natural sciences t oo and eve n o f
m a t eri al i s m itself as the living philosophy of a conscious
b eing if t he Eg o were withdrawn and conscious reason
were for ever extinc t

I nt ell ec
tu a

u i ci

For o n e thin g all intelli g ible experience o f ou t ward

t hings including the philosophy which teaches that exist
ence is all molecular i tself d ep en d s on wh a t i s i nwa r d
A ll science is dependent o n conscious life which as felt
is n o t a Visible molecule or m ass of m olecules The
percep t ions and coheren t inferences o f which l iving know
ledge o f ex t ernal t hings consis t s are ind ispensable even
for t he construction o f t h e universal ma t erialism in which
m an looks s o insignican t
But fo r conscious life in t his
lit t le corner o f the u n iverse or elsewhere the whole
world o f ou t ward things would b e for ever unrealised If
t he persons who are p ercipien t of the things that m ove in
space and who b y reasonin g combined wi t h observation
discover na t ural laws are fou n d in t he progress of their
o wn discoveries to be the m selves in t he last resor t only
transitory issues o f unin t elligent an d unintelligi b le Matter
t his materialistic philosophy of theirs m ust like all t hat
depen d s upon facul t ies s o produced be unwor t hy o f trust
Human science is discredited in t he de g radation o f the
hu m an beings in whom it i s converted in t o an acciden t
o f t he universal ux
F o r sciences and philosophy are
then only acciden t s in t he history o f human organisms
which in this era o f molecular evolution happen t o have
b een formed o n t his little plane t The supp osed discovery
that t he whole is ultima t ely only continuou s mechanical
m otion of a t oms wi t hout mor a l guarantee in a divine
na t ural order discredits every pretended discovery U n
less t here is th a t in the universe which is more than

evolu t ion of m atter in t o organisms

when
matter
,

PANEGOI S M

67

means only phenomena as presented in sense

t here
can be no valid science no valid materialis t philosophy
The t estimony given by a human adventurer to the fac t
t hat he has been cast up inexplicably in a succession o f
t he molecular changes which are the only ulti m at e reali t y
and who thinks that he sees scienti cally t h at all con
scious life must sooner o r later disappear is testimony
which un der such condi t ions can neither be vi n dica t ed
nor ref u ted T he issue is a literally unut t erable scepticis m
abou t every t hi n g The key which pretended to open t he
secret o f reality has been taken away in the very act o f
using it Universal Materialism i s intellectual suicide
Larger an d deeper human experience see m s t o involve
this
The supposi t ion tha t
a continual protest against
intelligence is essentially m olecular is found to be i n
adequate if not self contradictory philosophy Modern
S ci ence o f outward th i ngs of wh i ch man i s j us t ly proud
as am ong the most si g nal o f his conques t s becomes only
among innumerable other sorts o f accidental and
o ne
temporary modi ca t ion o f ato m ic move m en t ; culmina t ing
in t he discovery o f t he irrelevancy and i n sign i c an ce o f
the conscious reason tha t is the apparen t ins t rumen t o f
t he discoveries Realisa t ion in t he form of living t hought
o f the mechanic a l law o f gravita t ion or of t he still more
comprehensive biological l a w o f n atural evolu t ion i n
cluding evolution of those scientic discoveries t hemselves
S urely implies in t he nal constitu t ion o f t he universe
something deeper t han an ori g inally un conscious and acci
dental concurrence o f atoms We are reminded o f the
sen t iment o f Pascal Physically m an is a petty t ransitory
organism When w e measure i ts S ize and duration and
compare this with the I m mensities and the E terni t ies
man is insignicant indeed
A vapour o r a drop o f
wa t er is fou n d enough to co m pass his des t ruc t ion Y et
even if the illi m i t able materia l world were to employ for
the des truction of men all t he m olecular forces that are
supposed t o belon g to its a t oms there is s t ill tha t in man
which is more noble than the m a t ter by which the hu m an
or g anis m s would be destroyed grea t er t oo than the dis
solved or g anism For the ma n would be consci ou s of his

c on
o l s eg"

igf
z
th

a er

an a

s
t h i ng s
ciou

68

PHIL OSO P H Y O F TH E I S M

fa t e ; while t he material universe woul d b e u n consciou s o f

i t s vic t ory The t rue o fce and s t anding o f m an in t he
universe is t o b e read n o t in t he quan t ity of space t ha t his
b ody i s seen to ll ; nor in t h e period of time during which
t he physical evolu t ion o f which his b ody is t he ephemeral
issue has b een g oing o n bu t in the invisible life actively
percipien t and self conscious which emer g es I nvisibl e
e g os are therefore superior t o a gg re g a t es o f m olecules
however v as t in size The Eg o is greater t han the whol e
material world when it is abs t ract ed from all percipie n t
life : it is grea t er t han all the obj ec t s tha t can be pre
sen t ed t o the senses ; b ecause t he ego is conscious and
ac t ive while things presen t ed t o sense are known only
as powerless an d unconsciou s m asses
Th e Panegois t in S hor t raises a ques t ion which Univer
Wh at d o
w me n
m a tter
He
asks
wha
t
t
he
word
s al Ma t erialism overlooks
wh n w
f rm th ul t ima t ely means when the word is righ t ly used Wha t
r l x i s t is mean t by t he real exis t ence o f a m olecule or an a r e
g
g
n
f
?
ga
t
e
o
f
molecules
o
r
by
t
he
reali
t
y
of
t
hings
in
motion
m tt r o
m l
l s Wha t is mean t by t he ou t wardness o f a t hing o r t h e
ex t ern al existence o f a t hin g ? By ques t ions like t hes e
We b e g in
w e bring in t o ligh t t he d ei ty of ma t erialism
t o s ee t hat th ere is more t han w e had supposed in p er
ce ti on o f things
There
is
here
a
chasm
which
the
p
his t ory o f philosophical inquiry su g gests the di fculty o f
b ridgi ng a chasm be t ween livin g percep t ions which s u c
o ecd one ano t her in t he absolute privacy of one s own
conscious life and o n the o t her hand solid and ex t ended
t hings m olecules and m asses o f molecules crudely s u p
posed t o exis t as o n e now sees t hem and t ou ches them
whe t her or n o t t here exists in the universe any percipien t

who i s seein g or t ouching The thin g s called ou t ward

and supposed t o be in dependen t o f all percipien t life in
the absence of all percipien t s lose t heir qualities ; fo r t hes e
are n o longer realised by t h e living fac t or o f reality They
disappear as emp ty abstrac t ions when all percipien t life is
wi t hdrawn ; s o that one is led to ask whether an a ggrega t e
o f molecules or even a S in g le m olecule cou ld con tin ue t o
exis t in the w ay i t n o w appears t o our senses t o do a ft er
t he ex t inction of all life in the universe
.

ea

ce o

o ec u e

P A NE GO I S M

69

A g ain When one speaks o f ex t ernal t hings he mus t T h e h m n

g
include amon g t he m the minute or g anism which h e calls f ggife
his own body tha t which for the ma t erialis t is t he s elf n
whole man I t is an o bj ect t he local i ns igni c an c e o f
which amon g the o ther con t en t s o f space and dura t ion p rt f th b
s ignies t o a ma t erialis t ic imagination t he i n s i gni c an c e
F o r one s o wn b ody s n s
o f m an as an i t em in t he universe
is a par t of t he material world E ven though i t i s called

livin g matter it is still like all other space occupying

thin g s ex t ernal t o the private self o f consciousness
When it is seen in t his li g h t t he t hough t occurs t hat no
s u fcien t reason can be produced to show tha t conscious
life mu s t be em b odied life althou g h ours is embodied
Is t ha t fact a reason which forbids t he supposi t ion tha t
I may pass t hrough all t he di fferen t sor t s o f sen t ient or
men t al experience o f which I have been conscious S ince I
w a s born wi th ou t b ei ng em b od i ed ? Why may I no t have
the mental experience called seein g o r tha t other sor t
called touching without my present Visual and tac t ual
organs o r even without an organism of gross molecular
mat t er ? O ur senses t o o migh t conceivably have been
and thus presen t
o ther t han they are more numerous
in g ou t ward t hin g s clo thed in qualities n o w absolu t ely
unimaginable by man ; o r less numerous in which case
much t hat normally cons t i t uted men can now perceive
and ima g ine would be uni m aginable O f t his las t w e
have exa m ples in human beings w h o are born blind an d
to whom words expressive o f visual ideas t o us who s ee
are meaningless F o r augh t we know there may be per
c ip i e nt beings in some other corner o f the universe w h o
are each des titu t e o f all o u r external senses and endowed
with ve o r ve hundred o t her sor t s o f senses each
di fferen t in kind from any o f ours If s o what means

m atter in their perception and conception o f it ? I t

can have none of the qu ali t ies which we refer t o t he
t hin g s w e call ou t ward ; and i t must have ve o r ve
hundred sorts of properties all o f which a human being
would be as unable to imagine as t he born blind man is

to ima g ine scarlet a quality which Locke s blind friend

pic t ured as somethin g like t he sound of a trumpe t
u

co

70
T h e p ro
p ert i es o f

Bu t w e mus t re t urn from co nj ec t ures t o facts

It
has been custo m ary to d i st i n g u i sh the proper ti es of bod i es

f
as o t wo sorts
t hose which are ess en ti a l t o b ody
deprived o f which i t would no t b e n amed ma t ter ; and
those o n the o t h er h and which might disappear wi t h
o u t its ceasin g to be called matter
The rst sor t are
pr i mary proper t i es o f m atter ; t he o t he r s are called
secondary proper t ies
In t heir primary o r essential at
t ribu t es b odies wheth er large o r small are space
occupying : t hey are mova b le solids : they can be for
m u l at e d mechanic ally in terms o f m a t hematical q u an
t ity The secondary proper t ies again are t hose which
inves t bodies with their chief human in t eres t They are
t hose in virtue o f which they are of prac t ical i m portance
t o m an t heir hardness o r softness t heir hea t or cold
their colours sounds odours an d tastes all which as
distin g uished fro m the former s or t are especially called
qualities ; for t he others are quanti t ies rather t han
qualities In fact o n t he molecular nal con ception o f
exis t en ce t he or i g in al atoms were supp osed t o be quan t i
ties on ly w ithout qualitative di fferences ; and the i n
nu m erable di fferences which w e observe in t he secondary
qualities com m only i m pu t ed t o external thin g s were r e
ferred to quantitative di fferences t o o m inute to be seen
di fferences in t he shape size posi t ion and motions o f
t heir constituen t molecules D emocri t us the represen t a
t ive o f early m a t erialism argues t hat all t he quali t a t ive
di fferences in external t hings are caused b y
are
physically dependen t o n t heir quantita t ive m olecula r
di fferences Water fo r ins t ance presents qualities di ffer
ent from iron because its consti t uen t molecules are roun d
and sm ooth an d do no t t into one ano t her ; t hose of
iron o n t he contrary are j agged uneven an d densely
aggregated This conj ecture of D emocritus reappears in
D escar t es and Locke ; with the cau t ious quali ca t ion in
t he case o f Locke that i f the qualities imputed to o u t
ward t hings are n ot di fferen ced by t heir dependence o n
quan t ita t ive relations o f their consti tuen t molecules t hey
mus t a t last depend up on som ething more mysterious
N o w lookin g in t he rs t place only at the secondary
.

mat t er d ig

t in gu i sh e d

t at i ve , an d
se o n d ar y
i
o r i mp u t ed

PHIL OSO P H Y O F TH E I S M

PAN EGO ISM

71

proper ties o f the ma t erial world i t is obvious t ha t they O b v i s

nd n
d
p
depe n d upon sen t ient and percipient life
We canno t f th
even i m agine tas t e o r smell exis t ing externally in the s nd r y
q
l
i
i
s
t
absence of all sentient intellige n ce excep t by readi n g p
pe
them in terms o f the non resembling m olec u les and m o l e c ip i nt
ular motions of which t hey are supposed to be the cor
rela t ives
T he a toms o f which re is co m posed have
themselves n o sensa ti on of heat like that which I have
when I approach re But if th e m en t al sensa t ion is
abstracted what re m ain s t hat is at all imaginable t o c o n
s ti t u t e the
meani n g of the word hea t ex cept motion
among aggregates o f molecules ? Heat is necessarily read
i n ter m s o f m otion when it is i m agined as so m ething ex
Whe n I cease t o read it in ter m s o f fel t sensa t ion
t ernal
o f hea t I mu s t read it if I read it at all in terms o f m olc e
ular mo t io n A n orange beco m es vir t u ally colourless in
the dark and mus t lose odour an d taste when sensuous
percep t ion ceases : the residuary issue is a mass o f c o l
inodorous tas t eless molecules A nalysis o f the
o u r l e ss
proper t ies o f bodies in this way obliges u s to strip the
ma t erial world o f all its secondary and interesting qual
ities except s o far as t hey can be tra n slated in ter m s o f
the atomic m otion s o f which they a r e the correlatives
A nd physical science h as no t discovered all the varie t ies
o f molecular mo t ion which on the hypo t hesis o f molecular
correla t ion correspond under n a t ural law t o t he i n nu mer
able varieties o f secondary qualities
But t he subordination o f the world t o t he percipient D p n
d
n
ego it m ay b e argued at the poi n t of view o f Panegois m l ik wi s
does n ot stop here The process is not arrested when it f s l i d
q
nt it y
has stripped molecules and their aggregates of all t h at p r i m r y
gives the m hum an in t erest
I t m ay be f u rther argued q l iti s
n
t ha t t he aggregates o f m olecules and the m olecules the m i ip n
t
p
selves beco m e empty i n conceivable abstrac t ions after they mind
h ave been stripped o f their interesting qualities and are
left t o exist in an u nresistan t colourless S ilen t inodorou s
and tasteless condition nei t her cold nor h o t F o r t he

chief primary property of things occupancy o f space

with which
i s itself dependent upon sensations o r fee l ings
it is b lended so inextricably t ha t we cannot im agine a
ou

ce

ec o

ua

on a

ce

ua

or

ua

er

72

P H IL OSO PH Y O F TH E I S M

colourless mass o f ex t ended ma tt er An ex t ended thi ng

wi t hou t any secondary qualities canno t be imag ined as an
outward o r material thing a t all
S t rip t hings o f all
t h e quali t ies which really depend upon a percipien t and
after t ha t n o perceptible quali ties remain
B u t this
su b traction of a ll th ei r p r op er ti es is practically the sub
t raction O f matter ; therefore mat t er cannot h ave real
exis t ence independen t ly o f all percipient life
A t the
mos t only an unqualied and u nq u ant i e d s ometh i ng r e
mains o f w h ich nothing can be either a frmed or denie d
an emp t y nega t ion not w orth t akin g into accoun t as
a primary datum
If all t he proper t ies o f material t hings are in this
Mol l s
th s b
way proved t o b e dependen t upon living percep t ion the
mp
c m
common bu t confused supposi tion tha t some o f t hem exis t
t y bs t r
nd
ti ns
ex t ernally meanin g by that independently o f all percipi
t h i ng s
s lv int en t life m ay be ar g ued by the ex t reme Pane g oist t o be
fe l ing s
contrary to reason Matter is realised or brought in t o
ac t ual existence by t he sentien t ego throu g h whose fel t
experien ce it b ecomes what w e nd it to be The u ni
verse the Panegoist ar g ues cannot be nally a universe
of independent molecules : i t i s nally the independent
ego wi t h molecules a gg re g ates of molecules and their
qualities all sustained in the con scious experience o f t he
Accordingly on e w h o looks upon the universe a t
ego
the p anego i sti c poin t o f view sees in the whole material
world s t ars their planets this plane t with all i t s
visible and tangible con t ents in cluding our o wn bodies
only inward experiences proceedin g in an esta b lished
order which en ables u s to foresee other inward ex p eri
all which orderly u niverse wi t hin the
o nces s t ill future
mind would necessarily become extinct wi t h the extin e
tion o f the percipien t life of the ego o n which t he whole is
practically suspended O ur nal conception of t he world
and o f wha t reali t y means is even more deeply transformed
in this in t repid Panegoism than was the o l d fashioned an
t h ro p o c e nt r i c conception by t he modern discoveries o f t he
astronomer
Instead o f an ex t ernal ux o f variously
qualied thin g s in orderly motion in space the universe
b ecomes a ux o f orderly ideas and feelings in the his t ory
.

ec u e

e e

ae

re

74

P H I L OSO PH Y

OF

TH E I S M

t a t io n ,

and t he still wider law o f evolution t hemselves

need t o be explained ; and the only li g ht we have for ex
plana t ion comes from m orally responsible agen cy E x t er
n al things are agen t s only metaphorically : the e g o alone
i s originative
In t his way ins t ead o f being an ag g regate o f ma t erial
agen t s to each o f which certain issues m ay be nally r e
ferred the world tha t is u nfolded t o o u r ve senses pre
sents only aggrega t es o f passive sense appearances called
sensible things These are related t o o n e another not a s
an agent is conn ected with e ffects which originate ab s o
l u t el y in himself b ut as constant an t eceden t s o f events
yet fu t ure which t hey passively si g nify to us in a p r ac
tical way b ecause they are in constan t connec t ion with
t he m W hat are called ca u ses in t he material w orld are
only pre m onitors which warrant men in expec ting th e
changes t hey are believed t o si g nify They are the ap
pointed forerun n ers o f even t s fo r which t hey prepare
t hose wh o are able to interpret t hem
The world pre
sen ted t o sense is conceived as a cos m os only b ecause it i s
conceived t o b e this sys t em o f in t erpretable sense signs :
i t i s in t erpretable because cer t ain sorts o f its presented
appearances are found in constant sequence wi t h cer t ain
other sor t s : faith in this constan cy makes men infer that
when an ins t ance o f t he o n e s ort appears a n ins t ance
of t h e o t her sort may b e expected T he ma t erial world
b ecomes t ransfor m ed under this con ception in t o a system
o f passive sense si g ns ; and w e nd t hat w e are able t o
interpre t usefully phenomena which signify coming plea
sure and o t hers which si g nify co m ing pain
,

M tt r
nly
s y st m f
int r p r t
ble s ns
s i gns
a

T h e P an
egms t u ni

v ers e

A t the point o f View o f Panegoism the universe is born

and dies with the person wh o experiences it ; and the
only person o f whose existence I am conscious is myself
T he
Matter and G o d are absorbed an d lost in Me
solitary E go as the only da t um reduces human experience
t o a b surdity if n o t t o con t radiction Unlike Universal
Ma t erialis m and Pantheism Panegoism is a form o f
Monism which can hardly lay claim to a historical exist
ence althou g h some hi g hly specula t ive minds seem t o have
,

PA N E G O I S M

75

boldly accep t ed i t as the logical issue o f their analysis of

the three pri m ary d a t a But i ts exag g eration s at leas t
help to illustrate the subordi n ate office o f Mat t er in the
universe of existence and i t s true rela t ion t o S pirit in
human experience in which the visible world appears as
the servant of the invisible mind having this for its
chief end It is chiey as an aid t o reection upon t he
absurdity of dominant Mat erialism t ha t I have enlarged
upon Pane g ois m
I turn now t o the t hird prim ary da t um in order t o An th r
l t n t ve
ponder its adequacy to the demands o f reason and e x p er i
ence when it is taken to supersede the o t her t wo May
the nal in t ellectual and moral satisfaction desired by the
philosopher be found when G o d is assu m ed as t he only
reali t y and when w e think o f Matter and the E go as only
illusory m odes o f God ? This third ph ase of philosophical
Monism will be next considered
,

er

a l

'

76

L E C T U R E I II

PAN THE I S M

R etr o s p ect L E T me recall the t rain of t hough t t hus far

.

At the
ou t s e t I put before you my concep t ion o f t he divine
o r universal problem with which one i s con cerned when

enga g ed wi t h Na t ural Theology in t he wides t sen se o f

t h e term
I t is the supreme problem o f hum an life in
t he world in which man awakes in t o consciousness That
wha t is experienced exis t s is wha t mos t of u s t ake for
gran t ed : t his primary fai t h is illustra t e d when ever things
and persons are presen t ed t o u s in space and t ime Bu t a
u a r a n tee is needed for the nal moral and intellectual
g
trus t wor t hiness o f experience in t he ever chan g in g uni
verse i n which I n d myself
I have entered i t as a
s t ran g er an d involuntarily and when I look aroun d I
ask What sor t o f universe is this ? May I look a t
i t wi t h trus t an d hope as an orderly sys t em ? o r must
I resi g n myself to nal dis t rus t and despair ? What
am I wh o have b ecome self consciou s and percipien t ;
an d for wha t purpose am I in t his conscious life ? I n
wh a t o r in whom am I a t t his m omen t livin g and
m ovin g and h aving my bein g ? These are ques t ions in
which the nal pro b lem o f exis t ence is raised ; t hey are
qu es t ion s wi t h which philosophy an d religion are con
cerned in common Philosophy culmina t es in answers t o
t hem : reli g ion presupposes a prac t ical answer Religion
does no t indeed involve a complete solu t ion o f inni t e
pro b lems b y t he in t ellec t F o r reli g ion i s a m oral r e
la t ion o f t hou g h t emo t ion an d will t o a nally divin e
.

P A N TH E I S M

77

enviro nmen t ; and this remain s g ood al though t he divine

reali t y is incomple t ely comprehensible in a human under
s t anding A religious life o f adoration and m oral t rust
is no t only consisten t wi t h b ut involves recogni t ion o f

ul t ima t e mys t ery mys tery t o which reasoning in ab

from the moral and emo t ional elemen t s in
s t r ac t i o n
human nature is inadequate
Does no t the hi g hes t
l
i iIO S O p h
t
ake
the
form
o
f
religious
condence
tha
t
p
y
man need not be pu t t o intellectu al o r moral confusion
in the end ?
S O m uch regardin g t he problem o f Natural o r Phil A rti l
t i n f t h is
O ur next step w as to articulate i t p r b l m
o so p h i c al Theolo g y
more deni t ely There are t hree nal exis t ences n a m ely t h r p r im
d
t
y
my inner conscious S elf ; the outer world of Mat t er whic h
immediately environs me ; an d G o d o r the universal
Power These are o u r three primary data Under vari
o u s concep t ions o f wha t each means they are all tacitly
assumed by mankind For t he his t ory o f man is really
a record o f the gradual ofte n interrupted evolution o f
t hree central ideas one s o w n personality one s material

environmen t and Divine or Universal Power O ur con

c ep ti o n o f each is modied by t he manner in which it is
regarded in rela t ion to t he other t wo For the last ques
t ions re g arding each cannot be raised withou t involving
answers t o roo t ques tions about the others I n t he early
stages o f m an s developmen t self o r the personal factor
is only obscurely recognised The idea of law o r order
in the sense environ m ent is also dim in primi t ive ages
as at rs t in t he life of every m a n A nd the idea of God
originally appeared in crude forms of fe ti c h i s ni and poly
t heis m afterwards o f inter ference with nat u ral order
After t hese preli m inaries we entered t he First Par t o f Th ir
ti n t
d
t he course t o con t emplate philosophical endeavours t o h il
p
reduce the t hree primary data t o O ne With h is craving p h i l
ni t y
for uni ty the theorist is dissa t is ed when a mysterious m t r i l
plurali ty ins t ead o f an ima g inable unity is o ffered as i ti g i
i
n
t
p
o
f
nal reali ty
The ins tinct
t he speculative thinker
t h is t i
accordingly makes him t ry t o reduce the t hree primary
existences S o it co m es about t ha t some are disposed to
a ma t erial unity and take Ma tt er as the last word abou t
.

cu a
o

ee

a a

ar

uc

re

o so

ca

a e

c, e

o s

c, or

78

P H IL OSO P H Y O F TH E I S M

what exis t s The in t rospective t hinker again exag g era t es

the conscious E go as the ma t erialis t s exag g era t e the visible
and tangible world : he sees his surroundings dependen t
o n the E go ; and his las t word abou t wha t he is livin g
and moving and having his being in is tha t he is living
and m oving an d having his being in hi m self Bu t nei t her
molecules in t heir ag g rega t es and organisms nor t he E go
in its successive conscious states provides the desired
uni t y t o t hose w h o think deeply A nal reali ty ei t her
in t hings o f s ense o r in myself is inconsistent with the
om n ipresence an d omnipotence I n n i ty in a word
whi ch mus t belong t o the nal Power The E go an d t he
things by which I am surroun ded accordingly lose t heir
o w n reality : they are conceived a s unreal modica t ions
of O ne In nite Reality
P nth i s t ic Here are three ulti m ate con ceptio n s o f exis t ence that
ni t y n d
i s resolved into a materialis t ic unity
under
which
All
n
ssit y
l n n th a t un der which All is resolve d in t o my individual
nd i
n ity ; and t ha t under which All is resolved
spiritual
u
ti n d
in t o t he Divine unity But while each o f these e x agger
t o the exclusion of the o t her two
a t i o n s o f one da t um
has its advoca t es perhaps n one of t he three has ever
b een advocated with thorough g oing consis t ency
We
have already contemplated Universal Ma t erialism and
Panegois m b oth o f t hem u n t heis t ic whe n logical Now
we are t o look at Pantheism in which t he idea of Go d
is ex clusive Pantheism alone among t he three g ives t he
conception o f absolute uni t y
M tt r
We found modern Materialism un der t h e inuence o f
th
sensuous
imagina
t
ion
ready
to
accep
t
physical
science
as
l t im t e
t he solution o f t he universal problem
The physical
u ni t y
or g anis m is supposed to explain reason an d will as
manifes t ed in self consciousness ; and natural history o f
the organism i s subs t ituted for introspec t ive cri t icism
of
rational and volitional activi t y
The details of
or g anic evolution in t he natural sequence o f biolo g ical
causation are without doubt fu ll o f in t eres t ; but they
are all irrelevan t when w e want to hear the nal voice
o f reason itself
It is impossible to iden tify ra t ional
consciousness with wha t moves in space
The na t ural
,

ec e

a o

e u

co

as
u

P A N TH E I S M

79

S cience of t he visib l e organism is irrelevant to theis m :

n atural procedure is not atheis t ic ; nor i s ra t ional c o n
s c i o u s n e s s resolved into m olecula r motion m erely because
it may be the natural outco m e of physical co n ditions
I proceeded next t o as k what egoistic i m m aterialis m has T h E g
th
to s ay for itself F o r some o f the consequences o f think ltim t
ing t he universe of things a nd persons under a n ulti m a tely n ity
m aterialistic unity appear in a striking w ay when w e r e
verse o u r poi n t o f vie w and look a t the u niverse wholly
in t h e ligh t o f our o wn inward conscious life We nd
t hat space occupyi n g things depend o n conscious percep
t ion in unexpected ways an d i t is to rational co n scious
ness t h a t m aterialis m itself n ecessarily appeals a t last in
all its o w n reasonings It was chiey to illus t rate this
inevitable dependence o f t he outward upon the inward
tha t I tried to m ake the E go the nal unity in t he uni
versal sys t e m resolvi n g outward things and God into m y
subj ective experie n ce I t is true that Panegoism is hardly
e ver an accepted philosophical system at l east with a full
conces s ion of its lo g ical consequences It h as been attrib
u t od to Descartes as an implicate o f his me t hod Fi c h te
at a certain stage in his philosophical education has
someti m es been considered i ts represen t a t ive
Hypo
t hetically sta t ed it su g ges t s a r ed u cti o a d a bsu r d u m o f
Universal Ma t erialis m It reduces the only reality o f the
materialist to e m pty negation when th e li g h t a n d life o f
percipien t consciousness i s wi t hdrawn fro m existence
Bu t Panegois m too is self des t ruc t ive : it shuts the ego in
suicidal isolation ; because postulates o f reason which c o n
n ee t individual consciousness with what is out ward and
with the innite are o n its narrow basis dissolved in the
o n e d atu m o f solitary individuality
,

as

a e

Bu t there is another a l t erna t ive to a universe o f Ma tt er G d s

nl y
th
and also t o the E go universe T here is t he recognition of r l it y
Inni t e Bein g as t he only possible reality Mind and
matter in us and around us under this concep t io n have
only illusory reality n o t more o r o t her than as transi
t ory phases o f O ne Absolute Reality o f which the nite
universe in all i t s de g rees from minerals up to men
o

e o

ea

80

PHIL OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

is the necessi t a t ed illusion

The universe conceived
pan t heis t ically is the e t ernal involun t ary evolution o f

Innite Being : t h e being t h a t we call our o wn is

only a modica t ion o f the O ne Being A t oms in t hei r
visible organisa tions and the ego in its conscious s t a t es
are modes o f Innite Bei n g the only S ubs t ance an d
Power This i s pantheistic Monism o r t he necessi t ate d
uni t y o f the All The innumera b le ato m s o f materialism
presen t an empirical and generic uni t y ra t her t han t he
necessary an d innite O ne I n Inni t e Being alone we
nd unity t ha t is logically inconsisten t wi t h real plurality ;
necessity tha t is inconsis t en t wi t h real conti ngen cy ;
eternity t hat supersedes duration
In nite Bein g or t he O n e S u b s t ance s eems therefore
A
nit
t h ing s n d
m in reason to exclusiveness which nei t he r
t
o
have
a
clai
p ers ns
of the two o t her da t a can produ ce God is more t ruly
s bst n
i n t h w y subs t ance and p ower even under ordinary conception s of
t h t in n
it B i n g i what substance an d power mean t han ni t e thin g s and

S bs t n e persons can be
D escartes den ed su b s t an ce as t hat
which s o exists t hat it needs nothing else t o accoun t fo r

o r sust ain i t s existence : wh at are called

created s u b

s t ances bodies and e g os t o w i t are bein g s t h a t n eed

G o d for their be g inning and continu ance ; they are
t herefore s ubs t ances only in a secondary sense wha t
ever that may amount t o : subs t ance proper is that which

exis t s in i t self
self exis t en t reality
S pinoza more
lo g ical than D escartes concluded from t his t ha t subs t ance
must be O ne s o that wha t ever i s nite and plural can
only be illusory
Pan t heism in one or o t her o f i ts m any protea n forms
P nth i s m
i n it p
is
a
w ay of thinking about t he u n iverse t hat has proved
t n f rm s
p r v d s i t s inuence over millions o f human minds Looked a t in
t h int l
one
light
i
t
seems
to
b
e
A
t
heism
in
ano
t
her
sen
t
imental
l t l nd
or m ys t ical T heis m ; in a t hird C alvinism
It has
m ti n l
h i s t r y f governed the religious an d philosoph
o f In dia
m n k in d
E xcept in Palestine wi t h
He b rew
fo r ages
consciousness o f a personal G o d i t has b e n characteris t ic
It is t he reli g ious philosophy of a
o f A sia t ic thought
moiety of t he hu m an race I n the West w e nd a pan
theistic idea at work in di fferen t de g rees of dis t inc t ness
.

re

c e,

ea

ro

ec u a
o

82

P H IL OS O P H Y O F T H E I S M

In t ellect is unders t ood t o preside over g overn an d c o n

duct the whole fra m e o f thi ngs

This is n o t necessarily
inconsistent with the existen ce o f morally responsible
person s With this proviso i t is not pan t heism either
cosm i c or acosm i c
Pantheism is an ambiguous term
It is apt t o be
applied to theists w h o e m phasise what dis t inguishes them
from deists Deism t heism and pantheis m sho u ld be d is
t i ng u i s h e d
Under t he g ross deistical conception what
i s called God i s ima g ed as existing in a place apart
deter m ined at a certain ti m e t o create the things and
persons t ha t have appeared these all after creation being
left by this remote D eity to supposed forces in n a t u re

o
G d a t a distance
usually doin g nothin g occasionally
interferin g with the n atural order by miracle o r prov
idence a wholly transcendent and alien God an i n
dividual amo n g individuals inst ea d of t he O ne Absolu t e
Bei n g
The pan t heis t ic conception is at the opposite extreme
to t h e deis t ical : God is the ever evolvin b inni t e Bein :
i n d i V I d u al s
or D e i ty mod i ed by i nnate n ecess i ty could
present n o o t her appeara n ces than those they present in
na t u re : ni t e things and persons are related to G o d as
its waves are related to t he ocean whose surface t hey
occasionally disturb the waves not o f a nite bu t o f
innite ocean Bu t as waves are alwa y s water even s o
ever changin g things an d persons are always God
,

D ei s m

P th i s m
d
pp
i D m
an

s o

os e

ei s

'

*7

I n N at u r e s e e n o r s h ell n o r k e r n el
B u t th e A ll i n A ll an d t h e E t e r n al

T h i sm
e

i I t er
E
me at e
aS

'

di

In t ermedia t e be t ween the deis t ical con ception o f an

idle God remote from the world occasion ally interfering
and t he panthe i s t i c concepti on o f G o d as Un i versal Be i n g
in i t s innite necessities there i s t he theistic conception
O f the universe o f hu m an experience given as revela t ion
incomplete revelation
o f G o d : G o d revealed in the
con t en t s o f space and time bu t n o t t herein exhaus t ed ;
God n o t so necessi t ated as that wha t ever g ood o r evil
en t ers in t o e x is t ence must be divinely n ecessi t ated
,

PA NTHE I SM

83

wi t hou t room for moral or immoral ac t s o f persons or

for ideals o f du t y or for the rise in t o exis t ence o f any
a c t tha t ough t n ot t o exis t
The developed idea o f God as t he omnipresen t Life o f T h p r s
the world co n stan t ly opera t ing in and t hrough natural
l aws is common t o educated t heis m wi t h pan t heism A t i v
R
and is wha t mo d ern theism owes to pan t heis t ic ex agge ra
j ing
t ion
I t distinguishes bo t h fro m the deism in which bh ni
v
ers
G o d is conceived as a t a dis t ance leaving t he ordinary
evolu t ion o f t he m aterial world an d society t o natural
law
The t hought and feelin g o f divin e i mm anence o r
omnipresence in all natural chan g e ; o f the ni t e as
pervaded by a n d sustained in wha t is innite comes
o ut
in ancient and modern poetry an d religion
It is
t he intense expression of a theis m s o conscious of the
uniqueness and pervadingness of Deity as to refuse
to think God apart
Person outside other persons
a
Hebre w literature with its abundan t representations o f
God as personal still sugges t s the idea o f G o d la t en t
in the heart of universal reality
I nstead of an i n
d ividual and dis t an t God external to the cosmos but
o ccasionally
operating i n i t as a dis t urbing God its

voice is
Whither shall I go fro m Thy S piri t ? o r
w hi t her shall I ee from Thy presen ce ?
If I ascend
up into heaven Thou art t here : if I make my bed in
hell behold Th ou ar t t here
If I take the wings of
t he m orning and dwell in the u t termost par t s of t he
s e a ; even t here shall Thy han d lead me and Thy righ t

hand S hall hold me

A nd there is expressed sense o f
despair apart from t he all envelopin g and pervadin g

and supporting Power : The way o f man is no t in h i m

self : i t i s not in man tha t walketh to direct his s t eps

A g ain o f the voice o f fai t h an d h O p e : God is not far

from every o n e o f us : for in Him w e live an d move

a n d have o u r being
S o too with the thinkers and
prop h ets o f Chris tiani ty in t he early Greek Church as
C lemen t and O rigen and in the medieval ages of fai th
This is followed by more deistical conceptions in early
Protes t antism which t end to divorce nature as wholly
secular from God as wholly superna t ural
Reaction
,

ea

er

e u

84

PHIL OS O PH Y O F TH E I S M

agains t t his nds expression in our own reli g ious poe t

wh o had learned
T o l o o k at N at u r e , n o t as i n th e

O f t h o u g h t l e ss y o u t h 3

hou r

and was won t t o feel

A p r e s e n c e t h at i s tu r b s m e w i t h th e jo y
O f el evat e t h o u g h t s a s en s e s u b l i m e
O f S o m eth i n g far m o r e e ep ly i n t er fu se ,
W h o s e w ell i n g i s th e l i g h t o f se tt in g su n s,
A n d th e r o u n o cean , an d t h e l i vi n g ai r ,
A n d t h e b l u e s ky an d i n t h e m i n o f m an

P th i s t i
an

dr ms o f
S ot s
E rig n
ea

u
e

a.

The dreamy a b s t rac t charac t er of pantheism is foun d

in i t s pro t ean m odes o f represen t in g t he relation o f all
t ha t appears in space an d t ime t o t he D ivine Power
and S u b stan ce
Is God e t ernally under modica t ion ;
or have t h e modica t ion s called things and persons
wi t h t heir changes a beginnin g and will t hey all end ;
s o t ha t t hin g s and persons shall a t las t disappear in
G o d wi t h an e t ernal cessation o f change time and
change b eing illusions o f sensuous imagina t ion ? S o the
medieval pan t heist S co t u s E rige n a speculates in his

philosophic dream abou t Na t ure or t he totali t y o f

existe n ce
I n t he dream all n a t ure consis t s o f God
The ni t e universe in its t otal evolution is a ash of
light in t h e darkness and S ilence o f unconsciou s nu
di fferen tia t ed Being
God is the essence o f all t hings
an d persons in which t hey mu s t at las t e t ernally an d
unconsciously repose These t remendou s asser t ions o ffered
without proof il l ustra t e t he elas t icity of pan t heistic i m ag
i n at i o n and i t s in difference t o t he demands of human ex
ri enc e
S
pecula
t
ion
rst
fancies
wha
t
reality
mu
s
t
b
e
e
p
and t hen disdain s all troublesom e fac t s which are dis
r a e d as sensuous imaginations
a
E
xperience
is
t
rea
t
ed
p
g
as an illusory descent from the universal to th e particular
from the abstract to th e concrete I n the end as in t he
b eginni n g all resolves in t o the in experienced o r t he u n
conscious
This much in illus t ra t ion o f some phases of Pan t heism
when i t w as t rying to occupy a posi t ion b e t ween At heis m
.

86

P H I L OSO P H Y O F T H E I S M

As I have said t he pan t heistic idea o f su bsta n ti a ti on

O ne Innite S ubs t ance
o f t he world an d the ego in
called God is an idea t ha t lurks in Lord Gi fford s Deed
o f Foundation t he idea which he seems t o desire t o hav e
worked ou t and tested through this lectureship in so m e of
t h e inn umerable frui t ful ways which i t s developmen t
might open to mankind
The idea comes o u t s t rongly

in a lecture o n S U B S TAN C E delivered by him som e

years before his death I make n o apology fo r quotin g
some sen t en ces from this rare and curious tract to S how
h ow n ear t he idea o f Divine S ubs t antiation o f things and
persons lay to his heart
All t h ing s
He conceives God as t he one an d only S ubstance t he o n e
nd p
hidden
reali
t
y
tha
t
exists
under
all
concrete
bein
g
s
and
s ns
t o which all their phenomen a are t o be ascribed S o h e
ns l
t nt i t d
B S TA NC E is
t
ells
u
s
that
the
word
S
U
the
grandest
word
in
in G d

any la n guage
S u b stance is t hat which is below and
nl y
th
S bs t n c
above and around and wi t hin all m a t erial t hin g s and all
minds or e g os ; tha t in which t hey all exis t ; s o tha t
whatever is predicable o f them mu s t be predicable o f
t he O n e S ubstan ce o f which they are par t s Take the
following :
Un b t n
To come t o t he roo t and bo tt om of t he ma tt er a t once
t i l it y f
of
I
ask
you
t
o
look
at
t
he
forces
an
d
energies
and
laws
ni t
n a t ure ; and t he laws of life which have s o much t o do with
t hi ng s
and p
o f ex t ernal na t ure and o f m a n which w e
t
he
ph
enomen
a
s ns
have been examining
Wha t are t hese for ces and

inna
t
e
in
m
a
tt
er
forsoo
t
h
inna
t
e
in
protoplasm
n
er
i
e
s
e
g
innate in organisa t ion an d on which s o much reliance is
placed ? D o t hese forces and energies explain anythin g
D o t hey n o t j us t pu t the question fur t her back o r f u rther
on ? F o r th e question is Wha t is the s u bs ta n ce o f all t he
?
forces and energ ies t hemselves
T h ey are n o t nal and
ul t ima t e ; t hey themselve s need explanation ; there must
b e S ome t hin g b ehind and b ey ond t hem all They are not
self originated : t hey are n o t self maintained : t hey are b u t
w ords telling us t o go deeper an d t o go higher ; they all
seem t o say to the an xious inquirer N o t in us n ot in us
The force behind an d in all forces the ener g y o f all
ener g ies t he explanation of all explana t ions the caus e
S p in i s m
nd L r d
G iffo r d
oz

er

as

co

u )

s a

a e

e o

su

s a

er

P A N TH E I S M

87

of al l causes and of all e ffects the S oul that is wi t hin

an d below and behind ea ch soul t he Mind that inspires
and ani m a t es and thinks in ea ch mind i n o n e word t he
S ubstance o f all substances the S ubsta n ce of all phe
n o m e n a is God
Nature " tis but t he name o f an e ffect
The cause is G o d Now w e have reached a S ubstance tha t
does n o t in i t s t urn become merely a phenomenon a S ub
s t ance which has no t hing behind it but o f which all t hings
and persons pas t presen t o r fu t ure are bu t the for ms
S u bs ta n ce is the true na m e o f G o d
E very line o f
thought m ee t s here E ve ry eager question is an s wered
here E very di f culty and perplexity is resol ved here
Here t he philoso p her must rest Here the ignorant must

u
repose T his niverse and all its phenomena other uni

verses un t hink able by hu m an m inds all are but forms

of the Innite S hadows of t he S ubstance that is O ne fo r
ever
There cannot be a nite energy that is due
only to i t self alone and which is independen t o f every
thing else ; for there can be bu t O ne I n ni t e
It is
mere repetition t o say That if God be t he very S ubstance
and E ssence of every force and of every b eing He m us t
be the very S ubstan ce and E ssence of the human soul
The human soul is neither self derived n o r self subsis t ing
I t is b ut a manifesta t ion a phenomenon It would vanish
if it had not a substance ; and i t s substance is G o d
The n if G o d be t he substance o f o u r souls He mus t also
be the substance o f all our thoughts and of all our actions
Thoughts and ac t ions are n o t self sustaining self produc
in g any m ore t han worlds T hey are mere manifes t a t ions
rst of o u r souls bu t next and far m ore truly o f G o d
In Him w e live and move and
w h o is o u r S ubs t a nce

have o u r being We are par t s of the I n ni te literally

s t ric t ly scientically s o
A hu m an soul o r a human
t hough t and action ou tsi d e of G od would be a rival dei ty

In all this I have not gone a sin g le s t ep out of my H s s

l l th
way as a st u den t o f mental science ; and if I h ave had to s i n s

u
f
speak to y o o God frankly an d freely t ha t is only 1
1
i
ng i n
because G o d is n ecessa r i ly fou n d by all w h o fairly follow s i n f
up the purely scientic idea o f substance to i ts deepest th O n
n
S
bs
t
roo t s an d its hi g hes t sources The highes t science al wavs
,

ee
e

c e

ce

0 11 111 1 11 8 3

c e

ce o

ce

88

P H IL OSO PH Y O F TH E I S M

becomes reli g ious nay religion itself

S cience knows
If G o d be the
n o authority b u t t he in t uition o f tr u th
substance o f all forces and powers and of all beings He
must be t he on ly subs t ance t he only substan ce in this
universe o r in all possible universes This Uni t y O f S ub
s t ance is the grand tru t h o n which the system o f S pinoza is

n
n
fou ded
I am and there is no e besides Me
no being
no t hing n o exis t en ce besides I am and no t hing else is
If there could be t wo S ubstan ces ; if anything else b u t
G o d existed anything outside G o d any t hin g o f which

t
t hen there would be t wo
G o d w as n o the substance
gods and neither of them would be innite Bu t I mus t

forbear he says at last I m us t forbear t o t race further

t he consegu ences o f God b ein g seen as the o ne eternal and
on ly S ubstance The su bj ect mi g ht be expanded into
many volumes

I t is expansion in t o i t s consequences o f the idea o f

God as t he O n e only S ubstance with cri t icism o f the same
in t he innumerable ways in which t he t hough t m ay be
conceived by di fferent minds th a t Lord Gi fford seems to
have had before h im as that which generations o f thinkers
might work o u t accor d in g to t heir respective individu
The idea i t self is an elas t ic o n e apt to evade
al i t i e s
in t ellectual g rasp and while a tt ribu ted b y h i m t o S pinoza
w as held in fervid sentimen t by Lord Gi fford pro b ably
more and o t her than intellec t ual S pinozism
I will nex t as k y o u to look in t o t he grounds an d c o n
sequences o f t he S pinozistic concep tion o f t he universe
This will open the w ay fro m Untheistic Monism to t he
rationale o f human faith and hope in the Universal
Power
.

S i nti
x pl i
c e

ca

tion o f
t h e O ne
u
t an ce

S bs

P r o s p ec
ti e

90

P HI LOSO P H Y

TH E I S M

OF

all suppose in S pinoza an ene m y o f religion By Lessing

and Novalis Goe t he an d S chleier macher he is canonised
for vir t ue an d pie t y O nce a n athema t ised by Jews and
Christian s this proclaimed ath eis t is no w described as a
god intoxicated mystic
Between these extremes men
oscill a t e in their reading o f the pensi ve spec t acle g rinder
in Holland as they s ee in him the lo g ical reasoner w h o
treats Deity as an emp t y abstraction or recognise a
devo t ee ready in self s a c r i c i ng spirit t o lose his indi
v i d u al i t y in his divine
S ubs t ance
The charac t eris t ic
elasticity of pan t heism may e xplain the con t radiction
The pantheist concep t ion is suscep t ible of either a
materialist o r an idealist d eveIO p m e nt : under o ne light
it yields in t ellectual atheism and u nder another senti
men t al theism A n alien in the prev ailing spiri t o f the
eigh t een t h cen t ury probably no o t her personage livin g in
the preceding century h as m ore powerfully a ffected theo
logical philosophy in this g eneration than this soli t ary
reasoner w h o devo t ed t he thinking part o f his shor t life o f
forty four years to m edita t ive speculation abou t God An
intellectual love of God experie n ced in discovery of his
own iden t ity with God was the peace o f S pinoza s l ife
th e religion t o which he sincerely aspired It was a lif e
o f more t han co m mon si m plici t y fru g ali t y an d i n d iffe r
ence t o sensuous pleasure th at this swar t hy slender
consu m ptive looking you t h passed t hrou g h in his lonely
lodging at The Hague His very innocence an d vir t ue
m atured into invin cible habit in which t he man w a s
los t in t h e abstrac t thinker may have blinded him t o t he
defects o f a doc t rine which when it is rigidly interpreted
over t urn s morali t y
The resigned feeling tha t I and all persons are having
I n S p in
i m th
o u r being as m a t he m a t ically di fferentiated modications o f
n D ivin
R l it y i O ne Un di fferentiate d S ubs t ance seems to be t he essence
r g r d d of S pinoza s religion He nds himself u nder an in t el
t n
lec t ual o b ligation to ackn owledge one and only o n e
i n nit
n d nit e
indi fferently named God Nature o r
reali
t
y
Uni ca S u b
s bst n
Its a t trib u tes are innite : the m odica tions
s ta n ti a
nd m d s
which t hese at t ribu t es so m ehow assume are nite The
a tt ri b u t es o f the Divine S ubstance t hat are known to man
.

'

oz

ea

as a

ce

ce

P A NT H E I S T I O

N E C E SS I T Y

91

are only t wo in n ite ex t ension and innite t hough t : God

or Nature is known only in mo d es o f extension and modes
o f t hou g h t
Individual t hings and individual persons are for m ed by I n S pin
human imagination out of these modes : nei t her t he t hings [11315 21
nor the person s h ave real exis t en c e : t heir appearance of t h i g s
1
1
1
1
reality is explained by S pinoza as an illusion of i m agina
t ion which necessarily arises w hen modes are conceived in
abstr a ction from t he Divine Reali t y Taking the m eta
phor o f the ocean and its waves t o represen t the Un i ca
S u bsta n ti a individual persons and t hings are like t hose
waves changed into lu m ps o f ice I m agination deludes
u s in t h e supposition that t hey are more than m o d i c a
tion s o f t he innite S p ace o r the in nite thought which
exist i n necessary correlation ; for extension and thought
are correla t ive phases of t he O ne S ubs t an ce
But this
evolu t ion o f individuals ou t of t he Undi fferentia t ed Unity
i s t ruly illusion according t o S pinoza : under his supreme
principle om ni s d eter mi n a ti o es t n ega ti o t he nite can
b e only a negation o f t he Inni t e n o t a posi t ive reality
Nevertheless he proceeds as if the Innite were de
co m posable by abstraction capable of bein g regarded
alternately as Innite and ni t e S ubstance an d modes
Undetermined yet di fferentiated in ma t hematically n e c e s
sary forms
Thus t he t wo a tt ribu t es o f God known t o m an are T h m d s
represen t ed in i m agina tion as individual things and indi
SW
vidual persons an d endowed wi t h a n illusory reali t y t n ti
Things and persons may both b e reasoned about geome t ri
cally ; for ex t ension an d though t being substan tially g m tgi
identical are necessarily correlative s o tha t thought and
theology are philosophically unfolded in mathematical
terms
They form be t ween them the n a tu r a n a tu r a ta
which by a logical but not real dis tinc t ion S pinoza con
T hese names ins t ead o f
t ra s t s with the n a tu r a n a tu r a ns
universe and G o d express t he unity an d iden t ity of t h e
O ne S ubstance ; which as I have said may be reasoned
o u t in terms o f geometrical quan t ity seeing t hat extension
The S ubstance o f
an d though t are in ra t ional correlation
which I nd myself a mode m ay be specula t ed either in
.

oz

31

11

11 1

ar e

11 5 0

eo

s a

92

PHIL OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

abs t ract un ity o r in i t s concrete modes at once inni t e

and nite undi fferen t iated and yet under mathema t ical
forms G o d wi t hout the u niverse has n o self existent life
o f His own : Uni ca S u bs ta n ti a is empty su b s t ance with
and t herefore with out meanin g : n a tu r a
o u t attribu t es
n a tu r a ta is a necessity o f exis t ence as much as n a tu r a
We are livin g an d moving an d havin g o u r
n a tu r a ns
bein g in t he O ne Divine Immensity which contai n s
all t hat can exist
The universe o f nite things and
persons must b e as i t i s There is n o room fo r the crea
tion b y nite persons o f acts which con form t o ideals of
duty an d goodness ; nor yet o f evil ac t s which o u ght not
to exist an d are therefore not a b solutely necessi t a t ed
Reali t y and perfec t ion mus t b e o ne u nder S pinoza s de
m o n s tr ati o n s : t he h om o m ens u r a p ostula t e mus t n o t in t er
fere to arrest t he in ference A conclusion o f t his ma t he
m a ti c a l pantheism is tha t there can be n o con t in g en cy
e ven a t t he point o f view o f human philos ophy apparen t
personal freedom from ma t hematical necessi t y is delusion
S o t o o i s every con
t h e issue o f inadequate knowled g e
nal
reality
which
supposes
th
a
t
n
a tu r a
u r e a b ou t
e
c
t
j
n a tu r a ta is ruled by man s ideas o f providen t ial g ood and
e vil order and disorder o r for th ose ends which see m
desirable according to a human imagina t ion o f provi
dence Human desires mu st b e regulated b y the m athe
m ati c al necessities o f Na t ure which i s another n ame

for God
n o t by t he self re g arding interes t s o f men
Here S pinozis t ic pantheism looks like a t heism I n words
S pinoza g ives us n o t hing bu t G o d ; ye t in fac t he gives u s
only an unmoral G o d stripped of providen ce and purpose
,

d s

T h e i ea
of
ac e ,
t i m e , su b
t anc e , an d
c au a i t ,

sp

s l y
vn s
t w rd s
i n n it
B in g
a

ue

B u t is not t his way o f looking nally a t t he universe

unlike reality as revealed in o u r deepes t experience ?
W hen w e try to assimila t e the speculative t hou g ht u n
rolled in the a b s t rac t demons t ra t ions of S pinoza we are
carried away from experien ce which wi t h him is only
a name fo r ni t e illusion W e are summoned in t o t hat
sublime idea o f I nni t e which with him becomes pan
theis t ic unity an d necessity while for o t hers i t sus t ains
t heis t ic faith The Innite in fact is no t very far from
,

9 4:

P H I LOSO PH Y

TH E I S M

OF

g rea t t or t oise : and bein g fur t h er pressed t o t ell wha t sup

por t ed the tor t oise replied someth i ng h e kn ew n o t wh a t

A n d as wi t h S ubs t ance s o t oo wi t h Power I f it is i mp o s
sible to suppose a quality existing withou t su b s t ance
a n adj ective wit h out a substantive i t is also impossi b le
to suppose change withou t a cause in t o which t he chan g e
mus t be refunded : bu t every ni t e cause in its t urn de
m ands another t o explain its own en t rance into e xis t ence
an d tha t o t her if ni te equally demands a cause ou t of
which i t has emerg ed and so t he physical re g ress i m
posed by in t ellec t ual necessi t y is lost at last in the mys
t e r y of E ndlessness
In short w e nd ourselves inevita b ly
dissa t ised wi t h wha t is n i te wi t h nite places in space
nite times in dura t ion,ni t e su b s t ances and ni t e causes
However far we g o t here is an in t ellectual obli g a t ion t o g o
fur ther The universe of o u r experience seems to ex t en d
into innity ; for when we t ry to limi t i t w e nd t he
limi t ed portion s t ill related t o reali t y b eyond
Bu t do we t hink ade quately o f Divine reality when we
t hink of i t as a q ua n ti ty ? It cannot be a quantity if
quan t i t y mean s absolu t ely rounded Imm ensi t y o r ab s o
l u tel y rounded E ternity ?
A n indeni tely large o r an
indeni t ely long con t inu ed nite obj ect i s a qu anti t y ; for
i t has i t s boundary al t hough t he b oundary may b e t oo
rem ote fo r human imagination t o represent Bu t is t he
In nite Reality towards which we are carried b y ni t e
places dura t ions qualities and chan g es capable of quanti
t at i ve measuremen t
Take S pace to be g in wi t h Imag in e any quanti ty o f

S pace yo u please however vas t s ay the area included

wi t hin the orbi t of th e plane t on which w e are livin g
Y ou ca n su bt rac t from t his th e t o t al space con t ained s ay
within the orbit o f Mercury ; you have t o t ha t ex t en t
redu ced t he nite area whic h was contained within t he
E ar t h s orbit O r ins t ead o f sub t ractin g you ca n add t o
the quantity of the E ar th s orbi t by in cludin g all tha t is
within t he vas t er expanse con t ained within the orbi t o f
Mars o r of Jupi t er or O f t he whole solar system I n
shor t y o u can either diminish o r enlarge the quantity of
S pace wi t h which you are dealin g in those ins t ances
,

I s I n ni t e
R e l it y a
qu antity
a

F i nit e
s p es and
i n ni t e
S p ac e
ac

P A N TH E I S T I C N E C E SS I T Y

95

because y o u are dealing in all o f t hem only with nite

m
uan
t
i
t
ies
which
are
all
i
aginable
in
their
na
t
ure
even
;
q
if hu m an imagina t ion g ives only an obscure im age o f
qu antities s o vast o r so s m all as t o be i m perfectly con
c e i ve d
In thi s w e are holding up in i magination a
n ite quantity o f space ; trying t o pic tu re a S pace which
because it i s ni t e i s capable of bei ng dimi nished o r i n
creased i n extent N o t so with space when los t in the
mysterious innity which contradicts sensuous i m agination
For w e are so m ehow ob liged to add to ever y i m agin able
o r nite space however vast : w e n d so m ething in o u r
minds which forbids us t o suppose th at w e can ever reach
a space w i th n o sp a ce b eyon d : some t hing in o u r m inds
obliges u s t o o to think o f ever y nite o r i m aginable
S pace however small as s t ill divisible into parts s m a l ler
than itself We are obliged to believe that t h e largest
conceivable nite space i s still incomplete ; fo r th ere
m u s t be a larger : w e canno t but suppose t hat the
sm allest is inco m pletely divided ; fo r there m ust b e a
s m aller
A noteworthy fact in all t his is th a t each
additio n is believed t o bring us n o n ea r er to the I n n
i t e Reality than we were before we began t o add and
each subtraction t o carry us n o fa r th er a way from it
The addition of the quantity o f space contained within
th e orbit of Mars to tha t contained wi t hin the or b it o f
the E arth i s a de ni t e addi t ion to a quan t i t y ; be c ause
both are nite an d consist o f ni t e parts B ut n o addi
tion o f parts t o parts brings o n e nearer t o Immen sity ;
and no subtraction carries us farther away from it Fini t e
spaces large o r small large eno u gh to include the whole
known stellar sys t em o r s m all enough to defy the most

powerful microscope these spaces are conf u sedly spoken

parts o f an I n nite which transcends relations of
o f as
part an d whole We suppose as m uch more space b e
m
ond
the
lar
g
es
t
as
there
is
beyond
the
s
alles
t
quan
t
ity
y
S t re t ch i m agina t ion to the ut m os t i n nit e space is as
much out o f reach as far short o f exhaustion as i t was
at r s t the addi t ions being all as it were irrelevan t to
I n the light o f reason the spaces of sense and imagin
it
ation la rge o r small disappear in In nite Reality
,

96

F init e
t im e s nd
Et ernity
a

PH I L OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

S pace in t his way is one avenu e t owards t he Inni t e in

relation to quan t i ty Turn n ex t to D ura t ion This is
ano t her avenue which perhaps even more t han space
b rings inni t y h ome t o us all However far b ack in
t ime we make imagination t ravel we are o b liged t o sup
pose a past s t ill more remo t e ; however far forward w e
look w e are o b liged t o suppose a y et remo t er future
We can s et no boun dary either in the pas t o r in t he
fu t ure t o t he succession of chan g es by which t he idea
o f dura t ion is awakened in human consciousness : when
we ima g ine any period long o r S hor t o u r minds obli g e
us s t ill t o imagine a duration lon g er o r shor t er by the
addi t ion or subtrac tion o f which the rs t is in creased o r
diminished But j us t as space a t las t disappears in I m
m en s i ty s o t ime at last disappears in E ndlessness
Un
b eginning t ime does not admi t of addition nor does
u nending time admi t o f sub t rac t ion
The Et erni t y in
which each is lost does n o t admit o f parts al t hough sen
s u o u s imagina t ion h as t o picture i t as divisible
We are
as far fro m exhaus t ing Et ernity when w e have t ravelled
back million s of years as w e were when w e commenced
o u r j ourney into pas t t ime ; an d n o passage o f t ime n ow
elapsed diminishes t he endlessness t hat seems t o b e in
fron t o f us The unbeginnin g pas t seems to misleadin g
imagina t ion as if i t were a quan t i ty su bt rac t ed from t he
unendin g fu t ure i t t o o bein g a supposed quan t i t y : thought
is lost in an Inni t y g rea t er t han either the unbeginnin g
pas t o r t he un endi ng fu t ure ye t somehow containin g each
of t he two as i ts par t s Add to any ni t e time and w e
are brough t nearer to a ye t longer nite t ime ; bu t w e
are brough t no nearer t o E terni t y Time necessarily i n
capable of bein g completed at either end makes imagina
t io n commit suicide when i t tries to exhaus t D ura t ion in
t he unpictura b le region in which
.

i mmu t ab ly

vive
F o r o u r s u p p o r t t h e m e a s u r es an d t h e fo r m s
W h i c h an a b s t r a ct i n t e ll i g e n c e s u pp l i e s
su r

Wh os e kingd om i s

So it

is

wh er e ti me

a n d sp a ce a re n ot

t ha t t he space b y which I am

no w

surrounded

P H I L OS O P H Y O F T H E I S M

98

He who tries to think o u t the Reality in which he lives

n th m g
and
moves
and
has
his
bein
g
i n sy m pathy wi t h S pinoza
r ll y h p
p n s l l m ust therefore t hink it o u t no t as imaginable succes
x is t s i m sion o r physical evol u tion bu t as uni m aginable E ternity
lt n
F o r i m agina t ion o f succession is t o t he reality like trees o r
ly
h ouses as seen from the window o f a carriage in m otion
They seem t o be m oving bu t t he m otion is in o u r selves
The supposition t ha t change is real i s the delu sion of the
uneducated Nothin g happens : all exis t s si m u ltaneously
The pas t i s not really past : the fu t ure is n o t s t ill u n
real Tho u ght is n o t successive : succession arises only
when im agination invades t h e provi n ce o f s cience A ll
is N o w Under the g eometrical necessi t ated conception
history and experience logically dissolve in illusion : wh at
has no t ye t happened is as real a s wha t h as happened ;
what i s future an d wh a t is past is iden ti ed in what must
be Nothing really happen s all exis t s absolu t ely
It is instructive to follow S pin oza as he subli m a t es
T w w ys
f
n
iv
m agina t ion
nite
things
fallaciously
individualised
by
i
i ng q n
ou t o f which the illusory world o f com m on consciousness
t it y
is supposed to emerge bu t which reason refunds in t o the
O ne Divine S ubs t ance in which all things exis t in absolute
perfec tion S ubstance s o far as it is in nite cannot he
argues be added to o r divided If asked why we are apt
t o suppose th e contrary he would an swer that quan t i t y
may be conceived either in imagination o r accordin g t o
pu re in t ellect If w e regard qu anti t y as it appears to
i m agin ation w e nd i t divisible or m ade up o f parts ;

but i f w e regard it intellectually

which is di fficul t
it can be dem on s t ra t ed t hat it must be
fo r us t o d o
indivisible
Ag ain the universe o f reality mus t be eternally n e c es
Th
h
d it y O f
sary
as
o
t
herwise
w e are involved in the contradiction
nt in
f
f
t
hat
Na
t
ure
might
be
di
erent
from
what
mu
st
be
What
e
n
g
y
w e call con tingency and cha n ge is t he issue o f an imper
feet comprehension o f innite reali t y under t h e delusive
form O f sense or imagination Wha t really exists cannot
b e contingent : it seems s o only because it is vie wed in
t he li g h t of decien t kno wled g e Things are perfect in
t heir reality fo r wha t is real is divine B u t even t he
W it h

S p in

OZ a

ea

ou s

co

ce

ua

e a

s ur

co

P A N TH E I S T IC N E C ESS I T Y

99

pinion which refers all t o capricious Will is nearer t ru t h

according to S pinoza than t he supposi t io n that things are
what t hey are for the sake o f any supposed good t hereby
secured to man or o f which man i s the nal cause F o r
t his last supposes an end independen t of G o d o r t o which
God i s only a m eans
The favourite prej udice tha t a humanly rela t ed purpose P nt h i sti
x
pl
s
i n
o r nal cau se i s the cons t itu t ive principle o f existence i s
f th i d
what S pinoza by his demons t rations labours to re m ove th t th
n i v rs
i
Man u n p h il O S O p h i c ally disposed to think thin g s in succes h rg d
sion n o t su b sp eci e ceter n i ta ti S takes his o w n nite and w it h d p t
ti n
i m aginable experien ce as th e measure of reality and looks w h i h
not su b r a ti on e o r r l t t
o r historically ;
a t reality as event
in t ellectually Ma g nifying the i m portance o f his o wn h m n
i nt r s t s
feelings and desires he supposes that t he nal cause
A s pleasure is
o f exis t ence mus t b e human happiness
the mo t ive of his o wn ac t ions he co m es t o in t erpre t
Na t ure or God as a system of means intended to secure
this fo r m an ; which involves t he supposition of an an
t h r o p o m o r p h i c Ruler o f Nature endowed wi t h a capri
c i o u s freedom disposed t o act emotionally in t his way o r
t hat ; w h o does nothin g in vain th at is t o s ay w h o does
n o t hing that is inconsisten t with man s happiness An d
when experience contradicts this human fancy b y t he
miseries t o which men are subj ec t t hen rather t han
surrender the childish hypothesis o f a reali t y that is
deter m ined by hu m an interests i ts an t hropomorphic
advocates suggest man s ignorance an d conclude t hat the
rule of the gods somehow surpasses o u r co m prehension
This favourite refu g e o f narrow minds S pinoza thinks
would have p erpe t ually kep t t he h uman race in darkness
if ma t he m a t ics which excludes re g ard to causes either
n al o r ef cient had n o t offered a higher criterion o f
truth and made philosophers acknowledge the necessary
nature o f All
For a mathe m atical concep t ion of the
universe sh ows s o he argues t ha t God o r Nature as
perfec t can be s u b ordinated t o no human end : to s u p
pose the universe charged with purpose is a ction o f
i m agination n o t a scientic conception I t is because in
the eye o f imagination the wor t h of things is deter m ined

e
o

ea

e a e

e e

1 00

P H IL OSO PH Y O F TH E I S M

b y t heir human rela t ions and u t ili t ies t hat t he irra t ion al
prej udices arise which are expressed b y t he words good
and evil vice an d s in praise an d blam e order and disorder

Good is t h e term popularly applied t o whatever is s u p

posed to be in th e in t eres t o f man o r like ritual o r w o r
ship in th e imagined in t eres t o f God I g noran t of t hin g s
in their ra t ionale men ima g ine an order o f their o w n
When things are s o arra nged tha t they can b e ea si ly
im ag ined they call t hem well arra ng ed and when placed
o t herwise t h ey call t hem confused ; as if t he order were
som e t hing in the things and no t in their own ima g in a
tion They suppose that G o d m ust crea t e the univers e
s o t ha t th ey can easily in t erpre t it ; weakly a tt ribu t ing
t h eir o wn imagin ation t o God and dreaming t hat G o d has
disposed all o u t o f consideration for human ima g ina t ion
S pinoza with sorrow sees human life crowded wi t h ex
amples o f ni t e ima g ination subs t i t u t ed fo r t he inni t e
reali t y o f divine reason and endless con t roversies as t he
consequence Men imagine without t ruly understandin g
If t hey t ruly unders t ood thin g s t hey would b e all agreed
al t hough n o t necessarily pleased The perfec t ion of things
is to be j ud g ed b y what they m ust b e n o t by t he ways in
which t hey sa t isfy o r o ffend men
,

Ap n
t h ei s t i
d il emm
a

A dilemm a confron t s t his pan t heis t ic uni t y an d nec o s

E i t her w e reduce indi vidual thin g s and person s t o
si ty
vain S hadows and then t he unde t ermined S u b s t ance o r

Dei t y of S pin oza comes ins t ead a fea t ureless u ni t y ; or

we mus t assum e t ha t t he data an d ra t ion al implicates o f
o u r experience are real so far as t hey go and t ha t G o d
is incomple t ely ye t re ally revealed in o u r physical and
spiri t ual experience
F o r dete rm inin g b etween t hese
al t ernatives we mus t have recourse t o fac t s and t he nal
cons t i t u t ion of t h e human mind H omo mensu r a or n u lla
mensu r a are t he al t ernatives t ha t mee t us a t las t
I t is
b y means o f mona d s says Leibniz t hat S pinoza is refu t ed
S pinoza would be righ t if t here were no mona d s : in t ha t
case all t ha t is n o t G o d would b e evanescen t acciden t o f
fancy Le t u s subs t i t u t e persons or moral a g ents for
mona d s an d s ay t ha t if t here were n o inspire d self ac t in g
.

a.

1 02

P H I L OSO P H Y

OF

TH EI S M

s tr a t i o n s

in which th e co n clusions only make explici t what

w as already arbi t rarily introduced into the denitions
Th e system is a lo g ical evolution o f wha t is contained in
the connotation of cer t ain words of ex t re m e abs t rac t ion
And the resul t shows chiey argu m entative connec t ion
be t ween do g matically assumed d eni t ions and conclu

sion s
I t is possi b le as has b een sai d
by devising
a s et o f ar b itrary denitions to form a science w hich
al t hough professedly conversant about moral poli t ical
physical or any o t her ideas should yet b e as certain as
g eometry I t is o f n o moment whe t her th e ideas cor
respond wi t h fac t s o r n o t provided t hey do n o t expres s
a b solu t e impossibili t ies an d b e n o t inconsistent with
each o t her From t he d enitions a series o f consequences
may b e deduce d by the m os t unexceptionable reasoning
and the results will be p erfectly analogou s to m athe
m ati eal propositions : but the terms t rue and false cann o t

b e properly applied to them

Nominal denitions are t he
principles o f this verbal science The t erms t rue and false
t herein refer t o ver b al consis t ency n o t to corresponden ce
wi t h what i s real
Th at it refunds all in t o un di fferen t ia t ed Uni t y e m ptie d
o f events is an u nsurmountable di fcul t y in t his thorough
going I m personalism o r Pan t heism I t vain ly asks hum an
in t elligen ce t o con quer the emp t y re g ion towards which
w e are carried when w e t ry t o surrender pl a ce for I m
m e n s ity ti m e for E terni t y substances reve aled in e x p eri
ence for t h e Et ernal S ubstance cau sed e ffects fo r the nal
mystery invo l ved i n Power It deman ds an i m personal
faculty in which t he individual person m ust b e lost in an
illu sory unity an d t o m eet t his pantheis t ic t hinkers have
b een reduced to hard straits This d i fculty is met vari
o u s ly : by some in the hypothesis
o f a t ra n scendental
vision o r inspira t ion whi ch can hardly be dis t inguished
from blind feeling ; by others in an avowedly e m otio n a l
experien ce sui t ed t o t he less robust in t e l ligence an d
dreamy temperamen t o f t he m ore indolent a n d u n p r ac t i
cal races o f mankind Plotin u s in the ancien t world and
S chelling in t his cen t ury m ay be take n each in his own
way as advoca t es o f a tran scendental in t ui t ion which
.

U n differ
e nt i at e d
u n it

ll s o r y
u

P A N TH E I S T I C N E C ESS I T Y

1 O3

seems t o resolve at last into unintelligible feeling or to

be sublimated in to superco n sciousness as in the N i r va n a
o f the Buddhist weary of a perplexed and painful con
scious experience We nd Plotinus asserti ng a claim to
an ecs t at ic vision o f the Innite Unity into which he is
repor t ed to have acknowle d ged tha t he h ad risen only
four ti m es in his life a vision or feeling which m ay

n
i
n
d
i
ff
r
n
i
h ave realised S pi oza s
but in a
e e t a t e S ubs t ance
fashion which necessarily forbid any repor t of the i n
e ffable result It i s told o f h im that in his pantheistic
enthusiasm he discl aimed h i s o w n birth looking with
co n tempt o n the contents o f space and ashamed of his
appearance in subordina t ion t o measurements o f t ime

The ecs t asy mus t be an empty n ame for an illusory

superco n sciousness fro m which all that hu m an intelligence
can apprehend i s withdrawn S chelling s va u nted intuition
o f the Undi fferen t iate is beset by like contradictions
O n the whole it see m s i m possible under the condi t ions
o f hu m an experien ce and u nderstand ing
to connect in
philosophic i m ag ination Innite with nite ; temporal
succession wi t h t h e E ternal N o w It is i m possible under
hu m an conditions for scientic understandi n g to con quer
an In nite which refuses to e n te r a s a rounded O bj ec t into
experience I t i s i m p o ss i b l e to s e e A ll as A ll is visible
at the divin e centre Th e alterna t ives for m an a r e H omo
m ensu r a o r N u ll a m ensu r a
T he for m er is adapted to
his intellectual place in the hierarchy o f existence in t er
mediate between Nescience and O m niscience
,

'

LE C TU RE V
F I NAL
u m mar y

C EP T I C I S M : D AV I D

UM E

IN

precedin g lec t ures w e have passed through various

s t a g es of t ho u g ht regarding m an s nal problem I n t he
rst sta g e w e were in quisitive Wha t sor t of universe is
this in which I n d myself livi ng an d moving an d h avi ng
my b ei n g ? Is t he Universal Power nally good or n ally
evil ? I n what sort o f reality do I nd myself ; and w h a t
is to be t he issue o f the faith ven t ure which without my
leave asked o r given I n d myself o b liged t o m ake in
?
being obli g ed to live
The nex t s t a g e w as assump t ive
I found myself so m eh ow boun d to t ake for gran t ed t h at
consciousness mean s myself ; and m y self t o o percipien t o f
a world ou t sid e o f me ; m oreover th a t t his inner and ou t er
reality is unconditionally dependen t upon t he Universal
Power called God In t he third s t age I was concerned w i th
t h e outside world o r with ma t erialism in its claim to b e
t he only interpretation o f the universal reali t y in t o which
I w as ushered when I be gan to be conscious The limita
t ion led t o the conclusion t hat men are only ephemeral
material organisms co m posed o f m olecules in motion each
organism conscious while the organis m lasts but its sh or t
self conscious life only a pass in g inciden t in t he unive rsal
molecular his t ory which m akes up all t ha t exists T h e
fourth s t age of though t throu g h which w e passed was i n
t r o s p e c t i ve
Here w e found that a universe resolved in t o
m olecular motions was not so nally sa t isfyin g to reason
as it seemed a t rs t ; and tha t instead o f t he percipien t
e go b ein g an issue o f m olecularly constitu ted mova b le

1 06

PHIL OSO P H Y O F TH E I S M

U ni v ers al t o reduce t o u nity t hat triplicity which is dimly pre

S c pt i is m
m ary data o f spontaneous faith
supposed
in
t
he
pri
t h e ed e
e

m
m
Universal
Materialis
Panegoism
Pantheis
each s o
ti
d b
d m
a f r m s are all challenged as i n co
far
true
in
what
it
l ik f
M t r i l heren t expressions o f human experience ; o r because t hey
i m P n
reach
a
verbal
consisten
cy
through
i
n adequate recog
g i sm nd
P nt h i s m n i ti o n o f actual facts in n at u re and in man In t h e
a g es ma t erialist and egois t atheism and e ni p i ri c is m
as well as pantheistic necessi t y reappear in new forms ;
for each so far represents what is real an d each has
indirec t ly contributed to deeper and truer insight It i s
probable t hat for some minds each m ay be found satis
fy i n g in the future as in the past
But each when boldly
t hought o u t leads t o Pyrrhonis m o r t otal doub t

Final
Nescience
doubt
abou
t
everything
and t h e
N in
T t l
is accordin g ly t he next
ental
paralysis
involved
in
t
his
m
S p ti i s m
condi t ion o f mind w e have to enter in t o Is it n o t th e
refutation o f all the three Monist syste m s because it is
t heir inevi t able issue ? An d mu st w e in the end subside
in t o t he impo t ence o f to t al scepticism o r i s there s t ill
ano t her atti t ude possible for man as regards the nal
meaning of h is li f e ?
S ceptical ne g ation m eanti m e succeeds t o the Monis t
I s th n l
p r b l m f system s which after trial we h ave b een ob l iged t o rej ect
h m n
as inadequate an d incoh eren t The in quisi t ive m ood in
l if in
v ry w y which we started would now seem to be frui t less
A
ins l b l
poin t o f in t erroga t ion becomes the sy m bol o f hu m an life
in relation to the ego the ou t side universe and G o d I
cannot t ell wh a t sor t o f universe this m ay b e into which
I have been ushere d Its physical sequences even may all
be untrustworthy and therefore uninterpre t able Passing
appearances m ay o r m ay n ot b e the issue of innumerable
molecules i n m otion : they may or may not be only states
o f t he o n e conscious e o t erms of my changing life : the
g
ou t ward w orld an d t h e co n sciou s self may o r m ay n o t
be only modes of the O ne S ubstance The nal reality is
hid benea t h both t he molecular and the conscious appear
anecs concealed ra t her than re vealed by the m ; for is
n o t t his what the pantheis t ic phase o f thought a b out the
universe in t he end amoun t s to ? I nd no issue o t he r
a

o a

sur

e o

a e

es c e

or

ce

o a

ce

o u

FIN AL SCE PTI C ISM

1 07

than t o t al nescience for abs t r a c t pantheistic reasoning o r

fo r p antheistic feeli n g o f In n ite
If neither reasoned
n o r emotional
pantheism gives an adequ a t e self con
sistent accoun t o f experience an d its i m plica t es i t
leaves m e nally in doubt
Whether there is o r is
n o t m orally trustwor t hy P ower a t t h e centre o f exist
ence n o w appears t o be a ques t ion less capable o f being
brought to an issue than t he ques t ion abou t a plurality
o f inhabi t ed worlds
Whe t her t he Universal Power is
person al seems more indeterminable t han the question
Im
about th e exis t ence o f perso n s in other planets
proved experimen t al apparatus m ay so m e day bring o ne
or m ore o f the plane t s s o wi t hin human experience that
m e n can de t ermine whether o r not it is the scene of
an in t elli g ent popula t ion ; wider experience can never
relieve t h e nal i ncomprehensibility o f t h e innite uni
verse in which men awaken in t o c o n sciousness if it is an
incomprehensibility t ha t is i m posed by t he very c o n s ti tu
tion o f a hu m an knowle d ge of the concrete universe The
supposition is self con t ra d ictory t hat man can reach t he
Divine cen t re of the All s o as to have in nite reali t y
wit h in his intellectual vision and then n d o n t his c o n

dition only w h at the Universal Power i s and w h ether

trustworthy and ours t herefore a trustworthy i n t elli
g ence
Paralysed th ou g h t wi t hdraws the n al problem
altoge t her as t he s u ggestion o f obstinate u nr eec t in g
delusion
T o look at the universe thus i s according to a com m on
expression to look at it agnostically
This agnos t icism
expresses a nal concep t ion o f li f e t h a t h as retur n ed
into fashion in the nineteenth century
When I reached

intellectu al m aturity H u xley tells u s I began to ask

myself whether I w as an atheis t a t heis t o r a pantheist
I found when I pu t this question t o myself th a t the
more I reec t ed the less ready w as the an swer A t last
I came to t he conclusion that I had n either l o t nor part
wi t h any of these denomina t ions ex cep t th e la st The o n e
t hing in which mos t of t hese good people were agreed w a s
t he o ne t hing in which I di ffered from the m They were

h
qui t e sure tha t t hey a d a tt ained a cer t ain Gnosis had
,

A gn o sti

1 08

P H I LOSO PH Y

THEISM

OF

more or less successfully solved t he pro b lem of exis t ence :

while I w as qui t e sure I ha d n o t and h ad a pre t ty strong
convic t ion that t he pro b lem was insoluble
A n d with
Hume and Kan t o n my side I could not t hink myself
presumptuous in holding fas t by t ha t opinion
So I
took t hou g ht and inven t ed wha t I conceived t o b e t he
appropria t e ti t le o f agnosti c I t came into my head as
suggestively antithe t ic to t he gn osti c o f church history
who professe d t o know s o much a b ou t the very t hings

of which I was ignoran t

A g nos t icism is o t herwise
described b y t he inventor o f t he name as a me t hod o f
a tt ainin g knowledge rather than a s t a t e o f i g norance abou t
t he foun dation O f human life an d t he universe
It

is a m e t hod w e are t old t he essence o f which lies in

the application o f a sin g le principle which is t he funda
men t al axiom o f modern scien ce Posi t ively t his prin
c i p l e may b e t hus e xpressed I n mat t ers of t he in t ellec t
follo w your reason as far as i t will take you wi t hou t
re g ard t o any other considera t ion
A nd nega t ively
I n ma tt ers o f t he in t ellec t do n o t pre t end tha t conclu
sions are cer t ain which are no t demons t ra t ed or demon

strable
A g nos t icism accordin g t o t his accoun t is a
t erm in ven t ed t o express d u t iful submission o f b elief to
t he limits imposed by evidence rej ectio n o f all asser
t ions and denials that are inconsis t en t wi t h intellec t ual
in t e g ri t y
I t is di f cult t o s e e how in t ellec t ual in t egri t y can b e
assumed as t he dis tinc t ive m ark of t o t al ag nos t icism
wi t hout qu es t ion b eg g ing I n t he presen t case the very
point in dispute is whe t her a ny asser t ion a b ou t t he
founda t ion an d purpose o f human life i s reasonable Tha t
many unreasonable assumptions an d conclusions posi t ive
and negative a b ou t the sort o f universe we are b orn in t o
its principle o r w an t of principle i t s moral purpose o r
want of purpose have more o r less prevailed is a super
u o u s t ru t h
Bu t i t still remains fo r proof tha t all asser
tions o f thi s sort mus t be unreasonable To assume this
a t t he outse t in a ques t ion b egging denition i s to de t er
mine a ma t ter o f f act n o t by proof but by an ar b i t rary
assump tion
,

A gno s t i
c ism
o me
t im e a
u e t io n
e
in
te m

q s
b gg g
r
.

110

P H IL OSO P H Y O F T H E I S M

wishes o f m en a tes t o f the reality of what they wish

for is t o reverse the method of science and to subs t itu t e
indulgen ce in agreeable an t icipa t ion for in t ellectual i n
sigh t Unexplained human feelings are no t revela t ions
o f God
Modern Agnosticism which kn ows tha t man mus t for
i n
Th
ever

nd
the
founda
t
ion
o f his life an d experience an i n
[is gg solu b le mystery is in curious con t rast with t he certainty
m t f
m i n t ha t w as clai m ed for God by the illustrious spokesmen of
v
i n r nt f
ph i losophy i n the early per i od of modern ph i losoph i cal
(3 d
revival I hope tha t t o refer t o them here is no t an u n
reasonable recognition of authority A ccord i n g to Baco n
n
fB

D s rt s for exa m ple dep t h in philosophy alon e bringeth men s

nd L
k
minds to reli g ion for while the mind o f man looketh upon
second causes scat t ere d it may someti m es rest in t hem
an d g o no further ; but when it beholde t h t he ch ain of
t hem con federate an d linked t oge t her it must needs y

t o Provide n ce and Deity

Then hear Descar t es : With
respe ct to God if I were not preoccupied by prej udices
an d my though t bese t on all sides b y the continual pre
sence o f images of sensible obj ec t s I should know no t hin g
sooner n or m ore easily t han the fac t of God s exis t ence
F o r is th ere any tru t h more clear t han t he exis t ence o f
the S upreme Bein g o r G o d seein g t ha t i t is t o G o d
alone t hat exis t ence necessarily and e t ernally per t ains ?
Bu t although the right conception o f this t ruth has cos t
me mu ch close thinkin g nevertheless n ow I feel no t only
as assured of i t as o f wha t I deem m os t cer t ain b u t I nd
further t hat t he cer t i t ude of all o t her t ru t hs is s o ab s o l
u t el y dependen t on this o n e tha t wi t hou t the knowled g e
o f God it w ould b e impossi b le ever t o know anythin g
F o r if I do no t rs t kno w t ha t there i s a G o d I may have
bee n s o consti t u t ed as t o b e deceived by my facul t ies and
this even in ma tt ers which I apprehend with t he grea t es t
s eeming evidence a nd certi t ude ; especially when I r e c o l
lect tha t I have frequen t ly j udged thin g s t o be t rue
which o t her reasons after wards cons t rained me to re g ard
as wholly false
I n ow clearly see tha t the cer t itu d e
and truth o f all science depends o n knowledge o f God and
o n t hat alone ; s o that be fore I knew God I could have no
,

e sc e

la

or

er r e

o a

re

ac o

e ca

oc

FINA L SC E PT IC ISM

111

proper knowledge o f any t hing

Bu t n o w tha t I know
G o d I have t h e m eans o f acquiring knowled g e o f i n
numerable other matters as well relative t o G o d as t o

corporeal n at u re
Next t ake Locke : We cannot be in
wan t o f a clear proof of G o d as lo ng as w e carry o u r selves
I t is plain t o me w e have a more certain
a bout u s
knowledge o f th e existence of a God than o f anything o u r
senses have n o t immediately discovered to us Nay I
presu m e I m ay say tha t w e m ore certainly know there is
But
a God than t ha t there is anything else withou t u s
though this be the most obvious truth that reason dis
covers and though its e vidence be (if I m istake n ot ) equ a l
t o m athematical certainty yet it requires though t an d
at t ention ; or else we shall be as u n certain and ignorant
o f this as o f other propositions which are in the m selves
S o far Bacon Descartes
c apable of clear de m onstration
H ow
a n d Locke three early leaders o f m odern thought
it t ha t wha t they in t he seven t eenth century
c o m es
re g arded as self eviden t o r as mathematically cer t ain
should in the nine t eenth cen t ury be j udged by S p e c u l at
ing physicis t s to be wholly and fo r ever inco g nisable ?
The his t ory of E uropean t hought in the interval goes A gn ti
i m b l dl y
far to explain the revol u tion t hrough which wha t w as l im s
as the supreme certainty by the intellectual d s nt
a ccepted
mL k
f
r
leaders o f t he seventeenth century has become the s u n d K nt
pre m e uncertainty of physical theorists w h o aspire t o lead w l l
hu m an thought in the n ineteenth Huxley argues that

wi t h Hu m e and Kant the great authorities o f the

eighteenth century presentin g the m selves as advoca t es o f
t he insolubility o f the nal problem o f t h e universe i t
presumptuous in u s to hold fast by t his
c annot be

opinion
He thinks agnos t icism is only a n e w n ame
for the philosoph y o f Hu m e and Kant ; and t ha t their
philosophy h as determined t he limits wi t hin which o u r
knowledge o f t he universe must be con ned Their m e s

sage he reports to b e t hat men can kn ow reality only s o

far as t hey have actual e xperience : without experience
knowledge is on ly empty abstraction E xcep t so far as
outward t hin g s t he ego an d
o u r three primary d ata
G o d are explained in experience n o positive assertions
.

os

c s

c a

e ce

oc

as

as

112

P H IL OSO P H Y O F T H E I S M

regardin g any o f t hem can b e made : our asser t ions mus t

be all negative
Kant is associa t ed wi t h Hume by Huxley as one o f
t wo ori ginal leaders o f ag nosticism
This is on accoun t
of Kant s th eory o f causality and his application of i t to
o ld fashioned na t ural theolo g y
Bu t Kan t s nega t ion of
t heological knowledge as wha t t ranscends understan din g
does n o t n ecessarily m ean practical negation o f t he moral
a nd
religiou s con cep t ion o f t he universe
This would
imply t h a t his t o t al th ou g ht was n o t consis t ent with

itself t hat his secon d Critiqu e w as a vain attempt to

res t ore what h e had destroyed in his rst B ut t he
argu m ents in t h e rs t Cri t ique against a t heological
solution of exis t en ce through p urely ra t ional c o n s t r u c
tion o f o u r sensuou s experience nei t her demons trate
nor disprove G o d ; t hey d o no t foreclose t he practical
argument from man s moral experience in t he second
Cri t ique which con tains t he comple m en t ary i ssu e o f
Kantian criticism Hume n o t Kan t is t he prime leader
It is t h u s formulated by Hume :
o f modern agnosticism
When you go o n e s t ep b eyon d th e mu nd a ne system
o u only excite an inquisitive humour
which
i
t
is
i
m
y

possible ever to satisfy

Bu t Hume sees t ha t t his a g nos
t ic i s m when fully t hough t o u t involves tota l nescience
n o t m erely t heological i g norance
.

T he K
t i an

an

P hil

s ph y
wh l n
gn s t i
o

as a

o e

ot

Pyr

In t ru t h t he nega t ive revolu t ion which was proposed by

Hume
in
his
u ve n i l e
Treatise
of
Human
Nature
i s more
H
bold and thorough t h an t he scienti c a g nosticis m of H ux
s

ley
which
claims
him
as
i
t
s
parent
: it involves t he c o m
f ll y
l
dissolution
of
common
knowledge
and
science
not
e
e
t
h gh
p
t
It issues in the Pyrrhonism which
o f theology alone
leaves men impoten t mo tionless speechless ; or if ex
pressed i n speech it mu s t be speech in t he form o f a
question never in t he form o f a proposition ei t her
a frma t ive o r n egative on any ma t ter whatever The

?
sais
wi
t
h
the
even
balance
as
i
t
s
sym
b
ol
u
e
Q e
j
which Mon t aigne adop t ed t o express t he hopeless uni
ver s al it y of human doubt o r ignorance represen t s all t ha t
Hume foun d in sensuous experience when emp t ie d o f

T he
r h o ni s m o f
u me i s
c i ent i c
a gn o s t i
c ism,
u
t ou
t
ou

1 14

P H I L OS O PH Y O F TH E I S M

all t hese ques t ions and begin t o fan cy m yself in the

m ost deplorable condition ima g inable u tterly deprived

B u t if
o f the u s e of every member an d faculty
ex

perience i n i t s narrowest m eaning when made th e sole

criterion o f reality bro u g h t him t o this pass experien ce
in a wider meani ng incl u ding felt m oral implicates o f

experien ce carried him h e confesses o u t o f his phil

o s o p h i c al melancholy and delirium

I t is indeed i m
possible fo r a hum an being to subside practically int o
Pyrrhonism o r inability to asser t any t hin g abou t any

thin g There i s the secret force in hu m an n ature o f

which Pascal speaks which sustains the weakn ess o f
nite experience a n d understandi ng
The sceptic w h o
declines t o interpret any phenomeno n o r t o make any
exertion because he is n o t omniscient must cease to
live Total scepticism as h as been said can never b e
m ore than an i ntellectu a l amusemen t : i t s only serious
e ffec t consists in exercising acute n ess and i n humbli n g
dogmatism : no hu m an m ind can rest in i t : by virt u ally
making a ll the fou n da t ion s o f reasoning and condu ct
equ ally insecure i t leaves all O pinions in the sam e degree
o f certainty o r probabili t y
relatively to each other in
which t hey were before
Hume himself occasionally
s aw
in the venture o f m oral faith the sor t o f e x t r i c a
tion from universal doub t t ha t i s a v ailable fo r a nite
intelligen ce
It i s instruc t ive t o trace the steps which Hume followed

in his proposed solution of scep tical doubts

It reminds
on e o f Pascal Those w h o pretend t o doubt everythin g are
con founded by natural faith : do g m atis t s w h o claim in
fallibili t y are confounded by scepti cal criticism
The
nite understanding o f man incapable o f comprehe n ding

t he in nity o f exis t ence Hu m e nds n ever theless carried

by custom t o believe in obj ec t s an d events that lie b e
yond the present testi m ony o f our senses and the records

o f o u r memory
In all hu m an reasonings fro m ex p e ri
ence h e sees that a step is taken in fai t h unsupported by
any arg u ment o f the un derstanding ; y et sanctioned by
reason as a s t ep that is reasonable A l though not deter
mined b y ar g ume n t to take the step one is induced by
,

I n all i n
fer en c es
ab o u t t h e
a
ent
o m th e
e ent , a
t e mu t
b e t a en
w ic i s
not a o i
c al c o n

bs
fr
pr s
s p

k
h h
l g

s q
e

u en c e

F IN A L S C E P T IC I S M

115

ano t her principle o f equal wei gh t and au t hori t y

All

inferences from experience are found to be examples o f

tr u s t in the cons t ancy of uniformi t ies t ha t are customary
O n this unproved trus t o r faith he accordin g ly recon
s ti t u t es the experience which his scep t ical criticisms had
We are somehow obl iged he seems to
d iscredited
to pu t moral t rust in the universe when i t ad
s ay
dresses u s in well tried uniformi t ies conden t tha t in t el
l igen c e will no t b e pu t t o confusion by the issue
Now
faith in the laws o f nature is unconscious faith in G o d
o m nipresen t in n a t ure It is in t his moral reliance o n t he
surroundings amids t which w e live and move a n d have o u r
being that men are able to transcend t heir m o m entary per
c e p t i o n s and t o bring into a l a rge o r scien t ic experience
what is n ot actu ally presen t t o their sen ses A ll expec t a t ion
is rooted in faith : w e canno t de m ons t ra t e its presupposi
t ion Withou t faith ven t ure we could no t live ; and in
t he circums t ances o f man t his faith is reasonable unless

i t s absurdity can be demons t ra t ed It is an operation

o f the
soul whic h responds to the fac t o f order in
nature I t is as unavoidable as it is t o feel the passion of
love when w e receive bene ts o r ha t red when we mee t
with inj uries I n all t hese operations alike Hu m e sees

wha t he calls a species of nat u ral instinc t which human

reasoning is una b le either t o produce or to des t roy
Hume even su gg ests a superior faith u nder which A ll i n
f
faith in n a t ural law arises in the minds of men This g
if i gght
faith he describes as a feeling o f t rust in na t ure which m t t rs f
can be understood only by o u r bei ng conscious of it
Were w e to at t empt a de nitio n o f this belief o r fai th p i
w e should perh aps nd it an i m possible task ; in t h e same
a
g
s?
g
manner as if we sh ould endeavour to dene t he feeling o f w rth i ness
) ; t
o
r
cold
the passion of a n g er to a creature w h o never had
1
I h
any experience o f t hese senti m ents E very man is every P lt if
moment conscious o f the sentime n t represented by i t I t
i s that act o f t he mind which renders reali t ies o r what is
taken fo r reali t y more present t o u s than ctions causes
them t o we igh more in th e t hought and gives them a
superior inuence o n t he passions and i m agination B e
lief consis t s n o t in the peculiar nature o r order of ideas
.

sc e

ce

ex

r es s o

sa

116

PHIL OSO P H Y O F TH E I S M

but in t he m ann er o f t heir concep t ion an d in their

peculiar feeli n g t o t he mind I t is impossible perfectly
We can g o no fur t her than
t o explain t his feelin g
assert th at b elief in reali t y is some t hing s o fel t by
t he mind as to dis t in g uish ideas o f t h e j ud g ment from
m ere c t ions o f t he imagina t ion
I t gives them wei gh t
and inu ence ; en forces them in t he mind an d renders

t hem t he g overni ng principles of our actions

S o i t is
t ha t fai t h in t he di vin e t rus t wor t hiness o f the universe
is an implica t e of t he assuran ce tha t real even t s o u t
side o u r fancies follow o n e ano t her in s t ead y b r d er
The pas t prevalence o f n a t ural order awakens faith in
t he con t inuance o f na t ural order th a t is t o s ay in t he
reasona b leness o r interpre t a b ility of na t ure But wha t
ever the occasion o f t he rise o f this fai t h m ay b e t he

ma tt er of chief con cern is

t ha t t he faith d oes n a tu r
and t ha t t h e expec t a tion which it involves
a lly a r i se
nds a response in wha t happens in natu re The uni
verse is (s o far ) comprehended when i t is foun d in fac t
t o correspond to t he previsive j udgmen t s o f man : m an
an d his universe exis t in an es t ablished in t elligible har
mony
I s not t his in t erpre t a b ili ty o f n a t ure ano t her

expression for its innate divinity its nal superna t ural

n ess ? I t is t h e ini t ial ven t ure o f dependence o n the
Universal Power herein n o lon g er unknown bu t s o f ar
th u s r evea led in a real revelation of what in i t s
a nd
divine innity passes knowled g e
O ne can almos t rea d
t his wi t hin t he lines even in Hume

T h ey p
In t h e correspondence tha t appears b etween t his
u pp o s e
inevitable
faith
o r trus t in na t ural order an d the issues o f
h
y

hg
ivigi t h at order Hum e sees a k i nd of pre es t abl i shed har

m
ony
I
t
is
a
harmony
b
etween
n
ature
an
d
o u r ideas
th
gh t s
t ho u gh t he powers and forces b y which the universe
an d t h
s f is g overned be o t herwise wholly unknown to u s yet S O
o
n t r ;
far o u r though t s and concep t ions may proceed in t he same
th t
i nt l
t
rain
wi
t
h
na
t
ure
Cu s tom is the law un der which this
i)
f
Eigi ci ; correspondence has been e ffected Had no t t he presence
i ti c
of an obj ec t ex ci ted in u s t he idea o f t he obj ects com
gii
m o n l y conj oined wi t h i t in n ature all human kno wledge
mus t have b een limited t o the narrow sphere of our
,

re

l l
r

e i

3)

ou r

ou

ur

a u

so

e 0

SC e

118

PHIL OS O PH Y

TH E I S M

OF

his friends and which Henry Mackenzie h as pa t he t ically

illus t ra t ed in t he story o f La Roche was uni t ed to a
t emperamen t t o which religious emo t ion w as by his o w n
s
e m ti n
account
forei
g
n
Warm
in
friendship
he
w a s indi fferent
i r ti n l
in religion with an inve t erate dislike t o every sort
of en t husiasm founded o n the narrow rationalism o f a
philosophy measured by sense We s ee t his in his O b

n
to
adora
t
ion
and
prayer
an
d
t
every
t
hin
g
w
e
i
o
t
o
s
ec
j
commonly call reli g ion except th e practice o f m orali t y
and t he assen t o f th e unders t andi n g t o t he proposition
t ha t G od exi s ts
I t m us t be ackn owledged he adds
t hat n a t ure h as g iven u s a s t rong passion o f ad m iration
fo r whateve r is exce l len t and tha t the Dei t y possesses
t hese at t ributes in t he highest perfec t ion ; and yet I
asser t t ha t God is n ot t he n a t ural obj ect of any passion
He is n o o bj ect ei t her o f the senses o r
o r a ffec t ion
imagina t ion and very li tt le o f the understandin g ; wi t h
A nd
o u t which i t is impossible t o excite any a ffec t ion
indeed I am afraid t ha t all en t husiasts m i ghtily deceive
t hemselves Hope an d fear perhaps a g i t ate t heir breas t s
wh en t h ey t hink o f t h e D eity ; o r they degrade h i m in t o
a resemblance wi t h t hemselves an d b y that means render
him more co m preh e nsible S uch an a ffec t ion canno t be
require d o f any man as his du t y Neither t he tur b ulent
passions n o r t he calm a ffec t ion s can op era t e with ou t the
assistance o f t he senses an d imag ina t ion ; or a t least a
more comple t e knowledge o f t he obj ect t han we have o f
t he Deity I n mos t men t his is t he case ; and a na tural

inrmity can never be a crime

This recogni t ion o f n atural inrmi t y as n on moral is

H m s
d i f lt y a sor t o f taci t acknowledgmen t tha t th e g round o f moral
b t
responsi b ili t y lies in supernatural freedom But apart
t h ei s m
from t his o f which m ore af t erwards t his ar g umen t for

t he impossibility o f religious emo t ion in m os t m en i s

in t erestin g when t aken in connec t ion wi t h the sympa t hy
which Hume avows fo r t he posi t ion o f Clean t hes o n e of
t he t hree in t erlocu t ors in the Dialogues on Natural
Reli g ion
It is C lean t hes who t akes t he p art o f reason
in g himself in t o belief in an omnipoten t and all wise God
as t he supreme prin ciple in exis t ence by an in d uc t ion
Hum e s
r eas o n fo
r egar di ng
r el igi o s

cu

ou

FIN A L S C E P T I C I S M

119

from hu m an experience of order and m echanism in th e

world
T o C lean t hes
the m os t a g reeable reection
which it is possible for human i m agination to suggest is
that of genuine theis m ; which represents men as the
workmanship o f a Being perfectly good wise and power
fu l w h o having i mplant e d in us i mm easurable desires o f
good will prolong ou r existence to all eterni t y i n order to
satisfy these desires
Hum e elsewhere expresses sym
pathy wit h this conclusion co m bined wi t h so m e hesita
tion t o receive it as tr u th o n accoun t o f the absence o f

adequa t e veri cation

I could wish he re m arks in o n e
o f his letters
I co u ld wish tha t C l e an th e s s ar g ument
could be s o analysed as to be rende red quite for m al and
regular T h e p r ope n sity o f the m ind tow ards i t u n less
,

th a t p r op ens i ty w er e

s tr o n

as

a n d u n i ver s a l

th a t to

as

will s t ill I a m a fraid be esteemed as

T i s here I wish for your assist
suspiciou s fou n d a tion
ance : w e m ust endeavo u r to pro v e that this propensity
is so m e w hat di fferen t fro m our inclination to nd o u r
o w n g ures in the clouds
o u r faces in the moon
our
passions and sentiments even in inani m ate m atter F o r
these last may and o u ght to be controlled and can
never be legi t imate ground of assent o r founda t ions o f
reasoni n g

The legiti m acy of an extension o f experience which

recognises in it the m oral a n d r e l igi o u s pres u pposi t ions b y
wh i ch i t i s co n st i tuted i s i nvolved i n the i ssue W i th
modern ag n os t icis m and it is interesting to nd this face
to face with Hume It is di fc u lt to deter m ine what his
nal opinion w a s if indeed he had a settled O pinion o r
how far below t he thin surface o f sense h e m eant to go
T hat Intell igence is supre m e in the universe however
little this Intelligence can be an obj ect of human senti

ment w as so m eti m es strongly maint ained by h i m

The
whole fra m e o f n ature he asser t s in his Natural His

tory o f Religion
bespeaks an in t elligen t A u t hor ; and
n o rational inquirer can after serious reection suspend
his belief fo r a moment with re g ard to the pri m ary
principles o f ge nuine theis m
Perhaps the key may
be found in a remark he made to h i s friend Boyle
b eli eve i n

ou r s en s es

T h e i mit

r d in g
H u me

ac c o

50

1 20

P H IL OSO P H Y O F T H E I S M

who t old h i m i t w as repor t e d t ha t h e had t hrown O ff

t he principles of reli g ion

To which t he g ood D avi d

replied : Though I throw o u t my specula t ion s to en t er

t ain the learn ed and me t aphysical world ye t I d o no t
think s o di fferen t l y from the res t o f t he world as you
ima g in e
Bu t t his abou t Hu me personally i s by the
way I re t urn t o a g nosticism
The scien t ic agnos ti c is ready to t ake the induc t ive

leap in t he dark with fai t h in a natural order assumed

to b e present i n h i s sense surround i ngs : the leap i s
essentially an act of faith n o t t he conclusion of a loC ical
reason i n g emp t i ed of all t rus t an d sen se o f mystery
I s h e n o t in like manner required u nder pressure of a
spi ri t ual fai th i nvolved i n i deal m an but wh i ch remai ns
dormant in m any t o accep t as reasonable tha t deeper i n
t e r p r e t ati o n o f the universe which sees in i t t he hyper
physical m anifes t a t ion o f moral purpose ? That to do s o

is fallacious because i t su b stitutes fai t h for reasonin g

cannot p er se b e pleaded in arres t o f this fur t her leap in
imperfec t divine ligh t For every s t ep in the physical
in t erpre t a t ion o f t he world equally involves t he s u b s ti t u
t ion o f indemon s t ra b le tr u st fo r complete i nsigh t B oasted
ind u c t ive verication in n a t ural scien ce is n ally an act of
fai t h no t of reasoning : we canno t demons t rate tha t what
has happened a million t imes mu s t happen again even
under wha t may seem to us similar con dition s
The
incoherent a g nosticism t ha t re t ains ph y sical s cience is
no t really a pro t est again s t faith ; i t is only an arres t of
fai t h at the point a t which fai t h advances from a narrower
to a larger interpre t a t ion o f life an d t h e universe Is t he
arres t o f faith a t th i s p oi n t j ustied by reason ? I mus t
try to answer t his ques t ion in wh a t follows in which
the reli g ious concep tion o f t he universe gradually devel
oped i n Theistic Fai t h is o ffered instead of ei t her Monis t
speculation o r A g nos t ic despair as the nal philosophy
for man
.

9)

I s th e re

l l gl o u s

l eap in
t h e d ar k

l ess m t i o n
a1 t an t h e

l eap i n

t h d a
i
wh i ch m u s t
b e t ak en i n
'

3 323;
0

LECTURE I
G OD LATENT

IN

N AT U RE

W E have found David Hume e merging o u t of universal D v i d

doubt n o t by re a soning but through what i m plies faith
in nal harmo ny between human nature and the succes s t b l is h d
S ion O f events in ex t ernal nature Without faith in t his gy
hu m an beings could not a dj u st m eans to ends or u s e their x t rn l
nd
natural powers in procuri ng any good o r avoidi ng any
evil This harmony even Hume seems to s ay wears the n t r
aspec t o f what according to analogies we S hould call a
wise arrangement
The course o f n a t ure o r the tem
poral succession in t he midst o f which we n d ourselves
and in which w e take o u r respec t ive parts looks s o far
like constan t adapt ation to man
May we refer t his harmonious correlation between H w t o
t he ma t erial world and the mind of man to persisting $ 313
p u rpose i n t he Universal Power ? A nd if s o must w e m ny
also suppose t hat t he natural evolu tion with its provi
dential order had a n absolute be g inning in time ? Have
w e evidence t hat t here ever w a s a period in which there

was n o cosmos no m oral agen t s no procedure of na t ural

evolu tion including cycles o f in t e g ra tion and dissolution ?
Mus t we believe that when there w as n o cosmos the
Providen t ial Power existed u nrevealed in any form o f
natural m anifes t ation ; and that at a particular date
orderly nature w as ushered into existence b y a sudden
creative act ? A nd if there h as ever been a time in
which there wa s neither cosmical cons t ruc t ion nor cos
mical dissolu t ion going on as now did there then exis t
a

a u

1 24

P H IL OSO P H Y O F T H E I S M

t h e s t u ff o r m a t erial ou t of which t he orderin g and d esign

ing Power after w ards fashioned the cosmos and s e t i t s

evolutions agoing mat t er charged wi t h p owers which

enable the sequ ences and their cycles an d crises to persis t

?
m
se
wi
t
hou
t
in
t
erference
O
r
was
the
cos
os
er
p
within which men have their experience ori g ina t ed wi t h
o u t pre existin g m a t erial in primordial chaos coming a o

cording t o t he t heolo g ical formula o u t o f no t hing no t

Y e t a g ain is t here a more reason
o u t of chao t ic m ateria l
a b le supposi t ion t han either o f t hese t w o namely tha t
cosmical cons t ruc t ion an d disin t e g ra t ion has b een goin g o n

a
a lw ys
t ha t it is an u nb eginning succession and may be
expected t o b e endless
May n o t t he Univ erse in which
I now nd myself in the deepes t interpre t a t ion which I
can pu t u pon my experience be j us t t his un b e g innin g
and unendin g succession o f orderly and t herefore in t er
r e t ab l e cha n ges
amids
t
which
I
am
livin
g
and
m
ovin
g
p
an d having my b ein g ? May n o t t his e t ernal evolu t ion
b e the fact ?
O n f it h
Q ues t ions o f t his sor t charged wi t h inni t y the a g nos t ic
n a t uralis t pu t s aside as unanswerable and i m prac t ical
Engag d He does s o o n the g rou n d t ha t answers t o the m mus t b e
th r f ith
t d
answers tha t come from a fai t h which mu s t be irra t ional
Ey gg b ecause i t d oes n o t admi t of b ein g verie d by visible
s i nti
facts ; whereas o n t he con t rary answers t o questions
gn s ti c
a b ou t t he visible causes o f even t s wi th i n the natural evo l u
t ion are accepted in a fai t h t ha t i s enligh t ened and made
precise b y t his sor t of verica t ion Bu t i f undemons t ra b le
faith in n atural order is never t heless reasonable why
mu s t t eleological in t erpre t ation o f n a t ure b e rej ected
o n t h e ground t ha t i ts only suppor t is undemonstrable
fai t h ? The scien t ic trus t in cosmical order o n which
all induc t ive verica t ion depen d s canno t i t self be proved
by experience b ecause n o scientic interpre t ation of ex
r
i
n
e
e
c
e
is
possi
b
le
u
nless
t
his
faith
is
presupposed
wi
t
h
p
o u t proof
Reli g ious t rus t in providen t ial ac t ivi ty for
ever a t work t hrou g hou t the evolvin g universe as
well as in the s m all por t ion o f i t which for m s human
experience seems to s t and so far o n t he same foo t ing
I f i t i s reasonable t o ass u me cons t an t na t ural or d er as
,

c e

c e

1 26

PHIL OSO P H Y O F T H E I S M

series of ordered evolu t ions an d dissolutions successive

cycles o r economies i n which t he existing m a t erial has

been undergoing periodic na t ural revolu t ions ; and t ha t
human beings are living here an d n o w in o n e o f t hese
cycles which had i ts na t ural beginni n g in a remo t e pas t
and is destined na t urally t o pass into ano t h er economy
in a remote fu t u re ? May no t t his eternal natural suc
cession be essen t ially divine an d b e conceived o f as
t he unbeginning and unending revela t ion o f constant i n
t en din g Will ? Is n ot this a more reasonable hypo t hesis
than t ha t o f sudden creation which seems t o mean that
t he universe or the n a t ural course o f evolu t io n w as once
n o n e x istent and e n t ered into exis t ence as t he e ffect o f
the Will o f a G o d existin g an t ecedently in un b eginning
soli t ude ? Moreover if the universe mus t b e refunded
a t a particular period in t o t he Universal Power does no t
t his logic deman d an an t eceden t cause o f t h e solitary
Mind thus inferred only un der t he ordinary pos t ulate o f
na t ural causa t ion ?
A ques t ion like t his w as raised as we s aw by Hume
Human persons so far as natural science and his t ory
inform u s made t heir appearance in the u niverse at a

compara t ively late date i n rude forms o f hu m an life o n

t his planet This w e are told was preceded by ages o f
sentien t organisms an d b efore t ha t t here was only i n
sen t ient ma t ter I t is t herefore wi t h a ma ter i a l wor ld

t o d o in th e earlier stages i f we
on ly tha t w e have
con ne o u r regard t o the cosmical economy o f which
man h as authenti c records ei t h er docu m en t ary o r in
the form o f geolo g ical and as t ron omical phenomena
Hu m e sug g es t s t h at for augh t w e can know a p r i or i
mat t er may originally contain within itself t he spring
of order as probably as min d does ; and tha t there i s
n o more di fculty in conceivin g tha t t he several elemen t s
or molecules o f matter m ay in this way assume the mos t
exquisi t e construction than to conceive t ha t ideas in a
supposed E ternal Mind have fallen into t he arrange
men t which forms the succession of ideas that consti t u t e
t he min d o f G o d I f the material world was really caused
b y a pre exis t in g m en t al world o r Et ernal Mind t his
,

A Qu es t i o n

Hu m e

G O D L AT E N T

IN

N A T U RE

1 27

men t al world must in i ts t urn rise o u t o f a still preceding

It were bet t er
c ause ; and so o n re gressively withou t end
therefore the sceptic sug g ests never t o look beyond the
perceived material world an d to suppose only its natural
succession o f unbeginning an d u nending ch anges
By
supposing Matter to con t ain t he principle o f order within
itself we really assert i t to be God ; a n d t he sooner
w e arrive a t that Divin e Being s o much t he bet t er
A
m ental world o r universe o f Mind re q uires a preceding
or universe o f
c au se as much as d oe s a material world
V isible and tangible obj ec t s S o that if merely n atural
o r c a used causality is taken as the on l y real causa t ion ;
a n d i f this requires u s to presup ose Mi n d as the natural
p
c ause o f the material w orld ; the sa m e principle o f natural
c aus a lity see m s t o require some antecede n t t o account fo r
t he ide a s th a t cons t itute Mind
I n reply i t h as been s u ggested t hat there i s evidence A l l g d

p
r
f
in his t ory that the universe w a s created o u t of nothing t h t th e
a t a particular t ime but th ere is n o such evidence tha t its
sm s
h d
b
This argumen t is g inning
c reating Mind had also a beginni n g
pressed by Dr C hal m ers in his interesti ng and eloquent

book o n Natural Theology

The precise d i fference b e

tween the t wo he says

is t hat w e h a ve p r oof o f a
c ommencemen t to o u r present m a ter i a l economy but w e
have n o p r oof o f at co m mencement to the menta l economy
t h e Divine Mind which preceded it
There is room
fo r the question H o w came the m a ter i a l system o f thin g s
i n to i t s present order ? because w e h ave reason t o b e
lieve that i t h as n o t subsisted in that order fro m eterni t y
There is n o such roo m fo r the question W h y migh t n o t
the m aterial h ave fallen in t o its present order o f itself
as well as the mental order which is conceived to have
g one before it in t he form o f a Divine Mind ? For w e
have n o reason t o believe that this mental eco n o m y
ever w as o t herwise t han i t n o w i s T he l atter question
presumes that t he mental did begin to enter into order
o f itself
or
which i s th e same thing that G o d h ad a
com m en ceme n t In the m aterial economy w e have the
vestiges before o u r eyes o f i ts havi ng h ad an origin
o r in o t her words
o f i ts being a consequen t ; and
.

oo

co

1 28

PHIL OS O PH Y O F T H E I S M

have fur t hermore the experience th a t in every ins t ance

which comes under f u ll observation o f a similar c o n se
quent t ha t is o f a consequen t which involves as the
mundane order of t hings does s o amply t he adap tation

of par t s t o an end th e anteceden t w as a purposing mind

which descried t he end and devised t h e mean s for i t s
accomplishment We migh t n ot have been called u pon
t o m ake even a single ascen t in t he pa t h o f causa t ion had
t he world s t ood forth t o view in the charac t er or aspec t
o f i mm u ta b i li ty
But ins t ead o f this bo t h history an d
o b servation of na t ure t ell o f a denite commencement t o
t he present order ; an d w e t herefore j us t follow the ligh t s
o f experience when we move upward from t he world t o
an in t elli g ent min d t ha t ordained i t It is this which
carries us b ackward from t he worl d t o God ; an d t he
reason wh y w e do no t con t inue the re t rogression b eyond

G od is t ha t w e have no t me t wi t h an indica t ion t hat He

has had a commencemen t I n t he one case there is a
b eginning o f t he presen t m a t er i al sys t em forced upon o u r
convic t ions b y evidence I n t he other case t he case of
t he anteceden t Mind there is n o such b eginning forced
upon o u r convic t ion s b y experience We h ave therefore
ample reason for regardin g t he world as a posterior t erm
and seeking af t er i ts an t eceden t Bu t we h ave no such
reason fo r t rea t ing this an t eceden t as also a posterior t erm
and seeking fo r i ts prior t erm in a higher anteceden t The
o n e w e s ee t o be a changeable and a recen t world
The
o t her for aught we know may be an un changeable an d
everlas t in g G o d The o n e order t he material we know no t
to h ave been from everlas t in g
The o t her t he men t al
which by all experience and analogy mus t have preceded
t he ma t erial bears no symptoms which we can discover
o f i t s ever havin g required any remo t er economy t o call

i t in t o bein g
A ct s
What
is
t
hus
supposed
t
o
b
e
proved
b
y
his
t
orical
tr p h
m y i t s l f records con t ained in Hebre w and o t her li t era t ures an d
n t
b
b
y
physical
vestiges
recognised
in
geolo
g
y
seems
to
b
e
r ls
q n
only t his t ha t t he metamorphoses which this plane t of
d
n t
ours
h
as passed throu g h in cl u de wha t are called ca ta s
d n r
I t is assumed m oreover t ha t t hese ca t as t rophes
tr op h es
t i on
,

a a

e a

c o,

ue

a su
c

ea

130

P H I L OSO PH Y O F TH E I S M

th e

consider a tion o f change the convic t ion tha t na t u ral

sequence m ust b e always dependen t upon Power t hat is

independen t the Universal Power ? T his preconviction

does n o t res t o n an y evidence which his t ory o r external
n a t ure might o ffer in re g ard to t he b egin ni ngn es s o r
the unbeginningness o f existi n g natural order That order
may be unbeginnin g and yet throughout an d fo r ever
dependen t an eternally dependen t cosmos an eternally
divine evolution an endless progressive crea t io n
Again The progress o f scientic interpreta t ion is con
ti n u all y ex t ending o u r informa t ion about wha t the n a t ural
sequences are S cien t ic in quiry discovers caused causes
which can be presented t o t he senses and represented in
sensuou s imagina t ion I t thus lls gaps in the physical
succession that were before conceived t o be b ridged over
b y divine a g ency which w as dogmatically opposed to

t he causes tha t alone concern physical science and

historical research
The continuity o f na t ural change
beco m es less and less in t errupted by g aps in proportion
as science succeeds in unravelling the intricate web o f
na t ural causation : with each advance t he need is lessened

for in t erpola t in g divine interference to bridge over the

interval Bu t under an enlarged theological conception
of na t ure wha t forbids t he history o f this planet t hrough
all i ts changes inorganic and organic including t he e vo l u
tion of its human organisms being read throu g hou t in
terms o f natural causation ? What forbids t hat if no t in
t he future pro g ress o f discovery yet t o the mind s eye o f
hi g her intelli g ence t he endless natural ye t la t ently divine
procession m ay arra ng e i t self in an un b roken sys t em
o f caused causes in which every change whet her in the
his t ory o f extended things o r in the h is t ory o f conscious
lives has its physical correlative ? This Would be the
Universe conceived exhaus t ively in t erms o f natural
science
Tru e as far as it goes this scien t ic reading
exclusively in t erms o f caused causali t y is af t er all i n
adequate to t he demands of the higher h om o mens u r a

criterion which is the di vi n a mensu r a criterion hu m an

ised ; it is no t eve n man s complete answer to his nal
question
We need to deepen t his mechanical inter
,

p ss

The o i
b i lit y o f
th e
ea i n
u n b egin
an d
nin
u n e n in
io n
uc ce
o f c o mi c
c an e i n
te m o f
n at u a
c a u at i o n ,
oe not

r d g

d g
s
ss
s
h g s
r s
r l
s
d s
s u p ers e d e
G od

GO D L A T E N T

N ATU R E

IN

131

of

na
t
ure
by
a
teleological
in
t
erpre
t
a
t
ion
if
p
even in an unbeginning and unending na t ural world w e
a r e living in what is nally a divine
o r superna t ural
universe
T he natural history o f t he material world i s truly a T h
f
history of natural antecedents which are m e t ap h orically
called ag en ts
They are to us only s i gns o f their s o nl y
called e ff ects signs through which the U niversal Power
is con t inually presenting order meani n g and adaptations s q n s
to conscious persons w h o have appeared o n this planet in
the course o f its natural evolution S ensible si g ns not t nt
nt
g
operative causes make up t he visible world Nature is a gi igg
gi
divine sense sy m bolis m adapted t o the u s e of m an With p t h l
o u t n atural causes t here could b e no h u m anly calc u lable
and more o r less con trollable course o f events B u t i f
really to explain an event be to assign i t s origin and nal
cause na t ural science never explains any t hing ; its pro
vince is only t o discover t he divinely established custom
followed in t he na t ural succession
Natural causat i on therefore need no t supersede Divine N t r l
Providence always la t ent in t he na t ural universe The
discovery o f a physical cause is only the discovery o f s mp t i n
1
an addit ional illustration o f the universal fact t hat w e 333335
are having o u r being in an interpre t able world ; which w h i h w
al though by us interpreted only i n part yet appeals to a
hu m an intelligence tha t p a r ti cip a tes in the omnipresent p h y s i ll y
t
p
in t elli g ence This presupposes microcos m ic and m acro a
g
l
cosmic reason the o n e in man the other in t he universe
The complex order o f n ature is G o d continually speaking
to us T he elaborate web weaved accordin g to laws of
natural connec t i on is a means t o t he end o f its being a
revela t ion t o u s o f each o t her and of God Livin g in and
throug h this order we are living in and through perpetual
ac t ive providence ; in a process which may be withou t b e

ginning and may persis t wi t hout end at once na t ural

and supernatural outward na t ure signican t o f the super

na t ure wi t h which i t i s ani m ated S o far pantheis m ex
p ands a narro w t heism T he idea o f cons t ant divi ne or
orderly determina t ion o f universal na t ure is a contribu t ion

t o tru t h which t heism receives from pan t heism

Men
r et a ti o n

ue

ce

s a

ar o

re a

a u

ca

l cer

re

'

132

P H I LO SO P H Y

TH E I S M

OF

says S pinoza have been wont t o call t ha t only whereof

t h e natural cause i s unknown the work of God
For
people in general t hink tha t the p ower o r providence of
God is then mos t plainly manifes t ed when t hey perceive
some thin g t o happen in t he course of na t ure which is
unco m mon
An d in n o way do t hey think t ha t the
existence o f G o d m ay be more clearly proved t han from
this t ha t external na t ure do t h n ot keep her order
Wherefore they deem tha t all t hose s et aside G o d who
explain even t s by n a t ural causes o r w h o t ry t o nd t he
condi t ions on which even t s n aturally depend
F o r they
suppose tha t G o d is doin g no t hin g as lon g as na t ure is
m oving o n in t he accus t omed order ; and on the other
hand that t he powers o f na t ure and natural causes are
idle whenever G o d is ac t ing by in t erference with nature
They imagine t herefore t wo powers dis t inc t fro m each
o t her t o wi t the power of God and the p owers o f n atural
t h i n g s ; which last t hey suppose t o have been a t rst
determined b y G od o r as m ost nowadays express them
selves to have been created by Him
Bu t what they
mean by n a tu r e and wh at by G od t hey know not ; except
t h a t they suppose the power of God to be a sor t of arbi
t r ar y re g al government and tha t they a tt ribu t e a m ec h a ni
cal force all its own t o na t ure The common herd t here
fore call u nusual works o f na t ure miracles o r works of
God ; and partly o u t o f devo t ion partly o u t o f O pposi tion
t o science th ey even wish t o remain i g norant o f t he
na t u ral causes of events an d deli g h t t o hear o f t hin g s
w hich they are unable to in t erpre t scientically and ar e
t herefore m ost ap t t o adore
The question at t he heart o f this is Whether wh a t ar e
called natural causes should o t herwise t han metaphorically
b e called ca u ses The point t o b e kept in View is that
physical causa t ion with t he alleged equivalence between
i ts e ffec t s and i ts cau ses presents only a sys t em o f inter
r e t ab l e signs
which
because
orderly
i
prac
t
ically
t
he
s
p
lan g uage of Divine Providen ce Na t ural science unfold s
t he cons t an t sequen ces in detail and usefully advances
o u r interpre t a t ion o f o u r surroundings ; each applicable
scien t ic discovery is an illus t ra t ion of i t s u t ility T h e
,

D oes

r l

n at u a

s
ex pl i n
n yt h in g
n ll y

c au at i o n
a

1 34

PHIL OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

n ec t e d

wi t h every o t her in t he pas t an d in t he dis t an t ;

S o th a t comple t e knowledge unmys t erious knowled g e
possible on l y to omniscience A ccord
o f a nyth i ng is
i ngl y an un condi t io n al cer t ain t y or absolu t e kn owle dge
of all t he na t ural ca u ses an d all t he e nds o f t he t hi n gs
presen t ed in experience is unat t ainable Y e t hum an life
rests o n t he fai t h t ha t a working in t elligence o n o u r par t
o f t he In t elli g ence that i s operative in n ature i s within

o u r reach
t hat in t his interco u rse with the Intell e c t t h at
is laten t in nature human in t ellect n eed n ot b e pu t to con
fusion b y nature in the en d When w e try t o interpre t
na t ure as a sym b olism w e of t en nd o u r hypothetical
in t erpre t ations veried by the even t ; althou g h there is
for u s n o de m o n s t rable cer t ain ty t hat with innu m erable
unknown powers in exis t ence wha t no w seems veried
will be u ndis t urbed This implies nal t rus t in harmony
b e t ween t he course of n ature and t he t h o u g h t o f man
which a s w e s aw w as no t foreign even to Hume Th e
phy sical rela t ions o f thi ngs presen t ed t o o u r senses are
t reated in o u r scien t ic interpre t ations as intelli g ible l an
g u age Tha t this n atural la n guage can in so m e measure be
in t erpre t ed b y man t he gradual growth o f man s science
of n ature is ma t ter o f f act proof May w e n ot t herefore
b elieve that in o u r surroun di n g universe w e are con t inu
ally in t he presence o f Providential Power t hat is uni
ve rs all y an d e t ernally revealing i t self in t he articulate
language o f natural causes
Are we n o t when in presence
o f external n ature in a condi t ion which m ay be compared
t o t ha t in which w e are when in presen ce of a human
bei ng wh o i s speaki n g t o us o r employi n g s ig ns that
enable u s t o t hink his t ho u gh t s ? O r d er and ends in the
n a t ural econ omy in t o which w e en t er a t bir t h may be
legi timately t aken as the visible expression o f a Power
which per h aps eternally uses Mat t er fo r self revela t ion
t o persons even as m en u s e their bodily organs i n com
mu n ic a ti ng with o n e an other b u t with this S ig n al di ffer
ence that the na t ural succession as well as the Power at
work in and through it m ay b e unbeginning an d unendi n g
w hile th e words o f m e n are t ransitory con ventional signs
The nally spiri t u al in t erpre t ation of all na t ural causation
,

LA T E N T

GO D

IN

NA T URE

135

is equally valid o r a t leas t e qu ally incapable o f dis p roof

however co m plex t he nat u ral links m ay be and w h a t eve r
obstacles may thus be o ffered to s c ienti c discovery
If natural caus a t ion is all ul t i m a t ely divine no increase
in o u r physical knowledge of the special ca u ses o r laws
which consti t ute the visible succession can dissolve th e
spiritual signicance th at is presen t in each caused cause
and in the W hole
The very co m plexi t y o f the w eb of natural causa t io n T h m
l i ty f
p
which man n d s that he is able only with di f culty to t h s m s
unravel scie n ti cally may perh aps itself be regarded as n d n
n t d i f
q

m
an exa ple of adapta t ion o f ends to m eans when t his l ti
d
co m plexity is considered in its relation to m an
The
t mind
in tricate constitu t ion o f the cos m os seems to be t ted by n d h r
t r in
i t s elaborateness for educa t i ng human in t elligence and
provides the moral discipline i nvolved in painf u l m astery
o f the scienti c secrets o f nat u re
It may even suggest
with m ore emphasis t han a si m pler consti t ution t he con
stant presence o f A ctive Reason ; and in a w ay apt to
indu ce reveren t ial faith o r adora t ion when the n a t ural
language costs time an d labour to nd its m eanin o r
when it is physically interpre t able only tentatively and
at last only to a s m all ex t en t chiey for t he opera t ive
purposes and increase of social happi n ess
The basis o f human life an d experience is found in t he T h e r di
n l f
t
faith that the evolving universe m u s t b e ch arged with per f
i
fe c tly good me ani n g an d purpose
This does n ot depend th t t h
n i v rs
o n the tra n scendent alter n a t ive o f whether the natural
i nt w h i h
order with i ts di vine m eanings and a daptations had an w w k
t b ir th i
absolute begi n ning or i s on the contrary an u n b egin s mi n t
ning and unending revelation o f o m nipotent goodness h ti
n t wh n
E ither w ay w e are livi n g a n d moving and having o u r wh th r
being in t h e m idst o f an intelligible natural reve l ation i t v r b
o u t o f which hu m an sciences gradually cons t ruct them
g n t b
selves A s t he relations o f natural causality are i nt el li
i
l
b
e while they are independen t of the hu m an investi
g
gators t rue science o f nature S O far from contradicting
the supposition that man entered at birth in t o an esse n
t i ally intelligible o r divine u niverse proceeds throughout
all its inquiries experiments and veri cations upon this
,

e co

ex

e co

co

se

ue

cu

es , e

u ca e

ac e

g
D

ca

ac

or u s

s,

e a

c,

co

ao

or

136

P H I L OSO PH Y O F TH E I S M

tacit assu m p t ion as its ul t imate and indispensable work

ing hypothesis If w e are t o for m any conception o f t he
Universal Power i t must be the conception o f Power t hat
The
i s unconscious o r else of Po wer tha t is intelligent
alternatives are a m aterial or a spiritual con cep t ion of the
Power nally at work in na t ure with which man is i n
vi t e d to c o operate by ad a ptin g na t ur a l sequences to his
o wn ends
V i n ci tu r p a r en d o
I m ay be asked whe t her there is hu m an need or room
Th n d
wh i h im
Can
man
fo r determinin g between t hose altern a tives
p ls to
n
t h r proceed further than practically to recognise t h a t in fact
f th s
1 he is living in a physically interpretable u n iverse
No w I
t n ti v
do not nd that I am arrested a t this point F o r I d o
i ns t d f
r s ting i n nd t ha t W hat are called natural causes s o far as my
th f t
r
n
e
i
r
w
n
i
h
i
t
h
o
t
knowledge
carries
me
are
not
causes
th t w
g
s m h w I nd no evidence t hat m at t er can originate chan g e or
nd

m
even
t
hat
t
he
ter
agent
is
intelligible
until
one
s lv s in
ph y si l
has h ad experience o f personal agen ts in self conscious
s mo s
activity I t ouched o n t his in t he lectures o n ma t erial
i s m a n d egoism and I m ust return t o it in the sequel
To ra t ionali t y in n ature all includi n g m aterialists Virtu
ally m ake their nal a ppeal To n d with the biologis t
wha t t h e physical co n ditions are under which a human
bein g begins sentient and self conscious life is n o t to ex
plain conscious in t el ligence
M a tter a s w e p er cei ve i t
i
ex la i n s n o th i n n a ll
Mot
on
o f m olecules can only
g
y
p
plain motion in other molecules and n o t even this nal ly ;
fo r there is n o perceptible connection be t wee n contac t o f
movin g masses in space and t he motion o f o t her masses
which follows A ll o n e can s ay i s that w e expect the
latter in faith when we s ee the former T he former is t o
u s t he in t elligible S ign and s o the foundation of the natural
prophecy o r scientic prevision u pon which w e proceed as
a venture o f faith The world presen t ed t o t he senses is
as i t were a Divine B ook o f Prophecy : if it is undivine i t
may in t he end deceive : a suspec t ed witness cannot verify
anything
Consisten t undivine m a t erialism is i m possible ; bu t the
Lte n
t h m t ri
o f m aterialists conceal
numerous
un
conscious
assump
t
ions
al i t i
o

t his
The ma t erialis t ic assumption as Lotze says t akes
,

ee

us

e or o

e e a

er

es ,

ea

ac

e,

our

ca

co

o z

a e

138

PHIL OSO P H Y O F T H E I S M

with i t s natural laws and ends i s darkn ess ; fo r external

n a t ure apart from the highe r life found in man even
conceals the God whom it never t heless reveals when i t
is looked a t in the ligh t of t h e m oral postulates and our
spirit u al consciousness
I proceed accordin g ly t o look
a t Man as a t leas t for Man an im age or symbol o f
t he Universal Power
,

139

L E C T U R E II
I D EAL
LA S T lec t ure

M AN

AN

IMA G E

GO D

OF

partly in t ended to S h ow t ha t o b li g a t ion R tr o s p

to presuppose divine o r perfec t order and purpose omni
present in n a t ure is independen t o f t he question whether
the na t ural evolution had a beginning ; and to suggest
that even if w e have been ushered in t o a cosmos tha t
had n o beginnin g w e nd ourselves n ow livi n g and
movin g and having o u r bein g amidst surroundings t ha t
mu st be presupposed to b e eternally tru s t worthy or
divine as a con d ition o f their being even physically
in t erpretable
But o f w hose intelli g ence i s u n iversal na t u r e the ex M n nd
pression ? \V h a t abou t the orderi n g or designi n g Power ?
What is meant by supernat u ralness ? Have w e any ex
a m ple in experience o r i t s implicates o f a cause superior
t o the causes alone recognised in physical S cience ? D o

w e n ot nd in ourselves
i n t he ego
an i m plied super
n atural n ess
which introduces m eani n g into t he term

power and may supply an a n alogy to divini t y omni

present in n ature the m icrocosm in m an t o the macro
These questions
c o s m which analogously reveals G o d ?
lead us up t o Man an embodied m oral bei n g w h o shares
in divine reason an d wh o as a personally responsible
agen t is connec t ed with the divin e centre o f a moral
world t o which ou t w ard na t ure i s in harmonio u s subor
d i na t i o n
Under this nal concep t ion every adva n ce o f
th e na t ural sciences deepens and enriche s m an s c o n c ep
tion o f God When an even t can b e referred t o a na t ural
w as

e ct

140

PHIL OSO P H Y O F T H E I S M

cau se it is no t by t his divorce d from God if all na t ural

causation is divine
O ne seem s t o nd t he si g nal example of t he divine in
M n in
S p ir d
t he spirit o f m an I n his Comm on Reason or Ration al

S ense o n e nds the inspira t ion o f t h e Almighty which

g iveth understanding
We see in man a being a t once
n atural and superna t ural in t ermediate between bru t e and
Dei t y with in t e l ligen ce and experience that is neither

nescience nor O mniscience

equally unable as Pascal
s u ggests t o know all and t o be ignorant of all ; who is
g reat even in kn owing himself t o be miserable ; wh o lives
by interpre t i n g th e future t hrough the past
The visible organic conditions under which consciou s
O r g ni
n d it i n s
ness
makes
i
t
s
appearance
in
m
an
in
terms
o f which its
n t th
gradual development may b e expressed in biology is surely
s lf n
s i s l if no t t he moral and spiri t ual life ac t ually felt t hough t and
it s l f
ac t ed although invisible o f which the organic mo t ions
are only t he na t ural occasion Conscious in t elligence is
m anifested in an d t hro u g h visi b le processes in nature ;
b u t those visible processes are not t he invisible con
s c i o u s n es s
Faith t hat I am in a divine o r interpre t able
world involves m ore t han percep t ion o f wha t i s sense
presen t ed Tha t sen se appe arances are virtually S igni
can t lan g uage I take o n t rust without having it de m on
s t r a t e d ; i t i s the funda m ental p ostulate in natural science
A
a s well as in every c a lculated movement in daily li fe
chaos o f letters o f t he alph abet presented in a heap i s
not t o be confoun ded wi t h t he same le t ters organised in a
b ook and charged with meanin g s o t ha t th e reader nds
t he outside book in in t ellec t u al a ffi nity with his o wn in
Man trea t s nature in t he fai t h t ha t in t rying
t el lige n c e
t o reduce i t s phenome n a to science he is trying to read an
intelligible n atural B ook
S lf
n
But livin g consciousness is more t han t his latent in
s i s in t el li i b il it
more
too
than
the
sensuous
phenomena
in
;
g
y
t llig n
which the reason laten t in na t ure receives expression
In t elli g ibili t y a b s t rac t ed from a livin g thinker is an
emp ty abstraction Let us suppose all conscious life in
t he universe suddenly annihilated What t hen becomes
o f t he latent in t erpre t abili t y of na t ural phenomena : or o f
,

co

co

c ou

co

c ou
e

ce

14 2

P H IL OSO P H Y O F TH E I S M

signican t revela t ion o f wha t God is t ha t t he universe

presen t s t o man Man the microcosm is the unique
exa m ple in which if a nywhere withi n experience religion

nds an i m age o f the innite God The ideal man

is for u s t he symbol of God in n a t ure The nite S pirit
incarnate in his body is t he symbol of Innite S piri t
incarna t e in the universe As t he highes t form o f human
experience the spiri t ual life o f man in i t s full develop
m en t m ay be said t o si g nify t o man what is nal o r
supreme i n the innite reality revealing God in the only
w ay God can b e apprehended by man
Hence t he philosophical inadequacy of all merely b io

logical in t erpretat ions o f m an their inade quacy meas

as well
u r e d even by o u r modest intellec t ual resources
as for o u r m oral and reli g ious co n s t i t ution A wholly

physiological accoun t o f action and reaction between

m an s ani m al organis m an d its material environmen t under
n a t ural law of selection omi t s the n ecessary spiritual i m
plica t es of s upernatural reason and m oral ag e ncy F o r
i t is these t hat reveal G o d s o far as Inni t e Being can
b e revealed t o an in t elli g ence inter m edia t e be t ween total
nescience and O mniscience It is t hrough t hat which i s
found by reec tion in man s invisible life o f consciousness
n ot t hrough t ha t which is presen t ed to any o r all o f his
external senses t ha t the world assu m es for him i t s nal
in t erpreta t ion
The pro g ress o f th e physical sciences is evidence t ha t
n ature i s a con t inued discourse on t he part o f the Uni
versal Power addressed to man in t he S i g nican t language
of natural causes
S cientic intercourse with t he u ni
verse is in t elligence in in t ercourse wi t h intelligence man
learning t o t hink some of the divine though t t ha t is
latent in the cosmos Y et curiously i t was a maxim o f
Comte that the heavens declare n o o t her glory than tha t
o f Hipparchus Kepler New t on and the o t her illustriou s
as t ronomers w h o have in t erpreted some of the language
t ha t is u tt ered by t he m asses o f m a tt er tha t occupy innite
space If t his is s o the glory of New t on s Principia is
not the glory of Newton but only o f those readers o f t he
Principia who are able t o unders t and i t s physical t heo
.

T h e i nad e
q u ac y o f
me e b io
o ic a i n
t er p r et a
t io n

r ly
l g l
s

T h e l an
u a e of

g g
N t r
C mt s
a u

e an d

m a xi m

ID E A L

IM AG E O F G O D

AN

M AN

14 3

ries and demons t ra t ion s If t h e Book of Nature rec e ives

fro m the astronomical discoverer the meaning which it is
found t o express m us t n o t the book which was supposed
to make Newton illustriou s receive i ts m eanin g n o t fro m
Newton but from i t s in t ellige n t readers
.

But it is in man s life as a m or a l being in the r es p o n R e s n nd

sible exercise o f deliberate Will even more than in m an
3
$
divinely inspired with Re a son that the fac t s o f inward p n t l
b
t
experience refuse t o be read only in terms o f external f
11y
p y

i
natural sc en ce ; th i s t o o af t er account I s taken o f the x p l i b l
i n h er i ted resul t s o f organic a n d extra organi c in terac t ion
in t he history of the a n i m al ancestors of each hu m an
organis m and also o f the history o f the whole material
world of which a human bo d y is o f course a part I t is
by possession o f m orally responsible will that m an rises
as a
er s on above all that is physical an d imperso n al
p
His m oral personali ty is t he type of the divine prin ciple
at the he art of existence Is no t responsible will i n m a n
supernatural self de t er m ined no t determined by his organ
ism : s o that man may be said t o hold the unique position
of being at once an outcome of physical evolu t ion and
ye t a creative agent in respect of all acts for which
he is j us t ly responsible ? Reason and Will can n ot be
refunded into the caused causes o f science : in spiritual
action man erects himself as a personal agent above
hi m self as merely an issue of t he natural evolu t ionary
sequence
Unless above hi m self a s m erely a part o f
visible nature he ca n erec t hi m self into an a c t ive rational
If he
o r supernatural agent h o w m ean a thi n g is m an
is under moral obligation to obey m ora l l aw he c annot
be wholly a part o f t he dependent causal mechanism
The way of looki n g a t the universe tha t makes visible
na t ure and natural causation the highest m easure o f rea lity
must be inadequate as a philosophical theory if man is
an a g ent w h o is responsible for anything t h at h e does
Rationality and morality in m an both involve m ore S i n n d
t han outward physical sequen ce
The dogm a o f the g g
m
S peculative na t uralist that the outer world acts upon man p l y m r

th n n t
mechanically as bodies in mo t ion ac t upo n bodies at

a o

18

er

a u ra

c a} 3 6 11 0

S I ca

ca

c e
o

o e

ce a

144

r l
a

se

u en c o

P H I L OSO P H Y

OF

TH E I S M

res t s o t hat scientic interpre t a t ion o f experience by a

h uman discoverer is i tself only a physical e ffect o f na t ural

causali t y o n his body is a dogma which omi t s m an s

participa t ion in divine reason and his consequen t power
o f distin g uishing between fancy and reality which science
i m plies I t s defect i s n o less obvious when the na t ur
alis t argues tha t t he relation o f motives to acts fo r which
a human agen t is responsible must be the same in kind
as the relation which o n e body bears t o another body
when motion in the o n e follows impac t by ano t her in
mo t ion ; fo r this leaves o u t o f accoun t th a t superiori t y
t o physical n ature which personal responsibility involves :
a na t ural cause is not morally responsible for any of its
physical e ffec t s In t ellectual power o f dis tinguishin g b e
tween t ransi t ory appearances and t he deeper relations
which t hey si g nify be t ween sensation an d natural science
i t self i s a power i n which man erec t s himself as super
natural above hi m self as only a par t o f na t ure
But
the moral po wer of making a respon sible choice b e t ween
good and evil in action is emphatically that in which
man is free either to erec t hi m self ab ove the t e mp t a
t ions of sen se or t o let his proper personali ty b e merged
in physical n ature

m
w
I n man t o ulti ate mysteries seem t o meet t he mys
t ery in which scientic causa t ion merges an d t h e mystery
In scien t ic
o f moral or immoral will in a nite being
causation w e become involved in the mys t ery o f e t ern al

succession : S ince no na t ural cause is self determined

each presupposes an anterior n a t ural cause every cau se
in the regress being only a caused cau se
O ur self
determining in t elli g ence and respon sibility for personal
acts contradic t s supposed u niversality o f na t ural causa
tion and puts us face to face wi t h an origina t ing agent
t o whom origin ative power is a t tributed Man i nt er m e
dia t e between the nescien t and the omniscie n t can neither
imagine nor comprehend the u niversal reality in eithe r
wa y s
He canno t comprehend an u n b egin
o f these
n ing an d unending evolu t ion among orderly dependent
chan g es nor can he comprehend a universe tha t con t ains
self de t ermining agen t s
Na t ural ca u sa t ion in i t s ul t i
,

The

lti

m at e my s
t er i es o f
in ni t e
ic a

ph y s l
r gr ss nd
o f m o r al
u s ti o n
e

ca

14 6

P H IL OSO PH Y

TH E I S M

OF

essay o n the hypothesis t h at animals in cluding the

hu m an ani m al are only sen t ien t au t omata

It seems
to me he says t ha t in men as in brutes there i s n o proof
that any state o f con scio u sn ess is the cause o f change in
the motion o f t he m a tt er of t he organis m
I t follo ws
that o u r m ental condi t ions are simply the sy m bols in
consciousness o f changes which take place au t omatically
in t he organism ; and th at to t ake an extrem e illus t ra t ion
the feeling w e call volition is n ot th e cause of a vol u n t ary
ac t but the symbol o f t hat s tate o f t he brain which i s the
i m mediate cause o f that act
S o viewe d m en are only
physical organisms not p er s ons : th ey are visible an d
t angible th i ngs ; with each o f which conscious life is i n
explicably connec t ed sentien t intelligen ce in m an bei n g
more developed in i ts organis m than in any other ani m al
organism o n t his planet But in all animals alike c o n
sciou s life is powerless : i t is to be discounted as wholly
irrelevant a t leas t in t h e scientic explan a t ion o f man
The metamorphoses which th e material world u ndergoes
in t he persistent processes o f n a t ural causa t ion which
science tries to formula t e are all independen t of t he self
conscious ego Man is n ot enti t led notwithstan ding fel t
resp onsibility for his acts to be included as a factor
I nvisible conscious agen cy is n ot a g ency ; there is only
evolution o f visible phenomena from visible anteceden t s
We are deluded i t see m s when we suppose originating
personal a g ency ; for no act of hu m an will can either
increase o r di m inish m olecular motion in the brain : all
cerebral m otions mus t b e n aturally caused by o t her
motions organic or e xtra or g a ni c under laws which it
is t he ofce o f biological science to nd and for m ulate
Bu t although biology m ay reason ably conne itself to
g eneralising natural sequences o f physical pheno m ena I
am unable t o s ee W i t h Hu xley h o w th i s can j u st i fy the
g radual banishmen t from a ll re g io n s o f hu m an tho u ght o f

fo r by
what w e call spirit and spontaneity ;
spon

t an e i t y
I suppose h e m ean s acts which when re g arded
as morally re f erable to an agen t are inferred to be there

fore free from n atural necessities on account o f t he

a g en t s s ole responsibility for them Ins t ead of t his banish
.

M st
u

:p

Pm t
.

o n t an

c it

Egg fi
n

ed

m an
t

h ou ght

"

IDEAL

M AN

IM AG E O F G O D

AN

147

men t o f spontaneity biology like every science o f visible

n ature see m s to place u s face to face with the question
sugges t ed by th e rela tion between material nature and
nite persons to whom moral responsibility is a t t ribu t ed
It makes t he philosopher as k h o w the numerous see ming

i n terferences of m oral and i m moral a g en t s with t he

c ourse o f n a t ure can be reconciled with the ex clusive
su fciency o f visible causa tion which biologic a l naturalis m
presu m es Moral responsibility fo r a human ac t depends
upo n the human agen t w h o is m orally praised or bla m ed
for i t being so far independen t o f the natural causation

to which sta t es of the brai n are subj ect Co mm uni t y

between the m ind that is m anifested consciously in m an
and the Mind latent in n ature and signied to m an by
interpretable sensu o us signs i s the religious pos t ula te o f
science The possession o f power that i s above conditions
o f physical causation seems indispensable to an ac t for
which the apparen t agen t can be m orally praised o r
bla m ed ; although t he relation of man s moral or immoral
acts t o t he supreme order and purpose c a n be only i m
perfectly unders t ood by h i m if o u r con cep t ion o f physical
causali ty and o u r con cep t ion of moral and immoral agency
mus t be ultima t ely incomple t e o r m ysterious
The exclusion o f all spiritual ques t ions n o t only from C on

p
biology as a wholly physical science but also from all a
gigg
hu m an thought seems t o land the consisten t thinker i n
curious paradoxes I f ra t ional an d voli t ional conscious
life and all that i s involved in this are only irrelevan t
accidents i n the universe it seems to follo w that all
changes would have occurred exactly as t hey have o c
curred if rational and volitional consciousness had never
arisen in the universe The e ffects in na t ure wi t h which
m en are credited o r discredited mus t all be placed in
tha t case to the credi t o r dis credit of the Universal
Power manifested in nature
What are called pro
d u c t io n s o f m ind must b e con ceived as only part o f
t he natural issue o f hu m an organisms T he books con
t ai n ed in the world for example would have become
wha t t hey are by a l aw of natural selec t ion under which
their visible contents migh t have been evolved as we have
,

se

1 48

PHIL OSO PH Y O F TH E I S M

t he m ye t withou t consciousness on the par t o f suppose d

au t hors and prin t ers The brillian t addi t ions to scien t i c
li t era t ure fo r which w e are grateful t o Professor Huxley
when w e refer them to his conscious agency are only the
na t ural issue of the or g anism t ha t bore his n ame i t self
one o f t he issu es o f t h e gradual evolu t ion o f t he ma t erial
world : his pu b lished works mi g ht h ave existed exac t ly as
t hey exis t n o w if neither his conscious life n o r any o t her
h ad ever made i t s appearance Indeed if consciousness
and personal ac tivity are irrelevan t acciden t s in t he
procession o f molecular chan g es wha t proof can I h ave
tha t at this m omen t min e is n o t the soli t ary conscious
life in a world emp ty o f all other conscious beings ? O n
what reasonable ground can I asser t tha t I am n ow in t he
presence of conscious persons ; o r h o w can o n e reason
ably b elieve that the words he hears spoken are no t u n
d u l a t i o n s of the air t hat have b een natu rally caused b y
molecular mo t ion s in a visi b le organism themselves t he
natural issue o f m olecular changes in surrounding na t ure
conveyed all unconsciously under natural laws t o an
organ o f hearin g ? Althou g h I suppose I am n ow s u r
rounded b y conscious agents perhaps I am in t he pre
sence o f unconscious autom atic organisms
S ns p h
I n Berkeley s Minute Philosopher E u p h rano r th e
n m n
n cerns t he
religious
in
t
erlocu
t
or
in
t
he
dialogue
which
co
n b
ig
n i
nt
f religiou s concep t ion of t h e universe su g ges t s t ha t we all
ns i
s have as clear an d immedia t e a cer t ain t y o f t he providen t ial
p rs n s
activity of G o d as each of u s has o f t he exis t ence o f person s
n d t h ir

i nt nt i n s
around him when he sees them speak o r ac t
What "

rej oins A l c ip h r o n t he scep t ical in t erlocutor wha t " d o

you pre t en d y o u can h ave the same assurance of the bein g
o f a G o d t ha t
o
u can have of m i n e whom you ac t ually
y

?
s ee
stan ding before you an d talking to you
The

very same if n o t greater is the reply

H o w do y o u

make t his appear ? asks A l c i ph ro n

By the p er son

A l c ip h r o n E u p h r an o r an swers
i s meant an individual
th i n ki ng person and not the hair skin o r visible surface
or any part o f the ou t ward form colour o r shape of

A l c ip h ro n
This t he sceptic readily allows
And in

gran t ing t his t he o t her rej oins you g ran t t hat in a

,

ca

e s

ca

co

c ou

150

PHIL OS O P H Y O F T H E I S M

of

t he un conscious processes of na t ural causa t ion in t h e

un i versal organism
Men and animals with all t heir
called works are m ovemen t s in na t urally evolved
so
machines o f all which I am perhaps t he solitary spec
t a t or The idea of morally responsible personali t y with
free in t endin g will as i t s implica t e i s a superuou s
issue of t he organism I call mine ; and a like s u p eru i ty
if an issue o f o t her org anisms as w ell as mine
But
af t er all I have n o proof t hat other or g anisms are a t
all connec t ed wi t h conscious life if all their words
and over t actions are wha t t hey are t hrough or g anic
an d inorganic na t ural causali ty alone The unconscious
natural succession o f molecular chan g es in a human body

withou t t he in t erferen ce o f a ny conscious in t elli g ence

and will would be a su fcien t explana t ion of t he printed
essay o n animal au t om a t ism a tt ri b u t ed t o Huxley Nei t her
world m aking nor b ook makin g would presuppose spiri t ual
ac t ivity ; for worlds and b ooks would be equally the issue
orderly sequence of the visible and t a ng ible
o f th e
phenomena th a t have formed themselves n aturally in t o
books an d in t o worlds
B u t wha t I must fur t her ask are na t ural au t omatic
c h anges in organisms and t hrou g h organism s in extra
or g anic t hings o r vi ce ver s a when the changes are t otally
abstrac t ed from percep t ion or consciousness ? Wha t is t he
Principia or wha t the E ssay Con cerni ng Human U n
ders t anding without conscious intelligen ce and in t en d
in g purpose in New t on and Locke wh o are responsible for
?
t hem an d wi t hou t conscious ac t ivity in t heir readers
The visible words prin t ed o n t he pages of a book b ecome
s igni ca n t only when consciousness makes i t s appearance
W hether th e rel a tion b e t ween a person and t he Visible
evolu t ion of his b ook is called a relation of cause and
e ffec t o r n o t i t i s such t h a t t he visible appearances are
accepted by san e minds as reasonable g uarantee fo r origi
n ati n g action o f invisi b le in t en din g mind I canno t b anish
t h e la tt er and t hen fully t hink o u t my experience on
t he hypothesis o f t h e exclusive reali t y o f t he former A
human in t en din g will is responsible for t he sensuous signs
o f deli b erate meanin g and purpose o f which a human o r
.

Bo k s
wit h o t
au t h o rs
o

I DE A L M A N A N IM AG E
m is

OF

GOD

151

t he antecedent T he i m moral ac t for which the

individual murderer is held responsi b le cannot be S hifted
o ff rst to his n o n moral organis m
and nally to t he
Universal Po wer

Whe n the meaning o f the words ma tt er and force N t r l

is considered in t he light o f o u r spiritual as well as o u r
sens u ous experience i t appears that the discovery of the t i ti f
natural an t ecedents of a chan g e is n o n al explanation of Eg
gggi m
it even for man ; and also that the idea of origina tin g i tl i d
w
h
i
h
power on which all change nally depends is go t fro m
t t
reec t ion upon an irresistible perception o f moral r e Ef
i ting
g

sponsibility for deliberately intended acts

I ough t P w r

therefore I ca n i s like an index which points t o agency

of p er sons as man s true conception o f ac t ive causation
o r power in hi m self and in t he universe
Consciousness
o f m oral ideals implies moral obligation ; b u t t here c a n be
n o moral obligation unless there is p ower n a lly wi th i n
th e n i te ag en t to obey o r t o disobey
The human subj ect
of m oral obli g ation s o far as he is capable o f obligation
m u st be free from t he mechanism of scien t ic causa t ion
The act must origina t e in hi m self and n o t be m erely a
t er m in t he passive succession of physical antecedents
and consequ ents which Visible nature presents
Th e
only really opera t ive power that enters inevi t ably into
human experience is moral o r spiritual
Is n ot per
fe c tl y rational agency the highest explanation o f the
universal evolution tha t is intelli g ible to ma n ? Per
under obliga t ion o f duty
s o n al l
originated
volition
y
necessarily involved in moral responsibility is that in
man whic h I call s u pernatural You have the contrast
be t ween the mechanism o f nature and the a g ency o f man
in t he familiar words o f o u r great religious poe t :
n
i
a
s
g

a u a

ac er s

c o

ie

ex

L o o k u p t o h ea v e n " th e i n d u s t r i o u s
A l r ea d y h al f h i s r ace h at h r u n
H e ca nn ot h al t n o r go a s t r ay

B u t o u r i mm o r ta l s p i r i t s ma y
,

su n

O ri g ina t ive Cause in shor t is reached t hrough

scien ce an d in a nally e t hical concep t ion o f the
verse we have a deeper hold of reali t y than when
,

Co n
11 11 1

C s l ity
au a

Is

33252

1 52

P H I L OS O P H Y O F TH E I S M

t reated only as a scien ti cally in t erpre t able sys t em of

sense sequences M a n a t h i s h igh es t acting freely under
m oral obligation wi t h t h e i m plied intellectu al an d m oral
postulates is surely a m ore tt ing key for his ultimate
in t erpretation of things than man only as an ani m al or g an
i s m abs t racted from the experience which can be dis
claimed only by disclaiming human responsibility The
Macrocosm in a n alogy with the m icrocos m the Universal

Power in analogy with what is highest in man the h omo

m en su r a when h om o mea n s m an moral and spiri t ual as
well as m erely sensuou s th e d i vi n a mensu r a hu m anised
i n this w e see m to have the ttes t analogy within reach
for the Universal Power in which we are havin g our bein g
The nally ethical conception o f the universe involves
the idea o f obliga t ion with implied power in agents t o
or i g i nate what ought n o t t o ex i s t
Rel i g i on i ncludes
trus t in the Universal Power ; an d for those wi t h whom
reveren t ial cosmic faith in n atural order is the highes t
principle to w hic h they have risen this cosmic faith is in
a manner th ei r reli gion B u t when faith g oes n o further
than the cosmic postula t e ; when i t is emptied o f the in
r e d i en t s contributed by ma n s experience o f himself as
g
a supernatural being the merely cosmic faith contains
no guarantee that intelligen ce m ay n o t be in the en d pu t

to confusion after external nature and human na t ure are

emptied of O mnipotent Goodness
What now seems
cosmic order may then in the end be physical and moral
anarchy and life intruste d t o a faith s o thin and shallow
is not wor t h living Pessimist despair ins t ead of relig ious
hope is the worship appropriate to the g od o f wholly
physical fai t h S o tha t althou g h this cosmic fai t h in
a non moral universe m ay be called religion i t is no t
religion in the moral meanin g o f t he word It wan t s a
nal t r u st that is absolu t e and adapted t o a moral bein g
If so the morally religious conception of t he universe is
m ore deeply philosophical than the physically scientic
If scientic faith is b a seless condence tha t the world will
n o t in the end pu t to i n tellectu a l confusion those wh o rely
o n the universality of its natural order reli g ious faith no t
only gives i t s basis t o this physical faith but is the a bsolu te

rl

T he e i
gi ou f c o n
c ep t i o n
o t e

f h
n
v ers e
I

1 54

L E C T U R E III
W H AT

Is

COD ?

Si mo ni d s I ALL U D E D formerly to the pruden t reserve of S imonides

w h o according to the story being asked by Hiero Wh a t
G od wa s ? desired a day to think o u t the question an d
then two days more after t ha t con t inually enlarging the
t ime needed fo r t he answer bu t withou t ever being able
either to for m a pic t ure of God or an adequate deni t io n
w e be t ter prepared than S imonides ?
of
God
A
re
I s th
I have n o t en g aged with the more articula t e ques
r l igi s
n
p t i n t ions o f reli g ion
I am concerned wi t h t he previous
ni
f th
question o f the reasonableness o f reli g ious t rust in t h e
v rs
s on b l ? Universal Power I have been aski n g how t he univer s e
should b e nally re g arded b y man ? Mus t it b e nally
u nder conceptions o f m athematical quan t ity or o f physical
causation only as with S pinoza an d Hume Does n o t
a larger concep t ion o f what reason involves require t ha t
it should be regarded practically in analo g y with m an as
a moral agen t the centre o f the lit t le universe of his own
personal life ? Is t he modern physical conception of con
t i n u o u s evolution t h e highest tha t is attainable ?
Is not
t his conception inadequate when measured by man as a
S piritual being ? I s t he reli g ious con ception o f the universe
t he really reasonable o n e under indispen sable m oral t rus t
in t he Universal P ower a t t he root o f reason in man ?
U nt h i s t i
I have tried to present in a sympathe t ic te m per t he
i nt r p r t
chief
ways
in
which
the
universe
has
been
looked
a
t
t i n s f th e
untheistically The construc t ive concep t ions o f Universal
ni v rs
Materialism Panegoism and Pan t heism were tried pro
7

co

ou

ce

e u

e r ea

e a

W H AT

GO D

Is

1 55

visio nally in succession ; and I asked a candid considera

tion for wha t seemed unsatisfying in each ; while no t
overlooking the partial t ruth which gives to each what
s t reng t h it h as
If you would convince another who
really loves t ruth o f defec t in concep t ion you mus t try
to s ee t h e side at which things are looked a t by him ;
for o n tha t side his view o f them is probably t rue : and
by seei n g a tru th common t o him and t o you he may
more readily recognise wha t is wanting in h is o wn con
We nex t tried provisionally the agnostic way
c e p ti o n
o f looki n g at things
t o which Monis t t heories seem to
lead in t he end Here w e found all constructive c o n c ep
t ion s of the universe held in suspense and with t he m
when agnos t icism is bold enough faith in experience
whether sensuou s o r spiri t ual suspended ; n atural science
as well as religion subsiding in t he to t al darkness of
universal nescience
Bu t the state in which o n e dou bt s about everything is T h rr
1m m f
E ven o u r a n imal life ph y s i} l
a s t ate in which man cannot live
requ i res fa i th I n na t ure
We cannot l i ve W i thou t eat nd r l i
ing and drinking ; and w e do n o t eat or drink without $ 2911?
faith in nutrimen t o r in the a g reeable sensatio n s which f it h
we believe visible food t o signify when it is only see n
and be fore it is tas t ed We are daily living in t he move
ment o r evolution which constitutes our experience H o w
far can w e go in in t erpretin g t he m eaning of this ex
?
O
ugh
t
we
t
o
pu
t
a
fully
religious
meaning
i
n
t
er
e
c
e
a
p
las t u pon t he Whole ; o r mus t w e be con t ented to interpret
i t under t he a t tenuated religious presupposition (if i t can
be called r eligio ns ) of a wholly ph y sical or n o n moral
order with its physical o r n on moral g od ? Does God
the Final Principle the Universal Power dissolve into
ulti m ately inexplicable and purposeless natural order ; o r
does God mean ever active mora l reason and purpose at
the root of a divinely maintained physical order in which
t he omnipresent power i s perfect g oodness personied ?
I s t he universe to be nally interpreted in and t hro u gh
what is found in man at his highest o r bes t man with
his ineradic able convic tion of moral responsibility and
his religious faith tha t even t he n at ural universe must
,

e co

ca

156

PH I L OSO P H Y O F T H E I S M

be a manifes t a t ion of Power he mus t t hink of as perfec t

reason and g oodness ? I s the pro g ressive evolu t ion in
S pace an d time nally in t erpre t able only in t he ligh t of
a faith which can res t absolu t ely o n nothing shor t o f
In nite Goodness ? O r must i t nally be in t erpre t ed in
t he darkness o f an inexplicable perhaps illusory n atural

order wi t hou t divine centre a sham cosmos in which

t here can be n o nal t rus t o r perfec t peace ? A t t he
least i s there a nything that a bsolu tely for bid s man t o
interpre t the universe nally as t he revela t ion o f Powe r
that s o far as he has t o do with what is real is in analogy

with wha t is hi g hes t and b es t in himself s o t ha t Ideal

Man may b e t aken as virtu ally the ima g e o f the

Universal Power wi t h which he is connec t ed in his whole
living experience
It is in t his w ay o f looking a t th e universe t hat I have
Aw y
p nf
b
een
approaching
a
human
answer
t
o
Hiero
s
question
p r ti l
The outcome seems already t o su gg es t that t he ques t ion
ns w r
t Hi r s
m
a
b
e
answered
as
i
t
concerns
man
while
by
man
i
t
y
?
q es t i o n
remains innitely unanswerable I s n o t the deepes t an d
t rues t t hough t ma n can have t ha t in which t he universe
is conceived as th e manifesta t ion o f perfec t ly good Power
in moral relation t o persons who are u nder g oin g spiri t
ual educa t ion individually in a nally divine univer s e
educa t ion in an individualisin g organism consistin g in
strug g les t o rule by obeyin g na t ure wi t h which they are
con t inu ally in contac t and collision ; which in the ligh t
i s seen t o b e a revelation o f
o f t heir inner consciousness
perfect g oodness ; in all which the m a t erial world b e
comes t he symbol o i Mind and t he servan t o f man I t
follows tha t man in o n e sense may know God and yet
that God cannot be known innitely by man It is blended
knowledge and ignorance real kn owled g e in par t of t ha t
which passes hum an knowled g e Nature o r the symbolic
world ; ego o r o u r supernat ural personality ; and G o d in
whom Nature and Man are reconciled all are in par t
o r for human purposes knowable : t hey can b e kn own as
far as human life needs the knowledge
Physical science is reached in t he fai t h ven ture t ha t
t he persis t en t order and purpose in na t ure will no t su ffer
,

ac

or a

ca

e o

158

P H IL OS O P H Y O F T H E I S M

t he mos t signi can t fac t s in t he his t ory o f the devel

As well s ay t ha t
o p m en t of t he religious conception
the astronomer mus t form astronomical scien ce with
o u t reference t o t he si g nal
revelations o f as t ronomical
l a w tha t are presented in the movements o f o u r solar
sys tem as tha t the philosophical theologian mus t deal
with the religious settle m en t of t he universal problem
o f human
life wi t hou t referen ce to the experience o f
person s powerfully inspired by t he reli g ious idea Th at
G o d seemed to be experienced by men in the way prophe t s
and apostles s ay t hat they experienced God is a fac t i n
h i s t ory
of

h u m nl y
k n o wab l

B ut is

Universal Power conceived after the an alogy

o f the Ideal M an an adequate conception of G o d even
G d
for ni t e in t elligen ce ? A God w h o can be fully com
prehended b y m an canno t b e Inni t e B u t i s i t reason
able t o suppose tha t t he idea of G o d as Perfec t Man is a
philosophical solu t ion of the n al problem ; only because
it corresponds to wha t is hi gh es t in t he experience o f an
ephemeral race o f living beings o n o n e o f the lesser
plane t s o f a solar system ? To take this reduced nal
concep t ion o f the Universal Power looks like arrogan t
assumption which makes an insi g nican t b eing t he mea
sure o f t he In nite Reality
A bs l t
It would b e s o if t he human nali t y were t aken as
k n wl d g adequate t o t he reality B u t t he human nal conception is
t th
h mn
not o ffered as the perfec t conception of G od taken from the
s t n dp oint divine cen t re only as t he con cep t ion of G o d necessarily
t aken at the human position away from t he centre I t m ay
be the t rue conception a t m an s in t ermedia t e position
n ei t her of nescience nor omniscience at which he may
n evertheless re a lise wha t is even eter n a lly t rue f o r th a t

i
os
t
i
o
n
l
o
f
knowledge
an
intelligence
a
b
s
o
l
u
e
r
ea
l
t
p
y
that cannot b ecome omniscien t o r know reality i n d ep en d
en t ly of condi t ions o f ti m e and change It may be th a t
which when held reasonably by man is su fcient t o
put h i m in w hat one may call r ela ti vely a b solu te rational
harmony wi t h t he universe ; so t hat fai t h in it is indis
pensa b le in his endeavour to live according t o t he deepes t

o u

W HAT

Is

159

GOD

t rues t h u ma n relation to G o d Tha t a gradually de

v e l o p i ng religious conception is t h e chief factor o f hu m an
progress m ay b e the supreme example o f adaptation
found in the co n sti t ution o f things an d s o far a ju s ti c a
tion of o u r faith vent u re T he religious experience of man
in the religions of the world co m bined wit h the necessary
inadequacy o f all hu m an conceptions o f t hings a t t he las t
teach the lesson tha t God is in nitely incognisable while
practically revealed
D oes some o n e ask What ki nd o f S piri t o r Mind c o n I
?
i
A re w e to imagine a divine consciousness s
u
e
s
o
d
st t t
G
in the for m of a succession o f cha n ging sta t es and acts like
those of the inner life in man ; o r instead o f th is o n e
unchangin g in t uition o f all tha t is has been and i s yet to
be ? It has been sug gested that God must be super
conscious Bu t superconsciousness is something t hat for
us while nominally above i s really below conscious i n
The very a t te m p t t o conceive a super
t el l ec t and will

co n scious Mind lands the human mind in c o n tr ad ic

t io n
We are t old t hat there may be in the in nite
universe so m ethi ng g rander and grea t er t han conscio u s
n ess ; tha t there m ay be species o f existence m odes of
being unna m eable by u s which are innitely superior
to co n scious n ess m ore t o b e desired than consciousness ;
a nd
that t his existence may even be O pen to human
bei n gs in a future s t ate There may be behind the phe
n o me n al curtain so m ething grander t han consciousness
w e are told
Philosophers men o f science mys tics poets
prophe t s and revealers are all impotent to s ay what this
m ay be though they h a ve been for ever pu t ting t heir souls
o n the stretch to describe t his grea t and unexplored c o n
t in ent
nei t her consciousness nor annihilation
No w
all t his seems to i m ply tha t only superconscious G o d
would be God in any degree o f reality ; not God as ap
ro a c h e d in thought in and t hrough t he highest ideal o f
p
man Bu t the superconscious G o d leaves us with a lower
ide a than whe n w e think o f God as Perfect Man o r hu m an
ised Universal Reason known yet unknown known fo r
the ends o f o u r moral and religious life unknown because
we are incapa b le of perfec t comprehension the o n e S ignal
a nd

G od

s u p er c o n

ci o u

1 60

P H I L OSO P H Y O F TH E I S M

exa m ple o f h o w human knowledge may b e real while th e

reality that is known su rpasses human understanding
This inco m ple t eness arres t s t he Idealism w hich dis
sa t is ed wi t h knowledge that is only in par t professes
to interpret all from t he divine centre in what i s t h ere
fore bo u nd to be O mniscience D o we nd in it m ore than
analysis an d synthesis of abstrac t necessities o f reason
ins t ead o f the expec t ed solu t ion o f all t he mys t eries o f
h u m an experie n ce condi t ioned in t ime
To t he absolute
idealis t w h o complains o f inadequacy in a religious
conception o f the universe that is de t ermined o n the
h om o m ensu r a principle o r by wha t is divine in man o n e
can only s ay that the refu t a t ion is in h i s o w n hands
Le t h i m produce in a book t h e
S o lvi tu r a m b u la n d o
O mniscience which t he humbler philosophy is blamed
for no t produ cing Let him rid life of all its mys t erie s
n o t by resta t ing t hem in new language an d ar t icula t e
form but by solving them in an all comprehensive phil
o s o h i c al imagina t ion t hus superseding moral faith by
p
ac t ually realising perfect insight of t he in nite reali t y
Let him actually sh ow the universe in endless dura
t ion a s seen at the divine centre This would super
sede cri t icism of the in t ermedia t e posi t ion wi t h which I
am sa t is ed
The mystery o f ulti m a t ely incognisable ye t revealed
D eity is t he nourishment o f religious adoration which i n
s ti n c t i vel y feels t h a t o u r hi g hest e xperience mus t be all
inadequate to realise Innite Reality This is th e voice
of religion when religion is su f cien t ly awakened in con
The visible ri t ual o f Catholicis m and no t less
s c i o u s n e ss
the invisible mental i m ages o f God in popular Protes t ant
i s m when regarded as sy m bols adequate to God and not
m erely as helps t o religious devotion in m an are rej ec t ed
b y t he true worshipper His language is
Thou shalt not m ake unto t hee any g raven ima g e or
any likeness of any thi ng t ha t is in heaven above o r that
is in the ear t h beneath o r t ha t is in the water under t he
earth thou shalt not b o w down thyself to th em
Cans t thou by searching nd o u t God ? cans t t hou nd
out t he Almighty unto perfection ?
.

3 03 m
a mb u l m d o

T he

lt i

h en s i b ilit y
f

gy g

s s t in s
r vrn
u

e e

ce

1 62

P H I L OSO P H Y O F T H E I S M

human experie n ce yet in i t s in ni t y inco m prehensible

It is concerned with ideas o f in ni t y which are pre
supposed in all n a t ural o r physical and m ore deeply in
id
th
l
a l o r spiri t u al experience
all
mor
Y
et
i
t
s
characteristic
Egg f
r v r n ti l ideas c a nnot be co m pletely rounded in spec u lative i m
f ith
however
m
uch
enlar
g
ed
they
a i n at i o n because
m
u s t in
g

us at last fall short frag m en t s only of the innite Reali t y

i f without a con t radic t ion one m a

speak
frag
of a
y

m en t o f in ni t y o r e xpress in ter m s o f quantity what

transcends quan tity
O u r l i t tl e s y s t e m s h av e t h ei r d ay ;
T h e y h av e t h eir d ay an d cea s e t o b e
T h e y a r e b u t b r o k en l i g h t s o f T h ee
A n d T h o u O L o r d ar t m o r e t h an t h e y
R l i gi s
e

ou

e e i

i e

e e

W e h av e

fai t h
k n o w l ed g e i s

an

10 11

333333
s

'

m ti o n ,

to b e
c e p t ed
faith
,

h ee

This unique charac t er o f man s knowle dge of God o r

th e nal m eani n g of t he universe
t hat inco m plete
knowledge in which human understanding culminates in
moral fai t h m ay have been in Bacon s V iew when h e

warns us that perfec t ion o r co m ple t eness in divinity is

not to be sou g ht For h e t hat will reduce a kn owledge
I nto an art [ o r sc i ence "W i ll m ake i t round and un i form ;
bu t in divini t y m any things m us t be left a b rupt A s the
apostle sai t h w e kn ow in part ; and t o have the form
o f a total as science re q u i res where there is bu t ma tt er
for a part cannot be without supplies by supposition and
presumption
I t is t his cons tan t need in physical
science as w ell a s in ou r religiou s conceptions fo r wha t

Bacon calls supp lies by supposition and presumption

tha t m akes human experience o f real existence at last
m oral fa i th or op ti mi s t tr u st ins t ead o f innite in sight
R eas on is t o be dis t inguished from r eas oni ng with whic h
i t is often confounded A ll fruitful reasoning presupposes
reason i e nal ra t ional trust in the reaso n able ; and
nothi n g can be reason ably accepted t ha t is inconsistent
wi t h t he f aith th at w e are living in a universe in which
A ctive Moral Reason is supreme
O m niscience super
,

w e c an n o t n o w,
o f t in g s we s e e

$ 215
pl i s b
13

b ut

F or
h
A n d y et w e t r u s t i t c o m es fr o m T

b eam i n a rk ne s s l e t i t g r o w

in

W HAT

IS

GOD

1 63

sedes those supplies by supposi t ion and presumption

which Bacon nds indispensable for limi t ed intelligence
in man
O mniscience dispenses with hypo t hesis and
a rgumen t
Intui t ive thought is o u r idea of innite I n
t e llige n c e
Human knowledge o n the o t her hand is
a dvanced throu g h the in t ervention o f premisses supposed
t o be alrea dy known b y applied reasoning in discursive
though t
Moral trust authenticates o u r i n ferential in
t e r p re t ati o n s o f what is experienced and su fciently con
n ec t s us with the Inni t e
Indeed mere argumen t seems t o b e a mark o f n i R s o ning
t ude in the intelligence t hat is obliged t o have recourse
to i t To minds able t o comprehend all t hin g s in all t heir fr m F in l
R
s
on
relations in one intellec t ual grasp inferential thought
would be a s u p er u i ty We have a faint i llus t ration o f
this even in human experience Inven t ive genius dis
cerns in a ash o f intellectual insigh t t ru t h to which
a less co m prehensive intellec t needs to be conducted by
slow processes o f syllogism and calculated comparison of
fac t s T he dogmatis t in con t roversy w h o never dreams
that his favourite premisses need j us t ica t ion o r admi t o f
c ri t icism is an exa m ple o f the mere arguer : ar g ument
is wor t hy of respec t only w hen it is used as a human
i nstru m en t for unfoldin g t ru t h
It makes explicit what
i s implied in premisses t ha t may be false ; and the highest
m inds often s e e at once wha t others have to be led to
b y steps o f reasonin g
We are told o f a great m ath e ma ti
o ian that he could recognise intui t ively as axioms truths
which E uclid slowly evolves as conclusions throu g h long
trains o f de m ons t ra t ion
Again The living mind t hat man employs is o ne i n Finit in
which conscious s t ates o r ac t s succeed o n e another in a
con t inuous series ; fo r life as we have i t is cons t an t ess i n f
change
O ur daily consciousness is a procession of
blended though t feeling and voli t ion Can we suppose s t t s
that any t hing like this is true o f G o d ? Is a succession
o f ever changing conscious acts going o n continuously i n
t h e Universal Power
contemporaneously with o u r o w n
embodied conscious ac t s s o that the divine succession
o f changing conscious sta t es is withou t beginning and
.

ea

ea

a e

1 64

PHIL OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

."

wi t hou t end ? S urely th i s must b e an inadequa t e way of

t hinking abou t what we in o u r ignorance call m i nd in

God ? The relation o f t ime to eternity in wha t ever w ay
i t is approached is t h e mys t ery of mys t eries A consciou s
life that las t s for millions o f years i s supposa b le t ho u gh
i t t ranscends distinct human ima g ina t ion : p er sona l life
,

th a t h a s n o b egi nn i ng
s ta n di ng

a nd

no

end ,

a ss es

h u ma n

u n d er

Thus far we nd ourselves only on the shore of t h e

1
inni
t
e
ocean
tha
t
con
t
ains
t
he
mys
t
eries
in
which
a
$ 33 3:
h ve t
hum an concep t ion of God and o f Man and Nature in
v ers ed
t heir nal relation t o G o d is a t last paralysed We ar e
t ravelling b y the hum an road which is as i t were at the
side : we canno t sound t he divine depth a t t he cen t re In
t he end we may even re t urn t o the p l ace from which w e

s t ar t ed in t he simple creed of childhood wi t h i t s t hree

primary da t a ; but on o u r return we should see all t he
three in a bri gh t er light The pa t h which a t rs t vie w
seems to lea d t o scep t icism p u rsued t o the en d bring s

men b ack t o common sense idealised

A t heism as

Bacon says is rather in t he lip t han i n t he hear t o f

m an so that depth in philosophy b rin g e t h me n s m ind s

about to reli g ion if a little incline t h t hem t o atheism

As to t his o n e mi g h t s ay wi t h re g ard t o t he divine mean
ing o f hu m an li fe wha t P h i l o n o u s in t he Dialogu e say s
abou t h i s ques tion concerning t he meanin g of th e world of

Ma tt er : I do no t pre t end t o b e a se t ter up o f n e w

no t ions My endeavours t end only t o unite and place in
a clearer li g h t t ru t h which wa s b efore shared between
t he vul g ar and philosophers Y ou s ee t he wa t er o f yonder
foun t ain how it is forced upwards in a round colu m n and
a cer t ain heigh t at which it breaks and falls back into the
b asin o u t o f which i t arose i ts ascen t as well as descen t
proceedi ng on t he same uniform law o r principle of gra
vi t at i o n
Jus t s o t he principles which a t rst view lead
t o scep t icism pursued to a certain point brin g men b ack

t o common sense
P hil o s o p h y Are we not nding t ha t t his is so in o u r j ourney t hrou gh
c o n su m
specula t ive sys t ems an d scep t ical specula tion t owards t h e
T he

re

ec

ra

'

166

L E C T U R E IV

PERFE C T G O O D N E S S P ER S O N IFI ED
Th ei stic
Phi l o s

op h y .

T H U S far I have t ried t o awaken reec t ion t o t he human

issues involved in Natural Theolo g y in t he widest sense

of the t erm
For the m eaning reali ty and worth of
religion in any o f i t s many historical forms merges as an
intellec tu al inquiry in t he cen t ral ques t ion of p hilosophy
a b ou t t he e t hical valu e and mutual relations o f t he e g o
t he ou t ward world and the Universal Power The demand
fo r Natural Theolo g y not in t he narrow b u t in t he wide

sense of na t ural is vir t ually a demand for t he r a ti on a le

o f t rus t an d h ope in t he Power we all have practically
t o do with even in o u r daily experience t hrough the ve
senses and a b ove all in o u r experience o f m oral agency
Natural Theology is n o t merely a psychology o f religion
o r a compara t ive science of di fferen t forms of essential
reli g ion as t he y appear in t he his t orical evolution
It
em b races t he r a ti on a le o f t he t heistic fai t h o f which r e
l igi o u s life with its doctrines and ins t itu t ions i s t he ex
pression This i s Theis t ic Philosophy with its eternal
problems In t his I pre t end to o ffer only aids to reection
fo r those wh o are t rying as s o m any n ow are t o think
o u t fo r t hemselves t he ques t ion o f whe t her o r no t t hey
are living an d m ovin g and havin g t heir being in an
essen t ially divin e u niverse i n i t s nal principle morally
t rustworthy a reve l ation o f God m ore o r less frui tfull y
interpreted by man
,

The whole his t ory

of

m an may b e read as t he his t ory

P E R F E C T GOO DNE SS P E R SO N I FI ED

1 67

of a s t ruggle be t ween nal dis t rust and nal trus t The

o n e when intrepidly pursued leads to scep t ical aliena t ion
from a wholly unin t erpretable universe ; and life is t hen
contempla t ed according to the individual temperament
with E picurean indi fference o r with pessi m ist despair
T he other inclination is t owards reconcilia t ion with t he
universe in h opeful moral faith ; even if it must be faith
combined with incomple t e s cientic under standing o f
Innity and with inabili t y t o t ra n slate i t self into physic
ally scientic imagination Nec essities of human nature
hinder both the t endency to a lienation and t he tendency
t o perfect intellectual reconcilia t ion from being c a r ri ed
to the ex t remes of speechless and m otionless Nescience
o n t he one hand
o r O mniscience
on the o t her
Men
could n o t live even a life of sense if t hey treated the
u niverse as wh olly unin t erpre t able ; and the p erfect com
prehension which would supersede the inevi t able i nc o m
l
n
e ss of faith involves t he d ei c at i o n o f man
t
e
e
p
.

E ith er

fr

p r e t ab l e
u ni e
e:

v rs

g
r gg a
l f i th
m

z l
u

or

n v rsa

P o w er

The idea of t he in ni t e in qu a n ti ty t ha t is irresis t ibly O mnip

t
h
forced upon us when w e t ry to understand perfec t ly t he fgi izg
space through which o u r bodies m ove the dura t ion in t n d t
l
S
p
which o u r lives are spen t an d the causat i on which deter
g
m ines ceaseless change is what in t roduces mystery at
las t in t o human experience
This idea o f t he innite i y
r di ng t o
m ay nour i sh e i ther scept i cal despa i r or rel i g i ous fa i th t h w y
Looked at in one w ay it alienates man from t h e universe i n wh i h
i n which h e nds hi m self : i t shakes his trus t i n it as
in so m ething that cannot be grasped on account o f i ts
i nnite size as well as its physical unbeginningness and
unendingness Also the in nite causal regress and pro
gress see m s t o evade an an swer when o ne asks for i ts
moral character and purpose
This nal in c o m p r eh en
a perplexed assumption that life is
s i b i li ty produces
meaningless and t h e universe wholly unin t erpretable
therefore ou t side benecial intercourse ; because w e are
f or ever ba fed by th e m ysteries involved in i t s im
m en s ity eternity and endless causation
Y et the same
nega t ive idea of inni ty or mysterious incomple t ability
under wh i ch all seems t o lose itself at las t in a causal
r es

ce

o a

ca

s s u e/

ac

co

1 68

PH I LOSO PH Y

TH E I S M

OF

mys t ery b ecomes the very minis t er o f moral o r t heis t ic

faith when what is causal m y s t ery fo r the scien t ic u n
d e rs t an d ing is handled in reverential humility : it is found
t o open room fo r and even demand moral trus t i n t he
Power tha t is at the roo t o f all
F o r t he convic t ion
t hat man canno t become o m niscient is then ap t t o make
u s s ee the reasonableness o f an understan ding of t hin g s
that i s a t last de t ermined by the substitute for omniscience
found in o u r spiri tual consti t u t ion The universe is seen
to b e t o o mysterious fo r us to in t erpret even in par t
and physically u nless we su b mit understanding to t he
authority o f human n a t ure as a whole in a human Faith
whic h includes man emo t ional and m an ac t in g super

naturally as well as man thinking scientically and at

las t necessarily ba fed by nal mystery in so thinking
The littleness o f sel f and the mystery o f the physical
evolution are relieved by t he reli g ious sense o f innite
reality with t he elemen t o f ven tu r e which impossibility
of O mniscience necessarily involves In this disposition
o f mind i t seems as i f
,

O u r e s t i n y , o u r b e i n g s h e a r t a n d h o m e,
I s w i th I n ni t u d e , a n d o n ly t h er e ;
W i t h h o p e i t i s , h o p e t h at c an n ever d ie,
E ffo r t a n d ex p e c t at io n a n d es i r e

A n d s o m e t h i n g e v er m o r e t o b e

Thus i t s qu anti t a t ive inni t y or physical incomple t

ableness m akes the nal pro b lem of the univers e look
nd th
foreign t o the scien ti c understanding ; and at its p oin t
o f view
envelops u s and o u r surroundings a t last in
f t h t he impenetrable darkness which dissolves moral t rus t
en e
Y
e
t
otherwise
regarded
t
his
necessary
margin
o f mys t ery
3 ?t
b ecomes t he ligh t of life ; the explana t ion o f t he nal
trus t ins t ead of perfec t science in which human life has to
b e lived O ne nds t he Innite cas t ing i t s dark shadow
in Lucretius an d in David Hume i n S chopenhauer
and Herbert S pencer : Philo in Hume s D ialogues c o n
cernin g Na t ural Reli g ion is S cottish spokesman of
t hose wh o j ud g e reality unapproacha b le o n accoun t o f
i t s mys t erious inni t y
B u t inni ty t urns its divine
I ll u s tr a

170

P HI LOSO P H Y

TH E I S M

or

a t ing b e t ween t he universal nescience o f t he t o t al scep t i c

and the tranquil trust in providential moral order o f t h e
theis t in proportion as the physical pantheism decline s
into t o t al d oub t o r becomes invigorated by accep t ance o f
some o f t he ethical postulates tha t cons t itute theism
The S pirit o f the t ime asks which o f t hese t hree atti
Whi h f
th
thr
t
udes
reason
j
us
t
ies
as
the
nal
interpretation
o f man s
i s th m st
r s n b l l i fe i n Nature
Mus t we be al i enated from what w e
t ti t d ?
experience in a feelin g o f t he ultima t e meaninglessness
o f t he whole
o r is a divine reconcilia t ion possi b le
on
reasonable t erm s ? I f the last wha t is the mos t real
recon ciliation th a t a g ood man can reach with a view t o
c o operating as it were with t h e O mnipresen t Power in
the innite or nally mysterious universe o f reality ; and
h ow may this be best expressed in terms of philosophy ?
Is it a wholly physical rela t ion of o n e th i ng t o another
th i ng ; o r mus t it be conceived as t h e relation o f a p er s o n
t o a P er son myself in person al rela t ion t o Perfec t
Goodness personied ?
The answer to this ques t ion involves an an swer to
A m I nl y

ano t her
A m I only a th i ng or am I also a p er son ? Am
I obliged to believe that I origina t e acts for which I can
p rs on ?
reasonably be bla m ed o r praised ; o r must I think of what
are called my ac t s in a wholly physical o r non moral w ay ;
nding t ha t t hey are n o t really mine bu t vaguely m ani
fe s t a t i o n s o f Unkn o wable Power there b ein g n o act that
comes into exis t ence for which I alone am responsible ?
I s t he Universal Power manifes t ed only in and throu g h
continuous sequen ces in th i ngs ? May n o t this Power be
more fully and charac t eris t ically revealed in and through
moral agen t s called p ersons s o far independent o f the
Universal Power as tha t each of them is a b le to b r i ng i n to
,

es e

ea o

ee

01

exi s ten ce ei th er

A n d th er e
for e n a ny
i n a m o ra l
e at i o n t o
c ti e

r l

v
oral
R s on ?
ea

wh a t

ou gh t or

wh a t

ou gh t n ot

to

ep

i st ?

I must n o w ask e m phatically whe t her the deepes t

and truest interpre t a t ion o f hu m an experience i s that
i n wh i ch all i s re g arded merely as phys i cal o r non moral
i n which self
conscious a ency i t self is only a physical
?
i
e ven t i n the con t i nuou s natural evolu t on
Is not a
deeper an d truer n al interpretation needful accordin g
to which all is n ally unfolded in the li g ht o f mora l
,

g
C

P E R F E C T GOO DN E SS P E R SO N I F I ED

1 71

re a son popularly called conscience with its sense o f

re m orse for what is ill done personally and its absolute
i m perativeness ? If this last is the nal relation of the
three primary da t a w e then nd ourselves in a universe
that is p h ysi ca lly u nin t elligible i n the end in its re g ress
into the unbeginning pas t and its progress in t o the u m
endin g fu t ure ; b u t which notwi t hstandi n g this quantita
tive in ni t y inevitably assumes towards us moral t rust
worthiness and practical intelligi b ility as the revelation
of Perfec t Moral Reason s o tha t its secret concealed
from natural science in the nal mystery o f physical
causali ty is revealed (by implication ) for all hu m an pur
poses I S not t his t he ri al a t ti t ude which I ough t in
f aith to adop t ? It is to trea t the universe as the
revelation t o m e of perfec t m oral Personality an d n ot
merely as an unbeginnin g and unendin g succession o f
physical changes Is no t this the interpretation which
conscience and reli g ion when developed put upon what
would otherwise be a t last a physical as well as moral
chaos ? Moral personication of the physically inni t e
un iverse t ranslates its scien t ically in soluble causal prob
l e m into on e tha t may be morally o r humanly solved
Natural science leaves u s at las t in an in ni t e S phere
the centre of which is every where and the circumference
n owhere Conscience with its implicates of personi ed
m oral obli g ation and S pirituality in man and God enable s
man to read the daily dram a o f life in t he gradual evo l u
tion o f inorganic and organic nature as nally intercourse
o f moral being with the Moral Power thus revealed ; a n d
shows us ourselves t o ourselves as living in what is more
than a physical succession because also under its hi g hes t
ideal the perfect order o f moral Providence
Thus moral reason teaches u s not only t hat t he Univer S t h t
w
s al Power exis t s but what t he character of t he Universal
g
Power mus t be It expresses n ot the m ean i ngless vo i c e o f p t m ll y
1
surrounding incognisable Power bu t the hopeful voice $
o f surroundin g morally trustworthy Power ; a voice t hat
P
h
y
s
i
l
absolutely sustains t he faith venture in a n atural order
that will n o t n ally put u s t o confusion when w e t rust it
either in the actions o f com m on life o r in our scien t ic ni ng nd
,

lo

r ac

30

ca

1 72

d g
c h ang e

u n en

in
.

PH I LOSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

verica t ions inasmuch as i t is realised as providen t ial

activity o f perfec t goodness ins t ead o f nally inexplicable
physical necessity I n t his reco g ni t ion of perfec t goo d
ness at t he root of all I nd myself a t h ome everywhere
because everywhere in a t rus t wor t hy universe which
g ives t o i t s mos t distan t place an d i t s remotes t t ime a
signicance and friendliness t ha t transforms an d recon
ciles the otherwise aliena t i ng physical in nite This is

th e ligh t tha t li g h t eth every man th a t cometh in t o t he

world
t he peace of God t ha t passe t h understandin g

O ne may t ake the win g s of the morni n g and y to th e

u tt ermos t par t of t he universe only t o nd th er e the

sam e personied g oodness which is t he supreme co nc ep
t ion h er e an d s o may everywhere recognise and rest in

God
In this sense God dwelle t h wi thin all t hin g s
a b ove all thin g s benea t h all t hings a b ove by power b e
neath by sustentation wi t hin by su bt le ty rulin g above
con t aini ng b elo w encompassing without pene t ra t ing
wi thin everywhere sustaining by rulin g ruling by su s
taining penetrat i ng b y en compassing e ncompassin g by

pene t ra t ing
This is t he lan g ua g e of reli g ion especially
in Christian relig ion wi t h i t s emphatic proclamation of
inni t e mercy as t he implicate o f innite g oodness ; with
consequen t implication o f the purpose o f Perfect Goo d
ness to m ake all bad persons in t he universe good so far
as t heir personal power to make t h emselves b ad permits
The cru d e ideas of reli g ion in children or in t he chil d
hood o f t he race and the inferior con cep t ions o f primi t ive
m o rality are really irrelevan t t o t he validity of the u n
folded religious concep t ion I t s j ustica t ion lies i n wha t
it is foun d to imply : t his is n ot righ t ly discredi t ed by the
m eanness o r incoherence of many m anifes t a t ions o f r e
l igi o n
The crude and repulsive forms which t he con t en t s
and implica t es o f either physical o r spiri t ual experience
a t rst and afterwards assumed mus t n o t prej udice t hem
at their present s t age or in a s t ill fuller unfolding The
ma t hema tical calculus is no t trea t ed as illusion b ecause
infants an d tri b es o f savages have confused ideas of number
The postulates o n which educated intelligence no w relies
are presented in his t ory in various degrees : we accep t
,

1 74

P H I L OSO PH Y

CF

TH E I S M

handled by m an when i ts n al problem is re g arded as a

The unbe g inning and unendi n g
wh ol ly p h ysi ca l problem
m aterial rebels against t he li m its of an intelligence m eas
When ni t e in t elligence is
u r e d by sensuous quantity
thus required t o do innite work it must either beco m e
paralysed by paradoxes tha t arise in i t s atte m p t t o image
the necessarily unima g ina b le to subordinate e t ernity to
time o r immensi ty t o place as the physical speculator
h as to do when he resolves to dispose o f them only
physically
Man in the fulness o f his being man
m oral and reli g ious as well as man the scientic observer
mus t b e i n exercise
when he is confronted with the
nal ques t ion ; and a religious conception of the whole in
which t he physical o n e merges in t he end is what has
to be looked fo r in in t elli g ence like t he human tha t i s
intermedia t e b etween omniscience an d nescience
Phy si l
Na t ural science accordingly is arrested by reason when
1
the
na
t
uralis
t
proceeds
t
o
take
the
nal
question
within
$ r sn
l min t s h i s own prov i nce The check i s ad m i n i stered Kant s
ml
reasoning
seems
to
imply
by
showing
t
he
contradic
t
ions
f
m
i n which we are landed if w e insist upon approaching the
inni t e reality n o t wi t h o u r en t ire spiri t ual humanity
but only with t he da t a an d presuppositions of reaso n as
measured by sense Faith in physical order gives support
indeed t o the veried hypotheses o n wh ich scientic
pro g ress turns ; but cosmical faith may mislead in the
e n d unless man can reasonably put eternal t rus t in the
moral perfec t ion o f t he Universal Power; ; and regard e x
r i e n c e not as an aimless procession o f sequences which
e
p
m a y in t he end play h i m false b u t a s manifested m oral
providence E ven physical interpreta t ion i n its faith in
the steadiness o f order and the adap t ation o f natural order
to human intelli g ence proceeds t aci t ly upon a m oral and
religious concep t ion o f the Whole H u ma n na t ure forces
u s t o acknowledge in existence more t han p h ys i ca l nature
if man is more than sentient
This nally religious meaning o f the t emporal drama
ph y si
F
l f ith
canno
t
be
logically
proved
assumed
: but physical order
n n t r l
or d er p m i n all sc i en t i c ver i cat i on i s assumed w i th ou t r ea son
pp s es whe n religious faith in the perfect goodness o f the U ni
,

ca

3 0 8 11

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cu

a e

1 11 I l o

T ea

or

f a
i

a u

su

E R F E C T GOO D N E SS

P E R S C NI F I E D

175

versal Power is withdrawn : wi t hout this deeper fai t h the m r l

n
te m poral process m ay be supposed at any time to subside i gg
into chaos to the confusion o f in t elli g ence an d m oral U ni v rs l
w r
P
reason ; s o t hat the basis even o f physical in ference m ay
The agnostic n aturalist is
t urn out t o be a broken reed
e xpressing unconfessed moral faith when he proceeds upon
the validity of verication
for he is taking fo r granted
tha t scienti c intelligence will n o t be pu t t o confusion
w h en i t shows its t rust in the Universal Power by i n
Their p a st order
d u c ti ve ways o f deali n g with even t s
unless it is s o rein f orced b y
o f se quence i s no t reaso n
m oral faith as that nature is accepted as manifesta t io n
o f A ctive Moral Reason and t herefore incapable o f i m
posing upon u s diabolical illusion when we daily trust in
its physical unifor m ities
o

ce

A n idea o f t his sort was perhaps unconscio u sly at the A m r l

h
bo t to m o f t he vindica t ion of the veracity of human na t ure E
ggi
g
f
which Descar t es hints in his a u to b io
a n d its facul t ies
i rs
v
graphical explanation of his o w n philosophical recovery
y
from a s t ate o f ten t at i ve doub t about everyth i ng H o w i m p l i d i
d o I know he had asked himself t ha t even in what m y
faculties mos t certainly assure me of th ey m ay n o t after all t hi v ind i
f
?
be deluding me
My rela t ion to my surro u ndin g s may

be nally either de t er m ined blindly o r determined not s ing?

a ccording t o perfec t moral reason but to di a bolic al caprice
F o r instance am I reasonably sure that I h ave a body
only because I see my body ; or tha t other person s
only because I cannot help belie vin g this ? H o w
e xis t
can I j ustify the f ai t h which I indulge in that the
c ustomary course of nature is s o unifor m and reliable
t hat I m ay expect similar issues to those which w e re
evolved under like conditions in the past ? O r what
assurance can o n e have when he looks b ack into t h e pas t
in m emory ; o r into t he distant or future in scientic
Why may n o t the scien t ic understanding
c alculation ?
d eceive in th e future even al t hough it may never happen
to have deceived in t he pas t ? H o w do I know t hat wak
i ng percep t ion i s n o t as illusory as a drea m in sleep ?
E or all these may be experiences in a universe in which
o a
l

un

e o

1 76

PH I LOSO P H Y

T H EIS M

OF

t he Universal Power is b lind or insane o r perhaps a

diabolical providence
T h t r st
Bu t if ins t ead o f t his I delibera t ely presupp ose per
w rt h in ss
f
e c t ly good omnipo t en t and omnipresen t Power e t ernally
f
p i
o
operative
I
am
only
g
iving
expression
t
the
fai
t
h
t
ha
t
n
p
s pp s s is a t the roo t of all o t her faith deeper than which I
t h t th
canno t g o If G o d or Perfect Goodness is suprem e
xist n
p r s nt d ex t ernal n ature and my ori g inal facul t ies cannot delude
t
in
s ns s me For this w ould b e to suppose t ha t t h e Universal
n
d in
Na t ure an d my n a t ure are in contradictio n s o t hat I migh t
i
n
b e o b liged throu g hou t my experience t o b elieve a lie
i t t b
b l i v d i n The presupposi t ion that for b ids the entrance of thi s
t o t al scepticism is t he presupposi t ion tha t God or Perfect
Goodness i s omnipresent and omnipoten t
The trust
wor t hiness o f my ori g inal na t ure and the in t erpre t abili t y
u
e
r
e
s
o
s
the
cons
t
an
t
ac
t
ion
of
o f universal na t ure
pp
p
m orally perfec t Power a t t he hear t o f t he Whole
This is no t direc t ar g umenta t ive proof : when w e
Th i s i n t
n l
t
ry
t
o
make
it
s o it b ecomes circular reasoning
I
t
is
si n fr m
p r mi ss s only the conscious expression o f a postula t e wi t hou t ta ci t
b t r
g practical assen t t o which human knowled g e and human
n iti n
f
n
ss r y agency mus t dissolve in t o t al dou b t The t ruth t ha t one
p st l t
nds in t he heart of a t temp t s to vindica t e the t r u s t w o r th i
ness o f our original faculties o r co m m on rational sense
is t ha t God O mnipotent Goodness is unconsciously
presupposed in t he reliableness of experien ce I f I do
no t at leas t taci t ly indulge in t his moral faith I cannot
even make a beginnin g in anything
For unless in
fac t I am j us t ied in interpre t ing t he universe as t he
manifesta t ion o f what in i t s ul t imat e principle is per
m oral order and perfect goodness phen omena
s o ni ed
canno t be interpreted even physically as in t h e natural
sciences an d in the common sense perceptions and acts
o f daily life
A gnos t icism as to e t hical reli g ion carries in
i t universal a g nos t icism inclu ding physically scien t ic
paralysis as well as religious paralysis In t repidly pur
sued i t is to t al anarchy o r lawlessness
Cos m ic faith
depends on ethical trus t in t he universe o f reali t y ; an d
t his moral faith in i t s reli g iou s form b ecomes t heistic
O t herwise even what original hum an na t ure canno t help
,

ex

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1 78

PH I L OSO P H Y O F TH E I S M

The consum m a t ion o f Mr S pencer s specula tion is t hat

S i n nd
R ligi s a dual universe o f m aterial an d men t al appearances is
N s ci n
the temporal manifestation o f e t ernally Unknowable
Po wer
A ccumula t ed argumen t s and illus t rations pave
t he way to his conclusion that the Power underlying
appearances is t otally and fo r ever inco g nisable from
the limi t ation o f human intelligence Common sense he
see m s to s ay postula t es an ultimate Po wer ; science
proves that this Power canno t be what we can think ;
psychology shows w h y w e ca n not and ye t are com
ll
f
to
believe
in
i
t
and
in
this

nal
asser
t
ion
a
e
e
d
o
;
p
l e al i t y utterly inscrutable Religion nds an asser t ion
essentially coinciding with its o w n
We are men t ally
obliged to re g ard every phenomenon in experience as
the manifestation o f Power by which we are acte d o n
O m nipresence is in deed unthinkable ; yet as experience
discloses no bounds t o t he universe w e are una b le to
think limits to omnipresen t Power b u t science teaches
us that it is Power Incomprehensible A nd this conv i ction
o f Incomprehensible Power is wha t gives rise to religion
an d expresses itself in worship Religion he sugges t s
h as vainly s t r u g gled t o u n ite more or less s cience with its
inevitab l e n escience while S cience has vainly tried t o
con quer t his reli g ious nescience as t hough it were able
to convert it in t o S cience
P e rmanen t peace between
Reli g ion and S cience is possible only when S cience b e
comes convinced that its explana t ions are proxima t e and
rela t ive and when Religion becomes convinced tha t it is
only t he sentimen t of that which mus t be for ever i n ex
plica b le A ccordingly Mr S pencer would divorce S cience
and Religion in the distribu tion o f goods
He would
assign to S cien ce all human knowledge such as i t seems
t o be and reserve all h u m an ignorance such as it must
be for Religion Reli g ion is the Unintelli g ible Feelin g
in which Knowle d ge t ha t is only seeming inevitably
merges at las t
Consciousness of being always in the presence of U n
E mp t y
s ns f
knowable
Power
seems
to
be
Mr
S
pencer
s
nal
atti
t
ude
U nk n w
towards t he u n i verse in which we are having our bein g
bl P w
s m n s
S tric t ly interpreted t his is t horough goin g ag nos t icism

c e

ce a

ou

ce

e o
o

er ,

E R F E C T GOO DNE SS P E R SO N I F I ED

1 79

to t al nescience : and t his as I have repea t edly sugges t ed n l t

leaves no roo m fo r m an to express himself at all about
if
f
y
t
hing
otherwise
than
in
t
he
form
a
question
n
o
n v rs
a
i
h
e ven t hus ; for wholly scep t ical interroga t ion necessarily
dies in birth : i t can only be a still b orn question Y et the
philosophy o f Mr S pencer consis t s o f m ore than universal
uestioning
I
t
s
nega
t
ive
assertion
of
nal
Unknowable
q
ness is co m bined with many positive assertions
The

Po wer is a f r m ed posi t ively to be a

U nknowable

manifested Power : w e are told t hat the Power

ma n ifested i n th e u n i ver s e is unknown and unknowable

But how can Power that makes i tself manifest in o u r

material and spiritual experience be wh olly u nknown ?
That looks like the self con t radictory assertion tha t the
Power is at once m anifested and not manifes t ed t hat
w e know t ha t it exists but wi t hou t being able t o predi
an y thin g o f it n o t even exis t ence o r existence
c ate
only when t he word is e m ptied o f all meaning That
which manifest s itself m us t be known as far as th e
manifesta t ion o r revelation goes
Tha t t he Inni t e
Reality stretches wi th ou t li mi t b eyond t he manifesta t ions
tha t are presen t ed in t he physical moral and religious
experience o f m en including o f course the rational

pos t ulat es involved in this experience need no t t rans

for m t he light tha t is w i th i n th e eocp er i en ce into t he dark
n ess of total ignorance E ven if it could do this so long
as t here is light enough re m aining to enable on e t o make
t he o n e ne g a t ive assertion o f i ts e t ernal unknowable
ness he mus t have enough o f knowledge abou t the Power
manifested in the universe t o j ustify this nega t ion Bu t
Mr S pencer re t ains a good deal more than wholly nega
t ive knowledge His Unknowable Power r evea ls i tself in
ways t hat on his o w n showing ad m it o f a hierarchy
o f sciences being formed
which in t erpre t some o f i ts
And th e human sciences o f
e xperienced m anifes t a t ions
t he revelations which the Unknowable Power m akes
o f itself are presented by Mr S pencer i n elaborate c o
The Unknowable Power is s o much mani
o rdina t ion
fe s te d tha t man is able to generalise i t s proceedings
c onstructive and des t ructive and t hus t o describe no t e
,

in

180

PH I L OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

wor t hy charac t eris t ics o f its customary b ehaviour

It
seems by his accoun t t o be a Power which in i t s
sensuous manifesta t ions is revealing i t self S lowly and
g radually in evolu t ionary order
A t a s t age in t his
process he nds s t a t es of human consciousness em erg
i ng in persis t en t correla t ion with organic mo t ions ; s o
t ha t external phenom ena are accompanied o r followed
b y correla t ive psychical phenomena The hierarchy o f
t he n atural sciences in which t hose m anifestations o f

t he Unknowable Power are c o ordina t ed is surely a

s t an d i n g proof tha t t he Universal Power is n o t in every
way unknowable
The veried con t en t s o f the sciences
o f matter and min d are a considera b le con t ri b u t ion t o
prac t ical knowled g e o f t he Universal Power wi t h implied
t rus t t oo in i ts s t eady cond u c t a t leas t in man s physical
in t ercourse with i t
How far t he revela t ions o f t he Universal Power t ha t
a r e wi t hin
reach i n t he physical aes t he t ical moral
an d reli g ious experience o f m en with t he indispen sa b le

S piri t ual implica t es o f t hat experience

ho w far these
carry man o n t he way t o omniscience or inni t e know
led g e is of course a fur t her ques t ion E nou g h t ha t the
Universal Pow er is n o t wh o lly unmanifes t ed or unr o
vealed
I t is dou b tless only a physical G o d an d a
physical religion t ha t we have in t he sequences of sense
presen t ed evolu t ion ; in t erpreted in t he sor t o f na t ural
t heology comm only called na t ural science ; sus t ained b y
t he a t tenua t ed reli gious faith which t aci t ly en t ers even
in t o physical fai th F o r t his gives only a b oun d less and
endless universe of th i ngs no t recognising p er s ons a t all
in t he moral meanin g o f personali t y
This p h ilosophy seems t o oscillate b e t ween t he phase o f
Pan t heism which in t erpre t s t he universe as a par t ial
revelation of inni t e n o n moral Power and t he Nescience
o f t o t al scep t icism
Y e t t here is in i t a t aci t t heis tic

fai t h so far as na t ure is t rea t ed as wor t hy of con dence

relia b le wha t m ay b e t aken for a t rue revela t ion o f t he
Universal Power s o far a t rus t worthy universe ; n o t
ei t her a b lind o r a dia b o l ical universe tha t may a t any

momen t paralyse human ac t ivi t y and in t elli g ence perhaps

.

ani

fe s t ed

owe

c ann o t

be

h o ll y
u nk n o wn
w

an d u n

k nowab l e

O s cill tion
b tw en
P nt h e
a

i s m an d
P yr rh o n
i sm
.

182

PH I LOSO PH Y

TH EI SM

OF

h ar d ly less reasonable to insis t t ha t if man s nal rela t ion

t o God is m oral o r personal Perfec t Goodness mus t b e
t he subj ect of successive conscious sta t es o f personal lif e
like those of h u man in t elligence
E x ampl s
A human kn owledge o f what at last inni t ely passes
f 1

human
knowled
g
e
prac
t
ical
knowledge
o f wha t is a t last
n w1 3g
is
phys i cally i nco g n i sable
i llustrated
all round t he
f th t
W hi h
horizon
o f human experience
Take
examples
O
ne
can
p ss s h
m d r demonstra t e the g eometr i cal rela t i ons of gures ; ye t t he
m
i
Immensi t y t oward w hich all ni t e places shapes and
:ggpiim sizes inevita b ly carry t hough t is found to t ranscend huma n
l t iv i m
agin ati on
unders t andin g ; b u t human unders t anding does not o n
t his account rej ec t E uclid as a b un dle of unwarran t ed
and illusory conclusions A g ain I am o b liged to t hink
of even t s as before and af t er and I nd t hat I can m ake
reasonable u s e of a chronolo g ical t able ; ye t I canno t
fa t hom t he mys t ery of the t wo e t ernities into which I am
necessarily carried Fur t her t he manifestations o f na t ural
causali ty presented in sen se are interpretable in science
an d fo r prac t ical human purposes al t hou g h t hey are all at
las t involved in the impenetrable causal m ystery o f u n
beginni n g regress and endless pro g ress
S i n on r oga s
In t hose cases I u nderstand i f I am n o t obli g ed
i n telligo
as t he condi t ion o f understan din g t o think in images
the mys t eries in t o which they resolve themselves I s i t
o t herwise with man s religious faith in t he Universal
Power ? This t o o su gg es t s ques t ions which m an can as
li t tle answer a b ou t a Being as inaccessi b le as Immen
from t he spaces t ha t can be comprehended in
s i t y is
gures o r as Et ernity is from t h e periods t ha t can b e
m easured in t ables o f chronology
I am no t obli g ed
t o be agnos t ic a s re g ards either t he places o r t he periods
because Im m ensi t y and Et erni t y raise a multitude of
ques tion s which man can never answer May n o t moral
and reli g ious experience o f persons includin g i t s n ec es
sary pos tulates reveal what is even e t ernally true
wh i le i t s ultimate problem s
r ela ti vel
e
t
ernal
t
ru
t
h
y
perplex man wi t h con t radic t ions if he t ries to conquer

them I do n o t see w h y unless I wish t o be deceived

I must surrender as delusion either my physical o r my
reli g ious t rus t only b ecause human knowled g e cannot
,

1 11 0

ah

'

E R F E C T GOO DNE SS P E R SO N I F I E D

183

become innite intel ligence ; or because man s i n telligo

disappears when he is asked to trans form it into the
O mniscience from which fai t h and mys t ery are w holly
elimin ated
Those who with Mr S pencer turn away from a nally
u ninterpretable universe in despair s o t hink and act he

tells us pathetically no t because th ey wish t o do this

bu t because they mus t : self deception see m s t o him the
o n ly alterna t ive to despair He acknowledges t hat there
is n o pleasure i n t he consciousness o f bein g an inni t esimal
bubble on a globe which is itself innitesi m al co m pared
with the t otality of thin g s Those on who m t h e unpi ty
ing rush o f changes inic t s su fferings which are O ften
withou t re m edy nd n o consolation in the thought that
they are a t the mercy of blind forces which cause in d if
fer e n t ly now the des t ruction o f a s u n and now t he death
o f an animalcule
C onte m pla t i on o f a universe which i s
with out conceivable beginning o r end and without in t el
ligible purpose yields no sa t isfac tion The desire t o know
what it all m eans is no less s t rong i n t he agnostic than in
o t hers and raises sympathy with them Failin g to nd
an
in
t
erpretation
himself
he
feels
a
regretful
inabilit
y
y
to accep t t he interpretation others o ffer
Y et these
striking sentences do not af t er all describe a wholly unin
t e r p r e t a b l e u niverse
F o r t hey i m ply knowledge that the

Power everywhere a t work i s blind and that man li ves

o n a globe that is
inni t ely small co m pared wit h what

it see m s is known to be a t otality : they i m ply too

t hat enough is knowable abou t the Universal Power to

j ustify assertions about realities which must not be

a bandoned for d eceiving fancies

T hey i m ply trust in
the physical universe ; they discard as self deception th e

religious trus t t hat is the guarantee o f the physical both

faiths logically unproved but both j usti ed in prac t ical
reason inasmuch as witho u t t hem hu man life is baseless
and its ideal unapproachable
Reli gious faith in t he Power that is universally opera
tive in the ever chan g ing universe is not equally de
ve l o e d in all men
n
o
r
o
widely
among
men
as
the
s
p
degree o f faith involved in natural science H o w and w h y

is this s o ? C oleridge s u ggests an answer : It is no t in

A r e m en

h r fo r
n lly e

e e

d u c ed t o
a n o t ic
e
ai

g s
d sp r

s s
F i th n d
S p i r it l
F i th
S en

u ou

ua

184

PH I L O S O PH Y O F T H E I S M

power to disclaim our n ature as sentien t beings ; but

i t is in o u r power t o disclai m o u r n a t ure as moral

beings
In reco g nising t he nally e t hical and divine

cons t itution of t he cos m os

I assume a somethin g t he
proof o f which n o man can give t o another y e t every
man may nd for himself If any man asser t that h e
canno t nd it I am bound to dis b elieve him
I can
no t do o t herwise wi t hou t unset t ling the very founda t ions
o f my o w n moral na t ure
Th e reasoners on b oth sides
commence by takin g something for granted
But th e
pure physicist assumes wha t according to himself he
nei t her is n o r can be u nder an obli g a t ion of moral
reason t o assume
If h e uses the word obligation h e
can mean only physical necessity To over t hrow faith
i n au g ht higher than physical n ecessity is the very pur
pose o f his argument He desires you only t o ta ke f or
r
a
n
e
t
ha
t
all
reali
t
y
is
include
d
in
physical
nature
t
d
g
a n d he may then safely def y y o u t o w ard o ff his con

Tha t fai t h in
e lusion t ha t n othing real is excluded
i ts spiritu al degree o ften fails to rise into consciousness is
exemplied by contrast in t he men who are types o f man

at his best and hi ghest wh o represen t tha t in hum ani t y

w hich while normal is n ot universally awakened fel t
an d seen by saint and prophe t i n others dorman t or
o b sc u red This recalls word s lon g ago u t tered in Pales t ine

Blessed are t he pure in hear t fo r t hey shall s ee God

e
i
v
e
r
o
f
The
inevitable
postula
t
e
Perfec
t
u
m
n
sse
v
e
o
Q
Su mmar y
O mnipresen t Goodness presupposed in t he reliability o f
experience implies t he Et ernal Gospel G o d is love
This t herefore i s the taci t moral postula t e o f all human
in t ercourse wi t h t he Universe through experien ce and its
implica t es The gospel o f inni t ely merciful love implied
in omnipo t ent g oodness is la t en t in t he cons t itution o f
m an ; which accordingly responds to t he Chris tian con
s c i ou s n es s of this love nding t h a t faith in God m ay b e
come the perfec tion o f human in t elligence O mnipoten t
Goodness is at on ce t he t acit moral presuppo sition and
highest ou t come of human experience This may b e rec
o gni s e d in ano t her w ay at the poin t of view we are next
t o occupy
our

186

T h ei s t i c

$ 1311

ly

t ac i t
o s t u l at f d

i n e x p er i

en c e

P H I L OSO PH Y O F TH E I S M

These ques t ions lead to fur t her investi g a t ion o f theis t ic

t rust as man s n al a t ti t u d e t owards the universe This
may be contemplated from the point of view occupied

by those wh o o ffer proofs o f t he exis t ence o f God

But the word proof must be used i n a qual i ed mean
in g when s o applied
I f theis t ic faith is itself th e
implied condition o f a ll proof it mu s t be incapable

o f scientic proo f
Did y o u deduce you r own being ?

asks Coleridge
E ven t his is less absurd than the
concei t o f deducin g the Divine B ein g Never would y o u
have had t he notion had you not had t he idea ra t he r
had no t the idea worked in you like t he memory of a
name which we canno t recollec t yet feel that we have ;
which reveals i t s exis t ence i n the mind only b y a restless
an t icipation ; an d proves its a p r i or i actuality by th e
almos t explosive instan t anei t y with whic h it is welcomed

and recognised
Moral trust in t he U n iversal Power i s
the postulate of a nite experience Y et it may have its
consistency with reason philosophically unfolded
Are
t he di f cul t ies involved in i t s ac t ion a t the roo t of
human na t ure as g reat as the di f culties involved in
its agnostic suspension ? A nyway in dealing wi t h the
ra t ionale o f t he religious conception of human life phil
osophy is dealing with something that is already involved
in man s experience already manifesting i t self in human
feeling conduct an d t hought We do not need t o bring
i t there by reasoned proofs : indeed we never bring i t
into existence in the form o f a conclusion directly evolve d
from nite premisses I t exis t s spontaneously benea t h ex
r i e n c e although its conscious grow t h in t he individua l
e
p
m ay be repressed o r a t leas t arrested in a rudimen t ary
s t age The veried indu ctions o f science show unproved
moral t rus t in spon t aneous exercise ; but inquiry into
t he reasonableness of this t rust in the Universal Powe r
is always open to the philosophical analyst w h o cares to
reec t upon wha t he is ac t ually living by S o too with
the more distinc t ly religious faith o n which physical t rust
itself in t he en d depends I t O pera t es before it is u n
folded p h il O S O p h i c al ly S t ill it i s open to t he philosophi c
analys t to reduce t o i ts elemen t s the complex fac t o f

O MN I P O T E N T GOO DNE SS

religious reliance on t he nal principle o f t he universe

He m ay inquire whether a fai t h deeper than t he faith
f ound in science is only an ana chronism likely t o die
o u t gradually in t he fuller evolution of humanity ; o r o n
t h e contrary an inevitable implica t e of experience which
beco m es m ore enlightened in proportion to t he advance o f
m en in t hough t fulness and goodness

What are called de m ons trations and logical arg u A ll g d

m l gi

s
m ents t hat God exists are really more o r less success
l t l
fu l analyses o f the ra t ional i m plicates o f spontaneo u s trust l g i l nd
nt l g i
l
i n t he Universal Power
O n wh a t s or t of P ower does faith p r fs
rely ; an d are w e j usti ed in this absolute reliance ? In f t h is m
what consists the reasonableness of the concep t ion of
perfectly good Power n ally o p e ra ti ve ? These questions
u nderlie S O called theistic proofs each o f which t akes
its o wn w ay of showing the reasonableness of theistic
fai t h
Thus o n e w ay o f doing this is thro u gh what
is virtually a philosophical analysis of the principle of
causality t hat principle on which man rests when he con
te mp l ates the universe of change ; and this analysis i s a t
the root o f what i s called cosmological proof o f theis m
A nother w ay of showi ng t he reasonableness o f religiou s
fai t h has been observation o f ob trusive cases o f natural

o
f
adap t ation
means to ends especially ends tha t benet
man
nal causes as they are ambigu ously called
A dap t a t ions of this sort whether o r not they are s u p
posed universally t o pervade evolving na t ure at least
present t hemselves strikingly in organised m atter animal
and vegetable : the cons t ruction o f t he hum an eye is a
favourite example The universe is reported to aboun d
in curious and useful superhuman con t rivances m any o f
them signally adapted to promote human happiness and
i n t he lon g run t o improve m an towards whose indi
vidual evolu t ion and education the whole planetary evo l u
tion seems t o conspire ; as if the world were contrived
for or culmina t ed in th e evolu t ion o f m an In t his we

have the teleological explanation of religious faith and

t he teleolo g ical way of developing the religious concep t io n
o f the universe

These venerable proofs are now commonly supposed

.

e e

o o

co
ca

e eo

ca

o o

ca

oo

'

188
K

ant

gf
l

l og i c

c ri

PH I LOSO PH Y

TH E I S M

OF

t o have encoun t ered damagin g in tellec tual handli n g on

t he part o f Immanuel Kan t E ver since he criticised
them they have been more o r less discredi t ed The dis
credi t is proba b ly no t undeserved if any o f them is so
misconceived as to be t aken for a logical proof o f man s
They
m oral o r reli g ious fai t h in t he Universal Power
are discredi t ed s o far as t hey are ni t e arguments t ha t
pre t en d to de t ermine a conclusion which being innite o r
unconditioned is n o t de t ermina b le by the logic o f t he
unders t andi n g measured b y sense F o r reasoning becomes
a tissue o f paralogisms when i t t ries t o bring the innite
reality as a nite quan t i ty under lo g ical condi t ions

t ha t are adap t ed to what is nite Y e t those proofs

when each is resolved in t o i t s principle help t o illus t rate
the reaso n a b leness and humanity of t heis t ic fai t h
.

Take the Principle o f Causality E sti mate t he proof

OI
d in
t
hat
God
exists
because
t
he
world
must
b
e
caused
May
ie C l
p tion t he the i st i c i n t erpre t at i on o f t he un i verse be t rea t ed as
n
0 f th
f
a i th i n th e n a l for m a n d u lti ma te app li ca ti on of th e ca u s a l
n i v rs e
i ng
e ?
In
assum
as
we
must
t
he
dependence
of
r i n ci
l
p
p
every c h ange u pon a cause are w e no t assumin g i t s
dependence a t la s t o n the only origina tin g cause tha t

enters as an implica t e into human experience t ha t is to

say o n A ctive Moral Reason or perfe c t ly Reason a b le
W ill ? Consider what causality n a lly means and i n
volves
We all reco g nise causation as the uni versal
implicate o f experience in t his ever changin g world :
w e unavoidably proceed in life o n the supposition t hat
because we are livin g amon g chan g es we mus t be livin g
amo n g causes
The causal relation is o f all relations
t he most universal ; and for natural science physical
causation is nal It is the ca t egory which comprehend s
all change under i t self In t elli g en ce in man in a world
of change gives the rs t signs o f i ts activity in cravin g
vaguely for causes
Bu t wha t sets human in t elligence a g oing in search of
Wi t h t
f il
cause
an
d
wha
t
is
ul
t
ima
t
ely
mean
t
by
the
word
cause
;
s lity
l d when i t p o m ts to t ha t of wh i ch i n t ell i gence i s i n quest ?
th r
b e no
In an immu t able universe t here would be n o need for t he
I s Th ei sm
V

VG

au sa

co

ce

ou

cau a

e e c ou

190

PH I L OSO P H Y O F T H E I S M

t ain o ther phenomena Increasing knowledge of cons t ant

rela t ions be t ween ne w phenomena and t heir old e qu i va
lents is the minis t er o f h appiness to m ankind : human
pain s and pleasures are e ffects all dependent on natural

causes
on
causes in t he ou t side world and t hen on
t hose wi t hin t he human organism ; an d men are able s o
far t o direct t he causal currents in t o useful channels
Man as the servant o f nature as Bacon advises us can
do s o much an d s o much only as he has observed of t he
causal order of na t ure Human knowledge o f constant
sequences and hu m an power are correlatives Where the
na tural cause is no t perceived by man the natural e ffect
cannot b e secured by man : nature t o be co m m anded must
be obeyed : that which in o u r thought is the cause is
transformed in ac t ive life in t o o u r rule I t is only by
obedience to t he rules o f t he universe t hat m an can
live in a universe tha t is undergoin g const an t m e tam o r

h
o
o n which human thoughts sensibili t ies an d overt
s
e
s
p
actions are dependen t We are without o u r leave en
t angled while we live i n t he u niversal web o f natural
causa t ion
Y e t no t withstandin g its obvious u t ility the discovery
B t di
v
y f
o f merely n a t ural causes leaves the cravin g o f human
n t r l
intelligence dissa t ised For t he predecessor o u t o f whic h
s s
l v s
o f which the change
a
change
has
na
t
urally
emerged
and
v nt s n
i s a metamorphosis i ts elf e qually needs a causal pre
ll y n
p l in d
decessor
The discovered natural cause b eing only a
b
s
ff
nite
obj
ec
t
mus
t
itself
be
only
an
e
ec t I n seeking for
v ry n t
r l s a natural cause the mind is seeking for what is n ecessarily
i t s lf n d s
h
i
unsa
isfying
cause
to
be
found
if
i
t
t
o
give
t
T
s
e
pr d
ss r i n unconditional relief mus t be other than th e provisional
n d l ss
r
f
o
f
causes
registered
in
physical
science
each
these
o
;
r g ss
requires a precedin g natural cau se
The scien t ic d i s
c o ver y that oxygen and hydrogen are na t urally the causal
e quivalent o f water or the discovery t hat heat is a c o n
d i ti o n al m etamorphosis and e q uivalent o f modes o f
mo t ion h as brought t he discoverer n o nearer t he satis
faction which his complete spiri t ual consciousness de mands
t han he w as before he reached t hem notwithstandin g t he
useful command o f nature which growin g knowledge
p hy s ical
au s es

co

er

a u

c au

ea

ex

ec au

c au

ee

ce

e re

O M N I P O T EN T G OO D N E SS

191

na t ural causes carries wi t h i t The o l d form of each

new phenomenon as much needs t o be resolved in t o reason
as t he new form itself did ; and when w e have reached what
physical s cience accepts as i ts ideal we h ave still only
e nlarged o u r na t ural ou t look by a wider e m pirical general
The need for ori g inating cause which can alone
i s at i o n
remain s in other respec t s as urgen t as
s atisfy reason
before The search fo r wh olly n a tu r a l causes is like t he
search for the source o f a river t ha t has n o source A s
in addi ng ni t e spaces to ni t e S paces however vast t he
resul t ing space becomes we are obli ged t o believe tha t w e
a r e no nearer Imm ensity o r Boundlessness than we were
when w e began t o add ; or as m illions o f years form a
d uration t hat is really no nearer than a si n gle m o m ent
i s t o the unbeginning an d unending Dura t ion so t he
wi t h the
e ndlessly regressive search for n a t ural causes
discovery o f more and more ex t ensive physical laws o r
in the natural procedure leaves
c ustomary uniformities
us still in search o f the operative Power omnipresen t
thro u ghou t the na tural network
In truth n atural
and na t ural evolu t ion o f phenomena explain
c auses
n othing
Respo n se t o the ca u sal craving is only pro
visionally provided by them
They presen t an orderly
procession o f e ffec t s not the A gen t in t he universal
d rama
But is t he mere feeling o f discomfor t occasioned by
the ins u f ciency o f na t ural causa t ion a su fcient reason
fo r recognising more t han an ulti m ately inexplicable
n atural causality ?
I S not t his t o indulge in a ground

less conj ecture that since na t ural science canno t give

a l l w e desire
a divine C ause must exist ; because with
o u t God o u r dissatisfaction must continue
Is n o t this
to proceed upon the unproved pos t ulate tha t we canno t
be living in a universe tha t is a cons t an t source o f d is
a ppointed
desire ? A re men entitled to conclude tha t
because n a t ural science gives only unbeginning and n u
e nding sequence nally unexplained there must fo r our

relief b e something more ? D oes it follow tha t because

the material world appears to the sensuous understanding
t o b e na t urally in endless orderly sequence there must
of

B ut is o u r
ee in
of
d i s sat i s fac
tion W t
t i me e
n atu a
c au at i o n
a e a o n fo r
in
ai t
O m ni
o t ent

f l g

ih
h s r ly
r l
s
r s
f h

p
G o o dn s
es

1 92

PH I L OSO PH Y

TH E I S M

OF

t herefore exis t O mnipo t en t Will or Perfec t Goodness

eternally active ?
f l i ng
If all t hat could b e found in t his rela t ion were only an
O
il
m for t able feeling o f causal dissa t is fac t ion the u n
unco
gig t h
pr s
sat i sed causal c ravm g w ould surely be n o s u f Ci ent
rationale o f faith in nal omnipo t ence and good n ess
O f the seemingly unbeginning and unending evolution
n t ml
s s
of changin g phenomena only an insignicant por t ion
n ly
n
can come W i th i n t he person al experi ence of each man
it s l f n
i n s f i nt o r within the collec t ive experience e ven of the human
r s nf
e
race
To
go
beyond
th
i
s
narrow
exper
i
ence
t
h
n
o
f ith i n
G d
r
ou
n
d
o
u
n
e
l
n
n
as
f
ee
i
looks
like
sayi
g
t
ha
t
t
here
g
f
y
g

m us t be more t han n atural causation

t hat a wholly
physical conception o f t he world mus t b e fundamen t ally
misleadin g merely because the scien t ic supposi t ion is
u ncomfor ta bl e
when we t hink it o u t
A n d if na t u ral
causality mus t be the only causali t y t here is n o ground fo r
fai t h in a nally satisfyin g Power : w e must at last face
endless ch ange th a t scep t ical aspec t o f t he Inni t e
which dissolves moral trust in the idea of capriciou s

m
t e poral process evolu t ion without a cons t an t m orally
t rustworthy E volver The supposed cosmological proof of
the reality o f th e Divine E volver becomes only o u r vag u e
feelin g o f d issatisfaction wi t h all merely ni t e quan t i t y
,

ur

ee

es

es s

in

e en c e

a u

C au e

c e

ea o

or

But while n at ural causes t aken as ul t ima t e conceal

n t r l
God
man
as
m
oral
a
g
en
t
presen
t
s
and
reveals
Power
s ti n
l i v i y i n t h e form o f or i gi n a ti ng ca u se personally respons i ble
l
t
ffects
for
e
I
should
rather
ex
t
ernal
nature
s ay tha t
iggzgl g conceals G o d only if G o d is n o t otherwise revealed
G d th
S p ir it l as through S piri t ual experience Wi t h t his revelation
n t t
us symbol i c of t he
t i n t M n ex t ernal n a t ure i tself b ecom es for
v
l
divine : each fresh discovery o f a n atural cause may then
g0 g
be in t erpreted as on ly a fur t her and fuller revelation o f
t he eternal moral Providence of which n a t ural (s o called )

a g ency is the e ffect and expression A fter God has

b een found in t he m or a l experience o f m an which points
irresis t ibly t o intending Will as t he only kn own Cause
t ha t is unconditional or originating the discovery that
t his is t he natural or provisional cause of t hat is recog
W h il e

exc u s

a u

c au

ua

co

s i

a s

1 94

PH I L O S O P H Y O F TH E I S M

of th i s w e have wha t may j us t ify us in reading t he

universe in i t s continuous evolu t ionary process morally
an d re l i g iously as well as physically and biologically
I n phy si l
O f course n ature may also be read on ly physically o r
s
I
t
is
possible
by
t rictly in t erms of n a t ural causa t ion
:gfgg g
i nt r p r t d abstrac t ion o f all t ha t is spiritual i n m an to wi t hdraw
W it h
m oral colourin
as
it
were
from
t h e procedure o f even t s
l
v
g r d 13 th and to treat t he s u c c e ss mn as n on m oral I n deed natural
n t r l
science
requires
one
t
o
make
this
abstrac
t
ion
on
the
s ed
r i n Ci p l e of d i v i ded i n t ellectual labour ; and because i t s
s s
p
W h i h it
treatmen t o f phenomen a under m oral concep t ion s mi g ht
o nt m
dis t urb t ha t unbiassed search fo r physical causes o r
signs o f changes which is the ofce o f t he naturalis t
Na t ural science has to nd t he physical se quences in t he
universe t hat are cons t an t without re g ard to the moral
goodness o r badness o r their ori g inating cause
Thus t he molecular changes which succeed o ne an
S inn ers
t
other
in
the
b
rain
n
erves
muscles
an
d
external
or
g
ans
:isi
a mu rderer when he is enga g ed in a murder
of
t h l igh t
and also t he m olecular changes which occur in t he
sin
brain nerves m uscles and ex t ernal or g ans o f a sain t
which issue in an over t ac t o f philan thropy are
or n a tu r a l sci en ce alike n o n moral o r non religiou s ; t hey
f
are contempla t ed o u t of relation to conscience and
divine a g ency The series o f na t ural sequences in the
visible or g anism of the murderer is scientically as a d
mirable as those of which the visible or g anis m of t he saint
is the t heatre They are both in t erpreted under t he sa m e
concep t ion o f n a t ural causali ty ; and the natural causes
which t he organism o f the murderer illus t ra t es are n either
m ore moral n o r more immoral in themselves t han those

which lead up t o the m os t signal overt ac t o f al t ruism

The biology o f t he criminal
o r of religious adora t ion
m akes n atural s cience as well as t he b iology o f the sain t
Natural g ravita t ion and na t ural evolu t ion are nei t her
praiseworthy n or blameworthy They are methods a o
cording to which the Universal Power de t ermines t he
procession o f even t s
N o w j ust as the physical process o f grow t h and t he
Th
i v ers e
overt chan g es in t he organisms o f criminals and saints are
,

ca

e e

ex

g
0

c uSl

e re

a u

o r c au

c au

c e

c e,

O M N I P O T EN T GOO DNE SS

195

in t hemselves i ndi fferent t o t he moral concep t ions under f h ng

which they may be br ought l n that deeper interpretation

g;

g
o f the u n i verse i nto wh i ch the i deas o f moral obl i gat i on and i nt r
t d

P
personality enter s o too the continuous physical evolu t ion
which for all we can
o f t h e universe of caused causes
t ell is an unbeginning and unending process m ay i n like
manner be contemplated in abstractio n from t he omni
present opera t ive and responsible Power t ha t pervades t he
whole ; and t herefore in a b strac t ion from its m oral and
religious meaning In all na t ural sciences this abstraction
i s m ade ; leaving for their appropriated share in the inter
the
of
ce
of
lling
in
hitherto
r e t a t i o n o f the world
p
undiscovered terms in the re g is t er o f n a t ural sequences
a n d the at t ainmen t in t his w ay of more and yet more
physical generalisa t ions
E ach discovery in
e x t ensive
science is the discovery of some t hing in the sequence of
visible nat ure t ha t w as before concealed ; with t h e often
illu strated issue tha t persons are able t o live more happily
within the na t urally determined m achine To t hink of
t he world as t he natural process of organisa t ion and dis

or g anisa t ion the terms o f which men are bound by r e

gard for science and for t heir com fort to in t erpre t accordin g
to the es t ablished sequences th i s is t o t hink of t hings
as the wholly physical inquirer does B u t unless proof
is for t hcomin g t hat a conception higher t han a physical
o n e ye t in harmony with it is not consis t ent with reason ;
unless the di f cul t y o f a religious or op timis t in t erpre t a
t ion o f t he world can b e shown to be grea t er than an
atheistic or pessimis t interpretation ; unless the h omo
l n an at t enuated for m
mensu r a principle upon which
natural science i t self rests for b i d s t he t heis t ic inter
unless
proof
of
t
his
is
forthcoming
r et a t i o n
I
s ay
p
wha t is unreasonable in the religious concep t ion o f the
fac t s and laws which form the boast of m odern science ?
To invest t he discovered na t ural sequences wi t h a moral
and spiri t ual glory by reading the whole and in all its
parts in relation t o wha t is highes t in man and n o t in
relation t o his sensuous intelligen ce only t his is no t to
discredi t natural science b u t to inves t it wi t h a crown

In t he entrance of philosophy says Bacon when t he

o

e,

re e

1 96

P H I L OSO P H Y O F T HE I S M

secon d causes w hich are n ex t u n t o t he senses d o o ffe r

t hemselves t o t he mind of man if i t dwell and s t ay t here
i t may induce some oblivion o f t he Hi g hes t Cause ; b u t
when a m an passe t h o n fur t her an d seeth t he dependence
of causes an d the works o f Provi d ence then accordin g
t o t he allegory of the poe t s he will easily b elieve t ha t t h e
hi g hes t link of nature s ch ain mus t needs b e t ie d t o t he

foo t of Jupi t er s chair

The n a t ural and t h e reli g ious in t erpre t a t ion s o f t h e
w orld canno t conic t wi t h one ano t her if each discovery o f
a na t ural cause i s reco g n i se d as a lso a d i vm e revela t i on
inv o lvin g t he m oral providence t ha t con t inuously ma lees
na t ure Those educa t ed i n th i s concep ti on no longer s ee
in t he physical an t eceden t a usurper o f t he Un iversal o r
Divine Power Wha t g round is t here for the assump t ion
t ha t t o n d t he na t ural cause of an even t is to rescue t ha t
even t as it were from divine a g ency ; and t ha t if t he
co n s t an t physical an t eceden t s of all th e chan g es t hat
occur in na t ure could b e de t ec t ed t here would t hen b e n o
S urely t he more successfully scien t ic
r oom fo r G o d ?
inquiry is applied t o t he sequen ce s presente d in ex
n
i
the
more
fully
God
is
revealed
an
d
if
we
could
r
e
ce
e
p
realise th e scie nt ic ideal by nding the n a t ural causes
o f all even t s we sh ould then b e in full possession o f t he
self revela t ion g iven in ou t ward nature of t he Perfec t
Person of whom t he ideal man is t he fain t sym b ol and
a d um b ra t ion
S uccessful search for t he ac t ual physical order o f t he
world is claimed as th e dis t in g uishing charac t er of modern
progress In t he early a g es o f t he world amon g imper
fec t ly educa t ed races and in d ividuals natural appear
an c es ord i nary as well as ex t raord i nary are referred t o
t he cap r i ci ou s personal ac tion O f spiri t s
In t his crude
imperfec t ly developed religion fea r is t herefore th e
characteris t ic sen t imen t
A ll visible m o t ions are t h e
animat ed m o t ion s o f foolish i f n o t wicked S piri t s Fire
air earth and water had each t heir separa t e spirits :
t hun der w as empha t ically t he voice of God The waywar d
a g en cy o f those incalculable forces obs t ruc t ed t he philo
sophical concep t ion of universal natural or d er S cienc e
,

I f all
n at u r al
c au s at i o n
i s n all y

iV i n e
au sat i o n
n at u a
c i en ce
.

r l

R el igi on

R ec o gni

c au

at i o n ,

111 3 139 3 1
4

c ap r i c

a en c

mu s

fgf f

in

nal

t io n
u ni

r et w

5f th

vers e

1 98

P H I L OSO PH Y

TH E I S M

OF

g n y t he con t rary each seems to present o n e side o f a truth

nd n t r l
agents i i i th e
m
co
mon
to
both
Dependence
on
persons
rd r n t

ss r i l y meaning o f a g ency tha t o u r m oral experience make s

n
in n i

w h o exert rational will seems t o

intelligible
agents
t nt
be t he only sa t isfying sor t of power o f which m an i s
aware It nds u nphilosophic expression in th e crude r
religions an d in t he supers t i t ions t hat even n o w confus e
Christian thou g ht which lar g ely fails to comprehend
how t he Power manifes t ed to man s senses mu st be a
Power that produces cosmos n o t chaos s o tha t th e
e ffec t s o f Divine a g en cy are universally orderly Bu t
scien t i c fai t h has t o be pur g ed o f its supers t itions as
well as religious fai th
Pro g ressive subs t itu t ion o f
na t ural order for capriciou s in t erferen ce n ee d not super
sede nal a g en cy tha t may b e conceived as perso n al ;
an d which in t he Perfec t Person must b e t he sustainin g
cen t re o f wha t is ultima t ely perfec t ra t ional order how
ever far tha t order may transcend man s limi t ed mean s
for interpre ti n g i t I t is af t er supers t i tion is exchanged
for t he theistic faith that t reats th e na t ural u niverse as
o n e form of t h e m a n ifes t at i on to m an o f O mnipresen t
S piri t t ha t religious thought an d scienti c t hough t c c
in ci d e ins t ead o f contradictin g o ne another T h en G o d
be comes m ore fully known t hrough fuller scientic ap
prehension o f divinely maintain ed sequen ces Neither
t he irre g ular agen cy o f a capricious S pirit nor t he c o n
stan t order of visi b le e ffec t s is m an s n al conception
o f existence
which recognises th e voice o f Conscience
i nvi t i n g us to comprehe n d the na t ural evolution as also
e t ernal moral providence
u al a

a u

ec e

co

s s

ry

S u mma

The lesson o f this lecture is t hat religiou s tho u g ht and

physically scie n t ic t ho u gh t a b ou t th e universe instead
o f destroying really stre n g then o n e another in their rec
o gni t i o n o f continuou s divine a ctivity
or endless crea
tion u nder forms of natural order For th e natural order
may be in t erpre t ed as a revelation o f perfec t ly reason
able W ill wi t h which man is cons t an t ly if often only
unconsciously in in t ercourse fo r g ood o r evil in p ro
,

O M N I P O T E N T GOO DNE SS

199

por tion as his individual will t ends t o assi m ila t io n wi t h

this Will o f God T h under is no longer t he voice O f an
interfering God because it is a s t artling phenomenon : it
is a revelation o f G o d because it is recognised as an event
t hat makes its appearance under divinely na t ural law in
t he orderly evolution
.

F or i f H

th u n

d r by l
e

aw ,

th e t

h u n d er

i s y et H i s V o i c e

200

L E C T UR E VI
O MN I P RE S E N T

I V IN E A D A P TA T I O N

W E have found in m an s m oral experience of a power

v
t ha t mus t be uncaused be cause responsi b le for i t s e ffec t s
relief fo r t he causal craving tha t is a t the roo t o f all
scien t ic inquiry
This relief comes t hrou g h moral
experience in a practical form ; n o t t hrough physical
experience with its un b eginning and endless su cces
sion of natural causes D elibera t e personal voli t ion for
which a person can be j ustly praised or blamed must
or ig i n a te in a p er s on w h o is m orally responsible
This
u nique example o f power m ay be taken as practically and
for u s a t ype of t h e mysterious Power cons t antly a t
work a t t he hear t o f things de t ermining the physical
order upon faith in whic h daily life and scien t ic induc
tion proceed The universe m ay be treated by man as
for him the revelation o f moral Power even if the terms

ra t ional will and moral reason represen t t he Innite

Power inadequa t ely
There are a t last t wo rival ways o f re g ardin g t h e
T w r iv l
l ti m t
universe
Th
ere
is
t
he
hypothesis
o f an un b eginning and
p o st l t s
unendin g physical succession o f changes me t aphorically

spoken o f as a chain an innite chain o f n on mor a l

sequences : there is also the hypothesis which withou t
re m oving t he inni t e mystery o f physical un b eginning
n ess and unendingness sees in th e manifes t e d universe o f
things and persons interpreted in science the cons t an t
revela t ion o f ac tive m oral Reason I t i s t rue t ha t both
t hese hypo t heses leave u s at las t enveloped in wha t is
R etro s p ec
ti e
.

a e

u a e

P H I LOSO P H Y

TH E I S M

OF

s l

This theis t ic interpretation O f natural causa t ion whic h

sees
Divine
Power
pervadin
g
physical
sequ
ence
can
b
e
t l e l gi l
n
distin g uished from t he teleological concep t ion o f the uni
p
t i n s f th
i n t he popular argument for G o d fro m so m e
verse
implied
ni v rs
striki ng superhu m an contrivances This sor t o f proof is
d i s tin
gu i sh e d
pop ular o n accoun t o f interes t ing ins t an ces foun d in
nature o f adap t ation t o hu m anly useful o r beautiful ends
In its more philosophical form it is recognition o f adapta
t ion in t he cosmical evolution i n a ll th e d eta i ls a nd as a

wh o le a n at u ral process that has been continuously leadin g

o n this planet
towards the evolution of Man with h i s
S piritual endo wmen t s For t h e universe in which we nd
ourselves d oes seem to be a universe which at leas t as i l
lustrated by this plane t o f ours has b een slo w ly m akin g
for the g radual developme n t o f p er s ons as i t s ideal goal
The fact t hat the natural evolu t ion is found t o aboun d
O bs r v
t i on f
in
no
t
a
b
le
cons
t
ructions
that
have
n o t been contrived by
n t r l
t he in t ending will o f man is pro b ably t he considera t ion
n st r e
t i ns
w h y t hey
tha
t
n
ds
m
os
t
favour
when
men
are
asked
p p l r
b elieve that t he world depends on O mnipoten t G oodness
pr f f
D iv i n
ins t ead o f being an incomprehen sible accident Nat ure is
D s ig n
found full of adap t a t ions to and adap t ations in i t s living
organisms ; and inas m u ch as visible adaptation is t o
ordinary com mon sense a S i g n o f desi g nin g m ind i t
seems if we are in the presence o f striking adap t a t ions o f
means t o ends o f which man is n o t the contriver tha t w e
m ust be living in t he workshop o f a divine mechanist
The striking adaptation s prese n t ed in animal organisms
need a cause : neither physical (s o called ) causes n o r
human p ower are su f cien t explanations of constructions
s o useful o r s o beau t iful as many o f those which emerge
in t he course o f na t ural evolu t ion In presen ce o f t hi s
S pectacle w e are invited as by S ocrates and Cicero an d
Paley to refer the cons t ruc t ions in question to Divin e
D esign The curious natural constitution o f t h e eye or
o f t he
ear we are told is so adapted t o useful end s
t hat this organ cann ot b e thou g ht o f as an acciden t of
collocation in an irrational u x I t s curious correla t ion
of means and ends was no t brough t about by a human

eye maker while it seems t o o elaborate to have b een

T h e c au
an d t h e
o o

co

ca

ce

a u

co

u a

oo

O MN I P R E S EN T D I V I N E A D A P T A TI O N

203

t he issue of an unregu l ated concurrence o f atoms We

are obliged by so m ethi ng in mind to refer organs like
t hese to a superhuman eye maker o r ear maker E labor
ate adap t ation canno t be conceived as a n uncalcula t ed
phenomeno n
T he ready popular recognition o f the eye and other E pl n
t i n f th
instances of superhuman adap t a t ion as valid groun d for w i d
t heistic faith may b e partly explained by t he w ay an p t n
f
th t l
elabora t e an d useful m achine brings design home strongly l gi l
t o the ordinary mind In a world full of useful adap t a
n
pti n
f
t
h
m
t ions o ne see s more easily than in o t her ways t o nd
n i v rs
that G o d is worki n g ; o r at least t hat G o d must have
b een once a t work eve n if now and during an indenite
pas t t he main t enance o f or g anic cons t ructions that at
rs t came S uddenly ready made from the Divine a r ti c er

has been intrusted t o what are called n atural causes

If the adapta t ions are now na t ural they must have been
at rs t superna t ural i t is ar g ued G od mus t at leas t

a t some prehistoric time have interfered to crea t e

t he organ which na t ure now propagates God see m s

in t his way t o be speaking to men out of t he far pas t

even if He has lef t only nature speaking to the m a t

this hour speaking to them as one man is said t o S peak
to another through ac t s tha t V ir t u ally are a l an g ua g e
because adap t ed to convey meaning from mind to mind
As a watch brings vividly before o n e the existence o f a
wa t chmaker s o wit h the eye s o t oo with the whole
hu m an body and the adap t ations which adj us t organ s to
environments individual minds o f men to t he universe
in which they awake in t o conscious life These and like
ins t ances o f superhuman con t rivance are found to quicken
human sympathy wi t h t he Power t hat must have b een
at work before all this co u ld h ave beco m e what i t n ow
n at urally continues t o b e
O ne is ready when his
a tt ention is emphatically called t o abounding examples
of u seful or beautiful adaptation t o feel as if God were
n o merely abstrac t Being inferred through m e t aphysical
reasoning o r speculation ; b u t as if He were a livin g Person
w h ose intelligen t activity is as distinc t as the pas t
in t elligent ac t ivi t y o f a watchmaker is manifest in and
.

ce

ce

o o

ca

co

e ao

ce

e e

2 04

P H I L OSO PH Y O F T HE I S M

t hrou gh a watch or as t he in ven t ive power o f an artist is

revealed in and t hro u gh t h e pic t u re o f which his design
m ust have been t he source In con t emplati ng the super
human means and ends in n ature I seem to t race t his

invisible Power working consciously calcula t ing mak

ing u se o f materials t hat possess l a t en t capacities for being
m ade useful to men o r other anima t ed b eings
The

chao t ic m aterials in virtue of inherent powers t aci t ly

b u t without proof a tt ributed to th em are supposed to

a d mi t o f adap t ations and s o help to bring a b out the ends
which w e now admire and bene t b y in t he course o f
n ature Thus i n t he examples o f well calculat ed c o n triv
an ce which the g reat m achine t he physical universe
presen t s and also in t he existence of the g rea t machine
itself an o b server seems t o nd r eli cs of a Great Mechan
ist ; wi t h as much assurance t hat He wa s in t elli g en t as
he has o f t he intelli g ence of the con t river to wh om he
spon t aneousl y refers the adap t a t ions in his w atch
Perhaps it i s obj ected t ha t I cannot s ee t his D i vi n e
N t rl
d pt t i n s Con t river of the adap t a t ions which I thus explain
m k G d
I t may be replied t h at nei t her do I ever really see t he
i sib l i n
th s m
h u ma n con t rivers o f constructions which I attri b ute t o
w y
th

hum an purpose at leas t if the hu m an con t river means

nstr
t i ns f
m ore t ha n the b ody o f a human bein g B u t all recognise
h m n
rt i st m k t ha t t he visi b ly moved hum an or g anis m is charged with
r tis t invisi b le in t elligen t purposes s o t ha t the visible organism
th
vis ibl
is no t merely an unconsciou s automa t on S t ill the con
s ci ou s i n ten ti on O f t he human ar ti c e r is as invisible as
t he Divine intending purpose is in na t ural construc t ions
The priva t e conscious ac t ivi t y o f person s is necessarily
ou t side the consciousness o f all excep t the o n e person
wh ose living consciousn ess it is
Ano t her circums t ance less obviou s t han t he mere fac t
Ad p t
t i n f th
of
adaptation
pro
b
ably
contribu
t
es
t
o
m
ake
n
a
t
ural
n i v rs t
adaptations t ou ch t he popular ima g ination forci b ly
M n
awakening the idea o f a Divine Designer
For t he
adapta t ions seem to conver g e empha t ically upon Man
Wi t hdraw men and sentien t anim als for ever from the
world and what need for useful or b eau t iful adap t a
t ion ? The physical universe evolves in ways many o f
,

a u a

as

uo

co

e a

206

P H I L OSO P H Y O F T HE I S M

ra t h er than moral implica t es o r spiri t ual insi g ht is t he

basis o f Hume s reasoning in his History o f Reli g ion
when he concludes that th e whole frame o f na t ure h e

speaks an intelligen t A u t hor and t ha t no ra t ional in

u i r e r can after serious reec t ion suspend his belief for a
q
m ome n t wi t h regard t o t he primary principles o f genuin e

M oreover this genuine t heism

theism an d religion
on
Hum e s premisses is only t he attenua t ed t heism
which infers from s ome observed cosmical a d ap t a t ions

t he past operation o f an intell igen t cause o f those

adap t a t ions while lef t in doub t abou t o m nipo t en t an d
omnipresen t goodness Granting t he relevancy o f th e
human a n alogy h e migh t s ay an intelli g e n ce o t her
than human seem s t o have b een at some pas t t ime
But as t o th e good or b ad character
a t work in Na t ure
of
this intelli g en t an t ecedent or t he ex t en t O f his
power t he empirical da t a leave him una b le to de t ermine
any t hing : perfec t reason and perfec t goodness would be
in excess of the only premisses which his philosophy

allowed him to u s e
A nd t hus his s o called god is
only o ne intelli g ent b ut perhaps d eceivin g or even m a
li g nan t agen t added t o the a g en t s w e are accus t omed
He o ffers
t o nd i n our experience o f human contrivers
u s a go d that s t ill needs G o d
,

Pr f

The ar g u m en t for G od t ha t is grounded o n cer t ain

d iv in
long favoured in popular theolo g y
s
t
riking
adapta
t
ions
d p t ti n
roughly handled b y S pinoza cri t icised by Kan t d is
th t i
b s d nl y credi t ed b y some speculative na t u ralists o f t his genera
n t ikin
g
is
tion
in danger o f losing the value that really
d pt
ti ns in
b elo ngs to it as a rational auxiliary to the theistic in t er
d eq t
r e t at i o n which w e are led t o p u t upon the universe by
p
the inevi t a b le moral implica t es o f human experience
Presuppose perfect moral reason o r goodness as what is
always and everywhere ac t ive at the hear t o f exis t ence ;
th en with this inevi table me t aphysical founda t ion o f
human experience si g nal ins t ances of adap t a t ion t o man
that present themselves bring vividly home the c o nc ep
tion o f D ivine in t endin g mind a t t he roo t o f all ; no t
withstan d ing the mix t ure o f malconstruc t ion misery
of

oo

a e

s r

ua e.

O M N I P R E S E N T D I V I N E A D AP T A TI O N

207

B u t to i nfer
in which this plane t a b ounds
t he o m nipresence o f perfect wisdo m and merciful love
m
of
fro
striking
speci
ens

t
ness
t
ha
t
occur
m
s o lel
y
in o u r observation of the ex t er n al world is to beg a

m
no t
conclusion unduly assu ed
logically gath
o ne
T he divine conclusion i s i nn i tely in excess o f
e red
the nite pre m isses : the largest collection o f super
human cons t ructions can yield only a more o r less prob
be logi ca lly
a ble n i te inferen ce : t he nite can never
t ransfor m ed into t h e innite
T he observed da t a per
haps sugges t some intelligent contriver o f the observed
analogous to t he mind supposed in the
c ontrivances
human con t river o f a machine bu t wanting in the
unique inni t y o r absoluteness t hat is Divine
O ther defects in t he supposed d ed u ction of t he Divine
D esigner fro m occas i onal striking i n stances o f c o n tri v
in n a t u re suggest the m selves if the observed
a n ce
facts are presented to prove the in nite conclus i on and
not merely to awaken the in nite postulate o r o t her
wise t o awaken o u r laten t faith an d hope in God as t he
pri m ary necessity in any intercourse with the uni verse
How o n e may ask can t he analo g y o f a human artist and
his work apply a t all to t he divine artis t whose power is
s upposed to be boundless and w h o must therefore be the
Agent responsible fo r the ma t erials which in the rela
tion o f D esigner he is alleged to have adapted wi t h more
o r less di f culty t o his en ds ?
Why sho u ld adapt ation of
r es i s ti ng m a ter i a l be par t o f the work o f the Power
on
which the m a t erial wi t h all its qu alities o r m odes o f b e
haviour mus t o n the divine i n terpretation n ally depend
This looks like supposing G o d to cause a difculty only
i n order tha t He may af t erwards S ho w His skill and
s treng t h in i t s removal
A g ain
The introduction o f a Divine Designer has

been reclaimed a g ainst as interference with t he pro

vince which science must keep secure for natural e vo l u
tion only which because n at ural is dogmatica lly as
s umed t o be undivine
Na t ural uncalculating evolution
m ust receive w e are t old all the glory o f the useful a n d
b eau t iful contrivances by which t h e inorganic world and its
s in

a nd

rg
nt s
m k

The

me
to

ee m

G od

au t

h r
o

i
d i
in
t
e t at

of a

ly
rd r h
H m y
Sh w H i
s k ill in

cu
o

o ver co

ing it

A nd t o

r di t
n i v rs l
ity f
r ti n l
rd r
c o nt a
u

2 08

PH I L OS O PH Y O F T H E I S M

or g anisms con t ribute t o t he wan t s of living b eings V is

ible sequen ces in their cus t omary evolu t ion i t is asserted
are all w e have to do wi th and i t is worse than superuous
t o inves t th em with purpose E ven al t hou g h some n atural
e ffects involve adap t ations which if their an t eceden t cou ld
have been a human h a n d w e might refer t o t he hand
as their cause never t heless experience o f na t ural evolution
shows t ha t in t he a b sence o f t he hum an hand physical
causes spon t aneously under n a t ural law transform t hem
selves by slo w de g rees in t o t h ose useful and b eau t iful
mecha n ism s which in t heir former ignorance men re ferred

to th e interference of G o d
O u r o wn experience o f
w h a t na t ure without capricious an d unscientic divine
in t erferen ce d oes g radually t rans form itself into demon
stra t es t ha t supernatural in terposi tion is superuous
Na t ural evolu tion is foun d in fact t o issue in wha t w e
call con t rivance ; b u t t h e con t rivances are see n to b e
issues of wholly na t ural anteceden t condi t ions which
need no conscious desi g n o r predestination To assume

arbi t rarily t he interven t ion o f a designing force is to

wi t hdraw at t en t ion from wha t alone is o f prac t ical i m
port ance in m an s in t ercourse with wha t is around him
t o wit Visible ca u ses which men are a b le in some d egree
to adap t as means t o desirable ends V isible causes are
the only causes o n whic h o u r organic pleasures and pains
depend
Man i t is alleged h a s n o t hing t o do with a
Universal Power about which n a t ural scien ce can s ay
no t hing b ecause it is outside sensuous experience
A recent criticism o f Lord S alis b ury s Bri t ish Associa
tion address illustra t es this I t was made by D r Weis
m ann t h e eminent n aturalis t I t contains t he following

remarkable senten ce
The scien t ic man may no t
assume the exis t en ce of a designin g force as Lord S alis
bury su gg es ts ; fo r b y s o doing he would surrender t he
presupposi t ion o f his research t he comprehensibility o f

nature
comprehensibility o f nature
N o w b y t he

I suppose Dr Weismann means the presupposition

t hat cha n g es in nature mus t b e in all cases the issue or
me t amorphosis o f ascertaina b le na t ural causes wha t ever
else t hey m ay b e o r m ay imply ; so that t he par t icular
.

N t r l
C s ti n
m y
p r ss
D i v in
D s ign
a u

au
a

ex

210

PH I L OS O PH Y O F T H E I S M

cause
Y et t hroughou t his remarks t he am b i g uou s

word
force i n i t s una n alysed physical application
obscures h is meaning ; which had already b een confused

by t he dogma t hat divin e design is necessarily i nt er

ference wi t h order in n a t ure ; o r an in t ervention t o

supplemen t t he forces o f Nature j ust where they b reak

down
I t cann o t b e interferen c e o r superuou s

in t ervention if intending Will is the on ly originating

cause cons t ant sequence being th e divinely ordered an d
t herefore physically interpretable effec t
Fur t her
Adapta t ion s seem in fac t to be slowly
evolved according to n a t ural laws in a progress t hat
of t en looks likes re g ress ; but notwi t hs t andi n g t his they
m ay b e a na t ural revelation o f G o d If morally intendi n g
p ower is t he on ly po wer to which man can refer change ;
and if cons t an t activity o f this power is an implicate of
fai t h in n atural order it follows that gr ow th o r evolu ti on
n o t of h a n d p r od u cti on i s th e true analogy t o t he mani
fe s tat i o n o f G o d that is presented in persis t ent creation
by evolu t ion
Providen t ial evolution includi ng occa

i
n
l
crises
o
f
natural
disintegra
t
ion
i n an essen t ially
s o a
superna t ural process issui ng from an unbeginning pas t

with i t s ou t come in an unendi ng fu t ure th i s rather than

sudden divine interference with t he divine continui t y of
even t s b ecomes the theistic conception of universal con
t r i van c e in n ature under t he dynamical conception of
t he physical universe Crea t ion becomes Universal Pro
vid en ce or divinely adap t ed na t ure
E volution o r m eta

morphosis is b o t h na t ural an d divine th e visi b le grow t h

as it were o f t he universal or g anism in which human
or g anisms na t urally ye t supernat u rally live an d move
an d have t heir bein g A universe char g ed t hroughou t in
each and all of i t s par t s with n atural adapta t ion may t hen
be read as the expression o f living and ac t in g Reason
revealed throughout the Whole The striking examples
illustrate for popular use pervadin g purpose in t he physi
cal drama ; they come home t o t he ordi n ary mind in the
way charac t eris t ic ac t ion s and habi t s o f a man s t rikingly
reveal his inner life
The idea of t he physical u niverse as n o t nishe d pro d uc t
,

A d ap t e
t i o n m ay
r

s
o n l y gr d
ll y v lv
r d i ng
to n t r l

e,

ac c o

a u

fs

dv

g y
en c

l aw , an d
y et b e
m an i e t a
tion o f
c o nt inu o u
i in e

O M NI P R E S E N T D I V IN E

D APTATI O N

process

211

b u t con t inuous na t ural

wi t hou t limits i n analogy I s th ni
s o far with the brief con t inuous life of a plan t o r an ani mal
IS hin t ed at
t he scep t ical
in Hume s Dialogues
l d pt
as a more reasona b le nal conception o f Nature t han tha t $ 123 5
which likens i t t o a machine constr u cted by a mechanis t g r wth ;
a t a given t ime Ye t Philo makes t he t aci t assumption
tha t if cosmical adap t ations are in fact successive ou t h m mmy

c omes o f natural order

under a l aw o f na t ural selec W l r d
i
f

tion le t us suppose t h ey cannot n eed omnipresent i n

tendin g mind to direc t t he m The course o f na ture

wha t ever tha t means is credi t ed with the collocations :

they are S imply a par t o f t he cus t omary behaviour o f
Na t ure ; as if Na t ure s cond u c t migh t ultimately b e other
than divine o r m orally trus t worthy conduct Take t he
following in one o f t he u t terances o f Philo
There are
other par t s o f t he u niverse besides the m achines o f human
invention which bear a greater resemblance t han t his
t o the fabric of the world and which therefore a fford a
be tt er conj ecture concerning t he universal origin o f t his
sys t em
These parts are animals and vegetables The
world plainly rese mb les an animal o r a ve g etable more
than i t does a watch o r a knittin g loom
Its cause
t herefore i t is more probable resembles the cause o f the
former than the la tt er The cause of the former is genera
tion or ve g eta t ion The cause therefore of the world we
m ay infer to be some t hing similar o r analogous to genera
tion or ve g etation
In l ike manner as a tree S heds i t s
seed into the neighbouring elds and produces other trees
s o t he great vegetable t he world n a tu r a l ly produces with
in itself certain seeds which being scattered in t o the
surrounding chaos vege t a t e in t o n ew worlds O r if for
t he sake o f variety (fo r I s e e n o other advantage ) we
should suppose the universe to be an animal : a come t
is as it were the eg g of this animal An existing tree
b estows orde r and org anisa t ion on t he tree which S prin g s
from i t wi t hou t itself knowing t he order ; an animal in
the same m anner on its o s p ring without foreseein g what
is don e ; and instances o f t his kind are even more frequent
in t he world than t hose o f order which arise from conscious
reason and contrivance To s ay t ha t all this order or ad

e u

sa

212

P HI LOSO PH Y

TH E I S M

OF

ap t at i o n

in animals and vegeta b les proceeds ul t ima t ely

from design i s begging t he question ; nor can that great
poin t be ascer t ained o t herwise t han by proving a p r i or i
both t ha t order i s from its na t ure insepara b ly connec t ed
with t hough t an d t ha t it can never of i t self or from

ori ginal u nkn own principles belon g t o ma tt er

Now if
visi b le natural sequence mu s t be taken as Philo takes it
for our last word abou t the universe pro b a b ly the n atural
processes o f vege t a t ion an d o f t he birth of animals m ay
g ive a b e tt er nal concep t ion o f t he Whole t han any
o t hers su gg es t ed b y t hose natural processes which come
within m an s experience Bu t if all n a t ural causes mus t
t hemselves b e e ffec t s ; if our interpre t a t ion o f such e ffec t s
as cases o f na t ural laws i t self depends upon moral reason
for the fai t h which m akes it possible and ena b les u s with
condence t o put even physical in t er p re t a t ions upon
changes ; if moreover t here is no t hin g in t he physical
interpre t a b ili t y o f even t s t ha t is incon sisten t wi t h a
co ordina t e theis t ic interpreta tion o f them ; and if this
deeper interpreta t ion o f their na t ural modes o f behaviour
adap t a t ions or cons t ruc t ions is required to mee t man s
g enuine S piritual n eeds i f all t his be so wh y should
na t ural causation when some o f its elaborate c o n s tr u c
t ions are ascer t ain ed by in quiry b e regarded as s o far
necessarily empty of God ? Why must I assume t ha t
each fresh discovery of wha t is called a na t ural c o n
t r ivan c e is a discovery t ha t relieves the natural e ffec t
o f connec t ion with O mnipo t en t G oodness ?
It is t he overwhelming idea o f t he innity o f t he
universe when it arises in a physically scientic ha b i t
of t hough t tha t seems t o oppress Philo and those w h o
like him t hink only physically with what if t hey
t hink t hings o u t becomes a despairi n g sense of t he to t al
u nin t erpretabili t y o f experience i t s unin t erpretability
even up to t he extent to which physical observers pro
fess t o read it in t o na t ural science
Philo t akes hold
of t he Inni t e by i t s agnos tic handle ; and so instead
of i ts mys t ery quickenin g reverential faith t he innity
seems to disin t egrate experien ce
The i n c o m p r eh ens i
b ili t y of physical experience with i t s nal n e g ations in
,

Et ernal
ev o lu t i o n

of

th e
u ni e
t a en
t ic a

v rs e

s c ep

lly
p r lys s
f it h i n
d i v in
d sign
,

a a

214

PH I L OSO PH Y O F T HE I S M

resem b li ng those which g ive expression t o s t ates of con

sciou s life in myself so m e t hin g in me makes me re g ar d
t his as si g nican t of a livin g inte l lige n ce other than my
In all cases orderly adaptation o f means to ends
o wn
whether presented in human or g anisms and their move
men t s in t h e organisms an d m ovemen t s O f animals or

in t he universal evolution obli g es m en to trea t t he mani

fe s t at i o ns o f adapta t ion as a revela t ion of d esi g n
When
over t ac t ions which involve skill are performed t hrough
o u r or g ans as t hey often are without ou r own conscious
agen cy we are o b liged t o refer t hem t o a n o th er intendin g
in t elli g ence Is n o t Na t ure t he providential working o f
O mnipresen t Min d ?
The prese n ce o f adapta t ion in th e passive evolu t ions o f
W m y
m ay be af rm ed al t hou g h w e are unable t o en t er
n
ature
p ti
i n i m ag i n a ti ve t hough t i nto t he consc i ous l i fe o f the pro
wi t h
t
mg ab l e d u c ti ve Power Altho u g h t h e u n iverse as re l a t ed t o us
3 mf pl l y m an i fes t s s u i C i en tl comprehens i b le exam ples o f means
h
d
y
th
d pt
adapted t o human com fort it would b e presump t u ous t o
m g gO W
infer from t his that the In t elligen ce manifeste d in t h e
produc t ion of those natural adapta t ion s m ust calcula t e
as m en do We cann o t en t er in imagin a t ive t ho u ght

even in t o t he men t al sta t e o f t hose bei ngs we call i n

fer i o r animals w h o are s o grea t a m ys t ery to us : w e are

in n i t ely less able in t he case o f the Universal Desi g ner
Y et man sees in na t ural adapta t io n s what h e m ay with
m oral condence proceed upon as sign s o f wha t h e can
trea t only as co n sciously calculating mi n d s t ill with
o u t power t o realise adequately what fo r wan t of mor e

expressive la ng ua g e he calls In n i t e Mind

,

ou

ou

o co

re

eh

'

r l

at u a

jigl ig

l t elf

d p t atio n

I h ave s o far dis t i n guished adap t a t ion in na t ure from

order in nature Y et looked a t more deeply no t only
d o fai t h in omnipresent physical law an d faith in omni
presen t adapta t ion rise o u t of t he cons t i t u tion of man
in t he universe bu t t he two faiths appear t o coincide at
last F o r natural uniformi ty is adapta t ion o f the world t o
t he service of man If we could suppose ourselves living i n
a ph y sical chaos i n s t ead o f living in wha t faith accep t s as
a physical cosm os ; and if in this supp osed chaos we coul d

r et ing

in

t el l igen c e

O M NI P R E S EN T DI V I N E

D APTATI O N

21 5

be endowed wi t h o u r presen t moral and re l igious con

it would se em be obliged to
s t i t u t i o n w e sh ould s t ill
suppose that t he apparen t chaos must have its na l ou t
co m e in th e cosmos o f a reasonable world But in t hose
circumstances besides g reatly increased strain upon o u r
faith in perfec t goodness at the heart o f the chaos w e
should lose the educational and o t her advantages n o w
a fforded in a world so adapted to u s that w e gradually
learn how to regulate o u r conduct in i t especially as
m inis t ers in a social sys t em
T he divine consti t ution o f physical order with i t s T h p
p
s
f
natural evolution in u niversal adaptations m ay seem a M tt r nd
roundabou t m e t hod for accomplishing what Innite Power ph y si l
d
p
t
might be supposed to provide without mat t er i mm ed i t i n in
ately by m iracle What is t he purpose o f an organism so r l t i n
t
n
m
curiously construc t ed a s t he eye one may as k if God
could m ake human spirits able t o experien ce the conscious

s t ate called seei ng withou t an eye ; o r wha t need for

the complex s t ruc t ure o f our bodies if w e could have
the whole percipien t an d consciou s life w e pass t hrough
be t ween birth an d death as unbodied spirits ? If those
elaborate construction s are n o t needed t o serve the c o n
scious life with which they are found connected h ow a r e
th ey a d ap ta ti on s ? This raises questions abou t Matter and
its relation t o S pirit on which I have already touched
T he lesson o f t his lecture is tha t divine desi g n is a S mm r y
conception involved in na t ural orderly evolution and tha t
whether Nature is contemplated as a whole o r in each o f
i t s organis m s and each o f its eve nts Divine adaptation
pervadi n g the whole involves design in every event in the
history o f each individual even as gravita tion is illus
t r a t e d in t he fall of t he mos t insi g n icant grain o f sand
The universality of adaptation the idea o f in t endin g
m oral providence in all cha nge see m s as reasonable as
t he universality of gravit at ion o r O f evolution within their
narrower spheres Nothi n g is too great o r t o o li t tle for
natural l a w : nothing is t o o great or t oo little for provi
dential purpose Universal Providence is b y implication
special as universal g ravita t ion is special : the very idea
o f natural law is essentially construc t ive and t eleolo g ical
,

ur

o e o

ca

e a

L E C T U R E V II
P

T h e S ci
en c e o f
e i ion
h as c o ec t
e d ac t
w ic s u g
e t t at
c it i c a
i
an a
w i d is

R lg

ll
f s
h h
gs h
r
l
lys s
ll
vr
r s n
in t h i s t i
f it h
co

HI L O S O P H I CA L O R THE O LO G I CA L O MN I S C I E NC E

I H AVE b een trying to S ho w t hat t hose are proceedin g

unreason a b ly an d therefore unphilosophically who t rea t
t heis t ic faith o r t he disposi t ion to put a nally e thical
an d religious i n t erpreta t ion upon t h e universe as persons
who are indul g i ng what is only i g norant sentiment char
ac t e r i s t i c o f some men and som e races of men at cer t ain

s t ages i n t he evolu t ion of mankind sen t iment which may

t ry t o t ake t he form o f t ho u gh t but which to advanced
t hou gh t is t ransitory fancy soon t o become an an achronism
if it i s n o t already t his amo ng the educated The his t oric
fact of t he permanen ce in many for m s o f t he disposi t ion
t o worship the Universal Power o r invisi b le b ackground
o f human life with th e immense inuen ce t he reli g ious
con ception h as in the developmen t o f man might sug g est
t hat theistic fai t h and hope in t he Power universally a t
w ork must b e resolva b le into reason if it is not even
Universal Reason i t self in i t s m os t real manifesta t ion
The m odern S cience o f Reli g ion h as accumula t ed evidence
tha t reli g ion is t he po t ent fac t or in his t ory ; al thou g h th e
human disposition t o interpre t experience in t he lig ht of
supernatural power is found t o d egrade t he in t erpreter
when a faith essen t ially e t hical presen t s i t self as non moral
o r as supers t ition
Bu t even in supers t i t ion one can
t race an ineradica b le dissatisfaction wi t h wha t is merely
ni t e and some t imes a sense of dutiful conformi t y t o
enno b li ng ideals And in all this t heism appears in g erm
Ances t or worship o r priestcraf t o r dread o f the unknown
,

ea o

218

P H I L OSO P H Y O F T HE I S M

provisio n ally relieved by the n atural causes o f scie n ce

may be nally a n d reasonably p ut t o rest It seem s
to be true philoso p hy th a t man should accept th e only

r es ti n
f
o
ff
cause t hat experience o ers t hat e x em
g sort

l
i
d
o
f
o w n moral responsi b ility
in
his
idea
his
Its
e
p
adoption t ransforms t he o t herwise wholly physical an d
unsatisfyi ng universe in t o wha t when t hus more deeply
conceived and more considerately lived i n is found to be
universal moral order o r moral providen ce
B ut t he impo t ence o f physical phen omena a b s trac t ed
fr o m t h e S piritual ac t ivity which they thus m a nifest is
no t t he only groun d in reason t hat sus t ains theis t ic faith
in the Universal Power A perce p tion of the powerless
ness of outward t hin g s p er s e makes t he percipient ready
to acknowledge O mnipoten t Goodness M ens agi ta t m o lem
Y et this is no t all th a t th e chan g ing world is ap t t o
awaken There are more precise signs of Min d con
We nd na t ural means
t i n u al ly operative in Nature
o b viously adap t ed to issue gradually in useful or beauti
ful ends : the or g anised m a tt er o f the world aboun ds
in them
The calcula t ing t hough t latent in Na t ure
becomes more apparent wi t h each advance o f natural
science ; and especially since t he modern idea o f orga n ic
evolution has formulated scientic in t erpre t a t ion For
wha t at o u r human poin t of view is calle d Divine
D esign is recognisa b le n o t only in s t riking in s t ances
of na t ural adap t ation like those on which Paley dwells
bu t in the very no t ion o f progressive orderly evolution
Isola t ed examples sin g led o u t by o ld fashioned theologians
as proofs o f t he interference of a calculatin g and con t riving
Po wer are no w scien t ically explained as g radual processes
in terms o f na t ural l a w The human body and i t s organs
m ay be accounted for w e nd by natural causes causes
long and slowly operative A n d the whole physical world
may t urn out in t he progress of physical science t o
consist o f slowly formed ins t ances o f n atural c o n s t r u c
tion useful o r beau t iful adap t ations of means to human
an d oth er ends bu t all arisi ng as sequences in the process
causation Th e visible m achine o f Na t ure
o f n a t ural
seems to b e con t inually shedding construc t ions an d adap
.

T he

mni

p r es n c
o f D e sig n
i n N at r e
e

PH I LOSO PH I C AL O M N I S C I EN C E

21 9

t at io n s ,

evolved accordi ng t o wha t i s called natural selec

t ion o r in other natural modes o f behaviour But the

ambiguous Power called Nature is only metaphorically

doi n g t his o r d oing anything I ts pheno m ena present

n o proof of t heir originating agency ; we nd in m an o n l y
power that mus t be hyperphysical because man is able t o
be mor a l or immoral T he great na t ural machine is charged
wi t h divine activi t y an d all i t s evolutions ad m i t o f a
t eleological as well as a physical interpre t a t ion Natural
causes explain su fciently for sense and scien t i c under
s t anding the visible organisation O f man as well as his
special organs such as the e y e o r t he c ar But this physic
ally scienti c expla n a t ion is always only p r ovi si ona l ex
planation The world may also be conceived as t he design
o f wh a t a t t he human point of View m a y be called perfec t
in t endi ng Will ; S O that co n stant ra tio n al providence may
a t the end be credited wi t h the adap t ations t hat are gradu
ally elaborating i n every particular of the n atural outcome
O n the supposition tha t scien t ic inquiry veri es t he l a w
o f universal n atural evolu t ion
science is only disclosing
n a t ural adap t ation s t ha t are in process of slow continuous
forma t ion the l aw o f evolutionary procedure being the
S cienti c expression o f how the continuous creation pro
The Power t hat keeps t he whole in motion is t he n
c e ed s
though t of as Pow er t ha t is e ter n ally makin g for useful and
beautiful rela t ions of means to ends in t he vir t ually living

m
organis tha t is commonly called Nature
and in issues
o f gradually increasing value measured by the satisfac t ion
which they a fford to man w h o is himself t he hi g hest of
t he providen t ial ou t comes o n this planet Na t ure t hus
con t e m pla t ed becomes in o u r V iew charged with Pur
pose and a revela t ion of the Divine to which awakene d
divinity laten t in man responds in in t ellec t ual and moral
sympa th y This is j us t to s ay that G o d is t he real cause

in all natural causes those making either for t he in t e g ra

tion o r for t he disintegration o f the presen t w orld In
ei t her w ay in t egra t ive o r disin t egra t ive na t ure continu
od
o u sl
reveals
G
y
It is only when t he nal mys t ery o f t he physical innity
o f Na tu re is t aken wan t only b y i t s atheistic handle tha t
.

T h e ina
f
P h ysm l

PH I L OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

2 20

wan t o f physical omniscience is produce d as reason

ne d n t
F o r t he
fo r refusin g t o read experience theis t ically
p r lys
p o w r f world would be scien t ically unin t erpreta b le if man were
i nt r p r t
o
b
li
g
ed
t
o
t
urn
away
from
all
a
tt
empts
t
o
explain
even
i ng w h t
d s nt r i t s physical laws un t il he had relieved himself o f t he
i nt
nal p h ysi ca l mys t ery by risin g in t o O mniscience
I
pe i n
canno t m ove locally from where I s t and if I am b ound
b efore I do so t o have a p erfect kn owled g e of t he universe
and t o be in t his way independent of nal fai t h ven
ture An d the fai t h tha t t he orderly evolu t ion o f nature
i s a his t ory o f P u rpose may b e conrmed by O b servatio n
of na t ural means in remarka b le rela t ions to animal ends
When par t icular na t ural cons t ruc tions like t he eye in
S i gn l
n t r l
man or wings in a b ird are appealed t o as signs t ha t
d pt
in t elli g en t a g ency mus t have been a t work in overcomin g
d
ti ns
ni v rs l
t he resistance of in t rac t able ma t erial by adroi t com b in a
n t r l

r
i
e
r
t
ion
and
colloca
t
ion
like
a
human
laboriously
a
t
c
d esign

m aking a machine t he idea of Divine D esign presen t s

t wo d ii c u l t i es In t he rs t place i t represen t s n a t ural

law o r qualities o f ma tt er as in conict with t he

Designer This is s o no doub t when t h e artis t is a m an
But if G o d is vaguely credited wi t h t h e natural la ws and
qualities themselves as imposed b y Him upon Ma tt er in
some prehistoric period in t he illimi t a b le Pas t accordin g

creation this looks like G o d

t o t he crude idea of
m akin g a di f cul t y a t rst for t he pleasure of overcoming
i t af t erwards In t he seco n d place t o g roun d fai t h in
di vi n e desi g n o n visi b le adap t a t ions in par t icular ins t ances
supposed t o be independen t of physical law run s the risk
o f having s u ch superna t uralness discovered t o be after all
an issue o f a n atural process ; and wi t h t his t he divine
design disappears i f w e must a s sume t ha t when a con
s t ruc tion is proved t o b e natural i t mus t th er efor e n ot b e
due t o the Divine Power But i t is otherwise when
some t hing no t proved to b e unreasonable in t he conscious
constitu tion o f man ma kes u s s ee in all n a t ural processes
and issues really divine processes and issues ; so t ha t
whenever useful o r b eau t iful adap t a t ions of means t o
ends in organic s t ruc t ures o r o t herwise are na t urally
evolved th i s evolu ti on h owever s low a nd gr a du a l is ri g htly
m y s t er y
e

ou r

a a

oe

o ou r ex

r e

ce

a u a

an

a u

222

P H I L OSO P H Y O F

HE I S M

of

reali t y in t he absence of t hought t he contradic t ion

implied i ii t he supposi t ion o f the u niverse existing wi t h
o u t Mind is a principle which h as t aken different forms in
t heological and philosophical speculation O ught it t o b e
accep t ed as t he basis o f t heism ? Is Inni t e Mind t he
ra t ionally necessary presupposi t ion of any possible reality
From Pla t o t o Hegel th e a b stract necessity for Universal
Reason is a prin ciple that has in di fferent forms per
va d ed philosophy
Throu g h this necessi t y t he indi
vidual thinker essayed to secure for hi m self a m ore
co m m anding position than t he individual consciousness of
a hum an mind see m ed t o s upply
It is ar g ued that
one s intellec t ual hold o f t he universe cannot b e depend
en t on one s o w n la t ely b orn isolated self For a hu man
b ei n g t o a t tain in t ellectual possession of reality he must
someho w become involved in a higher Reason t han his
individual reaso n : he nds himself more t han an orpha n
S pirit o r spiritual ato m : he mus t therefore be somehow
i d en ti ed wi t h th e Universal Reason
S o regarded my
t rue self is found in propor t ion as it unfolds to be Uni
versal Consciousness : what i s called reason in me nds
j usti cation in the discovery tha t Reason nally is not
mine individually but min e in s o far as God lives i n
me My self is t ruly and innitely realised in G o d and
t he indi vidual orphan isola t ed self is renounced the
m ore th e individu al man b ecomes divine The essen t ial
divini ty of wha t i s truly real is discovered when we learn
t o rise above the physical sciences and enter in t o t he
central Philosophy of Being which is t heology under
ano t her nam e theolo g y tha t deserves t he prou d t itle
o f science of scie n ces
A posi t ion aki n to this is I t hink t aken in the chief
forms o f ontological proof o r constr uctive necessi t y for
God I have descri b ed i t perhaps more according to t he
manner in which i t appears in the idealistic thou g h t
o f t his g eneration than in its earlier forms
O ne recog
n i s es it ho wever in t he Idealism o f P a t o where things
l
presen t ed t o sen se dimly symbolise t he full rational real
i t y t owards which individual m an approximates as he
rises from con t in g ent appearances and uctua t ing
,

V a iou

p h as e s o f
t h i s o nt o
l o gicall y
n ec e ss r y
t h ei s m
a
.

PH I L O S O PH I C A L O MN I S C I E N C E

223

pinions and en t ers into t he intellec t u al necessities o f

Universal Reason Tha t Thought which transcends each
private consciousness an d can be entered into only
thro u gh mystical ecs t asy alone con t ains t h e secre t o f the
universe w a s t he supre m e lesson of Plotinu s in later and
Recognition o f an a b
m ore adventurous Platonis m
s tract necessity for D ivine o r Perfect Being as involved
in the very idea of perfection perv ades the once cele
b r at e d theistic reaso n i n gs o f S t A ugustine S t A nselm
Perfection in i d ea it w as argued mu s t
a n d Descar t es
in clude existence ; for an idea cannot be perfect u n less
c onceived to be real
not mere illusion S o the Divine
Reality is involved in t h e very idea o f absolute perfection
that i s latent i n us all : thought necessarily underlies
universal though t mu st underlie universal
e xistence :
reality : real exis t ence needs thought t o realise it These
a r e v a ried expressions o f a principle which appears at
t he bo t to m o f this abstract t heism E xpressed in crude
form t his looks like the childish fallacy t hat because I
fancy t hat a thing or a person exis t s the thing o r person
must therefore really exist But to s ay tha t the existi n g
reality i m p l ies etern al reason i s very di fferent fro m saying
t hat m en s contingen t fan c ies abou t nite thi n gs m ust all
be realities ; o r fro m j ustifyi n g Kan t s caricature o f this
theis t ic p roo f as if it were equivale n t to saying Because
I i m agi n e I h a ve m oney in my purse it mus t be true that
I have i t
T hat there i s an intellectual necessity for
G o d involved in o u r ideas of space and i mm ensity dura
tion and eternity is another form o f ontological argumen t
f o r theism : it appears in S amu el Clarke s once f a m ous
d e m onstration that God exis t s
A nd the religious phil
o sophy o f S t A nsel m and Descar t es is a sort o f antici
f
a tio n o f th e
ess e is
ci i
Berkeley
itself
dimly
e
r
o
;
p
p
p

a ntici p ated long before S t A nselm in the T o a il r e vo e t v

at t ributed to Parmenides That Universal
r e zea l el va t
M ind o r the In nite is b y necessi t y the p r i u s of
individual th ings and person s an d presupposed in their
e xistence is the constan t refrain in Berkeley s
S iris in
which the inevitable demand for Divin e Reason as the
nally unitin g principle is rei t era t ed at di fferent points
o

'

224

P H I L OSO PH Y O F T HE I S M

of vie w
C omprehending G o d and t he crea t ures in one

general notion w e m ay truly say according to Berkeley

t hat all t hings t oge t her make o n e Universe or 7 5 n d u

But if we should s ay all things make one God this he

t h inks would be an erroneous n otion of G o d ; n e ver th e
less it would no t amount t o Atheism so long as Mind o r
I nt ellect was admitted to be the Universal Power It is
n ever t heless he thinks more respectful and consequ ently
the truer notion o f God to suppose Him neither made up
o f parts nor to be Himself a part o f any Whole whatever
The in t ellec t ual need for recognising tha t the u niverse
m us t be constituted in Universal Reason is t he chief
lesson o f Berkeley s S iris a b ook of pre g nan t aphorisms
and a step in developmen t o f t he conception t hat divine
synthesis is the necessary founda t ion o f all t hat is real
The recogni t ion by Leibniz of universal ideas inna t e in
O n to l o g i l
n
ss it y t he universe and in the human mind in its pre estab
f
D i ty
lis h e d harmony with t he universe con t ains a germ o f
i n L i b ni
n d s in
a p r i or i theis m
Kan t s philosophical revolu t ion made
K nt
h i m the Copernicu s of philosophy and theolo g y in accept
ing conditioned human thou g ht as for m an the cen t ral
and re g ulative principle o f h i s universe instead o f sup
posing thought an d its i m plica t es t o be nally explicable
by visible causes as ma t erialistic na t uralism dogmatically
does Kan t open ed the way to the t heolo g y o r philosophy
o f H e el
If
human
experience
of
the
u
niverse
is
real
g
experience it must be i n telligi b le e x perience : its i ntel l igi
b ili ty is i t s j u s t i cation
Kno wledge even hopeful
desire to kno w presupposes that wha t is sou g ht in
experience must respond to in t elli g ence
The pos t u
late that we are really livin g in a knowable world
already m ore o r less interpreted by m an is an element
in th e rationale o f theistic fai t h : as w e have seen i t
adapts itself to theism E x t ernal nature is instinc t ively
t reated by us all in the w ay a book is treated by its
intelligent reader We exp ect t o nd meaning in our
experience this expectant trus t s u pposes that experienced
n ature i s reasonable But t he Reason th a t is implied i n
intelligible expe rience making i t interpretable is not
merely my individual o r private thinkin g ; nor can i t be
.

ca

ec e

or

ce

226

P H I L O S O PH Y

T H EIS M

O F

course with the Universal Consciousness ; o r if ano t her

mode o f expression be preferred t he be g inning of the
revela t ion in and to u s o f the Universal Consciousness
I t is approach o n o u r part and self revela t ion on Go d s
par t which b ecomes more full and ar t iculate wi t h human
progress in divine philosophy
H g li n
Followin g this line o f ar g umen t o r specula t ion we nd
nt l g i
l ourselves becoming involved a t las t in some t hing no t
Th i m
unlike t he dialectical procedure of He g el F o r his philo
sophy is nally an d throughou t t heology perhaps t he
mos t comprehensive an d elaborate theology that modern
t hinking has produced ; and which indirec t ly more t han
by direc t adoption has been givin g form to t he relig
ious thought o f this a g e I t s sympathe t ic introduc t ion to
t he E n g lish speaking w orld is lar g ely due to an eminen t
countryman a former Gi fford Lec t urer Dr Hu t chison
S tirli ng s S ecret o f He g el pu b lished in 1 8 6 5 m arks an
epoch in o u r insular philosophy with corresp onding en
largemen t in subsequent reli g ious thought I ts appear
ance w as almost con t emporaneous wi t h t ha t o f ano t her
memorable b ook representative o f t he opposite pol e
o f philosophy
yet not without af ni t y in i t s compre
h e n s iven e s s t o Hegelian theolo g ical t hou g h t I mean
the Firs t Principles followed by a S yn t he t ic P h il o s o
phy which Mr Her b ert S pen cer has con t ri b u t ed t o the
intellec t ual life o f his generation Indeed his philosophy

f
f
the universe is a sor t o inver t ed He g elianism res t ing
o
o n an empirical base an d constructed by g eneralisation n o t
b y necessi t ies o f ra t ional dialectic Its apo t heosis is the
fo r ever Unkn owa b le Power a t the ex t reme opposite to t he
po t en t ial if not actual O mniscience professed by He g el
T h e T h eo
He g elian dialec t ic is virtually Hegelian t heolo g y It
l gi l
is
a
Philosophical
Theism
which
is
bound
t
o
supersede
Ph il s ph y
f H g el
Fai t h b y a perfect theological S cience Indeed He g el s
in t eres t in the nal pro b lem seems to b e religious and
Christian as much as intellectual
A s with A risto t le
and still more with Aquinas t h e o l gy is wi t h hi m t he
consumma t ion o f philosophical specula t ion if no t exac t ly

in Bacon s sense
t he S abbath and port o f all m an s
la b ours and pere g rinations
,

e e

o o

c s

ca

ca

o o

PH I L OSO PH I C A L O MN I S C I E N C E

227

Hege l ian dialectic migh t be described as an exhaustive D i l

E
l
intellectual evolution o f wha t is put in a less ar t iculate
w ay in the cosmological argument founded o n t he need
for cause There one nds rest in the agency of God
in the language o f t his class of t hinkers in t he
or
Universal Cons ciousness The Hegelian pro g ressive and
ascending synthesis is a process which is adopted t o
S how ar t icula t ely t he inadequacy of each lo wer and there
fore more abstract principle o f t h ought It expresses the
need for ascending regressively from the ex t reme i n ad e
u ac
f
f
o
Abs
t
rac
t
Being
to
the
inni
t
e
fulness
o
the
con
q
y
c rete Divine Reality making manifes t t hat the universe
in i t s concre t eness necessarily presupposes inni t e wealth
in its Divine ground This dialectical evolution is not
o l d fashioned deduction unfolded in t he way conclusions
i n g eome t ry are drawn o u t o f axioms and denitions in
which they are logically involved ; nor is i t induction fro m
fac t s in t he w ay natural causes are generalised in physical
science I t is an intellectu al cons t ruction of what is pre
s upposed i n the lower and more abs t ract principles o f
thou g ht pur g ed of the inadequacy and error that per
t ains t o t hem when they are t aken as ultimate Thus
a bs t rac t Being
must be less adequate to express t he
innite weal t h of D ivine Bein g t han the hi gher ca t e g ory
o f change or Becoming : this
in turn is less adequate
than Bein g that is de t ermina t e ; and so on till God
in His fulness is reached in the innite thought
t o be realised more and more fully in t he progressive
conscious intelligence o f mankind
This regressive
dialec t ical ascen t promises at each stage o f advanc e a
fuller conception o f G o d till at las t God is found by the
philosopher in the form o f ra t ionally articulated Universal
C onsciousness shared unconsciously by t hin g s and con
s c i o u s l y by persons
E ach s t ep o n the ascent on accoun t
o f i t s s t ill unsatisfying abstrac t ness
craves a richer or
more concre t e thought ; without this fur t her develop m ent
the j u d gmen t is left scep t ical between a f rmation and
n ega t ion The consequent intellec t u al unres t is the move
men t which carries the individual mind upward until
it nds complete sa t isfaction in the universal rational

a ec t i c a

VO u O D

228

PH I LOSO PH Y

OF

TH E I S M

ar ticula t ion or God

Dialec t ical developmen t o f t he
divine t hou g h t in i t s hierarchical g rada t ion is the
Hegelian unfolding o f philosophical t heism The i n divi
dual t hinker po t en t ially iden t ical wi t h God t hrough t he
unconscious presence o f the philosophically ar t icula t ed
reason innate in t hings and persons b ecomes consciously
iden t ie d wi t h God o r t heological in propor t ion as he
comes t o see wha t is implied in having his b ein g in
Universal Reason He b ecomes aware o f his par t icipa
t ion in Dei t y b y t ransla t in g in t o science wha t w as
o t herwise h eld in the imperfec t form o f feeling Philo
S ophy b ecomes Chris t ian fai t h tr a ns la ted i n ter ms of
th ou gh t : t he t ran slation makes explici t t he r ea son la t en t
in the feeli ng renderin g all in t o in t elligible divine uni
verse This philosophy would be reli g ion in i t s i ntell e c
t ual form assimilatin g Chris t iani t y as t he o n e ca t holi c
reli g ion I t vir t ually claims t o b e reli g ion S O far as
reli g ion is in t ellec t ual o r t heolo g ical ; no t necessarily
t o t he exclusion o f religion in t he more prac t ical form
emo t ion and fai t h An d if t heolo g y i s t he
o f feelin g
in t ellec t ual in t erpre t a t ion an d c o ordina t ion o f m an s
nal rela t ion to t he divin e universe o f reality Hegelian
philosophy is He g elian t heolo g y ; the t wo are s yn o n y
mous
He g elian dialec t i c becomes theology or divine
t hou gh t ela b ora t ed s u b sp eci e eeter ni ta ti s as S pinoza
would say I t appears as if at t he opposi t e pole t o every
m odica t ion o f agnos t icism Never t heless the elas t ici t y
o f He g elian t hou g h t allows t he ex t remes unexpec t edly t o
approach o n e another
.

Q u es t i o n s
t ed

iggz
T h is m
Hgl
g

e e

of

Is a philosopher j us t ied b y fac t s an d reason when

he announces the discovery o f t he perfec t ra t ional ar ti c u
la t ion o f t h e universe in t he Universal Reason called God
I S all t ha t is implied in the actual exis t ence o f th i ngs and
a b ove all in t he moral a g en cy o f p er sons relieved of
mys t ery ? Are t h e eni g mas which have pu t s o severe a
s t rain u pon faith found t o disappear by a comple t e trans

d i al ec ti
la t ion o f t heis t ic faith in t o t heis t ic t hou g ht
cally unfolded ? I S fai t h foun d t o b e exchanged for per
fee t in t ellec t u al Vision in an in t elligi b le reconcilia t ion o f
,

23 0

PH I L OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

in t elli g i b le science ? D oes it do more t han cover wi t h a

n ew vocabulary what is s t ill mystery hid in n al nu

knowableness as dis t inguished from human knowledge ?

i
Then
there
s
t
he
mystery
of
endless
existence
in
f t im
2
O
( )
l sn ss
m
m e the al t erna t ive of unbe
i
t
s
rela
t
ion
t
o
easurable
t
i
mb i n d
g inni n g and unending n atural succession ver su s a t imeles s
wit h h i
to i l
consciousn
ess
While
human
u
nders
t
anding
has
to
fac
e
r e l it y ?
t his mys t ery o f mys t eries h o w does th e dialec t ical pro
Is what w e
c e d u r e t ransform t he fai t h in t o science ?
call pas t o r fu t ure really pas t o r future ? I S th e na t ural
evolution which faith assumes t o b e in real fullmen t
g radually in t ime i s all t his illusion ; s o tha t wha t ever
h appen s mus t as a t emporal b e unreal and t he words

b efore and af t er sym b ols o f error ?

In rela t ion t o all t his I nd wisdom in words of per h aps
Lot e
t he m ost considera t e thinker amo n g later Germ ans The
words sug g es t t he in adequacy o f a b s t rac t reason t o ex
plain mys t eries which n ever t heless it m ay enable us t o
c o ordina t e bu t only in sub ordina t ion t o t h e m oral fai t h
which I have tried t o S how is m an s nal a t titude

t o t he universal problem
The universal propositions

upon which human kn owledge depen ds says Lotze are

j ud g men t s which do n o t tell us tha t anythi n g con cre t e
is o r is t akin g place ; t hey only declare what mus t exis t
i n case cer t ain imperfec t ly known
o r mus t t ake place
con di t ions should act u ally occur : t hey merely expres s
g eneral rules which w e must follow in t he in t ellec t ual
construc t ion o f t he con t ent o f o u r ideas
O n t he con
t r ary t hose proposi t ions upon which t he S pecial in t eres t

f
reli g ion depends for example t h a t God has crea t e d
o
t he world and that t he soul o f man survives death
t hese are j udgments which asser t particular concrete fac t s
The r s t m en tioned general proposi t ion s are nothing b u t
abs t ract expressions of for m s o f activity accordin g t o which
reason in i t s o w n abstract na t ure must be exercised O n
t he other hand dec l ara t ive propositions which assert fact s
wi th respect t o t h e orderi n g o f a w orld tha t i s more t han
a b s t rac t reaso n canno t with equal legitimacy be regarded
as t he inna t e endowmen t of o u r intelli g ence only b ut are

in some sort the resul t of o u r experience

r o

es

co

e
s

r ca

P H I L OS O PH I C A L O M N I S C I E NC E

23 1

Thus the r a ti ona le o f t he reli g ious conception o f the

u niverse see m s to resolve at last in t o the faith which is
inco m ple t e science sustained by the spiri tual constitution
of m an accordi ng to the h omo m ensu r a or t he d i vi n a
m en su r a humanised as t he only legiti m ate hu m an atti
tude in the end
This implies an i m portan t question
abou t the limiting conditions o f human understanding
which I will nex t consider
,

S c i en c e
a nd
ai t

F h

L E C T U R E V II I
I AL

F N

AI T H

T HE

nal human problem about t he universe may be

taken
as
man
s
signal
obj
ect
lesson
for
illus
t
ratin
g
the
f th
ni
v rs i t h limi t of his power t o comprehen d the da t a o f sensuous
s ign l h and moral experience
Can
our
nal
rela
t
ion
to
t
he
j t l ss n
?
realities
be
foun
d
through
exercise
f
understanding
only
o
f
m
i ng m n s
n ableness o f o u r nal interpre t atio n
Must
not
t
he
reaso
i nt l l i
of life in t he u n iverse depend o n o t her resources t han
gn
those provided by scien t ic in t elligence ? Must no t o u r
emo tional and m oral cons t i t ution be at work when w e
seek to assure ourselves as to how the world tha t w e
are living and having our bein g in is ultima t ely a ffected
towards us ? I S it possible for m an t o elimina t e al l in
it that is mys t erious o r incomple t ely subj ect to h i s intel
l ige n c e ? Is an all comprehending vision o f the in ni t e
reali t y in a wholly u n m ys t erious either in t ui t ed o r logic
ally articula t ed sys t em within reach ? Is man poten tially
omniscien t if n o t as ye t perhaps wi t h a full conscious
omniscience in any case ? Can his in t elligence dispe n se
with a necessary rem ainder o f t he inco m ple t ely i nt el li
g ibl o left for op timis t fai t h t o assi m ilate ? I s no t the
con t rary supposition impossible unless m an is identied

wi t h God
his incarna t e consciousness comple t ely o n e
with t he Universal Consciou sness ? If impossible moral
trust an d hope mu s t be ma n s hi g hest form o f life at las t
in rela t ion t o wha t i s comple t ely in t elli g ible only at the
Divine cen t re from which he is e t ernally ex cluded as
en t rance into i t would m ean d ei c ati o n
Under these
n l
p r o b l em

Th e

e u

se

or

ea s u r

ce

PH I L OSO PH Y O F T HE I S M

2 34

s
k n wl d g

of

m an
o

and t he n al combina t ion of agnosticism with gnostic i sm

in which t he las t word i s moral faith in t he perfect good
ness o r reasonableness of the end towards which all thi ngs
are makin g towards which in vir t ue o f the moral p o s
tula t e implied in experience w e are obli g ed t o assume
that t hey are m akin g John Locke w a s in this matter
F or
t h e earlies t spokesman o f m odern religious tho u g h t
i t w as he who deliberately raised th e ques t ion of the
limits of a human unders t anding of the re alities : he
would even unduly restr ain at t empts to translate human
faith into t he divine Vision Locke s et t o work t o nd
how far a human understanding co u ld go in knowledge
He was th e rs t ann ounced represen t a t ive o f this investi
a ti o n
m
Y
et
one
eed
take
hi
s
fa
ou
s
E
ssay
in
n
n
o
t
g
w h ich the in quiry is only ini t iated as an ade quate settle
men t o f o u r present question abou t the power o f m an as
a thi n ker to think all mys t ery out o f his universe as from
the Divine C entre ; in a philosophy o r theology which
should m ake all tha t is presented fully u nderstoo d
Locke only opened t h e w ay to the ques t ion n o w a t issue
between thorough going agnosticism t horough goi ng
gnosticism and the conciliation o f the t w o in the optimis t
f aith w hich accepts something from each o f the extremes
The questio n cam e to a crisis when the n ine teenth ce n t ury
w as confron t ed by o n e p h ilosophy that foun d its apo t heosis
in the Unknowable an d another philosophy which seems
to claim Innite Reali t y as within comprehension
The p h il O S O p h i c caution t hat is characteris t ic o f Locke
n d s u t teran ce in sentences in his E ss ay which t ell o f
i t s occasion and desi g n
Th e E ss ay w a s the issue o f the
perplexities in which human u nderst a n d i n g is in volve d

when man t ries t o co m prehend all m ysteries

This it

w as
Locke tells u s
which g ave the rs t rise to t his
E ssay concerning human understandi n g For I though t
that th e rst step towards satisfying several inquiries
the mind o f man w as very apt to run i n t o w as to take
a View o f our o wn understanding examine our o wn
powers and s ee t o what things they were adapted Till
that was do n e I suspected we began a t the wrong end
and i n vain so u g ht fo r satisfaction in a quiet an d sure
,

T h e in

nit e

o c ean o f

B ei ng

FINA L FA ITH

235

possession o f t he t ruths that most concerned us whilst w e

let loose o u r tho u ght in the vast ocean o f Being as if
all t ha t bou n dless extent were t he n a t ural and undis
o f human unders t andi n g wherein there
t
possession
u
d
e
p
w as n othing exe m pt from i t s decisions o r that escaped i t s
co m prehension Th u s men ex t ending t h eir inquiries be
yond their capacities and le t ting their tho u ghts wander
into t hose d epths where they can nd no sure foo t ing it
is no wonder tha t they raise ques t ions and m ul t iply dis
pu t es ; which n ever co ming to any clear resolution are
proper only t o increase their doubts an d t o conr m the m

a t las t in perfect S cep t icism

Locke s tone in this e n
t e r p ri s e has been d epreca t ed as an illus t ration of the
specula t ive indi fference and compromising intellectual
m ediocrity o f a practical E nglish m an We are also told
t h at the only w ay to determine the extreme resources
o f man s
understanding is fo r men to make trial : let
u s en t er t he water without rs t seeking t o nd in t his
abs t rac t way whether we are able to swi m ; let u s per
sis t in trying in hope o f attaining in t ellec t ual visio n o f
the innite universe of reality
T o s h o w tha t human kn owledge o f t he universe mus t C r i t i i s m
s

a t las t be left inco m ple t e o r charg ed with mys t eries

presupposes that reality i s know able by m en although m n

divi n e omniscience is no t within his reach Now the i n
u i r er w h o recognises tha t he already knows someth i ng
q
m ay perhaps nd points at which reason i t self forbids
further approach to co m pleteness u nder th e inevitable

human condi t ions o f t hought and experience

the point
fo r instance at which understanding is arrested by the
absence o f experience ; o r by the discovery that there
are indispensa b le constituents and convict ion s o f hu m an
n ature which are spoiled whe n they are t aken as rendered
in t he professedly all co m prehensive philosophy It m ay
be found that such conviction s cannot be held in S pirit
u al integri ty in the purely intellectual w ay inas m uch as

m
the S pirit in an emotional and moral as well as i ntel
lectual m ay be required as o u r at t i t ude towar d s what
t he hu m an mind can only in part realise in speculative
imagination If it should turn o u t o n inquiry t o be s o
,

ea

236

PH I L OSO PH Y O F T HE I S M

wha t I called ma n s participa t ion in t he Universal

Reason would t hen b e n a lly an ac t o f t rus t t rus t in

what his spiri t ual cons t i t u t ion requires and authorises
bu t which he is una b le to unfold in a wholly u n
mys t erious philosophy In this way su b mission to what
i s reasonable would at last bear t he character o f s u b
mission t o tr u sted a u th or i ty It would be t he issue o f
the livin g ac t ion o f th e wh ole m a n a t h i s b est in response
t o t he inni t e o r nally divine univers e t o which he
awoke in dim sense percep t ion a t rst This is wha t I
mean when I speak o f human at t emp t s t o de t ermine
t he nal meaning and ou t come of the universe as bein g
in t heir hi g hes t possible human form r ea son a b le fa i th
ra t her t han comp leted s ci ence Man as Goe t he says is
n o t b orn to solve scien t ically t he pro b lem o f t he uni
verse bu t ra t her t o n d o u t where the pro b lem begins
I n it n l
I s not t he o t herwise impassa b le gulf b etween O mn i sc
me
o t
i e n c e t owards which advance in ou r s cientic know
m ns
k n w l d ge led g e is n o more an approach than addition o f nite
f th
o f nite
spaces
is
an
approach
t
o
immensi
t
y
or
addition
n i v rs

t
imes
an
approach
t
o
Et
ernity
an d ou r scientic under
t k es th
f rm f

f
o
s u f c i
standin
g
the
universe
t
hus
prac
t
ically
crossed
m r ll y
?
ently
for
human
purposes
I t is bridged over by o u r
r s on b l e
f ith
spiri t ual humani t y in its rationally authorita t ive b e
cau se indispen sable needs o u r larger reaso n enlarged

in fai t h
reason au t horita t ive as dis tinguished from
sensuous understandin g ? I call our nal faith and hope
a u th o r i ta ti ve reason
s o far as i t is fai t h an d hope i m
posed by somethin g i n the mind di fferen t fro m logical
premisse s : i t cannot b e shown directly to con t radic t logical
in t elligence although t he reality cann o t b e adequately r e
presen t ed in scien t ic imagination This may be adap t ed
for man while inni t ely insu fcien t
A s distinguished
from complete knowledge t his nal t rust accepts t he
necessary s cien t ic incompleteness in a fai t h which at
least cannot be disproved an d which accep t s symbol or
ri t ual in lack of t he unrealisable in i m a g inative t hought
R s n in
F a i th tr u s t a u th or i ty
These words seem not u n
M n th s

t
t
e d t o express the nal a t titude o f the human spirit t o
b ms
n ll y n wards t he universe i n which we nd ourselves Properly
,

u co
a

o a

ea

ea o

ec o
a

23 8

PH I L OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

man by physical m e t hods an d in t he physically scien t ic

m eaning of the term knowledge Y e t in a larger m eanin g
t his nal faith o r t rus t is i t self called knowled g e as when

S t Paul says I know in whom I have believed o r when

S t John ex claims t ha t w e kn ow tha t w e kn ow Him

The

kn owledge tha t G o d is love is t he inevi t able i mp l i

cate o f nal faith in O mnipo t en t Goodness
I seem to nd t his philosophy incipien t in those ap h o r
T h d tif l
b di n
u re
isms
of
Bacon
which
e
xpress
nal
faith
in
physical
na
t
f nd r
S t n ding In words spoken by Jesus i n Palesti ne o ne nds nal
in M n
fai t h as t he m oral and spiri t ual a t ti t ude towards t he Uni
t th
versal Power In t he n atura non n i s i p a r en d o V i n c 1 tu r
r ti n l
t h r it y
B acon s t rikes t he key n o t e o f reverential submission t o an
autho ri t ative voice whic h must no t be gainsaid al t hough
i t is only imperfectly comprehensible accepted a t last in
an ac t o f obedience rather t han o f Vic t orious in t elli g ence
A nd is no t a like idea a t t he root of t he declara t ion t ha t

if an y m an wi ll d o God s will he shall know ? N o t

t hrough man exercisin g himself as a thinkin g being only
b ut through the response of the en t ire man still in an

incomple t e kn owledge
I t is only thus tha t i t is open
to man t o dispose o f his supreme problem wi t h i t s inni t e
in t ellec t ual burden Perhaps the chief prot o f s t rug g lin g
for the perfect vision may b e the profound reli g i ous lesson
o f i t s inaccessi b ili t y
R vl
The perfect science in which human spiri t s only par
f
t ic i p a t e is reveren t ial su b mission even in t h e most phil
gggilgth o o h i human t hought if t he time measured consciousness
s p
c
t
n i v rs
of
ni
t
e
in
t
elli
ence
and
omniscience
are
at
t
he
end
har
th t
And w e must also
i mp r f tl y m o ni s ed only i n un i ma g i nable though t
submi t t o the mystery of man s personal power t o create
acts tha t ou g h t n o t to be acted acts inconsisten t wi t h D ivine
ny h y
M n
Reason and fo r w hich the hu m an person n o t the Power
a t the heart o f t he universe is alon e responsible These
t w o with other mys t eries bar perfect vision
The burde n
o f the rst is not removed b y explaini n g away history an d
resolving t he whole a t las t in t o Universal C onsciousness
freed from t he illusion o f succession ; n o r is the mystery
o f t he o t her relieved b y disclaiming moral responsibili t y
fo r man and t hinking of persons as non moral
The
k no w
l edg "

ce

au

e a
s

ac u a

ar e

ec

F I N A L FA I T H

reali t y of a pas t and a future dis appears in the o n e ex

pla n ation s o t hat the words before and after b e co me
meani n gless wi t h consequent s cepticism as to evolution
A nd if God can be self
o f external nature and o f m a n
revealed as real agen t in wha t are called i m m oral acts of
man how can this be reconciled with th e inevi t able self
accusa t ion o f which t he immoral man is conscious which
pos t u lates that h e is the origin o f the a cts ? O r h o w does
i t co n sist with o u r reprobation of the im m oral person ?
I t is dif cul t to s ee that modern thought of t he Hegelian
sort has done much towards translating even these two
mysteries a n eternally evolvin g universe an d morally
responsible personality o u t of the darkness in which they
Philoso phy
m ust remain unless man can become G o d
may S ho w no t withstanding tha t those dualis m s continu

physical causality
o u s change and absolute endlessness
a n d moral freedom are n ot n ec ess a r i ly i n con s i s ten t w i th
I t may also S ho w that m or a l reason obliges us to
r ea s on
live under their pressure alt h oug h w e cannot fully thi n k
either o f the m out in a scientic image but must be con
tent wi t h a fr agment at the las t Moreover a Univers a l
Conscio u sness that is supposed to re d uce to illusion the
te m poral processio n of events and t o explain away the
moral economy o f persons w h o are independent enough

o
n
o
t
t
to originate ac t s that ought
be acte d t his Uni
versal Consciousness o r sys t e m of rational rela t ions while

c alled S pirit begins to rese m ble t he Universal S ubstance

o f which no t hing could be predicated while
o f S pinoza
i t takes only a semblance o f m eaning from the illusory
things and persons presented in ti me
The i n tellectual
vision which w as t o give relief see m s to an imperfec t
G o d i n a g radual process of self development revealed
in what is after all an illusory revelation a t leas t if
w e are bound t o think G od revealed in and t hrough the
conscious acts o f persons who ar e no t really persons
O n the o t her hand is it more than t he preten ce o f a

perfectly explained organic u nity that Hegelian thought

presents if it saves t he reality of out ward events and o f
n i te persons with their self ori g inated changes ; a n d if
it is t to rescue divine perfection f rom responsibility

D o we
nd e i e
fo r th e
m t e ie
of
en d

rl f
ys r s

l ssn ss
e

an d

mo

r l
a

vil i n
bs l t e
i d l is m ?

o u

ea

T he
or
g a ni c
u ni t
i s i nc o m
I l et el b

i m g i n bl
n i t y if
a

24 0

P H I L O S O PH Y O F TH E I S M

?
imm
oral
actions
of
men
I t is true tha t individual
it s v s
n it p
m e c h an i
persons
are
n
o
t
conceived
b
y
t
he
Hegelian
t
o
be
s o n l it y
cally parts o f God although they have t heir t rue reality

in Him ; bu t t heir or g anic uni t y in H i m seem s to b e

only a term to cover a relation still lef t in the mys t ery
o f necessarily incomple t e i m aginative thou g h t
I t is an
organic u nity t hat passes human realisation ; al t hou g h it
is innocen t o f the gross idea which makes all things and
all pers on s only physical par t s o f O ne B oundless S u b
stance o r physical e ffec t s o f O ne Unknowable Power
A nd t h
That He g el an d m any w h o are called He g elians mean
my s t ri s
their
nal
though
t
t
o
b
e
consis
t
en
t
wi
t
h
the
actu
ali
t
y
of
f n d l ss
n ss
nd
the world and wi t h t he moral personali t y o f m an I do not
m r l vil
o n e fairly in t erpre t t his philosophy
deny
nor
perhaps
can
;
nl y

in t he obnoxious sense that

t
h
heology
pan
t
eis
t
ically
o
r
v rb l l y
r el i v ed
involves nal moral and therefore nal physical agno s ti
Its fu n damen t al unity is perhaps elastic enou g h to
c is m
admit o f b eing interpre t e d so as t o comprehen d b u t in some
s t ill mys t erious way t h e world of successive n a t ure an d
the world of hum an spirits without sp oiling the actual
i t y o f the world o r t he freedom of persons t o create actions
referable to t heir responsible causation But i f so t his
implies t he need for faith o r incomple t ed knowled g e a t
las t Y e t we were led t o expect t hat through Hegelian
dialec t ic n al faith could be wholly t ra n sla t e d in t o philo
S O p h i c science with t he burden o f i t s mys t ery all removed
n o t merely wi t h t he mys t eries verbally articulated in a
more scien t ic form If there is here more than amended
sys t ema t ic expression o f the o ld di fculties o n e fails t o
n d i t as long as no t wi t hstanding Hegel the burden still
oppresses that resiste d all former a t tempts s o t o think ou t
the universe as to eliminate for example the t w o m y s
t e r i es which I have t aken as illus t ra t ions o f man s i n ad e
u
a
f
imagina
t
ive
though
t
Philosoph
y
still
remains
c
o
q
y
knowledge o f some t hin g t hat in the end passes realisable
kn ow l edge known for t he ends of a life which can be
lived well if we will ; unknow n because inconceiva b le
in the i n ni te n es s of reality I t only sh ows the con
s t ructive c o opera t ion of h u ma n in t elligen ce in a world
conceived af t er all from t h e human poin t o f Vie w S o

fo r

er

o a

ar e o
e

24 2

PH I L OSO PH Y O F T HE I S M

philosophy with i t s interpre t a t ion o f t he universe o f

thin g s and persons in t erm s o f the Universal Reason The

or g anic uni t y o f Nature and Man in G o d then admits

the moral freedom of a g en t s responsible for themselves
when t hey ac t immorally and also t he reality o f t emporal

succession
Iden t ity with Universal Reason and o r
g a nie u n i t y o f the universe are then as emphatic expres
sions of t he t ru t h t hat men are n ot isolat ed psychological
a t oms bu t members o f a moral t o t ali ty in which nal
moral fai t h in u s is sure t o nd sympathetic response in
t he in completely comprehended Divine Power perpe t u ally
active at t h e centre of the Whole S o th e furth er m an
pene t ra t es t he more fully divine order discovers i tself ;
m ore an d more of what correspo n ds to o u r n al faith is
reco g nised in t he principles th at are determining the
his t ory of t he world ; an d it is see n t hat while m en are

free to resis t G od by doi n g evil it is in their har m ony

with what is divine that the highes t freedom is to b e
found S o understood Hegelian S peculation becomes only
a more elaborate dialec t ical expression of man s d i s sat is
faction with the transitory phenomena O f sense in percep
tion of which hum an life begins ; and o f t h e O bli g ation
which t he reason that we call ou r s nds to s e e th e universe
o f chan g e in dependence o n the Perfec t Reason that in
broken form is involved in o u r exp erience but under wh i ch
we n ever fully comprehend the Whole
It becomes a
Vindica t ion o f the universe as incapable o f bein g conceived

n
as mindless purposeless evolu tion o f phenome a as the

revela t ion ins t ead o f S piri t to spirits thus relieving the

chill of abstrac t physical science wi t h the warm t h of
O mnipresen t life an d love In t he intellectual analysis
of Religion o n e may in this w ay be helped to recognise
his o w n m oral personality by i t s mysterious a fnity wi t h
the divine system in which i t is involved
But even
this philosophy would be at last an expression o f reason
in t he form o f fai t h founded upon needs i n heren t in
i m perfec t human co m prehension A t the bes t i t would
represen t t he mos t intellec t ual way o f bearing a burden
t ha t is to o heavy for scientic ima g ination It would be
man s philosophical acknowled g ment o f absolu t e depend
,

'

F I N A L FA I T H

24 3

nce upon t he Universal Power t ha t he is never theless

mysteriously able t o resist in his volition s and volun t arily
formed habi t s B ut the funda m ental fai t h is weakened
and dog m atic t emper is encouraged when all assumes the
appearance o f being fully t ranslated into philosophical
thought The la ten t rationality o f t he faith may be j us t i
e d while i t can never be unfolded by m an in an ex
h au s ti ve speculative imagina t ion o f the Reality
T he
j ustica tion o f the faith lies in t his that t he universe o f
experience dissolves in pessi mist doub t when i t s sustaining
inuence is withdrawn The ulti ma t e foundation o f proof
must be incapable o f direct proof and i n tellectual reserve
S hould be the characteristic o f all hu m an philosophy
Final Faith is taci t or i m plied trus t t hat nothin g can F in l
F
it h nd
happen i n the t e m poral evolution which will nally pu t t o i ts E nig m

con fusion the moral reason la t en t in Man

i n c o mp r e
h e n s ib l e as the world s his t ory o f mingled good and evil
may appear In what follows we are to con t e m plate the
Grea t E nigma which t hreatens t o transform Final Faith
in t o Total D oubt
e

L E CTUR E I
E

VI L O N

TH

IS

LANE T

I H AVE been trying t o S how the implica t e in reason T h e

m
s
p
r
which de m ands li a l t rust in the Universal Po w er d if l ty
that is nally ope rative i n t h e universe and s o at t he
hear t o f experience The ques t ions which next mee t us
are concerned wi t h the supre m e di fculty which theis t ic
faith and hope encounter in a universe which at least
presen t s a strange mixtu re o f what is
o n this pla n et
bad with wha t is g ood This is an obs t acle t o the r e
l igi o u s interpre t ation o f t he world which mus t be
h ones t ly me t But rst recollect wha t we have alrea d y
found
I t appeared t ha t human experience in the universe T h E th i
l F n
tacitly presupposes t he e t hical tr u stwor t hiness o f the d t i n f
Power t ha t is continuously revealing i t self in i t s events th ni
v
rs
Knowledge dissolves and conduct is par alysed o n t he s u p
position tha t t h e Universal Power m ay b e morally u n
trus t worthy ; and the world therefore even physically
uninterpre t able because order i n the evolution of i t s
events is n o t t o be depended on
S uch a universe
would be either intended to put u s to intellectual and
m oral confusion ; o r if it be an unintended and ao
which may return to chaos i t s events
c i d e n t al issue
would b e equally liable to traverse expectation in t he
end Moral trust in a p erfec t ly reasonable universe is
the needed postulate of experience for really unders t and
in g any fact o r ch ange This fundamental moral t rust at
t he root o f experience is commonly sub conscious ; it is
e

cu

ou

ca

e u

e.

24 8

PH I L OSO P H Y

O F

T HE I S M

involved however in t he t rust we all pu t in our percep

tions of things presen t in o u r memories and in the uni
In all these I nd ethical fai t h tacitly
for m ity of n ature
implied : a moral acknowledgmen t that the recollections
of memory an d t he supposition o f physical order cannot
be transi t ory illusions in a t emporal procession o f changes
that is all hollow an d decep t ive an d the whole per
fo r m an c e the m anifesta t ion n ot o f trustworthy b u t o f
m ali g nant or indi fferen t or irrational Po wer
F o r our
activity in t he universe is dependent on the optimis t
fai t h t ha t t he universe with which we are in cons tant
communica t ion t hrou g h experience must be morally
trus t wor t hy per fec t ly good omnipo t en t Power or Per
s o n al i ty being t herein omnipresen t
In t his ethical root o f experience o ne nds the germ
of Theis m I t is t h e practically harmonisin g prin cip l e of

t he t hreefold articulation o f realised exis t ence the three

primary d a t a from which we all s t ar t Th e universe of
reali ty is nally a mor a l unity incomple t ely c o mp re h en
si b le in human in t elli g ence but which moral reason o b liges
man t o suppose somehow consisten t wi t h ideal perfection
in the Power t ha t is continually at work in the hear t of
it
Cosmic faith unconsciously involves t his t heis t ic
faith ; for even physical i n t erpre t a t ion o f cosmical order
must b e interpre t a t ion o f t hat in whic h morally trust
wor t hy Power O r Personali t y is bein g ph y sically revealed
N o w origina t ing p ower i s recognised b y man only in
morally responsible Will ; and there is no reason to sup
pose th at physical causa t ion is more th an t he lan g uage of
A ctive Reason o r Will No merely n atural cause ca n be

o th er t han a caused cause

all at las t e ffec t o f moral
power which m an con ceives o f as vi t al o r consci ous
power All S O called natural agency may reason ably be

t h e issue
re g arded as divine agency ;
not indeed o f
capriciou s will but o f perfect and constantly operative
Reason in the form o f Will which may b e t rusted n o t
to lead u s in t o illusion a s practical interpreters of i ts
revelations given through nature and in man
We have found t o o that the universe may no t u n
reasona b ly be interpre t ed as a universe char g ed t hrough
,

C ns ci en e
nd C
s
l it y
o

a
a

au

ph ysi

T he
c al u ni

PH I LO SO P H Y

250

OF

TH E I S M

of

unbeginning and endless cha ng e need not dis t urb the

eternal necessities of moral O blig a tion and the fai t h that
man s highest rela t ion in al l this is to Universal Power that

is morally reliable A l t h ough clouds and darkness are

roun d a b out the revelation of this Power which is r e
veale d in ex t ern al n at u re and in t h e spirit o f m an yet

righ t eousness and j u d g ment mus t be t he es t ablish

ment of i t s throne ; and o u r use o f experien ce p r es u p
poses t hat the whole n atural process must be m aking for
the ri gh t eousness in wh i ch is the divine ideal
Wh at is ni t e in quanti t y a n d i t s Innite are m y s teri

a t once innite
o u s l y blended in o u r idea o f duration
and nite subj ect t o nite measures o f time yet nally
i m measura b le T ei th er w ay incomprehensible The tem
poral process i nev i t ably resolves a t las t i nto w h a t
t ranscends temporal li m i t s s o tha t the is sues are p er
only as w h at i s beyond i mag i na t i ve t ho u g h t
c ei ve d
F o r interminable duration is unimagina b le ; a million o r
a million ti m es a million of years being still nite i s
i m ag inable al t ho u gh a human imaginatio n canno t dis
t i n c tl y picture s o prolonge d a succession : bu t en d less n ess
is absolutely unpicturable for a pic t ure contradic t s
the t hough t : yet t o suppose dura t ion an illusion i s
n o t less incomprehensible
S uccession or change is thu s
at on ce cognisable and in co g nisable in hum an i n te ll i
gence s ig nally illustra t ing what the u niverse o f o u r
experience in s o many ways illus t rates when intelligence
measured by sense tries fully to realise the Power o r
Personality that n ally anima t es t he whole God like
dura t ion is at once in t ellectu ally appreh ended an d ye t t h e

n al mys t ery revealed for m an in m an ; and in all na t ural

causation wh en extern al n ature is con ceived according t o
t he analogy o f what i s hi g hest in m a n

The word person has been obj ec t ed to as un t fo r

desi g na t i n g t h e omnipresen t Power o r Principle t hat
pervades an d harmonises th e cosmic or g anism maki ng i t s
evolutions the obj ect o f more o r less developed morally
religious trust an d adoration t o t he persons it contains
To our crude idea o f personali t y the Universal Power
as personal see m s a contradic t ion Inni t e Bein g it i s
,

D r
u

a ti o n

j fl d
l

n it u d e
in l i

ggg g
i

e je g

60

gu s

th e
t

y et

n l
a

of

G od

p er s o n
a it

l y

E VI L O N T H I S P L A N E T

25 1

ar g ued because all comprehensive mus t be the negation

o f personali t y : for personali t y is antithetical t o so m ething
else t hat is n o t personal an d therefore excluded from t he
person This see m s t o mak e personality nite S o I am
asked by a critic to explain how O mnipresent Being can
be personal : ubiquity and personality seem t o h i m i rre c o n
c i l ab l e as ligh t and darkness
T hose who allege this obj ection t o the nally e thical P rs n l it y
t t r ib
o r religious interpretation o f existen ce seem t o include
t d by
in t h eir idea o f personality what I shoul d exclude as m n t th
U
n i v rs l

irrelevan t
irrelevan t perhaps even when the term P w r
is applied to human beings cer t ainly when applied t o
the Universal Power D oes no t the faith o n which ex

h
e
r
e
o
eS
t
he
faith
t
at
t
he
universe
is
nally
r
i
n
c
s
e
e
p
p
trust w or thy and that I am m orally free put man in

an eth i ca l relation to this Power ? N o w if person as

distinguished from thing is t aken as a t erm w h i c hz

signalises m or a l relation an d i m plies m oral as con t r asted
with merely mechanical or physical agen cy ; and i f the
unive rse in i ts nal prin ciple is practically t reated as an
obj ect o f moral t rust when we live in obedience to its
laws does not t his m ean t hat it is vi r tu a lly personal
for us revela t ion of a person rather than o f a thin g that
w e are in cons t an t communication wi t h Perfect Person
I f o u r deepest relation
n o t merely with in nite Thing ?
must be ethical trust in perfec t wisdom and goodness
m aking for the g oodness o f all ni t e persons in all worlds
trust in t he adaptations o f the universe to
all who
are willing to be physically an d m orally adapted to
i t this prac t ically m eans t hat o u r deepes t relation
to reality is ethical ra t her than physical : t hat p er
son a li ty in stead o f th i ngn es s is the highest form under
which m a n can conceive God This i s nal moral per
of t he universe o f
o r religious concep t ion
s o n i c at i o n
experience
But t his primary and inevitable moral pos t ulate does T h I n

n
i
t
n ot oblige o r even permit t hose who for the reason ll y

speak o f God as
sug
g
ested
Person to a f r m of my s t r i s
no w

P
G o d all tha t is i nvolved in o u r imperfec t personality
any more t han t he use o f t he common ter m dura t ion
-

as a

e or

na

ou

9 15 0

252

PH I L OS O P H Y O F T HE I S M

when we speak o f a shor t duration an d e t ernal dura t ion

obliges us to suppose tha t e t erni ty mus t be condi t ione d

like m easurable ti m e The personali t y o f God need

n o t mean tha t t he Bein g adumbra t ed in Na t ure and Man
is e mb odied and individual self conscious life like the

human t ha t God is or g anise d and e xtended as man now

is o r omnipresen t as in sensuous ima g ina t ion ; o r t ha t
God has a c o n s c i o u s fe x p eri en c e t ha t is subj ect like ours
t o change o f conscious sta te Ubiquity an d eternity we
have found t o be for u s t erms which e xpress commin g led
comprehension and necessary incomprehensibility The

Augus t inian Et ernal Now ins t ead of conscious change

A as appropria t e t o Divine I n t elli g ence h ardly helps us ; for
sub t raction o f Pas t and Future seems no t t o consist wi t h
the reality o f chan g e an d o f evol u t ion o r with di fference
b etween wha t has happened and wha t has n o t yet
happened I t seems t o dissolve all supposed past an d
prospec t ive reali t ies in t o illusions Personality in m an
moreover implies m emory ; bu t we are no t bound to
s uppose tha t the religious con ception o f t he universe i m
plies memory i n the Perfect Person wi t h whom all
e xperience b rings u s in t o cons t an t in t ercourse Also a
human in t elligence o f t he world involves reasonin g o n
the par t o f hum an persons ; b u t i t does n o t follow t h a t
t he Perfec t Person who speaks to us in t he universe o f
na t ure and man must be conscious o f deducin g con
premisses o r o f g eneralisin g under con
e lusions from

The personali t y o f
diti o n s of inductive calcula t ion
God is a formula which implies tha t in rela t ion to us
o r a t the human point o f View t he Universal Power
manifested in na t ure an d in m an must be regarded a t
las t e t hically no t physically t herefore as an imperfec t ly
conceived Person n o t as an imperfectly conceived Thin g
But the nal mys t ery of unbe g innin g and unending
T h e ph y
si l y
cosmos and o t hers involved in physical evolu t ion are not
f

af
t
er
all
the
pressin
g
burden
and
mystery
o
f
t
his
unin
li i t

t
For a universe in which the nite in
t ell igib l e world
s o blended as in t he end to
qu
anti
t
y
and
the
innite
are
333,23;n
n ll y
t ranscend human science is not inconsisten t with absolu t e
m r l 0
lial t rust o n the par t o f the persons who are participa t in g
,

Hl

ce

V er s e i p o

o a

"

254

P H I L OSO PH Y O F

H E IS M

pu t in t he moral perfection and consequent m akin g for

goodness in all persons fo r the sake o f goodness i n t he
P ower that is at t he roo t o f all ? The universe n ow be g ins
t o look un t rus t w or t hy its phenomena therefore u n int er
r e t ab l e an d human life hopeless
p
It is a fact tha t s omeh ow person s o n this plane t are
n
H w
re P
n o t as they ough t to be
E
xperience
shows
o u r world to
gt n b

p r d i t d b e now i n a very s t ra n g e s t ate as B i shop Bu t ler used

f t h U ni t o s a ; an d i t d oes not appear tha t i t w a s ever not s o
y
v rs l
H ow
o r t ha t all men W i ll ever be found perfec t ly good
p w r
tl t
t hen can the Universal Power b e O mnipoten t Goodness
ggg i
l d i n when t h e continuous evolu t ion o f blended things and
t h f r m f persons in which t he charac t er of t hat Power is supposed
w ld
?
i
s
i
i
to
be
revealed
con
t
a
ns
ev
l
A
pers
on
s
character
n
wh i h
vil ? j udged of by his ac t ions :
t in
t he ac t ion o f t he Power t ha t
is continu ously opera t ive in t he universe o f our e x p eri
en ce when it issu es in evil seems inconsis t en t wi th t he
pri m ary moral pos t ula t e o f e xperience
I t is true t hat m an s experien ce o f the universe is con
O
p i
i
n
ed
t
o
a
very
n
arrow
corner
o f i t c h i e to t his rem ote
y
gigat g

s nti nt
t ransi t ory plane t an d to a small par t of wha t i t contains
lng
n
In
deed
as
far
as
man
s
knowledge
goes
sen
t
ient
beings
E pl n t and self consc i ous perso n s ex i st only W i th i n t h i s l i t tle
nd
vn
plane t ; which t hu s fo r him contain s a ll t h at m akes t h e
a l problem in t eresti n g and ominou s
n
If
o u r un i verse
n
d
p
d r t i n had consisted only o f m olecules and m a tt er in m o t ion
withou t sentient beings an d responsi b le persons w h o
feel and t hink and will its t heistic si g nicance would
b e gon e in the absence o f all wh o could realise i t
A par t from the rela t ions o f outward things t o t he s en
t ient and person al life o f which o u r wo rld is the scene
wha t good or evil can be at t ribu t e d t o dead mat t er ?
The mixed g ood an d evil o f the universe as far as m an s
experience can carry him resolves into the g ood o r evil
that is found in the sensi t ive intellectu al and moral
s t ate o f li vi ng beings o n this plane t
B ut what are
t hey w e m ay be asked as exa m ples o f th e Whole ? O ur
plane t compared to the s t ellar system is less than a grain
o f san d compared to all the g rains in the sol a r system ;
and i t s living occupants m ay be more insignican t in
,

ca

81

ec l o
e

ca e

la

r e v ea e
e

or

ee

s e

u r ex

er

s c

s o

1S

e ee a

E V I L O N TH IS P LAN ET

25 5

rela t ion t o the Whole than the living occupants o f t h at

grain of sand in relation to all the living beings t h at
i nhabit t h e earth
N o r after all can m an reasonably
a ssume th a t th e possession o f moral a g ents is a pec u liari t y
o f this
plane t alone in t he stellar universe
E ach o f
t h e innu m erable m illion s o f suns wi t h their atten dant
plane t s may be similarly occupi ed ; o r some may be
e mp t y and o t hers crowded wi t h living bei n gs ; and per
so n al life need n o t be conned to organisms located o n
planets o r e xclude spirits able to range through sp a ce o r
even existing une m bodied T here m ay be sentien t bei ngs
whose i n tell igence is b rought by th ei r senses into relatio n
wi th a material world tha t presents no n e o f the q u alities
which matter presents to u s ; inas m u ch as they a r e
endowed with n one o f our senses but instead w i t h ve
o r fty
or
ve h u ndred senses wholly alien to those
o f m an
These a n d innu m erable other p oss i b i li ti es are
open a n d m ay m i n i m ise inde nitely the i m porta n ce o f
the m i n g led good and evil in t he current o f m oral and
s entient life as it ows thro u gh m e n and other a n i m als
o n this pla n et s o limited in i t s extent and with a duration
s o brief of i t s individual e m bodied lives
Bu t after all these li m itations do no t m uch a ffect the B t th i s
n t
d
s
present ques t ion Et hical t rust in the absolute perfection r l i v t h
o f t he po w er at work in the universe i s inconsisten t with d i f
l ty
f n y Ev i l
any evil in its rem o t es t corner as m uch as with a universe b ing
o f u n mixed e v il
T rust f n d
F a ls u s i n u n o f a ls u s i n omn i b u s
n y wh r
is sh aken even in a man w h o is an y where o r at any ti m e
in
ni
doing what i s wrong ; and n o m a n is omnipotent a n d v rs wh i h
o m niscient
Much m ore m ust a single evil des t roy w
b l ig d t
ethical trust and h ope in the Univers a l Power To believe s pp s
in Perfect Goodness i s to believe that a ll i s a t f i gh t th i l l y
tr st
t o be ; and this f aith is disturbed i f a ny th i ng is found w rt h y t
ex i st i n g w hich ought not to exist h owever in Sign i c an t t h r t
th e place in which it is found an d however rare the
occurrence
O ne such issue seems t o darke n In nite
Goodness And fo r m a n t h e iss u es o n t h is planet are his
all in all He interprets the m oral u n iverse by t h e o n ly
speci m en of it w hich enters into h is limited experience
N o w the hardest difculty which man has to m eet i n
.

oe

cu

ou

e e,

a u

e ar e

o e

'

ca

oo

25 6

PH I L O S O P H Y O F T H E I S M

x ist

pu tt ing a religious interpretation upon the universe is not

n
fl

f
u
the
existence
n
at
ral
causes
un
warran
t
ably
supposed
o
i ng b i ng s
i n th
t o expel instead o f to reveal God I t i s the bad state in
s t r ng
m
w
ich
man
n
ds
n
and
o
t
her
sentient
bei
n
gs
on
t
o
o
e
h
s t t in
T he
e

ce O

lV

a e

h h
h s on
n
o
t
s o distinguish the possible fro m the impossible as t o
h s pl n t
assert wi t h some theological pessimists that this is the
e fo n d

w ic
t o e
t i
ar

worst world possible ; n o r even that it is s o bad t ha t it

were b e tt er for men to pass for ever o u t o f conscious life
t han t o persis t in it under the given conditions Y et
a t t he least t he history of thi s plane t forms a revelation
of O mnipo t en t Goodness u nlike wh at an intelligent being
o b li g ed to presuppose g oodness in t he universe might be
ap t t o expec t

Philo puts t h e case plainly in Hume s D ialogues : I t

must I t hink b e allowed that if a limited human intel
l ige n ce utterly u nacquainted wi t h the actual universe
were assured before trial that it w as the produc tion of
a very good wise an d powerful Being he w ould in h i s
co nj ec t ures form b eforehand a very di fferen t n otion o f it
from what we nd i t t o be by experience ; nor would he
ever imagi n e m erely from th e se attributes o f its cause o f
which he was previou sly informed t ha t t he e ffect could be
so full o f vice and misery and disorder as it a ppears in
this passing life S upposing indeed tha t this person
were bro u ght in t o t he w orld assured (on a p r i or i grounds )
t hat i t was the workmanship o f such a sublime and b e n e v
olen t B eing h e mi g ht perhaps be surpr i sed at the dis
appoin t ment but would n ever retract his form er belief if
founded o n any solid argumen t ; since such a limited
intelli g ence must b e sensible of his o w n blindness and
ignorance and mus t therefore allow t hat there ma y be
m any solu t ion s of t hese pheno m ena which will fo r ever
escape h is comprehension But supposin g which is t h e
real case wi t h re g ard t o man
t h at this intelligen t crea
t ure is n o t a n teced en tly convi n ced o f a S upreme I n t e llig
ence b en evolen t a nd p owerfu l bu t is left to gather such a
b elief s olely from the appearances o f things this entirely
al ters the case ; nor will he ever n d any re a son fo r such
a con clusion He m ay be fully convinced o f the narrow
.

T h i s d ii
cu l t y
put by
D av i d
Hu m e
as

258

PH I L O S O PH Y O F T H E I S M

ac t s incon sisten t with obligation t o m an and G o d ; dea t h

h
which
painfully
separa
t
es
persons
uni
t ed in fellowship and
$ 1232
s nt d in brings the cur t ain down before the act is well begun an d al
}
most
before
the
dying
persons
have
had
t
ime
t
o
know
where
t;

h
h
es e
t
m
and
w
they
e
xist
I
suppose
a
r
so
e
o
f
the
e
f fh
ni
y
v rs
evils which o n this s m a ll planet seem a t variance wi t h
even fairn ess in the Universal Power o u faith in whom
hum an kn owledge and li fe tacitly repose
It is su s
u s fac t s like these t h a t tend to paralyse the primary
i
i
o
c
p
e t hical postulate o f hum a n experience F o r w h a t cr imes
do ani m als endure the t or m e nts w hich s o m any undergo
i n t he evolu t ions o f n ature ? What go od p u rpo s e i s
served by the miseries o f which things are n atural causes
t o m e n an d to other a n i m ated b ei n gs
all
;
n atu ral causation is re ally divine causatio n under natural
conditions must all b e c au se d by God ? O n this planet
Nature of t en looks cruel and unrelenting or a t leas t
indi ffere n t t o th e p ains an d pleasures of its sentien t
inhabi t ants
An d th e see m ing cr u elty o r indi fference
is fo r all w e can tell prese nted o n a greate r scale in
other parts o f the s t ellar u nive rs e than o n t his li t tle

u
i n collision
planet D o n ot stars s ddenly disappear
it may be wi t h other stars involvin g w e may fan cy
the su dden death In agony o f their sen t ien t passengers ;
or
continuou s S u ffering beforehand w hile the natural
chan g es were g radu ally u n t ti ng their world for livin g
occupan t s ?
xist
Bu t the greates t enigma presented t o man is the exist
Th
t he rise o f
ence
i n ma n of what ou g ht n ot to exis t
ff fgvil
mo ral e vil o r what C hristian
i n th i p t what philosophers call
theologians
call
Must
n o t th at which moral reason
S in
v rs
pronounces t o be a b solutely i ncons i stent W i th t h e V i tal
th n l
ised moral obligation which the religious conception

m
involves
and
n
which
o
u
faith
nally
reposes
us t
o
r
f it h
?
h
n ot th a t b e contradictory of theistic faith and O p e

Pain error an d death m ay be evil only as seen at a

human point o f vie w S in is absolutely evil Pain is the
correlative o f pi t y and sympa t hy : i t i s a natural and
i
f
m
there
ore
divine
ean
s
for
the
education
o f spiritu al life
f )
More over the assumption tha t pleasure ought to be the
de th
a

ar e

e u

e e

er

e IS

E VI L O N T H I S P L A N E T

2 59

upreme
f moral agen t s is one which reason would
nd i t di
t o sus t ain The ideal o f wha t Cudworth

c alls th e
intellec t ual system o f the universe is some
t hing higher t han pleasure as one may argue from t he
c onsti t u tion o f man an d its still dormant ideal
Bu t the con tinued presence o f wha t is u n condi ti ona lly F S i n
k
b a d can n ot b e disposed of in this way
How t o relieve g i g g
t h e mystery of m oral evil including what seems an unfair
p l iin d
l
d is t ribution of pleasure and p ain and an unfair adj us t
y
men t o f individual opportunities fo r moral g row t h has Evil
been the hum a n perplex i ty from the beginning I t nds
expression in Hebrew poets like Job and in Greek drama
t i s t s like E s c h y l u s
Can i t be reconciled wi t h nal moral
tr u s t and hope in t he Power tha t is u n iversally revealed
i n external and spiri t ual experien ce o r mus t we subside
i n t o total scepticism ?
s

or

ex

re

That this universe of com min gled good and evil mus t
b e the issue of a cons t an t struggle be tween t wo rival
E ternal Po wers t he o n e benevolen t the o t her malevolen t
i s an ancien t explana t ion of t h e s e strange appearances
The explanation is sy m bolised in the Z oroastrian anti t hesis
o f O rmuzd and Ahriman and i t is n o t without advoca t es
in the modern world I t s i m plied subversion o f the primary
e t hical postulate
withou t which experience is untrust
worthy must alone discredit this dualis t hypothesis with
those W ho are no t prepared t o yield a t last to uni
vers al agnos t icism and pessimist despair A like difculty
a t tends t he Monis m which concludes either tha t the
Universal Power revealed in the world is a Power o f
m ixed g ood and evil correspondin g to the m ixed pheno
m en a which surround us ; o r else t ha t i t is Power blindly
indi fferent to happiness or misery moral good or moral evil
Manichean dualism in t he form o f t wo e t ernal Powers
good and evil and Monism or a single eternal Power
par t ly good and partly evil o r else indi fferen t are bo t h
inconsistent with the indispensable moral fai t h and hope
A gain The t radi tion al t eaching of popular Christian
theology a tt ributes the evils which a fict men and other

l
o f the race
fal
a nimated h e i n s o n t his planet to a
g
,

E ith er

gigs?
or e

ls

ggf g gg
l

'

h ll y i n

a
l ga?
ff er d as
w

l t i ns
i
t vi

:i

T e mp t a
f
th e

o n ly a

p ro

260

PH I L O SO PH Y O F T H E I S M

man as su ch from i t s divine ideal in t o a mainly ani

Pl n t n
mal and sinful condi t ion caused b y t he t emp t at ion o f a
supremely wicked person t he D evil in W hom t he E vil in
t he universe is personied The rst man yielded t o t he
D evil in consequence all men are predisposed t o sin and
su ffer t hrou g h inherited O pposi t ion to t h e Divin e I deal
This m ay sa t isfy those who do no t care t o press th e
ques t ion
Bu t i t only moves t he mystery a s t ep b ack
while i t even ag g ravates i t I t t hrows n o li ght upon
t he mix t ure o f evil wi t h g ood in t he u niverse even if
t he fac t s on which it proceeds are admit t ed Wi t h this
E vil S pirit t he occasion of wickedness in m an an d sin in
consequence involved in th e na t ural his t ory o f t he human
race t he fac t of i t s pre exis t ence in the W icked S piri t
remains un explained ; wi t h t he added di f cul t y o f a n a tu r a l
t rans m ission of s in which see m s to reduce sin t o physical
evil ; t o tr ansform m oral o r immoral persons in t o non
moral t hin g s ; and t o des t roy personal responsibili ty If
t he D evil is an E ternal Power c o ordinate wi t h God we
are lan d ed in Manicheism with i t s t w o gods neither o f

which can properly be called God and the issue is an

un t rus t wor t hy universe If he is a fallen nite person

h o w entered m oral evil into him ? The difculty is aggr a
vat ed
Wha t is immoral some h ow arose in t he D evil
and is n o w na t urally transmi tt ed amo n g men in a uni
verse which i s nevertheless postulate d to b e a revelation
o f O mnipo t en t Goodness
C n m r l
These conjec t ures all fail t o j us t ify tru s t and hope in
t
he
Power
universally
a
t
work
in
t
he
universe
which
con
of
n it p
t ains w ha t ought n ot t o exist There are o t her co nj ectures
n ht
?
accordin
g
t
o
which
s i n i s explained away
F
o r t hey imply
zg f t
t hat i t s appearance 1 s u ncond i ti ona lly n ecessar y i n a world
i nt
t
o f n i te persons
Finitude
mu
s
t
include
imper
fection i t
tt r
i s argued
C on t ras t o r an t i t hes i s i s unavo i dably i nvolved
m ey i t v
b
in
individuali
t
y
which
must
b
e
t
he
product
o f opposed
ffgd
forces and charac t er is n aturally formed b y the struggle
Ewe}
n s
o f ev i l W i th g ood
Good it is assumed can exis t only by
I O n W i t h existing E vil : a tt rac t ion involves repulsion
co t
and posi t ive involves nega t ive electricity In innite u n
individual Power alon e can perfec t ion be realised wi t hou t
vi

i o na

l ex

a lo

of

'

o a

er

r ac

or

eh

es e
e

262

L E CTUR E II

TH EI S TI C O P T IMI SM
A t s th
c

fgggfg
d
t

oun

m en

d in

O R A L evil is no t an abs t rac t ion I t I s ac t ually found i n

t he lives o f h uman persons w h o occupy this planet
The appearance o f S ex t us Tarqu i n that m onster of
cruel t y is t aken by Leibniz as an example o f t he lurid
fac t s which t hreaten to paralyse t heis t ic faith casting
dou b t o n t he moral meaning of t he universe Leib niz
t ries to ex plain t hem in th e celebra t ed optimis t t heory
unfolded in his T h odic e
Bu t Tarquin and Nero
and Caligula are n o t singular among monsters w h o have
appeared in human form an d occupied thrones as well
as places from t hrones downwards in the history o f
mankind t o the presen t hour t he source o f told an d
For moral
u n t old misery in myriads o f living bei n g s
evil is found in more t han a fe w persons E xperienc e
o f men sug g ests a mys t erious t endency in m an to decline
from his true ideal ; a disposition which se ems t o
work in human bei ngs from t he b eginnin g o f their per
so n al life ; W hich w e are conscious ought to b e resis t ed
an d agains t which t he policy of mankin d ough t t o be a

cons t ant stru ggle sus t ained in persis t en t endeavour to

recover divine life an d rise in to the ideal man I h
deed t he reli g ious concep t ion of t he universe is s t rangely
ap t t o decay no t withs t andi n g t he h O p e and courage which
i t s development in spires
The ingenuity o f some is ex
h a n s t ed in searchin g for ar g uments throu g h which t o
escape from t heistic hope in t he Universal Power an d
t o conclude t hat conscious life is no t wor t h living ;

at

H E I S TI C O PTI M I S M

t ha t the sup re m e end o f man should be to ge t o u t of

consciousness nally ; if it i s possible for a being wh o is
O nce conscious to beco m e nally i m pe rson al an d u n c o n
scious H o w a n d w h y there should especially n o w in
E u rope be this pessi m ist disposi t ion this pre f ere n ce of
t he m erely physical faith th a t t a ke n alone is untrust
worthy instead O f n al f aith in t h e trust w orthiness o f
the Whole i s dif cult t o u n dersta n d
The perverted
an d degradin g for m s which re l igio n of t en assu m es prob
ably i n par t a cco u nt fo r it i n a re ned civilisation
O n t he whole w e nd that m uch which ought n ot t o T h pp r
n
t l
exis t and which need n o t exist i s f ound in t his corner s is t y f
o f the
universe ; w hatever m ay be the c ase in othe r Ev il i t h
ni v rs
planets o r a t other periods t h a n that sec t ion o f u n be W i t h m r l
ginning duratio n which is e m b r aced i n our o w n scanty t r s t i
n
th
historic record T he existen ce o f W hat o u ght not t o exis t v r l
in a universe which i s tacitly a ssu m ed as a conditio n of P w r
experience t o b e sel f revel a tion o f O m nipotent G ood
ness is the perplexi ty o f persons w h o desi r e to retai n
m or a l faith in the nal o u t c o m e o f experie n ce as the
divin e basis o f life T he sel shness inj u stice and cruel ty
found amo n g m e n ; n o t to speak of the cruel i n d iffe r

ence o f external n ature to the hap piness of livin g bein gs

seems n o t t o consist with the n atural evolution being a
ma n ifes t ation o f perfectly trustworthy charac t er in the
Universal Power
I t inclines the sceptic to treat the
Whole as non mor al o r funda m entally i m personal It
sugges t s surrender o f the lial tr u st and hope that the
Power to which what is highes t i n m an responds is c o n
t i n u all y at w ork in a n d around u s in order to assimilate
all persons t o Himself A universe i n w h ich n othing tha t
ought not t o appe ar ca n ever m a ke its appe arance seems
in o u r rst t hought to be the only possi b le ma nifestation
of the in nitely good Power pres u pposed in the religious
conception whic h is the tacit basis o f e xperience Doe s
no t t he rise into life of that whic h conscie n ce oblige s m a n
to condemn as absolutely evil involve either imp e r f ec t
goodness o r de cien t power either w ay the n al u n
trustworthiness o f all that man has to rest o n eve n for
interpretin g matter ? Does n o t t h e existence of vi c e an d

so

e a

en

uco

en c

e,

o a

e u

2 64

PH I L OS O PH Y O F T H E I S M

i t s con t inue d t olera t ion on this plane t mean n o t inni t e

goodness b u t indi fference to goodness on the par t o f t he
O mnipo t en t Power ? The supposed divine guaran t ee fo r
indu cti ve fai t h in experience i t mig h t b e ur g ed mus t
b e a Power t ha t is ei t her n o t willing to hin d er t he
f en tran c e o f wha t ought not t o enter
; o r no t a b le t o do so ;
The las t supposi t ion alone
) lo r else b o t h willing an d able
i t i s taken for g ran t ed corresponds t o t he idea of omni
po t en t m oral perfec tion But tha t t he Power at t h e roo t
o f all is n o t both able an d willing t o bar the exis t ence o f
what ou ght n o t t o exis t seems proved b y t he fac t t ha t
m oral and physical evil exis t s a t leas t in o u r li tt le plane t
ary home Th e sin and the s u fferin g tha t abounds in
human life an d h Sb nti n t l ife here ar g ues ei t her im
poten ce o r imperfec tion a t work in an experience such
as t h i s ;
and i t p ro d u c es paralysis of fai t h and hope
Wh en t his human ex p erience is t aken as sufcient proof
of indi fferen ce and impotence combined in the Universal
Power
T h th is
The reli g ious concep t ion of the universe is necessarily
t i i nt r
op
t
imis
t
in
t
the
Universal
Power
as far as it implies t h a
p r t t io n
is perfec t ly g ood To believe in G od is t o b elieve t ha t
f th
ni v rs i
whe
t
her
o r no t men are as good as t hey migh t b e an d
O p ti mi s t
t herefore ough t t o b e t he Divine Idea in t he W hole could
not be be t ter To suppose t ha t the n atural procedure of
th e Universal Power is a revela t ion which contains what
is bad seems t o mean t hat the universe is n ot the ou t come
o f perfect goodness
but o f a Power tha t is indifferent
or even hos t ile t o wha t morally ought t o b e
This
Power wha t ever o t her n ame might b e given t o i t coul d
no t b e called God when God means in nite goodness per
s o ni ed : only a s s u ch is G o d t he g roun d o f the absolu t e
t ru s t tha t nei t her o u r physical n or o u r moral experience
in t he cosmos ca n in the end pu t the persons w h o
have the experience t o intellectual o r moral confusion
To s u ppose that the Divine I d eal embodied in t he uni
verse could b e b e tt er than i t is means t ha t evil more or
less b elongs to t ha t Ideal ; t hat t he Universal Power is
morally un t rustworthy in s t ead o f bein g t he personie d
moral o b li g a t ion implie d in t he primary pos t ula t e o f life
,

'

'

'

o a

266

P H I L OS O PH Y

OF

TH E I S M

t he mora l perfec t ion o f t he Universal Power ; o t her s

h
p
explain
away
moral
evil
making
it
an
un
condi
t
ional
; ggf
n ecessity of all nite beings ; o r trea t ing i t as an unreal
n ega t io n for which n o power a t all can be presupposed
not t o speak of a tt emp t s t o hide t h e dif cul ty o f m oral
evil in m an b y referrin g i t in an aggrava t ed form t o o
t o the personal a g ency o f a superhuman spiri t o r t empter
Manichean du alism ; monis t ic indi ff erence if no t m alev
o l en c e ;
an a b solu t e necessity for evil in a universe
which consis t s o f ni t e t herefore necessarily imperfec t
bein g s necessi t y for evil caused by intrac t able Mat t er
t hese are all specula t ions which either des t roy moral faith
in t he Universal Power o r t ake away t he difference
be t ween what i s an d wha t ou gh t t o b e They leave u s in
a universe tha t reveals persisten t collision b e t ween t w o
rival Powers o f g ood and evil or t h a t reveals a Universal
P ower indi fferen t t o good even in t endin g evil ; o r nally
a universe t hat consis t s o f n o n moral thin g s only t o t h e
exclusion of persons good or bad
The ques t ion w h y God ad mi t s into t he universe wha t
A n nw
It
is
b
ad
seems
t
o
involve
an
u
nproved
assump
t
ion
giggg
i
as u m
a t d ivin ely n ecess i ta ted a b sence o f evil mus t b e
s
t
h
e
s
i ii: i t s el f alone g ood s o t h at o nly i mpossibility o f evil
m
aki n i t s appearance i s consisten t wi t h O mnipoten t
ev
g
eh
What
ought
n
o
t
t
o
exist
i
t
is
assumed
canno
t
OO
S
G
coexis t wi t h God But has t his do g ma ever been proved ?
Can i t be shown tha t the di f culty of subsumin g a mix ed
u n iverse u nder t he reli g ious o r opti m is t conception is as
g rea t as t ha t involve d in t otally a g nos t ic pessimism with
t h e arrest which this pu ts upon a l l in t erpre t a t ions o f ex
r i e n c e including even those o n which life i t self depends
e
p
Cosmical trus t in
s o tha t suicide is its logical issue ?
experien ce is inconsis t ent wi t h a radically u n t rus t wor t hy
universe
M st
Perhaps i t m ay t urn ou t af t er all t hat t he roo t question

h a t t he univers e
here
is
Whe
t
her
it
is
morally
n
ecessary
t
d
in which t he S upreme Power is r eveal ed s h o u l d b a a uni
n i v rs h
n i v rs
ersons
only of th i ng s to t he exclusion o f i ndi vi d im
verse
l
p
n"
f f
a
d
l
v
e
b
s
se
m
a
k
e
t
h
e
m
h
as
moral
agents
mus
t
be
e
t
o
l
w
o
b
a
m ml
t h i ng s ;
May t he perfe ct ideal include the existence of p er s ons
or

mo r al

sa

'

ar

a u

h eh

or

T H E I S TI C O P TI M I S M

n-l

67

with the implied possibili t y o f their maki ng themselves m y it n t

in l de
l
s

bad and keepi n g t hemselves bad

which last means ni t
p
m aki n g t he m selves gradua l ly worse ? N o w a m aterial s n s wh
m st h v

persons th i ngs w h ic h exis t as a means for i nte r c o mmu n bs l t

w r t
p
i c ati o n o f persons and for their in t ellec t u al an d spiritual
m k
education seems t o be the sor t o f universe w e nd our t h ms lv s
?
b
d
selves ih if w e m ay j udge by the appearance it presents
in this l i ttle corner
T he m or a l education o f man looks
W en m a
like a c
er is regar e
mean a t the highest h u ma n point o f V iew ; for I am
far from supposi n g that the universe is only this o r no t
m uch more t han this ; o r that if m a n could become
divinely o m niscient the w hole di fculty might n o t dis
appear i n the full light o f perfec t reason
Bu t as the
case i s man can in t erpret the universe only under human
conditions A h omo men s u r a i n terpretation o r a D i vi na
m ensu r a hu m anised gives h i m the hu m anly related uni
verse which i s really all that he has to do w ith
An d
this h u ma n mea n i n g m ay be even e t ernally true under
the human relations : at any rate it is enough for o u r
spiri t ual a s well as physical life
May it not be that the perfect ideal o r wha t ough t C n p
ns
s
f
r
to exist accordi ng t o the innitely good sys t e m o f the i n ir t f
universe includes the p oss i b i li ty of the entrance into exist t h ir m r l
n l
p
rs
ence and the continuance of states o f human bei n g s which t t
y
ought not to exist ; but which do not exist by an absolute s i st
w ll
t
?
necessity only in and through the will of personal a g ents ss imil t
A S moral a ge n hs p e rs o n s must be f ree to o r igiil ggw o l un d iv ine
i
i
t
l
f
x
s
t ary acts tha t are bad or u n d i vm e as well as r o lnntary
in
th is
acts
the divine order acts o f whic h t i l l y i n
be the ori g inating causes if th ey t p t b?l
t y must t
n iv rs
may be held m orally responsible fo r the ac t s Now have
w e su f cient reason t o t ake for granted that a universe in
Which inni t ely good Power i s revealed mu s t be a universe
that consists only o f n aturally necessitated an d therefore
M ay i t not contain r e s p9_n
s b ly acting
_
_i
nd its larger issues in their educa
Does n o t n ecess i ta ted absence o f s in
and sorrow mean no n exiSt en c e of p ers o ns a nd existence o f
a

c u

er

o,

o u e

er

ee ,

ue o

o a

o re

as

a e,

as

e, e

ca

er

re a

268

P H I L OSO P H Y

T HE I S M

O F

unconsciou s things only ; o r a t mos t o f conscious au t oma

tons not properly persons ? And is th i s necessarily t he
hi g hes t ideal o f the universe that man even can form ?
O n t he contrary is not a world t hat includes persons
b etter than a wholly non moral world from which persons
are ex cluded say o n accoun t of t he risk of the en t rance
into exis t ence o f what ou g h t n ot to exist throu g h the
personal power t o ac t ill implied in morally responsible
individual a g ency ? I f s o m ay no t a cts whi ch ough t n ot
to ex is t enter in t o ex is t e n c e t h rogh the agency o f persons
perfect o r d i vi n e i d eal o f th e W hole ?
Persons or dependen t bein g s who c a n o rigi nat e volun t ary
acts that ought not to be acted need no t be excluded if
God can admit an d sustain persons consisten t ly wi t h p er
feet Goodness
G o d ca nn ot m ake actual wha t involves
4
express contradic t ion namely t he e xis tence o f a person
who is no t a person ; for individual personali t y involves
responsible freedom to ac t ill
If t his Se em s t o limi t
Omnipotence o r make God nite t he al t erna t ive supposi
tion that th e e xistence of beings wh o are morally r e
sponsi b le for t heir acts is impossible for God in a perfectly
consti t u t ed universe is s urely not less a limita t ion o f
omnipotence I t is a limi t ation too tha t is imposed only
on the ground of a residuu m o f incomple t e or mysterious
conception implied in t he idea of individual o r nite per
s o n al i t y ; whilst the obstacle t o a b eing existing who is
at once a responsi b le person and ye t unable to ac t freely
lies n o t in its m ere mys t eriousness b u t in i ts eviden t
a b surdi t y
A o nt r
a
c
ntradic
t
ion
presen
t
e
d
in
t
he
upposition
c
s
n
h
o
i
di t y
of
f
r ee i ndividu al agen t s w h o a r e n o t f ree t o d d w h at o u gh t
id l
t
r fe c
n ot t o b
e
The
asser
t
ion
that
the
inni
t
e
n e in
d
o ne ?
p
e
l d ing nd tiO n of G o d necessita t es t he persis t en t g oodness o f all
x l d in g
b eings living in t he divine universe is t o asser t t ha t
indivi d l
p rs ns
t of all
irrationality
rather
than
reason
is
at
the
roo
nn t b
I t is no abate m ent of omnipo t ence tha t an express con
t h D i v in
P rfe t trad ic tio n cannot b e realised by O mnipo t ence A con
i de l
t r ad ic t io n in terms is irrational : to s ay that if God is
perfec t free agen t s ca n not produce voli t ions that they
ou g h t no t t o produce and that con t radic t moral reason
,

'

'

'

c or

ea

'

c u
e

c u

ua

ca

or

27 0

PH I L OSO PH Y O F TH E I S M

A
person
whose
immoral
volitions
could
no t
el
according to the divine laws o f na t ure be followed by
t he changes which he in t ended would still remain r es p o n
sible fo r t he deliberate intention ; b ut plainly not for
physically impossible consequ en ces these bein g divinely
determined according to the mechanism o f n ature and
from man s personal power and there
s o withdrawn
fore from his personal responsibility His responsibility
'
fo r badness is measured by his power t o make W hat
s
s
accountable : h e cannot be the real a g ent of an ac t
which has n o t originated in himself bu t which must
b e referred t o the ordered course o f Nature as an
e ffec t then n o t o f his imperfectly reasonable will bu t
u e t i o n about
o f A c t ive Reason in G o d
q
t he existence o f wicked acts , and who is responsible fo r
them turns upon the previous question Whether the
human person is the p ower t o whom the ac t is nally
whe
t
her
acts
apparently
his
are
i n reality
J
Onl y I i at u r al e ffec t s of caused causes an d nally of the

Universal Power ? D oes I ough t mean that I ca n

G od ca n ? I t is impossible
o r only t h a t N a tu r e
for fallible m e n t o perceive in each case with infalli b le
c er t ain t y th e lin e which separates overt acts for which
an individual person is responsible and events which
s hould b e referred t o the divine mechanism o f nature
We often cannot know whether the over t action is the
m an s o wn ac t ion for which he alone can be blamed ;
o r how far it is due to the m echanis m o f nature or o f
socie t y fo r which he is n o t responsible
B ut moral
responsi b ility is measured b y personal power to do or
n o t do that fo r which there is moral responsi b ility
A

r s gn
m
r
l
respons
ble
only
f
o
r
s
lf
ori
g
inated
a
e
i
s
g
i
Ly
pe
volition and for ex t ernal cha nges w hich h e foresees that
t he volition will be n aturally followed by according to
t he order o f nature
Personal origination of ac t s in m oral freedom from the
Power tha t operates in all n a t ural uniformi t ies I assume
t o be t he fundamental postulate of i nd i v i dual respons i b i l i t y
r

n
t
a
y
e

"

'

'

P rs s
e

on

as

d to
l

on.

r l

e at e

gi gi

TH E IST I C O P T I M I SM

:2 7

S o th a t a who l ly p h ysi c a l s c ien c e of m an w h i c h c on c erns

i t self on l y wi t h t he n a t ural law s of whi c h t he human b ody
is t he t hea tre overlooks t ha t b y w hi c h man is dis t in
t h at whi c h m a kes hi m a
u i s h e d a s a ra t ion al
sp
i
ri
t
g
s y m b o l o f t he in ni t e l y g oo d P o w er or c o n s t an t A g en t
i n t h e physi c al uni v erse
S o far as a person i s rea l ly
a person s o f a r a s th ere a r e even t s fo r which h e
a lon e is m ora ll y responsi bl e h e is i n a manner ex t rica t ed
from t he me c h a nism of na t ur a l causa t ion ; b e ca use h e is
in clu de d i n t ha t hi gh er economy t o whi c h t he na t ural
me c hanism is in ha rmonious su b ordin ati on and for t h e
s a ke of whi ch i t a p pears t o ex i s t
A no t her ag en c y t h a n t he h uman O pera t es i n and t hrou g h I n d ivi du al
l p

o ur
in t e ll ec t u a l a nd emo ti on a l cons ci ousness ; b u t t h e g it
p o w er t o or i g i na t e de l i b era t e vo l l ti o n s for w h i c h h e i s i mpli e s
t
responsi b le mu s t b e th e person s o w n w h o i s responsi b le fgi dh
for t hem : h e c anno t b e on l y the i r n at ural ca use ; nor c an p ersons
t hey b e na t ura l ly c aused w hi c h is in th e end t o b e
d ivine l y c aused : t hey mus t ori g ina t e in t he i n div i d ual b d
i f h e is responsi b le for th em A nagent c anno t b e person
al ly respons ib le w ith o ut or ig ina ti ve i n div i dua l po w er
O n e may u n d er th e i deal of n at u r al n ecessi ty s up pose a
universe i n w h ich A ll is n at u re a l th ou gh i t ma y b y a
ct ion b e c a ll ed divine na t ure ; a nd th is suppose d u ni
v erse may seem more wor t hy tha n t he a ct ua l uni v erse
w ith i t s s i ns and sorrows on th is plane t Bu t i t would
b e a u ni v erse free from th e ri sk of wi c ked persons on
mor a l t rial only on c on d i t ion t h a t it mus t also b e emp t y
of
o
persons
on
mor
a
l
t
r
ia
l
To
re
l
ieve
t
h
e
universe
o
d
g
o f a ll r i sk of any thi n g exis t in g in i t whi c h ou g h t no t t o
e xis t
persons on moral t r i al mus t b e reduce d t o non
m or al th in g s
M oral l y accoun t a b l e a g en t s mus t b e ex
c l uded
To ar gu e that t h e i deal of t he u n i verse canno t
b e perfe ct a nd t ha t t he U pive rs al P o w er c anno t b e ever
f
i
mor
al
evi
l
w
i
h
n
at
ur
all
y
a c t ive and in ni t ely
ood
t
g
su ff erin g i s fo nd a ny wh ere i n i t imp l ies
c onseq u en t

n n o t b e God
God ca
if w e n d a
d oes i t no t that
plane t con t ain i n g perso nal a g en t s on m oral tri al ? A
c ircl e d es tit u t e of th e essen tia l proper t ies of a c ir cl e
as a ni te person
c o u ld as w ell b e s u pposed t o exis t
,

"

'

'

_.

er

'

P H IL OS O P H Y

THEISM

0F

on moral t rial w h o is w a n t in g i n wh a t i s essen ti al t o

a person on moral t rial
Th e re al
S o th e real q u es t ion seems t o b e a prev i ous q u es t ion
i
th
e
exis
t
ence
of
i n d i vi d u a l p er sons is cons isten t
$ fg
M ay depen
t h e ex i s t
keep
th
em
fdfvi l
selves
b
elow
t
he
i
r
i
deal
and
if
some
of
e
m
do
s
o
w
h
y
t
h
n
i
;
p
i t nt
n o t suc h a g en t s for ever w i th dr a wn s o th a t mor a l
are
W it h th
t i c p t im e v1 1 may a t leas t no t b e an endless elemen t i n ex i s t ence ?

i m?
O ffences mus t needs c ome if p ep s ons exi st ; b u t th e

w oe i s t o th e persons b y wh om t hey come I ndeed

person s may seem t o i nvolve risk of e vi l as lon g a s th ey
exis t
I t does no t appear th a t even om nipo t ence ca n
exclude w h a t o ugh t no t t o ex i s t w h i l e th ere are b e i n g s
w h ose essen ti al c h ara ct er i s t ic i s t h a t th ey are a bl e t o
b rin g thi s i n t o ex i s t ence ; an d w h o c a nno t lose power of
res i s ti n g t he d i v i ne order and of excludin g d i vine lif e
from t heir l i ves with o ut los i n g th eir mora l per s onal it y
an d b e c om i n g only non mor a l th in g s
I a un i
I s m a n abl e t o show t ha t only a w orld emp ty of p ei sons
v
hi
t ha t t he div i n e w or l d mus t b e
c
an
b
e
a
divine
world
nt m

n
i n c lu dm
t
h
i
s
p ersons
a world cons i s t i n g only of
cons
c
i
ous
g
g
3 1 3 t h i n g s or a u t oma t ons but with o ut moral personal it y ?
$ 32?n Would it e n h an c e th e perfe cti on of God i n N a tu re t hat
free t o
no
thi
n
g in t he form of g ood and ev i l h u man ag en cy s h o ul d
m k th m

n
se lv es b d a ppe a r i n v olved i th e course of na tu re th a t eV 1 l s h ould
b e ex c l ude d b y g oodness i n th e form of mora l ly t r i ed
%
personal l i fe b ein g also ex c luded ? I s it on l y on th os e
tl y a n d t erms th a t man can consen t t o re g ard th e u n i v erse r e
i l
l igi o u s ly as th e revela t ion of t r u s t wor th y P ower v it alis
in g a perfe ct moral i dea l ? A re we o b li g ed t o s ay th a t
t he p resence of a s i n g le ev i l even under t h i s condi t ion i s
ne c ess a rily in c onsis t en t w i th a re ligi ous c on c ep ti on of t h e
Wh o l e and t herefore wi t h presuppose d perfe ct g oodnes s
of t he Universal P ower A d i v i ne l y ne cess it a t ed g oodnes s
in all persons wh i ch des t roys respon s i b ili t y and t herefore
t he g oo d ness i t se l f is self con t radi ct ory A responsi b le
ag en t mus t b e in t rus t ed with p o w er t o d i s t ur b t h e as
sum p tion t h at a ll pe rsons i n a d i vi ne u n i verse m u s t b e
al w a y s g ood
,

s:

ua

er s o

CQ D S S

el s

'

er s e r

co

10

3 9 11

1 ec es

vor

2 74

PH I L OS O PH Y

TH E I S M

or

th en R ome b ec ame a g rea t emp i re with i ll u s t r i ou s ex

a mples of man li ness ; t hou g h a l l t h i s i s as no th in g
t o t he n a l iss u es of t ha t e t ernal ideal in w hi ch wi c ked
Tarquin and t he g loriou s R oman E mp i re are found as
h ereaf t er t o b e re ali sed i n admir i n g t hou ght when af t er
a pass ag e from thi s mor t al s t a t e t o a b e tt er th e g ods
s h all h ave made us a b le t o conce i ve th e W h ole
Th e ar gu
A n o bj ec ti on t o th e reli g io u s meanin g of th e un i verse
ment o f
w
hi
c
h
u
n
derl
i
es
thi
s
al
l
e
g
ory
of
L
ei
b
n
iz
m
ig
h
t
b
e
su g
L ei b n i z
g es t ed
C an a P ower w h i c h sus ta ins a u niverse th a t
con t a i ns ev i l w h en e it her th e ev i l mi g h t h ave b een lef t
9 ou t or th e u niverse no t h ave c ome in t o ex i s t e nce b e
said t o do w h a t i s perfec t ly g ood ? God m a kes a w orld
w h ic h could no t h ave b een made
i
n
w
hi
c
h
th
ere
i
s
ev
i
l
{
with o ut ev i l i n it b u t w hi c h need n o t h ave b een made
at
all T h e i nferen c e seems t o b e th a t th e power t o
which thi s m i xed world is all referre d h as no t done wh a t
\
ou
ght
t
o
b
e
done
L
e
ib
n
iz
rej
e
ct
s
t
he
assump
t
ion
th
a
t
\
a
\ un i verse in which th ere i s ev i l m a y no t b e t he b es t
world ; for it may b e th a t th e evi l i s t he na t ural p a ren t
of th e g ood
A n imperfec ti on i n par t may b e needed
fo r th e perfe cti on of t he Whole
A g eneral will prefer
a g rea t vic t ory w ith a w oun d t o loss of t he b a ttl e w ith
ou t th e w ound
S i n m a y in t roduce i n t o th e universe
s ome th in g b e tt er t h a n wha t could h ave b een b rou g h t in t o
exis t ence b u t for s in I n t h at c ase a w or l d with s in i n
i t is con cl uded t o b e b e tt er t h a n a w orld wi th ou t s i n
Bu t L e ib n iz fa i ls t o s h o w h ow th e supposed b es t i deal
makes th e ev i l found in th e w orl d i ne v i t a b le or h ow a
w orld in w h i ch n o t hin g c ou l d ex i s t th a t ou g h t no t t o
exis t m i ght n o t b e
Th e i n f
Th i s form of t he i s tic op t im i s m seems t o make moral
i n y of
evil
no
t
some
thi
n
g
w
hi
ch
th
ere
i
s
a n u n c ondi t ional o b l i
h i s o p t im
at i o n t o c ondemn b u t r at her w h a t mus t b e admi tt ed as
m
g
in i t se l f g ood on ac c ou n t of it s c onsequen c es It a l so
seems t o imply an in a dequa t e c oncep ti on o f t he ori g in
a t in g power of p er s ons i n v ir t ue of t heir indi v idu a l r e
spons ib ili ty t o b ri n g in t o exis t en c e w h at ou g h t no t t o
exis t and i s no t b rou g ht in t o exis t en c e b y div i ne
necess it y
I f moral personal it y i s ori g ina ti ve t o th e
,

'

su

c e

is

T H E I S T IC O P T IMI S M

2 75

x t en t of th e ac t s for w hi ch th e person i s a cc o u n t

a bl e th en
as I h ave b een ar gui n g th e ques ti on
reso l ve s i n t o t he c ons i s t en c y of t he ex i s tence of persons
a bl e t hemselve s t o make t hemselves b ad with mora l
perfec ti on i n th e Un i versal P ower
C an b e i n g s ex i s t
u nder a reli gi ous
concep ti on of th e u n i verse w h o are
a b le to r esi s t moral reason
or th e w i ll of God th a t all
ersons
should
b
e
g
ood
p
Tha t th e gl or i e s of R ome s h o u ld make th e cr i mes of I t e m t
S ex t u s only rela t i vely cr i mes
a
b
solu
t
ely
g
ood
b
y
a
but
n ecess i t y w h i c h omn i po t ence i s una b le t o over c ome i s t l y g oo d
a n uns ati sfy i n g i dea
It seems t o rel i eve th e d i fcu l t y
b y expla i n i n g away moral e vi l or b y t ransform i n g it
a t a hi g her poin t of V ie w i n t o g ood ; so th a t t he w ors t
c r i mes are rela ti vely b ad b u t really g ood It seems t o
i mply th a t S ex tu s co u ld no t h elp b e i n g b ad or ra th er
t ha t w h a t we re g ard as a b ad S ex t us wa s r ea lly a g ood
S ex tu s w h en looked a t i n all h is conseq u ences t o th e
u n i verse
H e i s w h a t h e i s b y a necess it y of ex i s t ence
no t b y a personal ac t of hi s own t ha t is i ndependen t of
i deal necess i t ies ; and h e mi ght b u t f or h i mself a lon e
th er th an h e ac t ually was T hi s i s t o make
r tu n a t e
no t b l a me wor t hy
F or moral ev i l
is wh a t ou g h t no t t o ex i s t t ha t for w hi ch th ere i s no
a b solu t e necess it y
S i n i s t he un i q u e e ffe ct of th e person
whose vol u n t ary ac t it i s C an th e un i verse no t b e nally
div i ne even if it con t a i ns per s on s w h o are a b le t o make
and keep th emsel v es u n d i vi n e ?
B u t af t er all t his moral t r i a l of persons w ith ou t th e i r Th e p tim
o w n leave ; th eir n it e w eakness and i g norance on acco u n t
of
of i nd i vidual per c ep t ion b ein g n ecessarily only percep ti on ex i st en c e
i n par t ; and t he d i s tri b u t ed m i ser i es of men and o th er s e n

ien
t
b
e
i
n
g
s
irre
gul
arly
form a s t ran g e a nd unexpec t ed n at iv e t o
t
sor t of revela tion of mora l ly t r u s tw or t hy Universal P ower
y
T h e pers i s t ency and ex t en t of th e lur i d fac t s are s t i l l u nt ru s t
W
th Y
i nsuf cien t ly expla i ned b y th e referen c e of ac t s t h at u n i ver s e
ou g h t no t t o b e a ct ed t o th e or i g i na t i ve a g ency of persons m m;
n t w it h
Un d er th is condi t ion one mi g h t h ave expec t ed t o nd t d t
g
some persons res i s t i n g o t h ers perfec t ly c onformed t o t he re mai nd e
f
m
t
y
y
The mora l ly downward t endency
i deal of moral reason
e

s e

OF

s an

in

s cr

276

PH I L OS O PH Y O F T H E I S M

whi ch all men h ave t o res i s t s ugg es t s a rema i nder o f

mys t ery in per s onal it y w hi c h per h aps man i s no t a b le t o
remo v e : n o i nd i v i dual person i s w h olly i nd i v i d u al B u t
incomple t e knowled g e a s d i s ti n gui s h ed from a b sol ut e con
t r a di c ti o n leave s room for th e op ti m i s t concep ti on th a t i s
presupposed i n a rel ig iou sly c once i ve d un i verse nally
P ess i
t r u s t wor th y th erefore for life i nsp i red b y h ope
m i s t do ubt w hi c h i s s u ici dal for ex ti nc t ion of consc i o u s
l i fe wo u ld b e th e only e s cape from an exper i ence th a t may
i n th e end dece i ve an d i ssue for all i n an o ut come of w o e
thi s do ubt i s i mposed no t b y i ncomple t e knowled g e
w ith it s rema i nder of mys t ery but only b y a comple t e
percep ti on th a t th e u n i verse a s we nd it mu st con t rad i c t
perfec t g oodne ss W h en th e necessary al t erna ti ves are
th ei s ti c Op ti mi sm and a th ei sti c p ess i mi sm I fa i l t o nd i n
reason a necessi t y for th e s ui ci dal al t erna ti ve ; and I nd
th e oppos it e al t erna ti ve s u ppor t ed b y all th a t i s high e s t i n
m an T hi s i s n o t demons t ra ti on like p u re ma th ema ti c s
Bu t i s it no t eno u gh t o s a ti sfy hi m w h o s eek s t o b eco m e
w h a t h e o ught t o b e
,

2 78

PH I L OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

th e i r i deal of D e it y in th e wan t of it refus i n g t o re c o g

n i se i n consc i ous l i fe t h e presuppos it ion of all real ex i s t
ence l n h i gh e s t perfec t ion i n God s h ared on l y i n par t in
hu man b ei n g s
W h en I speak of th e oppos it e c o n c ep t ion t o all thi s as
M or l e vil
an
h
op
ti
m
i
sm
I
m
u
s
t
explain
w
a
t
I
mean
T
h
e
i
s
t
ic
op
ti
m
i
sm
i
gn igg
g
ib i l it y if doe s no t mean th a t th e universe con ta ins no thi n g that
O u g h t no t t o ex i s t ; it refers any moral ev i l th a t does appear

s on b ly
w hi le it o ught no t an d need no t t o th e origi na ti n g wil l
n a t ure wi th po w er t o m ake th em
of
persons
w
h
o
en
t
er
i
n
t
o
Eggfji g l
p ersons on s elve s b ad T h e r i se of ev i l i s con t in g en t upon th e un i
mom l t i L
verse b e i n g a u n i ver s e th a t i ncl u des persons no t th in g s
on l y ; a un i verse t oo w hich a t o u r hu man poin t of view
seems t o evolve i n order t o b e a s c h ool for th e pro g ress
2 an d moral t r i al of persons T hi s i nvolves m oral or sp i ri t ual
rela ti ons amo n g persons pres u pposed i n moral persona lit y
a s well as p h ysi c al rela ti ons amon g thi ng s ; and it o b li g es
u s t o look a t na t ural ca u se s i n a high er l ight th an p h ysi
cal s ci ence does A b ove all i t i mpl i es th a t human persons
n it e i nd i v i du a ls may m a ke th ems elves b a d
I f th e r e
l igi o u s or O p ti m i s t concep t ion of th e universe includes

per s ons s u per i or t o thi ng s and th ei r rela t ion s th en th e

i n evi ta b le
en
t
rance
of
w
h
a
t
ou
ght
no
t
t
o
ex
i
s
t
seems
an
)
oss
i
b
i
E
xclus
i
on
of
th
e
i
of
evil
or
con ti n en c
l
i
t
m
p
g
y
y

moral resis t ance t o t h e d i v i ne i deal th e resis ta nce lead

i n g t o suppress i on of th e h i gh er l i fe i n th e resis t in g persons
see m s t o con t radic t th e i dea of moral perso n ali t y edu c a
ti o n and t r i al A world of ni t e persons m u s t b e cap a ble
Th e
of b ei ng m a d e b a d b y th e p er s on s of wh om i t con si s ts
[en t r a nce i n t o th e i r lives of voli t ions whic h th ey ou g h t no t
;

t o h ave willed i s no t perm i ssion of w h a t mi g h t h ave

l b ee n
preven t ed b y th e Universal P ower m akin g and
lkeep ing a ll persons perfe ctly g oo d
To keep persons
p erfe ctl y g ood b y an i rresis t i bl e necessi t y would b e t o
t ransform a spir itu al world of persons in t o a phys i cal or
non mor al world of c ons ci ou s au t oma t ons : th e s o c alled
persons woul d c e ase t o b e moral l y personal ; th e i r moral
t ri al would b e an i ll u sion
P ersons are more emp h a ti cally real th an ma t erial thi n g s
N n mor al
t h ings m t
i f thi n g s are only pass i ve or i m po t en t
B ut th e real
,

ua

r a

'

us

HU M A N PR O G R ESS

279

exis t ence of ma t er i a l th in g s and of indiv i dual persons

b e t re at e d
m

t wo pos t ula t e d exis t en c es in t he t hree fold ar t icul at ion of al th o ugh

ther t h i n g s nor persons are t h e y are

re
al
i
t
i
e
mus
t
mean
t
ha
t
ne
i
s
A
on l y i ll usory modes of God th e thi r d pos t u l a t ed rea lit y ligh
A nd ma t er i al t hin g s m u s t at l eas t h a ve o utw ard rea l i t y Sign
{ enou gh t o b e a v ai l a b le media of i n t ercommuni ca t ion b e
t ween cons ci o u s persons t hey mus t a fford an in t erpre t a bl e
sys t em of ou t w a rd si g ns c har g ed w i th [ meanin g s w h ic h
s c ien c e m a y in t erpre t : t he y mus t b e a b le t o c onvey mean
in g ou t of one mind more or l ess adequa t e l y in t o ano th er
m i n d We pra ct ic all y nd at l eas t th is amoun t an d kind
of real ity implied i n t he ma t er i al wor l d
Bu t alth ou g h m at er i al thi n g s are in some i mperfec tly Th e on l y
k

c ompre h ended wa y more an d o t her t han pr i v at e pheno gggf

mena of my indiv i dua l c ons c iousness I h a ve no reason gt i d
l
l
vm
t o suppose th a t t hin g s l ike persons are au t hors of a ct s ; gi g
w hi c h wou l d imp l y th a t t hey c an ori g in at e e ffec t s Wi t h whi ch
d
I
less or more in t e l li g ence w e ac t ual l y d is t in g u i s h th i ngs i
l fg
f rom s elf ; and b o t h from G od th e su s t ainin g po w er in
th in g s and in persons ; we d i s ti n g uis h ou r selves from tt b t d
th i ngs espe c ially in v i r t ue of our b ein g endowe d w it h
personali t y w hi c h as far a s th e responsi b le ac t ivi t y ex i n d ivid ual
P m
t en d s ena bl es ea c h person t o make himse l f b ad
A nd
t his ag en c y of persons canno t I t h i nk b e sh own t o b e
in c onsis t en t w i t h t he ca usal con cat en at ion of physi c a l
\n at ure of w hich in d eed t he person needs t o avai l h imse l f
in a ll over t free a ct ion I n d ividu al persons are th e only
ori g ina ti n g powers in ex i s t ence kno w n t o m a n over and
ab ove t he Un i versa l P o w er Why should th is res i st in g
po w er of persons t hro ugh wh i c h t hey may refuse t o a s
simi l a t e th e d iv i ne l i fe ne c essari l y con t ra d i ct th e na ll y
o p t imis t or re l i g ious c on c ep t ion of t he universe ? T his
w ou l d imp l y t h at an in d ividual person cou l d no t exi s t in
a div i n ely m ai n ta ined a nd ordered wor l d ; and t h at t he
Uni v ersa l P ower cou l d b e reve a led on l y in and t hrou g h
t he d ivine a g en c y man i fes t e d in un c ons c ious t h i n g s or
in c ons c ious a u t oma t ons ne it her g ood nor b a d mor all y
Bu t one may s t i l l ask ho w a universe t h at c on ta ins B t wh t
w ith in i t thi s possi b ly di s t ur bi n g e l emen t of in d ividu a l p er s on s
personal a g ency can b e kep t b y God i n harmony W i t h i ts w ere t o
,

33

t,

s.

u s

v l

'

es

rl

u e

ns

'

280

m ai n tai n
t h emselves
i n p erm a
nen t res i st
an c e t o
t h ei r d ivi ne
i d e al

PH I L OSO PH Y O F TH E I S M

D ivi ne ideal ? I f a un i ver s e w hi c h dele g a t es ind i v i d u al

power t o persons t o make and keep th em s elves i n s t a t e s
in wh ich t hey ou ght no t t o ex i s t i s a un i verse th a t God

ca n manife s t H i mself i n i s it no t a u n i verse th a t may

nally b e conver t ed i n t o moral c h ao s b y th e per s on s i n it
even whi le it m ight con ti n u e a p h ys i cal cosmo s
; so th a t
ab a t emen t of evil on th is plane t wo u ld b e i mposs ib le ?
M ore tha n thi s may no t per s ons w ith th e i r i mpl i ed power
o f i n iti a ti n g evil g radua l ly make th e w or l d of person s a
w or l d i n wh i c h a l l per s ons make th emselve s w h olly and
nally h ad ? M ay no t th eir moral t r i al lead t o u n i
v ersa l and unendin g moral d i sorder ; so that e th ical rel igi on
w ou l d in fac t b e ex ti n gui s h ed b y th e moral persona lit y
on w hich I h ave ar gu ed th a t it res t s ? T h e ex i s t ence of
persons w h o as persons are free t o b ecome permanen t ly
b ad ; w h o canno t b y any power div i ne or o th er h e hi n
dered from b ecom i n g b ad w it hou t b ein g red uc ed t o i rre

spons ib le thi n g s seems t o i mply th e p ossib i li ty of a world

in whi c h all persons are a t las t irre c overa b ly b ad and b e
c om i n g worse W h a t th en b e c omes o f t he op ti m i s t con
The i s ti c fa ith wo u ld tu r n ou t t o b e
c ep t i o n of ex i s t ence ?
a f allac i ous g uaran t ee for th e moral cosmo s w hich it pre
supposes as th e nal ou t come T h e u n i verse o f per s on s
w ould t hen h ave b ecome a un i verse of dev i l s s u rely no t
a poss ib le man i fes t a ti on of th e morally perfec t O mnip o
t ence th a t i s ine vit a bl y ass u med i n all our i n t erco u rse
w ith our u nconsc i o u s and consc i o u s s u rro u nd i n g s
T h us th e ex i s t ence of persons w h ose personal it y ena b le s
th em t o make and keep th em s elve s b ad i s th e Grea t
E n i g ma of fa ith and is a t leas t ev i dence of th e sci enti c
l i m it a ti on of ou r nal con c ep ti on To resolve th e en ig ma
we s h ould need t o know why th e rel igi o u sly t r u s t ed
u n i verse of th in g s and persons ex i s t s a t all why it h as

ex i s t ed and why i t wi ll con ti nue t o ex i s t if i ndeed

t o pu t th e pro b lem thu s i n t erms O f ti me doe s no t t ake i n
w h a t is i rre l evan t a t th e nal po i n t of V i ew The reason
for God and for th e u n i verse of thi n g s and persons i n
w hich H e is con ti n u ously reveal i n g H imself mu s t b e th e
i nsol u b le pro ble m ; ye t w ith o ut solv i n g i t w e canno t b e
s u re th a t o u r knowled g e i s comple t e eno ugh t o s h o w th a t
,

Wh y i s
t h ere a
u n i verse n
t em p or al
evo l uti on
I

282

PH I L OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

B
ut
even
pro
g
ressi
v
e
a
b
a
t
emen
t
of
th
e
ev
i
l
t
a
t
i
s
h
p
no w m i xed wi th th e g ood i n persons and th e i r soci al
i n an
e conomy on thi s plane t seems b y it self i nadeq u a t e t o
f t
reconcile
w
ith
perfe
ct

l
i
al
t
rus
t
th
o
s
e
s
t
ran
g
e
appearances
:ggfggg
not if i t whi c h su gg es t s c ep t i c al pess i m i s m I n th e rs t place i t
does no t expla i n h o w under O mn i po t en t Goodness th ere
n eed for pro g ress i ve i mprovemen t w h y th e wor l d
plai n
can
b
e
"
mt
P
s
h
o
u
ld
req
ui
re
t
o
b
e
i
mproved
ins
t
ead
of
b
e
i
n
g
perfec
t
an d p re
from th e rs t F or pro g ress presupposes p reV W
VII ;
vi
v
7\
i n all developmen t th e an t e c eden t S tate i s in feri o r t o th e
k
consequ en t s t a t e T h e ev i l w h ich c al l e d fo r th e pro g ress
i ve c orrec t ion h as s ti ll t o b e explained W h y was th e
world ever i n a s t a t e whic h required pro g ress i ve i mprove
m en t ? M ore th an t his i f a person s depar t ure from th e
d i v i ne i deal of hu man i t y
th e ac t of t he person hi mself
if h e i s fo u nd w i l li n
a
h
t
: ou ght no t t o w i ll and
w
t
h
g
w h a t h e nee d no t h ave wi lled thi s means more th an
p h ys i cal i mperfec ti on w hi c h may b e improved b y p h ys ic a l
evolu ti on : it impl i es no t merely rela ti ve i mperfec ti on
l
w hic h may g radually d i sappe a r : t h i s is a b solu t e ev il
It i nvol v es ev il th a t i s b l amewor th y and th a t i s no t
removed b y i mprovemen t of s urroundin g s or b y exp and
in g personal i n t e l l ig ence
U nd m n
N o t w ith s t andin g th e s e d i f cul ti es fa ith in a g radual
su me d
a
b
a
t emen t of ev il b y th e me th od of pro g ress i ve evolu ti on
p ro g ess
i s u n t t o i s now a favour i t e S O I en ti c fa i t h : t h i s fa i th may even
b e re g arded as t h e form w hi c h an unconsciou sly rel i g i ou s
faith
c on c ep ti on of th e u n i verse i s a s s u m i n g i n professedly ag
nos ti c m i nds F or fa ith i n h uman pro g ress i s of th e na t ure
) o f rel igi o u s t rus t s c i en t i c ally ver i ed b y a narrow and
u ncer t a i n exper i en c e I t i s t aken for g ran t ed th a t th e
fa c t s mus t s ig ni fy pro g ressive i mprovemen t on t h e w h ole
a nd al so t h at pro g ress may b e expe ct e d t o per s is t in an
i nde ni t e fu tu re Tha t th e pro g ress i ve evo l u tion is t o
b e end l ess or i f no t endless t ha t it is i n some fu t ure
t o rea c h perfec ti on and t hen pers i s t i n perfec t ion mus t
b e reache d i n mora l fa ith I ndeed we are i nv it ed b y
some exposi t ors of pro g ress i ve evol uti on t o a n t icip a t e
in th e far f u tu re re g re s s ins t ead of perfec t ion
e v en
nal des t r u c ti on of al l th e produc t s of pro g ress i n man
B ut

ro -

es

r es

ou s e

'

H U M A N PR O G R ESS

283

kind d i sin t e gra t ion of th e plane t it self w i t h c onsequen t

disappe a ran c e of a ll l i v in g a ct ors in t he me a nin gl ess
dr a ma t h at w a s once a ct ed on t he e a r th of w hi c h w i t h
t he n al ex t in ct ion of th e p la ne t a l l c on c eiva bl e re c or d
mus t b e for e v er l os t The universe wi ll t hen b e c ome
wha t i t w ou ld ha ve b een if men a nd t he o t her li vin g
b ein g s on t h i s ear t h h ad ne v er b een e v o l ve d
Y e t so m e wh o profess t o rej ec t t he re l i g ious c oncep t ion I n i t
o f t h e u niverse seem no tw i t hs ta n d in g t o nd a sor t of
Sffljgf
th eis t i c sa t isfac ti on in an a tt en u a t ed empiri c al f a i t h in t i c f i th i n
P
ro
g
re
ss
hu m a n adv a n c emen t They mee t t he n al di fc u lties of

t hou g ht b y repea t in g th e w ords pro g ress

de v e l op
w hi ch
men t
evo l u t ion
i n s t ri ct ness on l y su gg es t
t he mode in w h ic h t he uni v erse s o f a r as i t is physi
cal l y c ons t i t u t e d seems in th e mean t ime t o b e b eh av in g
i t se lf ; or in w h i c h i t h a s b een b ehavi n g it se l f as f a r as
men c an s ee b ac k in t o t he pas t ; a n d in whi c h w i t hou t
w arr a n t i t is expe ct e d t o b eh a ve t hro u g h an inde ni t e

fu t ure t his t oo no tw i t hs t andin g a n ag nos t i c w i t h d r awal

of t he i s t ic f ait h or re a sona b le a ssur a n ce of th e n al t rus t
w or thi ness O f t he e v olu t ion S pe c u l a t ive j u s ti ca ti on of

exp ecta n t t rus t is supposed t o c onsis t in

veri cat ions
O ffered b y physi c al phenomena t h at h a ve b een emp t ie d of
moral re a son a n d w hi c h m a y t herefore b e t he S p or t of
F or
m a l i g n or in d i fferen t or irr at ion al Universa l P o w er
n o t hin g deeper is re c o g nise d b y t hose wh o acc ep t on l y
t h i s a tt enua t ed reli g ious con d en c e in t he improvin g
t enden cy of m a n ; an d w h o in d u l g e in i t seemin g l y u n
c ons c ious t ha t even t h i s S O fa r as i t g oes c on t r a di ct s t heir
ag nos t i c renuncia t ion o f nal mor a l f a i t h
t l
The c o nc ep t ion o f m a n as at presen t in physi c a l T h

l
pro g ress t owards a happy mi ll ennium may h owever b e ffl
f
a mi t i g a t ion of t he eni g m a o f t he b ad found mixe d s o
f a r wit h th e g oo d in a wor ld s t i ll t re at ed as in t erpre t
a b le and t herefore s o far t rus tw or t hy
It has b een N oe l
ca l l e d
me l iorism
I n ad equa t e a s a found at ion f or
t heis t i c f a i th in t he n at ur al evolu t ion or a s a n ex h m
l
l
p l an at ion of th e mix t ure of e v i l t he ide a of g r ad u al gi t lift w
e v en if of t en in t errup t e d individua l and so c ia l am el io r a mm
ti on i s never th e l ess f u l l o f human in t eres t an d i s i ll us
,

nc o

s s

'

c so r

ll

''

284

PH I L OS O PH Y O F T H E I S M

t r a t ed

b y many fac t s I ndu l g ence i n th e i dea i s na tu ral

t o g oodness and n o bi l it y of ch arac t er
It g ives l i fe t o
g enero u s h ope and h elps t o corre ct sel s h i nd ivi dual i sm
b y edu c a t in g th a t lar g er i nd i v i dualism w hi c h nds th e t r u e
id eal of a person i n unsel s h rela ti ons t o o th er per s ons
If
a n d devo t ion t o th e person i ed O mn i po t en t Goodness
th ose now livin g are no t t hemselves ac t ually t o see th e
b es t i ssues t here i s s till consola t ory fai th i n th e m i llenn i al
c o m fo r t and sa ti sfac ti on of la t er g enera t ions
A n d a ll
t h is b e c a u se a t enden c y t owards a hi g h er ideal s eems n ow
i
vi s i b le ; and th e t endency i s t rus t ed i n l i ke o th er na tu ral
la w s even w h e n th e t r u s t i s no t con s c i ou s ly reli g ious
P resen t i lls i t seems may well b e endured b y thi s g enera
t ion a s g rea t er i ll s were endured b y p as t one s on a c coun t
o f t h e po t en ti al prom i se of g ood i n s t ore for o u r s u ccess
ors t h i s par t ly b ecause we nd th e ex i s tin g g enera ti o n
s h ar i n g i n th e advancemen t and also b eca u se th e i dea
m akes u s h appy i n thi nkin g th a t we can con t r ibut e t o
it s fuller a tt ainmen t b y our s u c c e s sors S oci a l ac ti v it y
sus tai ned b y th is sor t of fa ith in th e Un i versal P ower
seems t o S hed li gh t i n th e darkne s s for a g enera ti on
u n usually perplexed b y pess i mis t despair
T hi s i m
pe rfec t form of moral h ope in th e P ower a t th e h ear t
o f th e un i verse may b e more s i n c ere and prod u c ti ve
th an i n
o f g ood i n some w h o pro fes s a g nos ti c i na bi l it y
th e con v en ti onal rel i g i on i n t o w hi c h sc i en t i c a g nos ti c i s m
h as in t rodu c ed a needed d i s tu r ba nce

H u m a n pro g ress i s a t any ra t e a favo u r it e wa t c hw ord

It i s t he expre s s i on of a con
i n th e n i ne t een t h c en t ur y
par tly b y th e rap i d
c e p t i o n i n whi c h we are educa t ed
incre a se of man s po w er t o adap t na tu ral c a u ses t o h uman
p u rposes o b v i ou sly renderin g th is plane t more t t o b e
li v ed i n com for t a b l y It has no t b een always so ; nor i s it
so no w in al l m i nds The i deal of pro g ress l i es i n th e
fu ture : some men and per h aps some g enera t ions h ave
found th ei r i de a l i n th e p a s t or in th e f utu re only so far
as i t i s l ike th e pas t T h ere a re always th ose g iven t o
ex c ess iv e a dmira t io n of an ti q uit y and t hose w h o ind u l g e
an ex cess i ve appe ti t e for wh a t i s n e w F e w as Bacon r e
m arks are s o h appily t empered th a t th ey can h old t h e
.

T h e N ew

an d t h e
O l d as
al t ern a
,

t i vel y

i d e al s

286

R e gress ;
pm

g
th ro u gh
g
s

P ersons

PH I L OSO P H Y O F T H E I S M

P as t presen t s persons w h ose in t e l lec tu al or spir itu a l de

v el o p m e n t seems i n ad v an c e of a ll presen t per ha ps of al l
fu t ure exam p les P ersons a re impor t an t fac t ors of hu man
pro g ress and th e la w s wh i c h de t ermine th e appear a n c e
a nd educa ti on of epo c h m a kin g men are o b s cu re W h o i n
su cc eed i n g g enera t ions h a s surpassed A r i s t o t le i n compre
h e n s i ve i n t ell ig en c e ? S o c ra t es and t he H e b re w prophe t s
were foll o wed b y a g es of c ompara ti ve moral and sp i r it ual
darkness S ain t s and mar tyrs h ave s h o w n a self s ac ri c e
forei g n t o t h e exper i ence and sympa thi es of s el s h an d
fai t hles s s uc cessors
T hi n g s an d persons are s o com
m i n g l ed i n th e s t ream of t ime th a t th e on wa rd c urren t
i s of t e n d i s t ur b ed an d dee ct ed T h e a ct ion of e x c e p

u
l
persons
men
of
g
eni
s
for
g
ood
or
evil
s eems t o
n
a
t io
i n t erfere w ith a p h y s i c a l order w h ic h fai t h mi ght expe ct
t o n d con t in u ously pro g ress i ve T h a t mank i nd s h ould
b e only i n pro g ress no t a ct ually perfec t from th e rs t
A
m ay b e impl i ed i n th e ide a of moral personal it y
world of persons could no t b e a world of always perfec t
p ersons P rov i den t ia l pro g ress no t perfe cti on from t h e
b e g i nnin g appears as th e condi ti on su it ed t o mora l a g en t s
d i s ti n gu ished from na t ura l thi n g s A nd th e i mprovemen t
of m ank i nd as I t hink Wordswor th somew h ere su gg es t s
i s n o t like a R om a n road w h ich g oes s t rai g h t t o it s g oa l ;
it i s ra t her l i ke a wi nd i n g ri v er frequen t ly for c ed t o t urn
b a c k w ard i n order t o over c ome o b s t acles wh ic h c a nno t

b e d i re ct ly eluded b u t mo vi n g i n consequ ence of th e

i
with add iti on al for w ard imp u lse

e
t
o
n
de c

Ph ys i cal and in t elle ct u a l ev i l p a i n as well as i gn o r

ance and error

seem t o b e means of advancemen t
t o w ards th e i mperfe ctl y c ompre h ensi b le end t o w h ic h
th e universe i s mov i n g I t is commonplace t o su g g es t
th a t t he pa i n wh i c h is i mp li ed i n dissa t isfac ti on i s an
i nd i spensa bl e mo t or force a t t h e roo t of ad v an c emen t
i n hum a n socie t y S ympa th y w it h su fferin g i s nee d ed
for e d uca ti on i n g oodness R e a son i s b rou ght ou t of t he
dorman t s t a t e i n t o th e c ons c io u s s t a t e in man b y t h e d i s
c omfor t o f i t s b ei n g s t ill p a r tly dorman t T h e une a siness
of i g norance an d error i s t he mo t i v e t o d i scovery Tha t
we are o ut of h armony w ith our di vi ne idea l makes u s
,

P ai n an d

EgEzgiss

an d en d

H U M A N PR O G R ESS

28 7

u n s a t is ed : t his evokes inna t e d i v i n e reaso n The e d u

c a t in g i nuen c e of pain may b e res i s t e d i f a person wi ll s
t o persis t in a s t a t e in wh ic h h e ou gh t no t t o exis t B u t
i t s di v ine i nuen c e is in innumera bl e ways on t he S i d e
o f w ha t ou gh t t o b e
and w h a t mi g ht b e b u t for ev i l
i n th e person w h o resis t s t ha t edu c a ti n g pre s sure of
n at ure whic h i s rea ll y di vi ne power
.

We ha ve s ome ill us t ra t ion O f pro g ress th rou gh apparen t I nt ll

r e g ress
i n th e pas t h is t ory of p h ilosop h y and t heo l o g y
S ys t ems seem t o t he super cia l s t u d en t t o suc c eed one ill u st r at e d
h
i
a no t her in an aimless ser i es w i t hou t permanen t ad va nce
y of
The slow a nd O f t e n i n t errup t e d e d u cat i on of human i n phil o s o ph y
d 1
t e l l ige n ce and th e na tu ral a d ap t a ti on of eac h sys t em t o
ggy
th e a g e i n w hich it evolved i s ap t t o b e over l ooked as
t h e d i vi ne c ondi t ion of i ncreas i n g i ns ight Y e t th rou g h
o u t th e
i n t e l le ct ual se ct s and sys t ems of t he pas t an

un c eas i n g if un c onsc i ou s purpose has b een runn i n g

s o th a t t he th ou gh t s of
men h ave g radu a lly widened

w i th th e pro c ess of th e s u ns
The h i s t ory o f h uman
th ou g ht appe a rs as pro g ress i ve deve l opmen t O f t en i n
t er r u p t e d in re g ress th e i ssu e of a c omposi t ion of for c es
e a c h in a dequ a t e and th ere f ore wh ile in vo g ue a so u r c e of
d issa t isfac t ion t he d is c on t en t an impu l se t owards wider
a n d deeper concep t ions
H as n o t th e ap p aren t ly confuse d philosophic pas t b een Th e me an
re a l l y a s t ru ggl e in whi c h forms of id ea li s tic c ons t ru cti on
w herein th e secre t of t he u n i verse i s supposed t o b e n
d c om
e v olved o ut of
a s i n g le prin c iple are arr a yed agai ns t
d i fferen t p ha ses of scep t ica l pess i mism wi th consequen t forc es a s
d espair of any reason b e i n g lat en t in t he uni v ers al mo v e
m en t ? Y e t i s no t th e g radu al ou tc ome of t h i s c on t in u
o u s s t ru gg le id eal is ms opposed and slow l y corre ct ed b y

s c e p tica l c r itici sm
a n earer a pproa ch t o t he ph i losop h y
wh i c h a c k no w le d g es a s i t s c onsumma t ion w i t h in c reasin g
i n t e l l i g en c e th e mor a l f a i t h a nd l i gio u s c on c ep t ions t ha t
a r e i n t ermedia t e b e tw een t he para l ysis of N es c i e n c e a nd
th e D ivine Thou g h t or O m n isc en c e whi c h in i t s in ni ty
The pr act i cal i m
e vades t he ph i losop h i c g rasp of man ?
possi b ili t y o f permanen t ly s ub s i din g in t o t he t o t a l dou bt
e

ec

190

'

'

288

P HI L O S OP HY O F T H EIS M

w hi c h a b andons l i fe a s u n i n t erpre t a b le e ith er as a

w h ole or i n any of it s par t s ; t o g e t her with th e repea t ed
failure of a tt emp t s t o c omprehend th e W h ole lead th e
ph i losopher in t o th e i n t ermed i a te pa th of t r u s t i n t he
re l i gi ous concep ti on O f th e W h o l e as th e al t erna ti ve for
man H ere never th eless hi s i n t ellec tua l ac ti v it y needs t o
b e q u i c kened from t ime t o ti me b y con t roversy b e t ween
O mniscien t I deal i sm and S c ep ti cal E mp i c i sm W ith an
i r refuta ble fa ith i n th e reasona b lenes s of th e W h ole h e
l i ves ass u red th a t no thi n g can p ut e ith er sci en ti c or
moral in t elli g ence t o permanen t confus i on and so m ake
th e f u nd amen t al fa ith of reason un t ena b le
To follo w
th i s p ath in t ermed i a t e b e t ween N es ci en c e and O m ni s c
i en c e i s t o a c knowle d g e men as m ore th an an i m a ls
ye t less th an God ; th rou g h t he i r or g anisms par t of
N a t ure w hile i n th e i r sp i ri tu al ex perience t h ey i n de
g rees par ti c i pa t e in D iv i ne l i fe and reason A p hi lo s op h y
which looks only t o man s v i s ib le or g anic conne c ti on w it h
n a t u r e is lo gi cally a th e i s t ic and t o t ally a g nos ti c
Th e
i n t ermed i a t e is s t amped upon all o u r exper i ence
We
are al i ke u n ab le t o know al l an d t o remain ig noran t of all
Y e t unless we know a ll i t may seem that we canno t
know a ny ; s i nce e a ch n it e th in g a n d i nd i v i dual person i s
conne ct ed w it h every o th er and i s expla i ned only w h en
s een in ra ti onal correla ti on w ith every o th er
B ut i n
h umanly pro g ress i ve ph i losop h y and th eolo g y many thi n g s

m u s t in th e end b e lef t a b r u p t
,

'

not
t h ei stic
fait h so
fa r a s it i s
S t ron g a n d
i nt ellig ent
t h e fu n da
m en t al
fa ct or i n
h u man
p ro gr ess

Is

T h a t th e pro g res s i ve i mprovemen t of man i nvolve s

g radual ex ti nc ti on of th e reli gi ous c oncep ti on of th e u ni
verse and th a t t he nal v i c t ory of th e g rad u al na t ural
evo l u t ion w i ll con s i s t in th e d i sappearan c e of thi s con
i s th e i nco h eren t p hi losop h y wh i c h A ugu s t e
c ep ti o n
C om t e helped t o di ffu se i n E urope and A mer i ca i n th e
passin g g enera ti on R el ig ion (i n an u nreasona b le form )
i s assumed t o b e an anachronism w h ich th e hu m a n
race in civi li sed c oun t ries h as already nearly ou t
g rown s o t ha t every wh ere i t i s fo u nd in a slow decay
m a in tai nin g a lan g u i d life amon g persons of i mperfec t
i n t ell ig ence b u t s o incons i s t en t wit h s o ci a l advancemen t
,

290

C omt e
ass u mes
th e inc on
s i st en c y o f
t h e i stic
wi t h ph y
s ic al fa i t h
.

P H I L OSO PH Y O F TH E I S M

S o C om t e represen t s a b s t rac t me t ap h ys i cs as s ub vers i ve

of crude t heolo g y in th e pro g ress i ve evol uti on and p h ys ic al
sc i ence as i n t he end d i sin t e g ra t ive of b o th I n ea ch s t ep
of advan c e t oward s th e wh olly p h ys i cal and a l one l egiti
ma t e i n t erpre t a ti on o f th e u n i verse h e s ees th e re t rea t of
a b s t rac t m e t ap h ys i cs and of s u pers titi o u s th eolo g y whi ch
i s all th a t h e reco g n i s es from th e t err it ory conq u ered b y
sc i ence ; s o th a t w h en th e sc i en ti c vic t ory i s u n i versa l
th e u n i verse w i ll b e s een t o b e i ncap ab le of b e i n g i n t er
re t e d i n t h e l ight of ne c ess iti es of
re
rea
s
on
and
of
p
B u t man mus t th en h ave
l igio u s fa ith i n every form
l o s t th e nal fa ith an d h ope b y whi c h I h ave ar gu ed th a t
h i s i n t erpre t a ti on eve n o f p h y s i cal na tu re i s s u s t a i ned
th rou gh ou t and i n wh i c h hi s m oral s t ren gth cons i s t s
D oes no t a deeper p h ilosop h y th an th a t of C om t e pro
c o ed on th e pr i nc i ple th a t th e p hys i cal i n t erpre t a ti ons
of sc i ence i n s t ead of excl u din g enl ight ened me t aphysi c al
and rel igi o u s i n t erpre tati ons i s it self i nd i spensa b ly s u s
t ai n ed b y th ese ; th a t ever advanc i n g discover i es of na t ural
mean i n g s and of na t ural re l a ti ons of means and ends are
d i scover i es of cond iti ons wh i c h so far express d i v i ne i de a s
and w hi c h thu s condu ct t o th e re l i gi ou s c oncep ti on in
fa ith th a t t he Whole is th e expression of th e perfec t
g oodness or i n t end i n g R eason ? W h olly a g nos tic fai th
i n pro g ress i s necess a r i ly i nco h eren t : accord i n g t o it s
profes s ion it i s wan t in g i n th e m oral assuran c e t h a t no t
wit hs t and i n g i n t ervals of seem i n g re g ress thi n g s mu s t b e
work i n g t o g e th er for g ood t o all th ose w h o are s t ru gg l i n g
t o l i ve i n c onform it y w ith div i ne i deal and law as i n
n a t ure and in man a nd i n w h ose per s ons th e h u man
w orld i s a c cord i n g ly b ecom i n g more d i v i ne
I n s h or t
t he fa ith i n pro g res s i nvolves b y i mpl i ca t ion a te l eo
lo g ica l concep ti on and th ose w h o real l y accep t it m u s t b e
a t leas t u nconsc i o u sly s u s t a i n i n g th e ms elve s i n th e i s ti c
t r u s t and h ope
,

I nst e ad o f
e c o gn i s i n g
i n d ivi ne
mor al t r u st
t h e re ason
ab l e fo u n
dati on an d
cu l mi n a
ti on o f
s ci en c e

LE CT U RE
MI RA C U L O U S IN T ERF ERENC E
T

IV

W H AT I S A MI RA C LE

pop ul ar i de a of mira c le as divine in t erfere nce w i t h

t he d ivine order in na tu re is asso ciat ed w i th fur th e r
reve l a t ion of God t o m a n and p a r t icular l y wi th t he
e ni g ma of moral evi l on t h i s p l ane t
A revela ti on of Go d
a s humanised in t he i de a l m a n C hris t Jesus i s re g a r d e d
a s m i ra c u l ous en t r a n c e of God in t o man
f or re c o v erin g
t o g oodness persons w ho have made t hemse l ves b ad b u t
wh o mi ght b ecome g ood in response t o t his mira c ulo u s r e
vela t ion of d i vine mercy or appea l t o pres u pposed b u t
d orman t fa ith and hope in O mnip o t en t Goodness
To g i ve
e mp h asis t o t his appe al t o l a t en t re l i g i ous fai t h
and t o
it s culmina t i on i n a supreme o bj ec t f or fa ith h ope an d
love th a t is more e a sily con c eiv ab le b y m a n th an C m

n i o t en t Goodnes s va gu e l y
r so n i e d
t
o
make
i
t
em
e
p
p
p h a ti c or a s ig n a l example of D i v ine a d ap tat ion physi
ca l mira c les are alle g ed C hris ti ani ty i s ab ove a ll o th ers
t he form of rel ig ion of wh i ch t he c lai m is presen t ed i n t h i s
par ti cular w ay P hysi c a l wonders are more or l ess a s so
c iat e d t r a di ti onally wit h o t her reli g ions ; b ut th e one for
wh ic h a suc c ession of th em i s claimed in j us t i c a t ion o f

it s fuller and more hu manised re v e l a t ion t ha t is re g arded

as in it self a m i racle some h o w super i or t o d i vine n at ura l
l a w i s th e Ch ris t ian i n c lud i n g i t s e a rly H e b rew deve l op
men t The Jews cra v ed m i ra cl es ; t he Greeks preferre d
sc i ence and were repelled b y a re l i g ion t ha t w as re p re
sen t ed as a mira c le or t ha t asked men t o see Go d
t ion
s i nall
a
m
i
raculous
res
u
rrec
y
HE

Th e i d e a
o f mirac l e
nd i t s
c onne ct i on
wi t h fai th
in th e
l ig i
or
o p t i mi s t
c on c e p ti on
o f th e uni
verse
,

re

ou s

292

PH I L OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

?
A
ll
thi
s
su
g
g
es
t
s
a
pr
i
or
q
u
es
ti
on
W
h
a
t
i
s
a
m
i
racle
u
es
ti
ons
Q
ugg est e d I f i t i s c on c e i ved as an ex t ernal even t or as a sp i r itu al
b y th e s u p
pos iti on o f exper i ence w hi c h canno t b e expla i ned b y d i v i ne power
mi racu l o u s n ormal e it h er i n o ut ward na tu re or i n h uman na tu re and
i nt f
w hi c h mus t th erefore b e referred t o God u nder som e
e n c e wit h
t h e D ivi ne d i fferen t concep t ion t h i s ra i ses a q u e s ti on a b o ut th e s or t
n atu ral
of even t s and i nward exper i ences th a t can an d th ose th a t
or d er
canno t b e s c i en tic ally expla i ned b y d i v i ne ca u sa ti on
accord i n g t o na tu ral cond iti ons
I s m an a b le t o d i s
t i ngu i s h b e t ween w h a t i s d one i mmed i a t ely b y God
accord i ng t o n a tu ral la w and w h a t i s done mirac u lo u sly
or i n i sola ti on from na tu ral s eq u ence
I s h e t t o de t er
m i ne exac t ly th e la t en t capac it y o f hi s own d i v i nely
i nsp i red s p i r it m i nd i n it s th e i s ti c fa ith ? W h a t a b ou t
th e rela ti o n of m i raculous o ut ward even t s and m i raculou s
men t al exper i ences t o th e pro g re s s i ve evol uti on s u pposed
t o de t erm i ne mank i nd and t o b e w ithi n th e h or iz on o f
man s i n t ellec tu al v i s i on ? I s a m i racle an even t th a t c an
h armon i o u s ly a s s i m i la t e w ith th e pro g re s s i ve evol uti on i n

na tu re ; or w ith th e or igi nal i n s p i ra ti on w hi c h gi ve s

man u n der s t and i n g i n th e form of C ommon R eason ?

I s a m i racle a p h enomenon th a t Un i versi ti es R oyal
S ocie ti e s or per s ons w h o devo t e th emselves t o th e i n t e r
i
r
t
o
n
n
of
na
t
ure
h
ave
t
o
do
w
ith
or
i
s
it
s
ome
e
t
a
ca
;
p
thing s o ou t s i de na t ure and o ut s i de hu man a g ency th a t

it m u s t b e kep t apar t as fore ig n t o sc i ence some thi n g

even on w hic h reason mu s t no t exerc i se it self ? I s
m i rac u lo u s revela ti on of God t o b e ass i m i la t ed th ro ugh
s ome mys ti cal process ; or th ro ugh a b so lut e dependence on
ex t ernal au th or it y po s tu la t ed a s i nfalli b le
O r may it b e
t es t ed i n th e ord i nary cr iti cal w ay b y th ose acc u s t omed
t o wei gh ev i dence ? A g a i n i s a m i racle an i n t erferenc e
for a purpose b y God wi th God s ordinary laws i n na t ure
or i s i t thi s only rela ti vely t o hu ma n experience ? W h a t
i s t h e c r it er i on of m i rac u lous as d i s ti n gui s h ed fro m
na tu ral even t s ; or of m i rac u lo u s as d i s ti ngui s h ed
from normal spir itu al exper i en c e ? M en d i ffer w i dely i n
th e i r i deas of w h a t i s and i s no t na tu rally and spir it
u al l y poss ib le
wi t hou t i n t erference
A n even t w hi c h
i n one a g e i s cons i dered m i rac u lo u s ly d i v i ne i s af t er

er er

2 94

PH I L OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

conseq u ence of ar bit rary will on th e par t of th e Un i versal

P ower ? I S n o t th e mirac u lous i ssue supposed t o a fford
a g uaran t ee for fai th in th e d i v i ne i n f a l l ib i l i t y of t h e
persons wh o appear as pas s ive in th e m i rac u lous i n t er

ference
w h a t s eem t o b e th ei r words i nves t ed wi th a

d i vine i nfalli bi li t y th e insp i red person s or g an i sm as it

were th e a u t oma tic medi u m of a perfe ct oral m essa g e

or b ook ? F o r if a c la i m t o mir ac ulo u s i nfall ibi l it y
appare n t ly ver i ed b y ful lmen t of th e c la i man t s pre
di ct ion o i hi s own resurre ct ion af t er h is dea t h cou ld tu rn
ou t af t er a l l t o b e false t h i s wo u ld imply t h at th e Un i

ver s al P ower was m orall y u n t rus t wor th y

b e c ause i n
th is i ns t a n ce th erefore poss ib ly i n o th ers an i mpos t or ;
s o th a t w e are pu t t o m oral and i n t ellec t ual c onfus i on
A gain
A re no t m i raculous i n t erference s even t s free
from na t u ral c auses
This de n iti on removes th em fro m
sc i en ce w h ic h canno t de a l wit h e v en t s t ha t h ave n o na t ural
cause : science th e i ss u e of search for na tu r a l c auses c an
h ave no th i ng t o say t o p h enome n a for w h ic h i t is assume d
th ere c a n b e n o pla c e in th e n a t ur a l evolu t ion of th e
cosm i cal sys t em S c i en ti c exper i men t i s b r i n g i n g in t o
l i g h t innumera b le na t ural causes an d e ffect s hith er t o u n
suspe ct ed and i n it s li ght men are a b le t o adap t t o h uman
c onven i ence in u nexpec t ed wa y s t he c osm i c we b in wh i c h
we n d ourselves i nvo l ved A pplied d i scoverie s of c au sal

conne cti ons amon g p h enomena are ca l led m i racles of

s ci ence ; b u t th ey are mira cu lo u s only b ecause th ey s ur

pr i s e men n o t b eca u se th ey are even t s d i vor c ed from all
n a tu ral c a u ses w hi le apparen t w ithi n t h e cosm i cal sys t em

ph y si
l m a rv e l s
f mo d ern
s ci en c e
n d ph y
i al m i r a
cl es
The

ca

s c

mira
c l es a s
i s o lat e d
even t s o ut
o f pla c e i n
t h e ph i l o
o phi c al
r at i on al e
o f faith ?

A re

T hu s excl u d ed from sc i ence p h y s ic al m i racles m ay als o

seem t o b e no t less remo t e from me t ap h ys ic s I n me t a
p h ys ic al p h ilos op h y w h a t sa t is es mus t involve some
t hin g xed and n al w h e th er w ith perfe ct compre h ens i on
or omnis c ien ce o ut of w h ic h al l mys t ery is el i m i n at ed
or th ro u g h nal fai th in which w e are moved t o u n c o n
d i ti o n al t ru s t no t wi t hs t andin g it s necessary remainde r
of i n c omp l e t e knowled g e or mys t ery
Bu t p h iloso p h y
t urns aw ay from wh a t i s only occa s i ona l i so l a t ed

t rans it ory wh a t b elo ng s only t o ti mes and places t o

,

M I R A C U L O U S I N T E RF E R E NC E

295

wh at h as happened on l y in a c er t ain ye a r and on l y on

some spo t espe c i all y some t h i n g l on g p a s t and s o l ess

and less impressive in t he presen t as t he years ro ll on

l e a vin g t he m i ra c ulou s even t at an ever in c re a sin g

d i s ta n c e I sola t ed h is t ori c al fa ct s do no t ass i mi lat e wi t h
e t ern all y xed p h i l osop hy
The w onderful even t s r e
por t e d a s h a v i n g made t heir ap p e a r a n c e in t he w orld
w hi c h f orm t he s t o c k o f ph y si cal mira cl e p er so look
unassimi lat ive I f t hey a re nei t her o ut ward even t s t h at
are na t urally b o u n d up wi t h t he d i vine c osmica l s y s t em
nor d i vine inspira t ions la t en t in t he S piri t of man t h e y
seem t o b e i n ca p abl e of conne c t ion un t t o harmonise
w i t h t he mora l and l ia l f a i t h w hich I h av e pu t b e f ore
you as th e e t ern a lly reasona b le a tti t ude of man t o wa r d s
O mnipo t en t Goodnes s
A s even t s t h at w ere only o cc asion a l and t h at are sup Mu st
11
posed t o b e a b so l u t e l y isol at e d so far a s n at ur a l ca us at ion
$1
is c on c erned o u r informa t ion a b ou t p a s t mira c les can b e i n c o urs e
l
on l y ex t ernal and em p iri cal d ependen t on a hum a n t es t i g
mony t ha t is g r ad u a l l y b ecomin g inaudi b le i f indeed i t gr ad u all y
w
re
i s no t unhear d a ft er th e l apse of a g es
D av id H ume
g ?
a rg ued th a t m i ra c les m u s t b e i mposs i bl e t o prove a t l eas t
so f a r as t heir eviden c e d epends on his t ory a nd t rad it ion ;
b e c ause f a i t h in individua l t es ti mony c an never b e a s
c re d i b l e as t he c osm ic fa it h th a t every even t mus t ha v e
a na t ural c ause : hu man experien c e of t he uniform it y of
t he physical evolu t ion is more credi b l e t han any his t oric
re c or d o f i t s non uniformi ty ca n b e : w it nesses are found
fall i bl e b u t t he course o f n at ure i s never found f a ll i bl e ;
and even i f an infa l li bl e w i t ness c ou ld b e produ c ed w he n
pi tt ed aga ins t t he infa l li b l e na t ura l or d er t he c o n trad ic
t ion b e t ween t he t wo infalli bl es cou l d on l y produ c e s c e p t i
ca l para l ysis O f a ll fai th i n t o whi c h a th inker b a fed b y
w h a t i s self c on t rad i c t ory ine v i ta b l y su b sides Bu t le a v
in g o ut of accoun t t his in g enious lo g i c al pu zz le of D a v id
H ume w hi ch exer c ised a pas t g ener ati on ; and g r a n t in g
t ha t w i t hin n arrow l imi t s of t ime t h e o cc urren c e o f a n
even t t ha t h ad n o na t ur al c ause ma y b e made c re d i b l e

th rou g h t r a di t ion c an i t remain credi b l e af t er t he la p se

of a g es h as lef t t he repor t ed mir ac le a t a n immeasur a b l e
,

0 93

O I lC

296

PH I L OSO P H Y O F T H E I S M

d i s t ance To d ay th e records of mank i nd m ay m ake u s

cer t a i n of even t s th a t h appened a few h undred or even a
fe w th o u sand years a g o B ut w h a t can b e t he i r cred i
b i li ty af t er m an h as ex i s t ed on th e plane t for hu ndreds
of th ousa n ds of years ? H ow m u s t p h ysi c al m i racles look
th a t are rep or t ed t o h ave occ u rred m i ll i ons o f years b efore
C an even t s s o i nconce i va b ly remo t e b e s ti ll availa b le for
s t ren gt hen i n g and enl ig ht en i n g rel igi ou s fa ith and h ope
in th e Un i versal P ower ; and can th ere th en b e any secur it y
for an expanded fai th and h ope th a t depends u pon an
even t a tt es t ed b y thi s u n i ma gi na b ly prolon g e d t rad iti on
i ns t ead of u pon G o d per s on i ed i n na t ure i n th e moral
i mpl i ca t e s of reason an d found b y d i v i ne developmen t of
th e S p i r it la t en t i n m an w hi c h as i n s p i ra ti on of th e
A lm ight y gi ves hi m u nder s t and i n g ?
T h e cr iti cal t emper m ight su gg e s t o th er o b s t acles t o a
p hi lo s op hi cal reco g n it ion o f even t s s u ppo s ed t o i n t r u de
in t o cosm i cal order m i rac u lo u sly or uncond iti oned b y
any p h y s ical ca u se N o t on l y i s hi s t ory a precar i ous
veh i cle for th e conveyance of i nforma ti on a b o ut any even t
and i ncreas i n g ly s o th ro u gh th ousands or m i ll i ons of
year s b u t o u r ve senses are fo u nd t o de c e i ve u s even
wi th reg ard t o presen t even t s : men no t or i ously m i s t ake
th e i r own falli b le i n t erpre t a ti ons of wh a t th ey see for
some thi n g ac t ually seen T h e ig noran t s eek for wonders ;

and no t re s pond i n g t o th e i nsp i ra t ion awakened i n th e

prop h e t s i magi ne th a t th ey would b e pers u aded i f th ey

sa w a man r i se from t he dead M i racles are fo u nd i n th e
early hi s t or i es of rel igi on
B ut d i d th e repor t er s see
wh a t th ey b el i eved t hey saw ? P rej ud i ce i s ap t t o
i ndu c e i n t erpre t a ti ons of presen t ed p h enomen a th a t are
i n h armony wi th th e sen ti men t th a t i s dom i nan t i n th e
s pec t a t or : v i sual percep ti ons produced b y th e dominan t
i dea are m i s t aken i n a rude a g e for real iti e s
The
record of m i ra c les i s i n thi s w ay ap t t o b e po i soned a t
it s sour c e
Unperceived even t s are s u pposed t o b e
perce i ved : t he fanc i ed percep ti on i s only t he spec t a t or s
m i s i n t erpre t a ti on of w h a t happened O r i f th e even t
did h appen i s th ere g ro u nd in reason for th e as s u mp
ti on th a t it was an even t d i vorced from ever y na t ural
,

an even t
c all e d mi

If

ac u l o u s

h o uld p
p e ar c o u ld
th e sp ec
t t or b e
c ert ai n
t hat it wa s
not cau se d
by G o d
n aturall y ?
a

298

P H I L OS O P H Y

T HEIS M

OF

even t s t h at a r e p hys i c a l l y expl ic a b le are allowed t o b e

as ye t i f n o t for e v er inexp l i cabl e b y man ; b u t i t i s t aken

for g r a n t ed th a t t h ey migh t a ll b e referred t o n at ur al c auses
i n a t rue a nd fu l l i n t erpre t a t ion of n at ure b y b ein g s o f
lar g er in t el l i g en c e and more var i ed experience tha n man
,

no t n
tu re a s
u n i v ers al
p vi d n
t ial or d er
i t se lf m i r
Is

ro

a cu l o u s

T h e prev a i l i n g d isposi ti on t o s e e m i ra c les i n th is li gh t

re c al l s our na ll y th eis ti c in t erpre ta t ion of physic a l causa
t ion a lre a dy explained W h a t is me a n t b y n at ure a nd
wh a t b y t he n a t ur al causa t ion w hic h a p h ysi c al mira c le i s

?
sup posed t o supersede
I f na t ure means only w ha t
i s c oex t en s ive w i t h t h e u l t ima t e l y mys t eriou s su cc ession
of phys ica l c a uses an d if a ll p h y si c al even t s are s uper
na t ur all y c a used ca u s a ti on b y i n ten d ing Wi ll b e i ng t h e
o n ly ori gi n at in g po w er of w hi ch man h as ra t ion al a s sur

an c e t hen t he e v ol v in g universe i t self mus t b e a c ons t an t

mir a cle We a re al l l i vi n g and m o vi n g a n d ha v in g our
b ei ng i n a possi b ly u n b e g innin g and u nendin g order o f
c osmi c al ch an g e t ha t is a b so l u t ely t rus t ed in as t h e
mira c u l ous or n at ur all y inexp l i ca b l e manifes tati on of pro
vi d e n t i al mora l R eason
I s t here any w ay of nal l y c on
c e i vi n g t he uni v erse t h a t is s o re a sona bl e s o s at isfyin g t o
m a n as h e ou g h t t o b e as t his i s ? I t carries b ack al l
physi c al in t er p re t a b i l i t y of n at ure i mmed i a t ely t o t he
e t ern a l moral A g en t ; a ll o t her s o ca l l ed cause s ex c ep t
persons wh o c a n m ake th ems elves b a d b e i n g onl y me ta
h
u t ional
o r i c al l
ca
uses
really
t
he
p
a
ssive
su
b
j
e
ct
s
of
e
v
o
l
y
p
m e t amorphosis Ca n any par t i c ular phys i c a l m i ra c le b e
mira c ulous one i s ready t o ask as thi s cons ta n t
so
m i r ac le of t he un iv erse of t h in g s a nd persons c on t in u ally
presen t ? I t loses i t s novel ty an d c e a ses t o su gg es t i t s
mir ac ulousness on l y on acc oun t of i t s c ommonness a nd
t he u nr eec t i ng prej udi c e t ha t t o dis c o v er t h e phys ic al
cau se of an e v en t i s t o d i s c over t ha t God i s n ot th e a g en t

i n it s ou tc ome
s o t h a t ea c h d i s c o v ered p h ys i c a l c aus e
seems t o pu t God f a r t her away A me t aphori c al po w er
a tt r i b u t e d t o t he ma t eri a l ca use is in th is wa y made t o
n a rro w t h e sph ere of div i ne opera t ion ; s o t ha t in t he
e v en t of a u ni v ersal v ict ory of na t ural scien c e D i vine
P o w er w o u ld b e t o t a l ly superseded and t he universe r e
.

M IR A C U L O U S IN T E RF E R E NC E

299

g arded a t las t under a w h olly na t ur al or n on re l i g ious

c on c ep t ion wi t h i t s mys t er i ous pas t and f u t ure e mp tied
of mor a l me a nin g
S o th e physi c al u niverse i t se l f c a n b e c once iv ed as a I no t th e
c ons t an t mira c le under order a nd a d ap tat ions w hi c h are
r
t he persis t en t expression of a ct i v e m ora l R e a son M a n v l l
nds no o t her orig in at ive po w er t han spiri t u a l power
I s no t O mnipo t en t Goo d ness i t m ay even b e aske d Zggt i n
?
it
c
a
n
b
e
mor e i mpressively i nvolved i n t he uni v ers al p hysica l evo
l u ti o n on whic h inevi t a b le fai th and hope pu t n all y
th e rel igi o u s i n t erpre tat ion t h a n in oc ca siona l mira c les
w hic h are also re f erre d t o t he imme d ia t e ag en c y of
God i n some a b normal exer c ise o f d i v ine po w er ? I s
n o t th e g r a du a l evolu t ion of t he so la r sys t em a g r ea ter
m ira cl e if one may speak of de g rees of t h e mira c u l ous
t han t h e repor t ed arres t of t he s u n upon Gi b eon or of
t h e moon i n t he va ll ey of Aj al on ? I s no t t h e g r a du a l
e v olu t ion of t he l iv in g or g anisms (man in cl u d e d ) whi ch
t h i s plane t now con ta ins as mu c h a m i racle a s t he re t urn
t o l i f e on t h e s a me p l ane t of a man t ha t w as dead ?
The physi call y c on d i t ioned un i verse th rou g h ou t p res u p C n s p e c ial
poses per v adin g P erfec t Goodness as th e g round a t le a s t
un c onscious l y a ssumed for t rus t in na t ur al l aw It pre d i in t h n
ll
nt

supposes a cons t an t mir ac le if mira c u l ous power me a ns d

t
po w er t ha t i s mor all y f ree
Tha t re l i g ious con c ep t ion
?
mus t b e narro w w h i c h f a i l s t o s e e immedia t e act ion of
God i n a ll t h at o cc urs un d er c ondi t ions of na t ur al u ni
form ity ; or w hi c h l ooks for dire ct di v ine a ct ion on l y in

in t erferen c e w ith div i ne n a t ur a l l a w

When c e t he
suppos it ion th a t God mu s t b e some h o w more at t he roo t

of spe c ia l c re at ion a nd mira cl e t han at t he roo t of

u n i versa l m ora l provi d en c e ; a nd more in some pro v i
de u ces t han in th e universal pro v ide n c e w hi c h c ompre
h ends a l l p a r tic ulars i n all re l a t ions in c lud i n g all t h at
con c ern ea c h m an ? H ow is t here so m e t hin g more d i v ine
i n preservin g t hree men in a fur n a ce t h a n t here is in re
when i t is na t ura l ly b urni n g or in r a in w h en i t i s nat urall y
fal li n g ? I s t he inc a rna t ion o f Go d in t he per f e ct M a n
more m i ra c u l ous t han th e norma l in c arna t ion o f G o d in
?
N a t ure and in M an
-

ous

cla

ii

ar e

e ve

3 0O

Mu s t t h e
U n ivers al
P ower at
th e h e art
o f all ph y
s ic l or d er
b e m an i

P H I L OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

H ere f u r th er ques ti ons ar i se

M u st all even t s th a t
h appen b e physi c ally c ondi ti oned ? D o p h y s i c i al even t s
i n a ll c ases need t o h ave causes i n th e ma t er i al world
?
a s th e i nd i spensa b le cond iti on of th eir o c c u rrence
Is
th e c ons t an t m i racle of th e un i verse i n i t s na t ural u n i
f t d l
fo r m i ti es th e only poss ib le m i rac l e ?
I
s
it
th
e
only
wa y s u n d er
?
d
i
v
i
ne
revela
ti
on
th
a
t
i
s
rea
s
ona
b
le
W h e th er th e c on
law s o f
ph y s ic al
s t an t m i racle
b
y
whi
c
h
t
he
w
orld
i
s
kep
t
i
n
it
s
prov
i
or d er ?
den ti al na t ural order w h en measured on l y b y th e V i s ib le
i s su es i s or i s no t g rea t er th an th e arres t of t he s un
or moon or th an t he res u rrec ti on of a person w h o wa s
dead may th ere no t b e room under a more c o mp reh e n
sive D i v i ne S c i ence th an th a t exempl i ed i n m a t er i al
seq u ence for an occasi ona l occurrence of even t s th a t are
n ot th e o ut come of d i v i ne ac ti on cond u c t ed u nder cond i
t ions of na tu ral law but i n wh i c h th e Un i ver s al P ower
i s uncond it ioned b y whi le i n h armony w it h O pera ti on and
c h an g e ac c ord i n g t o p h ysical l aw ? The div i ne ma i n
t en an ce of ou t ward na t ure may i nvolve g rea t er power
th an any occas i on a l m i racle N o twith s t andin g i n a u n i
verse c h ar g ed th rou gh ou t wi t h A dap t a ti on i n w hi c h
every even t i s no t on l y connec t ed u nder na t ural law
w ith every o th er but i n w hi c h every even t is a mean s
t o w h a t appears t o man as a des ig ned end and th e W h ole
as des ig ned b y P erfec t Goodness t o make persons g ood i n

in our
cl u d i n g th ose w h o h ave made th emselves b ad
concep ti on of a un i verse th u s t eleolo g ic ally c ons t i t u t ed
are we a t l ib er t y w ith o u r weak i n t el l i g en c e and narrow
exper i ence t o a s s u me do g ma ti cally th a t p h ys i cally con
d it i o ne d ac ti v it y of th e Un i versal P ower is th e o n ly sor t
of d i v i ne ac ti vi t y th a t i s reaso n a bl e or a dap t ed t o th e
Whole ? M ay t here no t b e div i ne des ig n i n occas i onal
m i racle s th a t appear t o man a t leas t t o b e i ndependen t
of a l l na t ural c a u ses if no t of ra ti onal order ?
P ro b a b ly man s t eleolo gic al c oncep ti on of t he u n i verse
I s p roo f
of th e
i
s
no
t
adequa
t
e
t
o
de
t
erm
i
ne
wh
e
t
her
p
h
ys
i
cal
even
t
s
c
a
n
i mp o i
make th e i r appearan c e i ndependen t ly o f phy s ica l laws
b il it y o f
s p e c ial
a ls o opera t es
th
rou
g
h
th
e
a
g
en
c
y
of
th
e
P
ower
th
a
t
a
s
m ir a cl e s
it seems norm a lly accord i n g t o p h ys i ca l me t hods
If
p ossi b l e
u n d er t h e thi s b e so it seems t o follow th a t th e impos s i b ili t y of a
.

es e

ss

3 02

PH I L O S O PH Y O F T H E I S M

t h u s leads t o u n i versal scep ti c i sm I n o t h er words t o

i n t erpose o c c a s i onal m i racles i n th e p h ys i cal sys t em would
b e t o make i t o th er t h an th e perfe ct ly co h eren t sys t e m
whi c h s c ience presupposes t ha t it mus t b e A nd s o we
are asked t o conclude th a t th e en t rance in t o ex i s t en c e
of any v i si bl e e ven t or any spir it ual ex p e ri en c e o f
wh ic h no n at ur al a c coun t c an b e g iven i s impossi b le
All thi s m ig h t b e su f cien t i f th e u n i verse were a
D oes no t
th i s argu w h olly n on moral universe i f i t c ons i s t ed of th i n s only
g
men t p ro

and
no
t
a
l
so
th is t oo in i t s h i gh es t hu manly kno w n
d u p on
t oo n arrow a spec t o f g ood and b ad p er s ons w h o are l i m it e d i n i n
a n p
F or in th e case suppo s ed t he
t e ll ige n c e a nd exper i ence
t i on f
what i s
only sor t of science possi b le woul d b e i n th e sc i ences com
d i vi nel y

re ason a b l e m o nly ca l led na t ural w hi c h searc h for cons t an t an t e

i n a uni
c eden t s of even t s I t m igh t also b e an argu men t i f men
v erse t hat
were only consc i ous au t oma t a w h o could h ave no more
i n c l u d es
p erson s
th an a physi c ally sc i en ti c i n t eres t i n t h emselve s or in
b e in g s
i
n
an
d
eg r ee make or u n
any
t
h
i
n
g
and
who
c
o
u
ld
no
t
y
wh o c an
m ak e t h em make th e i r ow n c h arac t er Bu t thi s i s no t th e u n i verse i n
se lv es b ad ? wh ic h m a n nds h i mself T hi s i s a world i n w hi c h men
can and O f ten d o a c t b adly an d i n w hich ac c ord i n gl y
with o ut unrea s on God m ay b e re v ealed u nder a high er
order t han can b e measured b y man i n t erms of p h ysi c al
c onnec t ions th a t are v i s ib le i n na t ure ye t no t i nc o n s is t
en t wi th t hese The ex i s t ence of persons may req ui re in
reason an unfold i n g of a larg er div i ne A dap t a t ion t han
appears i n p h ysi cal causa ti on measured only b y h uman
science It seem s cons i s t en t w i th reason t h a t t he p h ysi
cal me th od s h ould no t b e th e h igh es t form i n whic h
O mnipo t en t Goodness i s revealed even in th e ma t erial
world ; an d also t h a t i n th e nal ra ti onale of th e u n i verse
th e order of ex t ernal na tu re s h ould h ave a s ub ord i na t e
pl a ce i n a h armony of th e W h o l e wh i c h may exceed
man s specula ti ve i ma gi na t ion
.

c ee

co

ce

or

A t a ny ra t e miracles canno t b e i rre g ular e ven t s i f

ki n g

d oms o f
o n t he p a r t
i
rre
g
u lar
means
i
rra
t
iona
l
or
capr
i
cio
u
s
N ature an d
S O far as i t i s reve l
o f G ra c e : of t he t rus t ed Un i versal P ower
Th in g s an d a t ion of God mira c le mus t b e t he man i fes t a t ion of perfec t
P ersons
rea s on Bu t does i t fo l low th a t a ll th a t h appens m u s t

The

M IR A C U L O U S IN T E RF E R E NC E

3 03

in reason b e na ll y refera bl e t o p h ysi ca l ca uses ; or th at

ph y s ic al d i vine sys t em m ay no t b e s u b ordina t e t o w hi l e
ca p ab le of ha rmonious a ssimi lat ion w i t h a H i g her Id e al

There may b e no p h ysi ca lly n a tu r a l l a w o f o cca siona l

mira cl es dis c o v era b le an d ye t t here may b e re a son in
t h em M att er is th e or ga n and serv a n t of h uman a nd
d i vi ne S pir it Bu t do we kno w enou g h ab ou t t he o f ce
o f t he physical s y s t em in t he e c onomy of t he uni v erse t o
j us t if y t h e assump t ion t ha t iss u es ca nno t a pp ear i n t he
m at eri a l w or ld or in a hu man mind in d e p en d en tl y of a ny
h
i
ca l l a w of God in na t u re t ha t c an ever b e c ons t rued
s
p y
in s ci en c e ; ye t w it hou t c on t ra d i ct in g or in t err u p t in g a ny

?
of th ose la w s
I hold says L ei b ni z t h at w hen God
w orks mira cl es H e does i t n o t in order t o supp l y t he
wa n t s of na tu r e b u t t hose of gr a ce ; an d w hoever t hinks
o t her wise mus t h av e a v ery mean no t ion of t he w is d o m

O cca sion al mir acl es m a y b e in t h a t

a n d po w er of God
ca se d ivine a ct s proper t o a u ni v erse t ha t in c ludes p ersons
o r mor al a g en t s ; w hi l e they w oul d b e ou t of p l ac e in a
uni v erse o f t h i n g s who l ly under me c hani cal rel at ions
I f God is mira c ulous l y re v e al ed i n t he sense t h a t
t h e n at ural is n a lly de v e l ope d in t o supern at ur a l re v el
a t ion t h en th e super c ial a n t i t hesis o f n at ure an d super
A nd u nder th e l imi tat ion o f human
n a t u r a l d i sap p ears
in t e llig en c e th e mora l response w hi c h th e d eeper or
s o ca l l ed mira c ulous revel at ion re c eives from t h e s p iri t u al
c ons t i t u ti on lat en t in man w ou l d b e t h e e vid en c e of i t s
d i v ini t y A ll t he more if i t c oul d b e sh own t h a t t he re v e l
at ion w e call m iraculou s more di s t inc tl y unfol d s t he i m
p l i cat es of th eis tic f aith and hope and is there f ore more
ri c h l y di vi ne and reasona b le t han th e more a tt enu at ed
re v e l a t ion of O mnipo t en t Goodness that is t a c i tl y pre
supposed in all experience
Bu t i f i n th e pro g ressive developmen t of t h e human
min d a nd o u r increased kno wl e d g e o f n at ur a l ca uses
m a n s c oncep t ions of w h a t is n at ural s h ould b e c ome so
en la r g ed as t h at th e w h o l e C hris t ian con c e p t ion of G o d
shou l d b e seen t o a r i se ou t of t he ord i n a ry c ourse o f
na t ure C hris t ian fai th wou l d t hen b e dis c o v ered t o b e th e
mos t na t ura l rel i g i on of all b u t sure l y no t on t ha t acc oun t
,

Th e i r har

That C h r i s
be
nd t o
f
ou

R
all?

g io n , w o u ld

no t

nu d W i
.

ne

it

3 04

PH I L OS O PH Y O F T H E I S M

u nd i v i ne M a y no t t h i s m i rac u lous revela ti on of P er

fec t Goodness t h erefore mak i n g for th e g oodne s s of all
persons b e la t en t in th e pr i mary pos tu la t e of all hu man
exper i ence w h ich t ac it ly as s umes th e nal t rus t wor thi ness
and s o th e omn i po t en t g oodness of th e Un i ver s al P ower
as th e essence of o u r nal fa ith ? I n th e deeper and wider

mean i n g of na tu ral all revela ti on of God m u s t b e i n

h armony w ith w h a t i s nally na tu ral ;
o th erwi se it
co u ld no t b e th ou ght or reasoned a b o ut F or th ou ght
or reason i n g so far a s it i s appl i ca b le i mpl i es ra ti onal
co h erence i n th a t w hi c h i s th o u g ht or reasoned a b o u t ii
no t under laws of p h y s ic al cause s ye t u nder t eleolo gi cal

rela ti ons of means and end o r of ye t hig her ca t e g or i e s i n

th e i n t ellec tu al s ys t em of th e u n i verse P ro b a b ly th e

le git ima t e i dea of an occa s i onal m i ra c le is t o b e looked

for in o u r t eleolo gi cal reason It i s an even t i n na tu re
th a t i s i ncapa b le of red u c ti on b y man u nder th e p h ys i cal
concep t ion thu s rema i n i n g always a p h ys i cal mys t ery
w hi le it per h aps adm it s
O f th e h u man po i n t s of v i ew ;
of explana t ion u nder th e t eleolo gi cal concep ti on i n w hi c h
t h e un i verse i s t aken as th e reve l a ti on of D i v i ne D es ig n
.

d ee p en
i n g at on c e
o f th e
i d eas o f
u n i v ers al
n atu r al
or d er an d
o f t h e u l ti
m at e m i r

O rdered h uman pro g re s s an d m i racle or w h a t i s called

m i raculo u s i n t erference are th e s e t wo con icti n g i deas ?

T h e s u ppos it ion of th e i r i ncons i s t en c y may expla i n th e
scep ti cal sadness re g ard i n g man whi c h h as d i ffu sed it self
i n th i s nine t een th c en t ury i n E u rope and elsew h ere
Bu t may no t an h ones t ly a g nos ti c sp i r it i ll u s t ra t e i n
thi s ins t ance t oo h o w cr iti cal ne g a ti on is really a fac t or
lo
ness o f t h e in pro g ress i ve movemen t t owards a l a r g er af rma ti ve
U n i ver se
fai t h ? F o r i s no t t he n i ne t een th cen tu ry i n co u s e
n
of
t
h
i
s
ne
g
a
ti
ve
cri
ti
c
i
s
m
clos
i
n
g
w
ith
a
pro
u
c
e
e
q
fo u nder sense th an th e world h as b efore reac h ed a t once
of th e u n i versali t y of p h ys i cal law and O f mirac u lo u s ness
a t th e roo t of t he u n i verse
D o w e no t b e gi n t o s ee th a t
th e n al presuppos iti on of O mn i po t en t Goodness a t th e
cen t re i s no t s u b ver s i on of phys i cal order and sc i ence but
?
ra th er it s founda t ion and it s life
V i s ib le na tu re appears
no lon g er on th e hollow nal fo u nda ti on of a do g ma ti cal
p h ys i cal u n i form it y Benea th thi s o th erw i se u ncer t a i n

a cu

us

3 06

LE C TURE V

F IN AL

THE

E N T U RE

OF

T H E I S TI C FAI TH

P h i l osop h y P H I L O S O P H Y a c c ord i n g t o P la t o i s med it a ti on u pon dea th

i s me d it a T hi s is th e voi c e of poe t s and thi nkers ou t s i de and with in
ti on u p on
Ch r i s t endom T h a t expe ct a ti on of dea th makes h uman
D e at h
life misera b le and th a t th is m i ser y may b e removed b y
th e p hi losophy w hich sees only th e pe ac e of e t ernal sleep
i n th e d i ssolu ti on of th e b ody i s th e key no t e of th e mos t
su b l i me poem in R oman l it era t ure T h e nal des t iny of
men h as a tt ra ct ed c on t empla ti ve th ou ght i n th e suc c es
sive g enera t ions whi c h h ave p assed in t o th e darkness
askin g w h i t h er th ey w ere g o i n g ? T h e b ooks whi c h re c ord
h uman c onj e ct ures ab ou t th e se c re t kep t b y dea t h m ight
form a li b rary T h ey b elon g t o an ci en t med i eval and
modern t imes i n all coun t r i es an d r ac es A mon g our

c oun t rymen it i s th e th eme of th e C ypress Grove o f

Will i am D rummond th e pensive poe t o f H aw th ornden

T h e med it a t i v e t enderness o f Words w or th s E ssay upon

E pi t ap h s presen t s d ea th i n one aspec t t aken a t a h i g her

po i n t i n h is
O de on I n t ima ti ons of I mmor ta li t y
M ora l fa ith i n th e i mmor t al it y o f man t em p ered b y

modern dou bt i s t he no t e of Tennyson i n I n M emoriam

I saa c T a y l or s T h eory of A no th er L i fe i s a n i n g enious
exer ci se o f ima g ina t ion i n an ti cipa t ion of th a t w hic h
follows de ath
Th e n al
D
ea
th
is
dire
ct
ly
concerned
with
th
e

nal
hum
a
n
pro
p rob l em
a s relat e d b lem as re g ards one onl y o f i t s t hree da t a n a me l y th e
t o th e
d i s ti n g uished from ou tw ard t hin g s a nd
c
ons
ci
ou
s
e
g
o
d e at h o f
M en
from God A m I t o b e na ll y a nd for eve r self conscio u sly
.

TH E FIN A L V E N T U R E O F T H E I S T IC F A I TH
d i s ti nc t

307

from uncons c io u s M a tt er and from th e Uni versa l

P ower ? A m I so mixed up wi th t he ma t erial wor l d in
w hi c h I nd myse l f no w i n c arna t e t h at I mus t s h are t he
f at e of my b ody and c ea s e for ever t o b e consc i ous as soon
a s I h a ve c e a sed a t dea th t o b e visi b ly i ncarna t e ?
The
w orld o f wh ic h my b o di ly or g anism i s a p a r t is th e
A m I on l y one of
s u bj ec t of cons t an t me t amorphoses
th e ephemer a l me t amorp h oses in t o wh i c h ever c han gin g
M a tt er na tu r a lly resol v es it self ? C an I b e only t his if
I nd my i nv i si b le self d i s ti n g u is h ed b y a u ni que per
sis t en t id en t i t y t hrou g h all chan g es of th is em b odied
l ife ? O ur b o di es and ou tw ard t hin g s are in cons t an t

u x : iden tity a pplies t o th e m only me t aphori c al l y A

hu man e g o of h alf a cen t ury ag o is c onnec t ed w i th th e
human e g o of t o day i n ano th er w a y th an t ha t in w h i c h
his b ody now i s c onnec t ed w i th hi s b ody of ha lf a
A f t er a fa i n t or a dream l ess s l eep we
c en t ury a g o
as n u mer i ca lly one th e e g o b efore
c anno t b u t connec t
t hose in t erva l s of unconsciousness and t he e g o af t er t h em
S a ni t y requires th a t I should pr acti ca ll y ackno wl e dg e t h i s
A n d we are o bliged t o a s
u nique pers i s t en t sameness
s u me that h u man persons in a d d it ion t o t his im p erfec tly
c omprehende d di fferen c e b e t ween t he mse lv es a n d t hin g s
h ave a mys t er i ous po w er of m a kin g t hemsel v es b a d of
which one nds no t r ac e in b o d ies
A ll t his r a ises t he supre m e human ques t ion Wha t is

t he rela t ion of t h is n o w c ons c io u s p erson t his persis t en t

su bj e ct of ever cha n g i n g pains and pleas u res t his c re at or

g
ood
or
ev
i
l
ac
t
s
t o t he disso l u t ion of his v isi b l e
of
I s t he se l f cons ci ous e g o t ransi t ory so t ha t a t
o r g an i sm ?
d ea t h alon g w i t h t he or g a n i sm w i t h whic h l ife i s no w
in cons t an t c orre lati on t he hi t her t o con t inuous se l f
D o hum a n b ein g s c ease for
c ons c io u sness also dissolves
e v er t o b e cons ci ous w hen th ey c e a se t o si g nify t he i r
?
o
s
c
ious
act
i
v
i
t
y
v
i
si
b
ly
O n t h i s p l ane t a l one one nds
n
c
h undreds of mil li ons of cons ci ous persons i n ea ch g enera
t ion s ig nifyin g t o one ano t her t heir i nvisi b l e c ons c iou s

c
t
iv
it
y
some of th em sho w in g t he s i g ns on l y for a fe w
a

h ours a fe w i t m ay b e for a hundred ye a rs a f t er w hi c h

t he org an i sm disso l ves and t here is n o more any si g n
,

D oes th e
c ons c i o u s
p er s on
fi n all y
ce as e t o b e
c on s c i ou s
wi t h t h e
di ss o l ut i on
o f hi s
li o d y ?

3 08

Th e n

i qu en es s

o f t h e self
c ons ci o u s
p erson i n
c on t r a s t
wit h t h e
p erenn ial
chan g e i n
n ature
,

PH I L OSO PH Y O F TH E I S M

A re th ere any fac t s w hi c h th e l i v i n g may reco g n i s e

w hi ch show t ha t moral ag en t s may not b e so i n v o l ved
in t h e me ta morp h oses of na tu re as t ha t th e d i ssolu ti on o f
h i s b ody i n dea th m u s t mean th e nal ces s a t ion of th e
?
self consci o u s person
Th ere is a t any ra t e some th in g
u niq u e i n self conscious personal it y
P ersons are under
sp i r itu al rela ti ons as well as under p h ys i ca l rela t ions ;
and b y th e i r i nd i v i d u al personal ity th ey a re d i s ti n g uis h ed
b o th from th e Un i versal P ower and from o ut ward th in g s
C an we reasona b ly thi nk of moral a g en t s and n on moral
thi n g s as al i ke in des ti ny ye t u n l ike i n th e u n i q u e
ra ti onal consciousness con ti n u o u s i den tit y and moral
responsi bi li t y w hich only persons pos s ess dur i n g thi s
ep h emeral em b od i ed ex i s t ence ? M u s t we s ay al i ke of

m en and b ru t es th a t as th e one d i e th s o d i e th th e
o th er ; yea t hey h ave a l l one b rea t h ; s o th a t a man
h a th n o pre em i nence a b ove a b eas t ; for all i s van ity
A ll g o u n t o one place ; al l are of th e d u s t and all tu r n

t o dus t a g a i n ? C an w e even prove th a t phys i cal dea th

i s th e nal ex ti nc ti on of all an i mals excep t m a n ? D oe s
th eis ti c fa ith in th e f u ll developmen t of w h ic h we c an

reall y enj oy c ons c iou s l i fe

does thi s nal moral t r u s t
j u s t ify u s in an t ic i pa t in g n o t only f u t ure even t s i n thi s
world but also persis t en t persona l cons ci o u sness aft e r
b odily d i s s ol uti on ? W it h ou t an i mpl i ed m oral fa ith i n th e
mora l t rus t wor thi ness of th e Un i versal P ower we h ave
n o as s u rance ab ou t a ny th i ng fu tu r e :
o u r mos t na tu ral
an ti c i pa t ions may all b e pu t t o c onfu s i on : we canno t
c oun t on order or on adap t a t ion i n na t ure It i s b y
t rus ti n g e th ical omn i po t en c e w ith all t h a t t h i s i ncl u des
th a t we c an know and ac t no w D oes thi s fa ith i n w h ic h
h uman life is roo t ed also i nvolve reasona b le h ope th a t
p h ys ic al dea t h w i l l no t make an end of personal l i fe ; an d
th a t some th i ng more manifes t ly d i v i ne th an th e s t ran g ely
m i xed exper i ence of th e u niverse we h ave on th is plane t
m ay b e expe ct ed
O ur b odies are no t o u r u n i q u e per s on
al it y : th ey are consc i o u s persons as revealed t o th e senses
C an an a t hei s t reasona b ly expe ct t o l i ve af t er hi s

?
p h ysical dea t h
I wo u ld pu t a prev i ous que s t ion C an
a th eis t s w ith unreason only reco g n i sed a t th e roo t of A ll
,

C ali a n
ath ei s t
r e a son a b l y
b e l i eve i n

310

PHIL OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

fores h adowed i n th e ch a r a cter of th e U n i versal P ower ;

no t wi th s t and i n g th e s t ra ng ely m i xed s t a t e of thi s corner
of th e universe and it s apparen t ly capric i o u s d i s t r ib u ti on
of h appiness and pa i n ?
An al o gi es
B u t w h ile all expec t a ti on i s essen ti ally th e i s t ic fa ith
i s more in t ell ig en t fa ith th er e
and
s
c
ien
ti
c
expe
ct
a
ti
on
of
c ons c i o u s i s a d i fference b e t ween sc i en ti c prev i s i on of th e t emporal
fu tu re w ithi n th e presen t world an d pre vi s i on of l i fe af t er
ph y s ic al
th e na tu ral d i ssol u ti on of t h e or g anism th rou gh w hi c h
l h nd
t h e person now reve als hi mself t o o t h er persons and l i ves
Eg m f i ncarna t e on th i s p l ane t i n h i s o w n place and t i me I f
i n y
th e consc i o u s i nd i vid u al e g o i s a unique sor t of b e i n g i n
th e u n i verse t he dea th of th e or g an i sm t o w hi c h h is
personal l i fe i s now i n correla ti on i s also a u niq u e fa ct
in th e sense th a t no adequa t e ana l o g y t o h is own dea th
can b e found wi thi n th e presen t experience of any
liv i n g man N o do ubt l i fe i n hu man persons h as a l read y
persi s t e d th rou g h c r it ical c h an g es : a l l an i m a l life i ll u s
t ra t es th is
L ife i n th e wom b and l i fe af t er bi r th ; l i fe
w ith th e b ody en t ire a n d life af t er th e b ody h as b ee n
depr i ved b y ac ci den t or o th erw i se of i mpor t an t org ans
th ese are fam i l i ar ch an g e s af t er w hi c h th e consc i ous per
s on is s ti ll foun d s elf consc i ous I n dreamless sleep or i n
a sw oon th e c on ti nu it y of th e consc i ous l i fe seem s t o b e

in t errup t ed
S l eep says S ir Tho m as M ore i s th e b ro th er

of dea th i n w h i ch we seem t o d i e wi th ou t really dyi ng

S h akespeare c onceives sleep as th e de ath of ea ch d a y s

l i fe
a nd all o u r l ittl e l i ves are rounded w ith a sleep
Bu t i n thi s su fc ien t analo g y w i th dea t h is wan ti n g Th e
pers i s t en c y of th e person is h ere veri ed : th e b roken
c ons c i ousness re tu rns in t o con t in uit y w ith it s pas t : mem
ory c an cross th e g ulf of th i s t emp orary d ea th moreover
th e org anism of th e person was u ndissolved i ns t ead o f
s h arin g in th e u ncons ci o u s ne s s of s l eep b y a t emporary
p h ys ic al dissolu ti on A nalo gi es of animal t ransforma ti on
th e ca t erp i l l ar t r a nsformed i n t o th e butt ery for i h
S t ance are al l found i nadequ a t e wh en compared w it h
th e v i s i b le consequences of p h y s ic al dea th i n man
U n i qu e
T h e pro bab le e ffec t of th e d ea th of a person s p h ys i ca l
t h e or g an i sm upon hi s self conscio u s and perc i p i en t li fe can
,

ei r

c e

su

11 9 5 3

T H E FIN A L

V EN

T U R E O F T H E I S T IC F A I T H

311

hardly b e de t ermined b y fa ct s like t hese F or t he pro

b l em w hi c h t he disso l u tion of t h e human b ody p resen t s
is a b s o l u t e l y sin g u l ar Li v in g men ca nno t se ttl e i t b y
ex p erimen t a s t hey c an de t ermine b y experimen t th e
o u tc ome o f s l ee p or a t ran c e ; for i n order t o do t his th ey
w ou ld need t o die and h ave person al exper i en c e of t he
issue N or h as th e eni g ma b een so l ved b y comm u ni c a t ion
w i t h persons w h o h ave die d : one e ffec t o f dea t h seems t o
b e t o wi t hdr a w th e ma t er i al medium of c ommun ic a t ion
b e tw een th e l i vin g and t he de a d T h e iss u e of th eir
dea th i s no t communi c a t ed b y dead persons ; and n o per
s o n now liv in g h as m a de t he experimen t o f d yin g and
re t urn i n g i n t o thi s em b odied l ife A ll e g ed a pp a ri ti ons
an d mess ag es from depar t ed persons g ive no l i g h t I f
f a i th i n th e con t in ue d c ons ci ousness of p h ysi c a ll y dead
persons a f t er th eir dea th mu s t depend upon t hese sources
i t seems t o ha v e no suppor t in evidence
.

p h eno me
H

I y s c a,
d eatl z i t
r ei gn t o

{f

m
l
.

fi ii
e

e i

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e t s o ns

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o u r on l y
c at i on wi th
t h e d e ad

Y e t it does no t fo ll ow t h at t he hope t ha t de ath i s no t

t he na l en d o f i n d ividua l persons i s b a seless N O dou b t
t he c a se i s no t f ul l y a nalog ous t o or il lus t ra t ed in t heis
t i call y s us t a i n e d ordinar y expe cta t ion or previsions in
n at ur a l s ci ence ; i ts si n g ul a ri ty l ies par tl y in thi s th a t
t h e physi c a l mediu m of veri c a t ion is n at ura ll y wi th
d r aw n in dea t h Bu t t o a ssume w i t hou t proof th a t a
c ons c ious person is s o dependen t for his c ons ci ous l i fe
upon h i s presen t or ga nism t h at his c ons ci ous l ife mu st
c e a se w hen t his org anism d issolves is t o b e g th e ques t ion
w e are med it a t i ng a b ou t The ques t ion is w he t her t he
visi b l e d i ssolu t ion ne c e s sar i ly si g n i es t he invisi b le dis
solu t ion ; an d i t wi l l no t serve t he i n t eres t of reason t o
ta ke t his for g ran t ed w it hou t permi tti n g a ny mode of
de t erm i nin g t h e pro b a b i l ity o th er t han th e physi c ally
s c ien t i c mo d e
F or one t hi ng we nd a w i d espread f ait h i n a l l a g es
and amon g va rious n at ions a nd r ac es of men t ha t human
persons som eh ow survive t h e p hysi c a l c risis of or g a n i c
disso l u ti on A r t i c ula t e c on c e p t ions of wha t fol l o w s d e ath
dou b t less v ary wid e l y in th e t ra d i t ions and re l i g ions of
mank i nd an d i n t he fan c ies of indivi d ua l s Bu t w hile
.

F ait h i n
Per s i st en c e
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$ 3:

312

PH I L OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

th ere h a s u sually b een a s cep tic al m i nor it y th e m a s s of

m ank i nd i n th e anci en t med i eval and modern world
i n th e E as t and th e Wes t
i n E g yp t P ers i a I nd i a
Greece and R ome Jews M o h ammedans Ch r i s ti an s
en t er t a i n an expec t a ti on th a t persons pers i s t af t er dea th
w h e th er i n a lower and m ore a tt en u a t ed or i n a no b ler
l i fe th an th a t exper i enced b efore th ey d i ed T h e con
c e p t i o n i n mos t ca s es i mpl i es th a t th e p ost m or tem ex i s t
ence i s no t w h olly u nem b od i ed ; th a t th e person re t a i ns
or g a i ns af t er dea th some i n t an gib le g hos t ly form of
em b od i men t ; or else af t er an i n t erval of u nem b od i men t

a
recover s p h ys i cal rela ti ons i n s ome wor thi er form

b ody S p i r it ual i ns t ead of th e presen t l i m iti n g b ody i n

and th ro ugh w hi c h sp i r itu al consc i ousness h as on ear th
b ecome i nd i v i d u al Tha t a sp i r itu al b ody s u cceed s th e
na tu ral b ody i s th e fa ith of mos t Ch r i s ti ans
T h a t all g enu i ne C ommon F ai th or th e common ra ti onal
G en ui ne
C ommon s en s e of mank i nd i s d i v i nely t r u s t wor th y b ecause i n s p i red
th e
b y God i s a pos t ula t e on w h i ch s ci ence i t self res t s i n
d ivi ne i n
p i ati on all it s prev i s i ve i nferences S c i en t i c ver i ca ti on as I
wh ic h
h ave th ro ugh o u t ar gu ed i s nally u ncon s c i o u s rel igi o u s
giveth
n d er
t
r
u
s
I
t
h
a
s
b
een
s
cien
ti
cally
ver
i
ed
th
a
t
th
e
s
u
n
t
st an d i n g
w i ll r i se t o morrow ; but ti ll th e s u n s h all h ave ac tu ally
r i s en th e a ss er ti on only expresses fa i th i n th e d i v i ne
na tu ral order A ll expec t a ti on s c i en ti c or common i s
so far a leap i n th e dark ; it i s t aken w ith o ut t he l ight of
sen s e T h e expec t ed even t h a s no t th e proof a fforded b y
fel t percep ti on ti ll th e even t h as h appened I f s en s e were
o u r only l i g ht it wo u ld follow th a t we m u s t remain i n th e
darkne ss of dou bt a b ou t ever y fu t ure even t To b e p ra c
t i c ally cons i s t en t i f we i ns i s t th a t th a t only can b e
reasona b le i n t o w hi c h no i n g red i en t of mora l ven tu re
en t er s we mus t cease t o l i ve ; for life depends u pon
expec t a ti on and expec t a ti on pos tu la t e s f aith i n t he d i v i ne
reasona b leness of th e un i verse ; wh i c h i mpl i es th a t men
w i ll no t b e nal l y p ut t o s c i en ti c confus i on b y reasona b le
s ub m iss i on t o thi s moral fa ith I f th ey m u s t th e u n i
ver s e would b e u nd i vine i llus i on
T h e w i despread fa ith i n personal pers i s t ence th ro ugh
S c i enti c
p revi s i on
and af t er p h ys i cal dea th i s i ncapa b le of exper i men t al
s

314

organ ism
affor d s
no
p
re a s on for
ex p e ct i n g
s u r vival
o f th e
c on s c i o u s
p erson
,

er s e,

PHIL OS O PH Y O F T H E I S M

wi despread delus i on and anac h ron i sm w hich ma y b e ex

t
o
disappear
wit
h
th
e
g
radua
l
i
n
c
rease
of
h
uman
e
d
c
t
e
p
c u lt ure A g ener at ion led b y t h ose w h o are phys ic al l y
s c ien t i c in th e i r wh ole h a bit of re a sonin g i s na t ur a ll y
s c ep t i c al a b o ut wh a t canno t b e t es t ed b y v i s ib le ex p er i
men t ; d i s t rus t ful of w h a t are called me ta p hys ic al n e c es
S i ti es ; and even dis t r u s t ful of t he m oral fa it h on w hich
th e i r p hys ic al s ci en c e i t self uncons ci ous l y t o th emse l ves
c ons ta n tl y depends I f one do g ma t i c ally asser t s th a t all
ques ti on s of f a ct wh e th er a b ou t th in g s or persons m u s t
b e de c ided b y p h ysic a l t es t s only an d rej e ct s h yper
p h y si c al suppor t s as ab s t rac t or fan ci f u l t he i ssue o f
human dea th is removed from reasona b le i nves tig a ti o n
alon g w i th th e re moval of th e v i s ibl e and t an g i b le med i um
wh i ch c onnec t s th e cons ci ous person w i th p h ysical science
O nly as I h ave s ai d t h e same do g ma t ic assump ti on i s
b o u nd t o remove a l on g w it h t h i s ques ti on all s c ien ti c
q u es t ions t o g e th er for na t ural s cience a t las t d epends
upon fai th t ha t is h yper physi c al
Unless we h y per
physi c a ll y ass u me t h e ra ti onali ty or t rus tw or t hiness of
t h e Uni vers a l P o wer na t ure m u s t rema i n s c i en t i c al l y
un i n t erpre t a b le b eyond th e momen t ary da t u m of ac tu al

feel i n g wh ic h i so lat ed da t u m p er se i s u n i n t elli gib le

,

Bu t le t u s face some of th e p h ysi ca l d i f c u lti es w h ic h

D if cu lti es
t hat b ese t b ese t f a i t h in th e pos th umo u s cons ci ous persis t ence of t h e
th e idea
o f p osth u ind i vidu a l i sed an d i nvis ib le person F or one t hin g our
mo u s p er experien c e of th e rela t ion b e t w een th e v i si b le or ga nism
son al c on

and t he invisi b le c ons c ious l i fe and fee l in g i s t ha t

i
n
i n a ph y
c
h
a
n
g
es
in
th
e
one
are
fo
u
nd
i
n
a
cons
t
an
t
c
orrespond
i
n
g
i ll y
s ci ent i c c onne ct ion wi th c h an g es i n th e o th er : th e experimen t al
ag e li k e t h e i nferen c e would ac c ordin gly b e that t o t al dissolu t ion of
p resen t
t he b ody mus t un d er na t ural l aw b e follo w ed b y c orre
s p o n d i n g cessa ti on of c ons c ious personal it y ; th a t th e dis
solu t ion of th e b ody mus t invo lv e th e d i sso l u ti on of t he
c o ns c ious person al life th a t h as b een u niformly c on
d i ti o n ed b y t he b ody and made man i fes t t o o th er persons
only in and t hrou g h th e b ody A g ain a separa t ion of t he
persona l c ons c iousness fro m th e or g an i sed m att er in w hi ch
i t i s no w i nvo l ved i s b y u s u nima gi na b le
W h e n th e
.

sc ou s

es s ,

s ca

T H E F I N A L V E N T U R E O F TH E I S T I C F A I TH

315

sensuous ima g ina t ion t ries t o rea l ise se lf c ons c ious l i f e

af t er i t h as c ease d t o b e i n c arn at e t he u n b o d ied l i f e is
in ni t e l y more mys t erio u s tha n a ny supposed ch a n g e
o f l o cal i t y or of em b odimen t whi c h a m a n could pas s
th rou gh To b e t ranspor t ed i n th e b o d y i n t o one of
t he nei ghb our i n g pl a n e t s s t i ll more in t o one o f t h e
imme a sura b ly remo t e s t e lla r sys t ems wou ld b e a n a pp al
l in g prospe ct for a human b ein g ; b u t aft er a l l i t w ou l d
no t b e l ife o ut of a ll em b od imen t p lac e l ess i f no t
a l so ti meless l ife ; and so lita ry t oo b y disso l u t ion of th e
fam il iar me di um of commun ic a t ion b e tw een p ersons
Timeless per h aps ; for wi t hou t per c ep t ion of mo t ion in
spa c e wh a t c on c eiva bl e mea su r e o f d ura t ion remains :
w ith o ut th e a ccus t omed me a sure of dura tion whi c h t h e
periodic movemen t s of th e pl a ne t s supply dis t in ct i d eas
of dura ti on w ou l d disappear leav i n g t he perso n p rac ti
c all y in a placeless and t ime l ess l ife M emory t oo i f no t
t o t a l ly emp t ied of t he i d ea of ti me is confron t ed b y t he
ul t ima t e di f c ul t y of re c o ll e cti n g a person al h is t or y spre ad

over i nnumera bl e millions of year s

no t t o spe a k o f i ts
en d lessn es s w hic h raises an a b solu t e l y in c on c eiv a b l e issue

L an g ua g e t oo some sor t of sensi b le or pi ct ured sym b o l

is now no t only t he me d ium of c o m munica t ion b e tw ee n
persons b u t also an in d is p ensa bl e c ondi t ion o f so l i ta ry
th ou gh t A r t i c ula t e l an g ua g e is an ag g re gat e of v isi b l e
or audi b le si g ns w h ich nee d s c on t inue d re lati on of p er
son a l consc i ousness t o th e sensi b le w or l d The d isso l u t ion
of t his c onne ct ion seems t o wi t hd r aw a n indis p ens ab l e i n
s t rumen t of in t e ll i g en t life w i t hou t w hi c h l i v in g t hou gh t
mus t d i e The on l y cons c ious l ife w hi c h perso n s on e a r t h
have any experien c e o f or w hi c h is possi b l e t o im a g ine
i s em b o di e d cons c ious life A n d t h e presumed u n c o n
s c i o u s n e s s or impersonal exis t ence of m e n b efo r e t heir b ir t h
i s in phys ic al analo g y w i t h an assump t ion o f t heir u n c o n
Then t he mo d ern w ho ll y se n suous
s c i o u s n e s s after d ea t h
imag ina ti on w orks in ano t her wa y E x cl usi v e a tt en t ion
t o visi b le a nd t an g i b le phenomen a m a kes t he i nvisi b l e
supposed re al i ties of a S p iri t ual p ersona l i ty l ook l ike
emp t y a b s t r a c t ions
H en c e t h e fa vouri t e a ssum p t ion
t ha t i f th e cons c ious spiri t pers i s t s a f t er t he d e at h of
-

316

P H IL OSO P H Y O F T H E I S M

it s v i s ib le or g an i s m it mu s t b e i n correla ti on w ith an
or g anism s ubj ec t t o cond iti ons of place and ti me l i ke th ose
w it h w hi c h w e are fam i l i ar A nd thi s narro w p h ys ic al
c oncep ti on of poss ibi l iti es su gg es t s th e p h ys i cal d i f c u l t y
of an overcrowded ma t er i al world even w ith i t s milli o ns :o f
s u ns and t he i r sys tems in w h ic h i n th e i n n it e f u t ure
w ith it s endless a c c u m u la t ion of persona l or g anisms room
canno t b e fo und for all i n plane t ary h omes
I f th ey
m us t a c cum u l at e i n endless m i ll i ons on every s t ar and
plane t it seems t o th e ima gi na ti on th a t thi s mu s t i n ti me
i ss u e i n de c i en t p h ys i cal accommoda ti on
Th e in d e
T h ese are ill u s t ra ti on s of perplex iti es of s ensuo u s im
agi n at i o n i n deal i n g wi th a q u e s ti on fore ig n t o th e co u rse
ar g u ment s of na tu re so far as na tu re comes w ithi n th e e x p e ri
f
Pe ?
ence
of
persons
no
t
ye
t
dead
S
c
ep
ti
cal
s
i
lence
seems
th
e
son al l i fe
a ft er d eath appropri a t e a tti t ude of th o s e w h o s u ppose th a t fai th f u l
ne ss t o t r uth make s i t neces s ary t o accep t only p h y s i cal
cr it er i a and s ensu o u s i ma gi na ti on for th e de t erm i n a ti on of
all q u es ti ons T h ey ask h o w p h ys i cal analo gi es can adm it
th e real it y of a l i fe w h ic h no one now liv i n g can i ma gi ne
far les s ver i fy b y experimen t a l i fe a b s t ra ct ed from all
th a t i s p h y s ical W h o can re s t u pon prem i sses of ex
n
r
i
an
i
nference
a
b
sol
ut
ely
s
i
n
g
ular
re
g
ard
i
n
g
th
e
e
e
ce
p
inv i s ib le des ti ny of c on s c i o u s person s w h o th us far h ave
found th emselves always i ncarna t e th e i r s elf con s c i ous
i nd i v i d u ali t y b e gu n and ma i n t a i ned b y th e i ncarna ti on ?
,

or

B ut i f con ti n u o u s person al l i fe af t er p h ys i cal dea th i s

9
i
ncapa
b
le
of
p
h
ys
i
cal
proof
th
ro
ugh
sc
i
ence
per
h ap s i t
ment s s h ow
A b s t rac t
b t
t can b e s h own t o b e metap h ysi ca l ly n ec ess a r y
th
P oss i b i l it y i m po s s ibi l it y of th e nal ex t inc ti on of any consc i o u s per
r at h e r t h a n
s on h a s b een asser t ed as a h yper p h ys i cal reason for i n
t h e fact
lf
f
ferr i n g th e per s i s t ence of th e con s c i o u s person no t wi th
s t andin g th e dea th o f hi s b ody B ut thi s a b s t rac t as s er ti on
ft p h y i can h ardly b e accep t ed a s a fo u nda ti on for a c oncl u s i on
l d th
a b o u t a fu tu re fac t ; al th o ugh it may s u g g es t need for so
u n i que a ques ti on as th e i s s u e of dea t h b e i n g t rea t ed
d i fferen t ly from ques ti ons a b o ut even t s th a t can b e seen

T h e do g ma of w h a t i s am bigu o u s ly called th e na tu ral

i mm or t al ity of man i s ano th er for m of me t ap h ys i cal po s
M et ap h y

'

ea

s r ac

se

ca

er

ea

318

P H I L OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

percep ti on of colours w ith ou t th e per ci p i en t posse ss i n g

eyes and of sounds with ou t ears ; for s ee i n g and h ear
i ng are s t a t es of c onsc i ousness w hi ch m ay b e s u pposed
g oin g on indepe n den t ly of or g anised ma tt er
Th e y fai l t o
These a re spe cul a ti on s They t end t o S how th e a bstr ac t
s i bi li t
os
p
y of mu c h t h a t exceeds p h y s i cal i ma gi na ti on and
i m sug
sensuous experience ; b u t th ey are t oo remo t e from ma tt er
n of fa ct t o over c ome th e scep ti cal presump t ion t o w hi c h
$ 233?
so l t i on
th e v i s ib le dissolu ti on of th e b ody gi ve s rise A b s t ra ct

reason
i
n
g
and
easiness
t
o
s
uppose
leave
u
s
s
ti
ll
i
n
fron
t
gig
? of a h ypo th e ti cal f utu re : th ey excit e dreams w ith ou t
de t erm i n i n g t h e reasona b leness of fa ith i n th e dream
,

c s

T he

et h i cal

erson
al
p

T h u s exclus i ve phys i cal science a ffords n o ev i dence th a t

a per s on pers i s t s i n consc i o u s li fe af t er hi s presen t i n car

n a ti on h as ended i ndeed su gg es t s on t h e whole th a t th e

consc i ous person h as ende d t oo ; and a b s t rac t me t ap h ys ic al
specula ti on a b o ut personal ity w hil e it expand s spec u la t ive
vis i on i s ye t una b le t o sus t a i n reasona bl e b el i ef B u t are
we s ti ll lef t i n ig noran c e w h en we t urn from ou t ward
n a t ure and a b s t rac t me t ap h ys ic s t o th e ra ti onal i mpl i ca t es
of t he i s tic fa ith ; wh en we i n t el lig en tly acknowled g e th e
O mn i po t en t Goodness pres u pposed i n th e t r i plici t y of
our pr i mary da t a ; an d aft er we h ave ree ct ed u pon
t he inspired spir it ual c ons tit u ti on la t en t i n man h ardly
e v oked i ndeed i n t o consci ousness i n m any no t fully

evoked in any ? D oes thi s i nward i nsp i ra ti on of th e

A l mi g h t y re v ea l that th e condi t ions u nder w hi c h t he

moral a g en t i s ma i n t ained i n hi s presen t phys ic al or g an
i s ati o n are i nade qu a t e t o th e m oral mean i n g an d c h ief
en d of m a n ? Wou l d c essa ti on of i nd i v i dual personal l i fe

af t er ex i s t ence in th e b ody for only a few days or

even a h undre d years really p u t mor a l i n t ell i g en c e t o
confusion a nd so ra i se do u b t even a b o ut t he phys i cal i n
t e r p re tab i l i ty of ex t ernal n atu re w h en per s onal e x p e ri
ence co ul d b e only a hollow momen ta ry dream ? I s t here
no t some t hin g t oo i n th e i nvolu n ta r y en t ran c e i n t o exis t
ence of i n d i vi d u a l p er sons w ho unlike th i ngs and t he i r
pass i ve me t amorphoses a re all responsi b le for t he i r own
c h arac t er a b le t o resis t as well as t o accep t th eir div i ne
,

F I N A L V E N TU R E

TH E

OF

TH E I S T I C F A I T H

319

idea l is t here n o t some t hin g in t his t h at op p oses i t se l f

t o th e ide a of persons w i t hdr aw n f rom responsi b l e p er
s o n al i t
in
t
o

n
a
l
un
c
onsciousness
a
l
mos
t
a
s
soon
t
heir
as
y
persona l i ty b e g ins ? I s n o t t he su pp osi t ion of t h e an
C
n ih il a t i o n of b ein g s of t his sor t
b efore t he y h av e h ad
t ime t o dis c over wh at and w h ere t hey are a n issue
t ha t is ou t of h a r m ony w i t h imp l i c a t es of our inevi ta b l e
f a i t h a nd hope in th e omnipo t en t g oo d ness an d in ni t e
mercy of th e P o w er t ha t mus t b e e t ern all y m a kin g for
th e g oodness of ba d persons ? D oes su ch a n ad mission o f
persons for a momen t in t o a d an g erous mor al t ri al on a
p l ane t th a t seems t o have h ad th em a s t he c hie f en d o f i t s
e volu ti on no t l ook like ca pri c e o f unreason ra t her t h a n
m a nifes t a t ion of omnipo t en t g oodness ? Ca n t h e s u p
pos iti on of t he dissolu ti on of c ons c ious persons i n t h e
d ea t h of t heir b odies b e re c onci l e d w i t h t rus t a n d hope
in t he perfe ct g oodness of t he Univers a l P o w er w hi c h
I h ave u r g ed as a t on c e t he t a c i t a ssump tion in a l l
h uman experien c e and t he l as t w or d o f t rue phi l o
I f pos it ive a nswers t o t hese ques t ions a b ou t
s op h y ?
m ora l a g en t s like men seem presump t uous at t he
poin t of v iew t o w hi c h t he h u m a n ques t ioner i s c on
n e d remo t e in t e ll e ct ua ll y from t he in ni t e c en t re
d oes no t t heis tic fai t h at le a s t im p ly t h at c o n d en c e
in O mnipo t e n t Goodness i s t he on l y re a son a b le p rin c i p l e
a cc or d in g t o w hic h man c an d ie as w e ll a s l i v e ; a n d t h at
t o d ie in t h i s m oral ven t ure in a d i v ine uni v erse m ay
b e e t hi c al l y b e tt er for t he l i v i ng t h a n a d e m ons t r at ion
?
w hich w ou l d supersede edu c a t ion o f mor al f a i t h
To
th ose w hose li v es a re ha b i t ua ll y dire c t e d in t h eis t i c t rus t
t o wa rds t he rea l is at ion of t heir t rue s p iri t u al i d e al physi
b u t r a t her in t h e
c al d ea t h is no t a l e a p in t he da rk
d ivine l i g ht w hi c h i ll umin at es a ll presen t experien c e
I n t he d i v ine u n i verse o f t heis t i c fa i t h m a n c a n m ake
his exi t from t he b o d y in t h e assur a n c e t h at i t is w e ll ;
l
ike
t
he
pa
t
riar
ch
n o t kno w in g w hi th er h e i s g oi n g
t
e
y
H ope of t h e c on t inued exis t en c e o f hum a n p er s ons n o t
w i t hs t an d in g t he d is a p p e a r a n c e o f t heir b o d ie s is n o t
indeed like f ai th in t he omnipo t en t a n d o m ni p resen t

a n in di spens a b l e p os t u
oo
d
ness
of
th
e
Univer
s a l P o w er
g
,

320

P H IL OSO PH Y

OF

THEIS M

la t e of all relia b le i n t erco u rse i n hu man exper i ence w ith

th e evolvin g universe of th in g s and persons ; b u t i t s
scep t i c al dis i n t e g ra ti on surely d i s tu r b s thi s f u ndamen tal
fa it h a nd s o t ends t o t o t al pess i m i s t do ubt
.

I s th e

The en ig ma of moral ev i l leaves us i n fron t of a fur th er

t
f
ques
t
ion
ra
i
sed
b
y
th
e
v
ery
hope
of
pos
th
umo
u
s
l
i
fe
I
s
Egl gi lf
G oo d i n t h e th e exis t ence of persons w ho can make and keep t hem
b a d only a t rans it ory epi s ode i n th e hi s t or of th e
se
l
ves
Egggg
y
un i verse ; or m u s t th ere b e for ever b ad pers ons i nc reas
nl y t
n i
t Y?
i n g i n n um b er and i ncreasin g ly b ad ? N o t w it hs t and i n g
th e am b i gu ou s a ppearance w h i ch th e world of sen t ien t and
moral b ein g s presen t s i n thi s c orner and t h e i rre g ular
adj us tmen t s of pleasure and pa i n t o th eir g ood and evil

ac t s s o ap t t o paralyse fa ith and h ope are pa i n and

error and V i ce i n th e div i ne univer s e in th e end t o d i s
appear b y perfec t ly reali s ed g oodness i n all persons em
b od i ed o r un b odied and in all w orlds
A re a ll cer t a i n a t
las t t o b ecome wh a t t hey ou ght t o b e ; c er t ain i n t he end
t o realise i nd i v i dually th e d i vine ideal of man ; or a t leas t

t o b e for ever approac h in g t o th is on th e pa th w hic h

s hi ne th m ore an d more u n t o t he perfec t day ?

C nj
The a lt erna ti ve answers t o th is supreme qu es ti on are
t res
f u ll of di f c u lti es whi c h seem t o b e inc a pa b le of se tt le
men t T h a t th e i mmoral a g ency of persons th e i r per

s onal power t o depar t fro m th eir moral ide a l deepened

and per h aps nally con rmed b y h a bit m ay b ecome an

a b solu t ely nal elec t ion t o ev i l by th ems elves whi c h

ca
n
even O mn i po t en t Goodne s s n ot over c ome consis t en tl y
w it h th e free persona lit y of t hose w h o per s is t in keepin g
th emselves u n di v i ne i s one conj ec t ure : it i nvolves th e
mys t ery of th e ex i s t ence i n th e d i v i ne u n i verse of i n
numer ab le pers ons l i v i n g e ndlessl y i ncreas in g i n n u m b er
and a ll b e c omi n g w orse O n th e o th er h and th a t con
sc i ou s persons as well as t he i r presen t b odies are
capa b le of ex ti nc ti on b y th e U ni versal P ower ; th a t
only t he moral l y pro g ressive w h o have w ith drawn res i s t
ance t o w ha t is d i vine nally re t ain consc i o u s person a l
l i fe w hi le a l l who pers i s t on t he downward g rade are
nally red u ced t o u nconsciousness s o th a t ev i l l i fe dies
r

or

ra

or

ec
'

PH I L OSO PH Y O F T H E I S M

3 22

th e only se ttlemen t th a t i s poss ib le for man Those ag ain

w ho ins i s t upon th e p h ys ic al me th od of i n v es t i g a ti on a s
th e only a venue t o t ru th lo gic ally con c lude th a t t he div ine
or n al h uman ques ti on i s an i dle ques ti on
Bu t i t s
scien t i c insolu b ili t y I h ave t ried t o s h o w need b e no
i ns u per ab le b ar t o a reasona b le se tt lemen t i n th eis t i c
t rus t and h ope as t h e al t er n a t ive t o t o t a l u n c er t a i n t y and
despai r i n case of th e a b sence of omn i presen t omn i po t en t
an d o m n i sc i en t Goodness
.

326

P H IL OSO P H Y

c ip l e

TH EISM

OF

I seemed t o b e l os i n g myself in a mean i n gle s s

n
u i v erse
emp t y of p ersons moral or i mmoral
man
t h e t ru e
w i th a l l his pre t ended sc i ences th e l at es t p h enomenon

i n an inexp lic a b le process i on th e reve lat ion i f it c an b e

u
es
ti
on
ca
ll
e
d
reve
l
a
ti
on
of
a
P
ower
c
oncernin
g
wh
ich
I
d
a
re
q
no t pos t ula t e enou gh t o j us ti fy me in c on c lud i n g any

l n doin g or an ti cip at in g any t hin g

th in g
D espair is
t h e i ssue of th e endeavour th us t o c ompre h end a s O ne
S u b s t ance and P o w er th e reali t y i n t o whi ch we en t er
w h en we b e c ome per ci pien t of thi n g s and self cons ci ou s

The h m
Bu t i s th ere no t I proceeded t o ask myself i s th ere
no
t
ano
th
er
me
th
od
i
n
w
hi
ch
th
e

nal
q
u
es
t
ion
a
b
ou
t my
fgg f
d e ali n g
l i fe i n t h e un i verse may b e de a l t with ? A l th ou gh I
1
canno
t
g
ra
s
p
t
he
W
h
o
l
e
as
i
f
it
were
a

n
it
e
prem
i
ss
3321
ti on ab o ut i n a s ci en ti c ar g umen t may I no t i n some o th er way
t h e ni
come
p
r ac ti cally i n t o reasona b le rela ti on w ith th e W h ole
v erse o f
re al iti es
M ay I 11
I n i n t er c ourse Wi th i t u nder rela t i ons of
a kno w led g e th a t i s s ti ll h uman ye t rela ti ons even
e t ern a lly necess a ry i n man s l i m it ed and in t ermed i a t e po i n t
of V iew ? M ay no t th e u niversa l real it y b e s u f cien t ly
i n t erpre t a b le b y and for m an on th is h om o mensu r a
principle ? B u t th e n it m u s t b e th e c omple t e or i deal
M an no t man a s a sensuous i n t ell ig ence only nor ye t
as purely i n t elle ct ual om itti n g h i s dis ti n g uis h in g moral
and spir itu al experience
P hys ic al or na t ura l s ci en c e
c oncerned w ith non moral t hin g s is an i nadequa t e ap
pl ic a ti on of th e h omo men su r a I n a deeper or more
real u s e of th a t me th o d th e Uni v ersal P ower mus t b e pos
T h e D i vi n a mensu r a
t u l at e d as O mnipo t en t Goodness

o
human
i
sed
i s b y i mp l i c a t ion t h e roo t of h u man life
s
a nd k n o w led g e
Thi e vi
M an s na l re l a ti on t o th e u niverse o f t hin g s a nd per
med m
sons w orked ou t on th e lar g e h o mo m ensu r a princi ple
does no t ra ti onalise th e u nivers a l reali t y w i th S p i no z a
or H e g el in an O mn i scien c e w h ich elimina t e s mys t ery ;
n or does it l eave man paralysed in t o t al un c er t a i n ty
w ith D av i d H ume
It pos t ula t es morally perfe ct
P ower a t th e roo t of exper i ence w ith a b a c k g rou nd of
i nev it a bl e mys t ery a revela ti on t his w hic h may b e
come enou g h for man w h i l e i t leaves some th in g t ha t
i nt ell i

A R E T R OS P E C T

3 27

i s b y man spe c u lat ive l y u nim a g in a b l e

It reco g nises t he
vi a m ed i a
in t e ll e c t u all y in t ermedia t e b e t ween O mn is c
i e n c e and N escien c e
Un a b le t o s ee t he Who l e f ro m t he
.

D ivine C en t re we a re o b l i g ed t o pos t u lat e P erfe ct Good

ness o f t he Universa l P ower t his la t en t in a ll man s

in t er c ourse W it h m a ni f es t ed rea l i ty a worki n g pos t u l a t e
foun d c h a r g ed w it h mean i n g in propor t ion a s t h e persons
who t h i nk and a ct u pon i t a p proach t o t he idea l M a n
H ow has t h i s me th o d f a red wi t h us on t ri a l ?
I n t he r s t pla c e our pos t u lat e w as j us t i ed b y t he
i mpossi b i lit y of in t el l igibl e experien c e or of moral condu ct
wi th ou t t r u s t and h ope in t he invisi bl e P o w er t h at i s
omnipresen t I n t er c o u rse wi t h th in g s and persons p r e
s u mes moral con den c e i n t h e P o w er a t work t hrou g hou t
t he W h o l e T o s u ppose prac t i c al indi fferen c e t o g oodness
i n t he Un i versal P o w er is vir t ua ll y t o for b id s c ien t i c
or mor a l in t ercourse w ith th a t P ower as presen t ed in ex
i
n
e
r
e
ce
We mus t avoid a nal l y undivine Uni v erse
p
as we avoid a suspec t ed man I n all cal c u l a t ed act ivi t y
we a t leas t un c ons c iously t ake for g ran t ed t he ethi ca l
r eli a bi li t
of
th
e
mys
t
er
i
ous
P
o
w
er
revealed
in
ph
y
si
y
ca l an d human h i s t ory
The a b so l u t eness of
O b li g a ti on and th e imposs i b i l ity of in t erpre t in g ourse lv es
or our surroundin g s if th e na t u ral evo l u ti on i s ei t her a pro
lon g ed a c c i d en t emp t y of mor al me a nin g or a re v e lat ion
of d i ab o l i ca l purpose in ei t her of t hese wa ys pu tt in g us
t o in t e ll ec t ua l an d moral confusion is w h at j us t i es t he
t heis t i c or mora l c on c ep t ion a s na l The su fc ien t reas
for i t s a dop t ion is t ha t un l ess an op t imis t fa i t h is t he
nal fai th t here c an b e no t ru t h a b ou t a ny t h in g I f t he
l ife that emer g es b e tw een b ir th and dea t h rises o ut of and
su b si d es in t o a n a ll y unin t e ll i g i b l e or mor all y un t rus t
wor t hy un i verse one c an onl y say L e t me es c ape from
conscious l i f e and t hus pra cti call y f rom t he c on c re t e uni
verse and re tu rn i n t o t he un c ons c iousness ou t of whi c h I
i nvo l un t ari l y emer g ed w hen I w as b orn H is o w n a n ni

if
b
ecomes
t
he
c
hief
end
o
f
t
he
c
ons
c
ious
e
g
o
h il a ti o n
i ndeed af t er paralysis of t he f und a men t a l e t hi cal p os t u
la t e one ca n ha ve an y end t o s t ru gg le for a n d mus t no t
passively su b side in t o speechless mo t ionless a g nos ti c ism
,

Thi s n al
moral p os
tu lat e a n
i ndi p ns
abl e as
s ump ti on
s

3 28

PH I L O S O PH Y O F TH E I S M

urr en d er
I n all in t ercourse w it h t he universe le t me th erefore
n al re g ard myself a s a p er s on dealin g w it h O mnipo t en t
$ 321
p o s tu lat e Goodness th ere i n i mp li ed and par t ia ll y revealed
Le t
m l y st s
m e t ake th is a s th e cons t an t pos t ula t e in al l in t erpre t a
u man
i s t o assume that e t h i cal
t
i
ons
of
exper
i
ences
Bu
t
t
h
i
s
t ni g n
g
nd d s m

fai
th
is
th
e
indispens
ab
le
it
s
r a ti on a le o f human life
ieg t s
i n i t s re l i g i ous develop
S
i
l
en
t
ly
a
cc
ep
t
ed
prel
i
m
i
nary
ex p eri en c e
men t th e c ulm i na t ion of it s deepes t and t rues t phi l osop h y
M oral fa it h i s deeper th an t he d eepes t possi bl e in t e ll e ct ual
d ou b t and i s pres u pposed i n all dou bt th a t i s reasona b le
The e th ical t r u s t n eeded for pro g ressive in t erpre t a t ion of
exper i en c e i n s c ience supersedes t he pess i m i s t dou bt and
d espair a b ou t every thi n g i n t o w hi c h monis t spe c ul a t ions
s t r ictl y i n t erpre t ed at la s t reso l ve H o w ever s ym pat h e ti
cally one t ried t o en t er i n t o th e ag nos t ic c oncep ti on as
nal th ere was always fou nd b elow i t a g erm of moral
con dence in th e ch a r a cter of t h e P ower th a t i s unive r

sally opera ti ve as P o w er th a t is ne ith er i ndi fferen t t o

p h ys i cal and moral order nor di ab olic but perfe ctl y g ood
and t herefore mak i n g fo r th e g oodness of al l person s in th e
u n i verse
S o th e D i v i ne I deal is presumed t o b e t o
make and keep moral a g en t s in th e s t a t e i n wh ic h t hey
ou ght t o b e ; and s omeh ow t o res t ore th em t o g oodness i f
any of th em h ave m a de t hemselves moral l y b ad
T h e i nc ar
T h e U niy er s al O mnipr esen t P o w er ma y b e t r ul y sa i d
n"? 0 f
t
o
b
e
on
sp
eak
i
n
g
t
erms
w
i
th
man
a
nd
t
hro
ug
h
a
n
i
ga d n
N atu re
cosm i c a l and moral order w h i c h i n al l i t s r a m i c at i ons i s
r esu med t o b e in t erpre t a b le b eca u s e c h ar g ed with a ct ive
p
wh ich t h e moral reason ; no t c apr i c i ous b u t a b so lut ely g ood
mv
a l th ou g h man s i na bi l it y t o occupy th e D i vine C en t re
g
OW
vir tu all y m u s t leave m u c h th a t i s p h ys i ca l ly or morally i n e x p li c
n P
k
a
b
le
T
h
a
t
th
e
I
n n it e P ower should b e on spe a kin g
m g t erms
th rou g h th e sense sym b ol i sm of n a t ure
t
erms
Wi
th
m
a
n
wi t h men
and th e i nw a rd i nsp i ra t ion of th e spiri t a b ove al l in th e

ideal M an thi s i s surely no t inconsis t en t wi th ul t im at ely

i nac c essi bl e mys t er i ousness i n t he God we h ave con
ti n u al ly t o do w i t h
R evela ti on of God i n t elli g i ble enou gh
t o re gu la t e man s l i fe in an o th er wi se mys t er i o u s uni
verse seems th e way o f answeri n g n a l ques ti ons t ha t
is adap t ed t o m an
D i vine p r es enc e th r o u gh o u t th e
s

13

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330

P H I L OS O P H Y O F T H E I S M

t rial mor a l l y responsi b le persons w h o h ave p ower t o

make an d keep t hemse l ves b a d no t w ith s t andin g t he r i

un iv erse
of t h i s d i vm e exper i me nt r at her th an th a t t here S h oul d
gn
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persons
on
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non mora l or physi c al l y ne c essi tat ed universe I f one
nt
t
w th m s t akes ac c oun t of fa ll i bl e mora l a g en t s on pro b a t ion a s a t
leas t t h e h u ma n ly r ela ted purpose w h ic h th e Who l e is
m a k i n g for a t th e only h uman po i n t of V iew it may we l l
b e th a t t he uni v erse emp ti ed of persons even su c h per

sons as men h a v e m a de th emsel v es would realise a less

d i v i ne i deal t o th a t u nder w h ic h s in and su ffer in g appear
M oreover one may s u gg es t th a t t he en ig m a presen t e d
S i g ns o f
we
g
P
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h
i
s
plane
t
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s
rel
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eved
b
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ns
of
hu
man
pro
g
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m p rove
men t
also presen t ed w h en i ts h i s t ory i s i n t erpre t ed as d i vm ely
condu ct ed educa ti on of a l l who will perm it t hemse l ves t o
b e d i v i nely educa t ed P ro g res s i ve improvemen t on t he
wh ole b u t whic h of t en seems t o conver t pro g ress in t o
re g ress ra th er th an ori g i na l and endless moral p e r fe c
t ion may b e t he only e conomy adap t ed t o a d i vine w or l d
th a t i n cludes p er sons on tr i a l
A lar gar
S t ill more when th ere i s reasona b le roo m for a rein
v l mn
for
c
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t
of
t
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pro
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wha
t
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{fa n th e
may see m un i que a ct i on of th e Un i ver s a l P o w er
at
m
iy

h
l
P y
sundry
t
imes
and
i
n
d
i
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manners
accordin
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one adap t
e d t o m ak e ra t i onal order more c omprehens i ve t han t ha t wh i c h men
t
reco g nise i n t he i r p h ysi c al experience and w h i ch in t his
ggf g sense may b e c a l led miraculous de t erm i ned b y i t s rela
mp h
in th
t ions t o persons w h o h ave made t hemselves b ad in rej e ct
y1
3? i n g t he div i ne i deal ; s o t ha t th e i r dorm a n t fa it h and hope
h
h as t o b e vi vi e d and enl ig h t ened in order t o t heir mor a l
P y i l
p n n e
recovery all t hrou g h divine i n c arn at ion in t he I deal
M an th e c onsumma ti on of divine i ncarna t ion i n E x t ernal
N a t ure
Th e con d i
F ur th ermore s c ep tic al d i s i n t e g ra ti on of nal fa ith and
f
h
ope
in
t
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Un
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P
ower
m
a
y
b
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arres
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b
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th
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con
33 n l fe
on e art h S i dera t i on th a t t he presen t t r ag edy of S i n and su ffer i n g on
m to
t i m e and pl a ce
t
h
i
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plane
t
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as k u n d er
t h e t h e i stic t o expla i n i t s n a l mean i n g and un i versal i ss u es T h e
P ostu lat e c ur t ain falls a t t he b e g innin g of th e rs t a c t I f men
for it s re c
i n l i al
t i t i o n or are l i v i n g i n a moral l y t rus tw or th y u n i verse
a mor all y

11

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A R E T R OS P E C T

331

c on den c e t ha t t he issues need no t i n t h e en d p u t t h em t o

in t e ll e ct u al an d mora l c on f usion t his w ou ld seem t o im p l y
for t hem a l on g er a nd la r g er life t h a n t h at on t his e a r th
a l i f e in w hi c h perfe ct ion w i ll b e fou nd b y t h e t ried a g en t s
t o un d erl i e t h e app a ren t i ndi ffere n c e c a p ri c e or c rue lty
of th e se c u l ar d r a ma F or ph y si cal de at h n eed no t e nd
th e c ons c ious l ife of persons who die p hysi call y ; a nd t h e
prim a ry mora l pos t u lat e of ex p erien c e m a y e v en im p l y a
reasona bl e fa ith and hope t h a t t his is no t s o in a di v i n e l y
c ons t i t u t ed uni v erse
T h e mor a l c haos no w on t hi s
p lane t s o ap t t o b e dis i n t e g r at i v e of mor al t rus t in t he
Un i versal P o w er and th ere f ore in a ll hum a n experien c e
m a y b e re l ieved th rou g h a n o w in c on c eiv ab le aft er l ife
O f th e moral a g en t s
a ft er t he c ur t ain f all s in d ea t h
T h ese consi d er at ions a fforded b y a l arg er phi l oso p h y
t han t he s c ien c e w hi c h i s on l y physi ca l c an O ffer ten d t o
sus t ain th e mor al t ru s t an d hope in th e U n ivers al P o w er
wh ic h i s a t th e roo t of exper i en c e wi t hou t w hich human
l ife i s h ol l ow i l lu s i on no divine voi c e h e a rd in t he
drama of N a t ure no spiri t ual inspira t ions i n a n d th rou g h

M an t he who l e unin t erpre t a b le human na t ure i n all

i t s fa c u lti es an d inevi t a b le pos t ula t es a v ai n il l usion It
i s t he ine vi t a b le s c ep t i c a l a nd p essimis t al t erna t ive in t his
d i l emm a th a t makes t h eis t i c op t imism w i t h it s r a t ion al
c onsequen c es t h e hi g hes t hum a n phi l oso p hy ; s o t h at w e
a re o b l i g ed in re a son t o res t in n al f a i t h an d hope u n
l ess i t s in c o h eren c e ca n b e d emons t r at e d disso lv in g ex
t h s c ien c e a nd
a
nd
i
t
s
d
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pos
t
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a
l
on
g
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g oodness in a c ommon ruin The ex t in ct ion o f t heis t i c
f a i th i s t he ex t in ct ion of re a son i n m a n
,

ex plan a
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.

3 34

IND E "

ada p tati on 2 0 2 i 2 1 4 III i n di D es i g n i n n at u r e 2 0 2 tf it s re l a

vidua l person al a g en c y m a y b e
ti on t o m a n a n d it s s u pe rh u m a n
re lati ons 2 0 4 ff
u n divi ne or s i n f u l 2 6 2 ff a n d
D e vil 2 6 0
m i r a c l es 2 9 4
C h a l me r s T h om a s on c r e ati on 1 2 7 D i on y s i u s pse u d o 1 6 1
D ivi n a C omme dia 4 6
ff
C h r i s tia n it y a n d P hil osop h y 2 0
D r u mmon d o f H awth o r n d en 3 0 6
D alit y o f th e n it e u n iv e r se 3 0
4 6 6 4 8 3 a n d N at u r al T h eo
l o g y 1 5 7 iii a n d A g nos ti c i sm
i n c omp l e t eness o f thi s V i e w 3 1
D u Bo i s R a ymon d 1 8 1
1 6 1 2 2 8 a n d H e g e lia n i sm 2 2 6
2 4 1 ti a n d m i r ac l e 2 9 1 m a y D u r ati on c omm i n g l es n i t d e a n d
in n it d e 2 3 0 2 3 9 2 5 0
b e n at u ral a n d y e t divi ne 3 0 3
C h rysos t om 1 6 1
C icero 4 6 5 6 202
E
C l ar ke S a m u e l 3 2 8 9 2 2 3
C l emen t 8 3
C o l er id g e 1 8 3 1 8 6
E ne r g y c onser vati on o f 5 3 ff
E t ern al m i n d 3 1 ff 1 2 6 fit d if
C om t e 1 4 2 1 7 7 2 8 8 2 8 9 2 9 0
c u l t i es o f th e id e a
C on d uc t a n d spe cu lati on
3 2 Iii c r e a
ti on 2 0 4
C ons c i en c e a n d f ree d om 1 5 1 a n d
E u c lid 1 6 3 1 8 2
ca u s alit y 2 4 8
C ons c i o u sness t h e l i g ht o f e xi s t E vil a n d th e n al pro b l em 1 1
en c e 6 5 ff 1 4 1 ff m a n s tru e E v o luti on a n d s u dd en C re ati on
2 10
se lf 6 8 a n d or ga n i sm 1 4 0
a n d D es i g n 2 1 8 a n d
P r o gress 2 8 1
C op e r n i cu s 4 9 5 1
C osmo l o g ical p r oo f o f T h e i sm a n E x pe ri en c e th e i s ti c faith p es u p
pose d i n al l p s s im
a lys d
1 8 8 ff
C r e ati on 1 2 5 1 2 7 ii i di s cu sse d b y E x p la n ati on li m it s o f s c i en t i c
1 3 0 if
H u me 1 2 6
C u dw o rth 2 5 9
F
,

F aith a n d A g nos ti c i s m 1 2 0 1 2 4
ff
c osm i c a n d mor al 1 4 5
Dan t e 3 2 1
c osm ic a n d th e i s ti c 1 5 5 ill a n d
D e a th a n d th e n al p r o b l em 1 1
r e a son 1 6 2 ff n l 2 3 2 tf
u n i q u eness o f th e e v en t
a n d s c i en c e 2 3 3 i mp li e d n all y
3 0 6 ff
i n t i p r e vi s i on a n d p r e
3 10
i n all h u m a n kno wl e d g e o f th e
v i s i on o f o u r o w n l f n i s
u n iv e r se 2 3 5 ff 2 5 7 a n d it s
lif e aft er p h ys i c al d e ath 3 1 2
en i g m a 2 4 3 a n d m o ral e vil 2 5 8
d i f
lti s 3 1 4
a n d th e n al
ff 2 6 5
a n d op ti m i sm 2 7 5 a n d
mo r a l pos tulat e 3 1 8 ff
pre vi s i on or e x pe c tati on 3 1 0
D e i sm a n d th e id e a o f G d a s s u b F i c ht e 7 9
s ta n c e 3 4 a n d P a n th e i s m 8 2 ff F r e e d om a n d P erson alit y 2 6 6 ff
D e m o c r it u s 4 3 4 5 7 0
2 6 9 if
D es c art es 6 4 7 0 7 9 8 0
an d
A g nos ti c i sm 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 6 9 a n d
th e t r u s tw or thi ness o f o u r f l
ti es 1 7 5 2 2 3
G iffo rd L e c t u r es 5 ff 1 7 2 2 2 2 6
D

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I ND E"

335

G iffo rd L or d 5 1 6 1 7 2 0 2 4 8 5 I n n it e Q u a n tit y it s s i g n ic a n c e
3
86 3
on s u b st an c e
f or h u m a n kno wl e dg e a n d f a it h
Goe th e o n He g e l s P h il osop h y o f
167
2 1 2 2 1 9 3 a n d He g e l
R e l i g i on 2 0
S p i no z a 9 0
i ni m 2 4 0 3
23 6
I n n it e re al it y th e c on c ern o f p h i l
Gre g ory o f N ian e n 1 6 1
sop h y a n d re l i g i on a s d i s ti n ct
f rom n a tu ral s ci en c e 8 3 c on
i v e d a s s u b s t a n c e 3 4 i re la
H
ti on t o sp a c e ti me s u b s t a n c e
a n d ca u s a l it y 9 2 3 h o w c on
H a r t m a nn 8 1
n
t d with hu m a n exper i en c e
H e ge l 2 6 1 6 5 1 6 9 1 7 7 2 2 2 2 2 4
1 5 8 3 a n d s ucc ess i on
163
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2 26 , 24 0, 3 2 1 , 3 26

He g e l ian i sm 8 1
He ra cl itu s 4 3 1 8 9
Hi ero 1 5 4 1 5 6
H i pp a r chu s 1 4 2
J
es u s 2 3 8 2 9 1
259
ob
H omer 5 0
J
H o m o I ll ens u
it s n a rro w a n d it s
wid e me a n i n g 3 2 6
K
H u me hi s dif cult y ab o ut n a tu r a l
th eo l o g y 9 3 O n re a son a n d K a n t 2 6 q u o t e d b y P ro f essor
r e v e lati on 2 0 hi s tw o f o ld in
H u x l e y 1 0 8 I l l a n d A g nos
hi s
21
ti i m
111
v
t ig t i o n o f r e l i g i on
1 12 169
1 73
1 74
c riti c i sm o f th e id e a o f se lf 2 7
1 8 8 2 06 2 2 3 22 4
3 7 a n d S p i no z a 8 9 q u o t e d b y K ep l er 1 4 2
P ro f essor H uxl ey 1 0 8 I I I a n d
A gnos ti c i sm 1 1 2 3 o n f a ith
L
a n d kno w l e d g e 1 1 4 3 n c u s
t om 1 1 4 n b e l i e f 1 1 5 3 a n d L e i b n i z 1 0 0 2 2 4 2 6 2 2 7 3 2 7 4
Her b e rt S pen c er l l 7 hi s cha r
3 03 3 2 1
L ess i n g 9 0
a c t er a n d re l i g i o u s b e l i e f 1 1 8
o h n 2 0 h i s re c o g n iti on o f
hi s id e a o f exper i en c e 1 1 9 hi s L o ck e J
3
1
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h i s a sser ti on o f th e s e l f e v i d en c e
1 3 4 1 54 1 68 1 9 7 205 206 2 1 1
hi s
o f th e E g 2 6
28
2 5 6 2 5 7 3 2 1 3 2 6 a n d m i r acl es
a cc o u n t o f o u r per c ep ti on o f o ut
295
w a r d thi n g s 2 8 h i s re c o g n iti on
H uxl ey P ro f essor hi s A g nos tici sm
f th e d e p en d en c e o f t h e i n d i
n atu r al cha n g es a n d
107 3 o
v idu al E go u p on G d 3 1 h i s
mor a l a ge n c y 1 4 5
14 8 150
c o u n t i t h e c on c ep ti on o f E t ern l
173
M i n d 3 1 3 h i s m a th em a tic all y
c er t a i n p roo f o f G o d s ex i s t en c e
I
6 9 70 8 9
n s u bs t a n c e
33
a n d A g no s tici s m I l l
92
Id e a li sm 1 5 1 6 0
I mmor talit y 1 2 3 a n d N atu ra l
i sm 3 1 3 3 a n d M e t a p h y s ic s L o t z e on M a t er i al i s m 1 3 6 1 6 9
a n d M o ral R e a son
23 0
3 18
3 16 3
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3
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336

IN D E "

n all y pe rf e c t m o ral t ru s t w o r th i
ness o f th e u n i v e r se o f r e alit y 1 8 4
L uc r e ti u s 4 3 4 6 1 6 8
,

M o r e S ir T h om a s 3 1 0
M ys t e r y en v e l opes m
ad o rati on 1 6 0 3

N
1 18

N atural a n d s u pern at u r al

19

139 3

1 23 , 1 3 1

35

an d

an,

M a c ken z i e H en r y
M al e b r a n c h e 8 9

u n d e r th e m a N atu r al S c i en c e on l y a p a r tial a n d
c on c ep ti on 4 7
58 3
pro vi s i on al i n t e r pre tati on o f th e
sy m b o lic o f th e s u pern at u r al
194
u n iv erse 1 7 1
c a nno t
id e al m a n 1 3 9 3 l n n atu r a l
c on i c t with th e i s ti c faith on
ada p tati on t o th e u n iv erse 2 0 4 3
whi c h b y i mp li c ati on it d epen d s
1 96 249 3
M at er iali sm a n c i en t 4 3 6 4
m o d e r n 4 4 3 it s a n ti c i p ati ons
N at u r al T h eo l o g y 5
16
76
5 8 3 a n d
166
5 2 a n d t e l eo l o g y
mor alit y 5 9
1 4 3 3 a n d N atur a li s m 2 0 0 3 a n d I m mo rtal
it y 3 1 3 3
14 1
re a son 6 0 6 6
th e
pr i m itiv e c on c ep ti on 6 4 7 8
N at u r e a n d mor alit y 3 4 1 4 1 1 4 3
it s pos tul a t es a n d i n c o h eren c e N e o p lat on i s t s 8 1
N ero 2 6 2
M att er d i f u l t i s 2 9
N e wt on 5 1 1 4 2 1 5 0
68 3
i n d es tru c ti b ilit y o f 5 3 til d e i e d N o va li s 9 0
i n M at e riali sm 5 9 pr i m a ry a n d N o vu m O r ga nu m 1 8 5
se c on da ry proper ti es o f 7 0 3
d epen d en t on c ons ci o u s lif e f or it s
r e a li s ati on 7 1 3 a n d e vil 2 6 1
O
M e th o d o f N at u r a l T h eo l o g y 1 6 3
M ilt on
O n t o l o g i c al e v o l u ti on o f T h e i sm
32 1
M i ra c l e 2 9 1 3 a n d C h r i s ti a n it y
2 2 1 3 a s i n He g e l s dial e cti c
2 9 1 a n d C au s alit y 2 9 4 a n d
226 3
P hil osop h y 2 9 4
O p ti m i sm 2 6 2 3 a n d T h e i sm 2 6 4
a n d th e i s ti c
M i r z V i s i on o f 1 2
faith 2 7 5 a n d
M on tai g n e 1 1 2
pro g ress 2 8 1
M o ral e vil 2 4 0 t h s u preme e n O r i g en 8 3 1 6 1
i g m a o f T h e i sm 2 5 3
Ormu zd 2 5 9
3 29
va r i o u s att emp t s at it s e x p l a n a
P
ti on 2 5 9 3 a n d i n divid u al
spons i b ilit y f o r it 2 6 7 2 7 8 it s
u lti mat e i ss u es 3 2 0 3
P ai n a pro b l e m f or T h e i sm 2 5 7
a n o cc a s i on o f sp irit ua l e du ca ti on
M or al r e a son p r e s u pposes th e n al
286
m or al t r u s tw or thi ness o f th e u n i
v erse a n d so m a ke s re a l x p i P a l ey 5 6 1 0 9 2 0 2 2 1 8
P a n th e i sm th e on l y a b so l u t e mon
en c e poss i b l e 1 7 1
1 92 209
it s
re l a ti on t o
i sm 7 8 7 9 3 it s hi s t o ri ca l
2 14
24 7 3
th e n a me
v s
1
T h e i sm 2 4 7 3 a n d i mmo rtalit y
n
t
i
t
a
8
s
e
8
0
p
a n d it s a m b i g uit y 8 1 8 2 D e i sm
3 18 3
a n d T h e i sm 8 2 a n d mor al e x
M o ra l re lati ons an d p ers o n s 2 5 1
M

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338

IND E "

S tirli n g D r H u t c hi son
S t oics 8 1
S u pe r c ons c i o u s 1 5 9 3
,

226

op ti mi s m 2 6 4 a n d h u ma n p r o
gr ess 2 8 1 3
T hi n g s a n d P e r sons c on tra s t e d 1 7 0
,

2 66

T i me a n d ti me l ess i n n it y 9 6 3
T i me r e lati ons a n d en dl essness 2 3 0
To la n d J
oh n 8 1
T uc k e r D e a n 1 5
,

T a rq u i n 2 6 2 2 7 3
T a y l o r I s aa c 3 0 6
Te l eo l o gi ca l i n t erpre t a ti on o f th e
u n iv e r se a n a l yse d 2 0 2 3
Te l eo l o gy i n H e b r e w a n d H e l l en i c
th o u g ht 4 5 3
c ritici se d b y
B ac on 4 7 3 a n d S p i no z a 4 7
9 9 3 i n mo d e r n spe cu lati on
48
5 5 3 ju s t i c a t i o n o f th e
id e a 1 2 4 a n d c ons ta n t c r e ati on
1 2 5 a n d c a u s ati on 1 3 3 3
Tennyson 3 0 6
T hal es 4 3 4 5
T h e i sm i n re l a ti on t o P a n t h e i sm
a n d D e i sm 8 2 3
f al la c i o u s
th e i s ti c a r g u men t 1 0 9 3 re la
ti on t o A th e i sm a n d P a n th e i sm
1 69
K an t s
1 73
l a t en t i n
D es c art es r e c o g n iti on o f th e
tr u s tw o rthi ness o f o ur fa cu lti es
1 7 5 3 lat en t i n M r S pen c e r s
A g nos ti c i s m 1 8 0 p r es u ppose d
i n re a son a b l e hu ma n lif e b e ca u se
t o tal s c ep tici s m it s l o g i c al alt e r
n ative 1 8 5 3 2 7 3 th e b a s i s o f
s ci en ti c proo f 1 8 6
22 1
n all y i n v o lv e d i n c a u s alit y 1 8 8
2 9 8 c a nn o t c on i c t with n a t u ral
s c i en c e whi c h r es t s on it 1 9 6
2 4 9 3 a n d N at u rali sm 2 0 0
it s r e l a ti on t o t h e i ne vi
288 3
t a b l e hu m a n li m it s O i p h ys i ca l
s ci en c e 2 5 2 2 5 3
a n d mo r a l
e vil 2 5 8
265
an d
329
.

Un iv ers al N ien th e alt ern a tiv e

t o T h e i s ti c F aith 1 7 4 1 7 6 3 2 7
Un iv e r s al P o w e r T h e vi r tu a l l y on
spe ak i n g t erms with men i n a n d
th ro u g h th e u n iv e r s al O r d e r a n d
A dap tati on 3 2 8
Un iv e r se T h e
i ns a n e with o ut
di v i ne o rd e r l 5 it s o rd er li ness
th e b a s i s o f h u m a n lif e 1 3 5
n al mo ral tr u s tw o rthi ness o f
or th e i s tic f a ith i n 1 7 2 1 7 5 1 7 7
184
thi s m o ral tru s t no t pro v e d
t o b e i n c ons i s t en t with a m i x tu re
o f p r esen t e vil 2 7 0 2 7 2 2 7 7 2 8 1
es c

ce,
,

V o ltair e

89

W e i s ma nn 2 0 8 2 0 9
W o rd s w o rth 2 8 6 3 0 6
,

P R I NT E D

BY

\V I L L I M I

or oas t e r

BLA( K

259

W O O D A 1\ D S O N S