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object recognition
Bottom-up (data-driven) processing: recognition
of objects by parallel processing and feature
detection. Slower, but less prone to mistakes
top-down (conceptually-driven) processing:
recognition of an object by memories and
expectations, with little attention to detail.
Faster, but more prone to mistakes
gestalt principles: ways that the brain can
infer missing parts of an image when it is
incomplete
UCS
(food)
Neutral
stimulus
(bell)
UCR
No Response
Consciousness
Stage
EEg Waves
features
Awake
Beta and
alpha
Theta
Light sleep
Theta
3/4
Delta
rEM
Mostly
beta
Appears awake
physiologically; dreams;
paralyzed; procedural
memory consolidation; some
sleep disorders
Consciousness-Altering Drugs
Drug addiction is mediated by the mesolimbic
pathway, which includes the nucleus accumbens,
medial forebrain bundle, and ventral tegmental area.
Dopamine is the main neurotransmitter.
Drug group
function
Depressants
(alcohol, barbiturates,
benzodiazepines)
Sense of relaxation
and reduced anxiety
Stimulants
(amphetamines, cocaine,
ecstasy)
Increased arousal
opiates/opioids
(heroin, morphine,
opium, pain pills)
Decreased reaction to
pain; euphoria
hallucinogens
(LSD, peyote, mescaline,
ketamine, psilocybincontaining mushrooms)
Distortions of
reality and fantasy;
introspection
Memory
Stops
Behavior
Continues
Stimulus
Added
Removed
Positive
reinforcement
Negative
reinforcement
Sensory
Memory
Short-term
Memory
(< 1 sec)
(< 1 min)
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
(lifetime)
Explicit
Memory
Implicit
Memory
(conscious)
(unconscious)
Declarative
Memory
Procedural
Memory
(facts, events)
(skills, tasks)
Episodic
Memory
Semantic
Memory
(events, experiences)
(facts, concepts)
Positive
punishment
Negative
punishment
Attention
Selective attention: allows one to pay
attention to a particular stimulus while
determining if additional stimuli require
attention in the background
Divided attention: uses automatic processing to
pay attention to multiple activities at one time
Motivation
CS (bell)
CR (salivation)
Strong
Performance
Impaired performance
because of strong anxiety
Increasing attention
and interest
Weak
High
Low
Arousal
01_MCAT_QS_BehavSci.indd 2
4/10/14 12:03 PM
Emotion
Seven universal emotions: happiness, sadness,
contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, anger
theories of emotion:
first
response
Second
response
Jameslange
Nervous
system
arousal
Conscious
emotion
CannonBard
Nervous
system
arousal and
conscious
emotion
Action
Nervous
system
arousal and
cognitive
appraisal
Conscious
emotion
StIMuluS
theory
PSYChologICAl DISorDErS
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM): the guide by which most psychological disorders
are characterized, described, and diagnosed.
Anxiety disorders
generalized anxiety disorder: constant
disproportionate and persistent worry
Specific phobias: irrational fears of specific
objects
Social anxiety disorder: anxiety due to social
or performance situations
Agoraphobia: fear of places or situations
where it is hard for an individual to escape
Panic disorder: recurrent attacks of intense,
overwhelming fear and sympathetic nervous
system activity with no clear stimulus. It may
lead to agoraphobia.
obsessivecompulsive disorder: obsessions
(persistent, intrusive thoughts and impulses) and
compulsions (repetitive tasks that relieve tension but
cause significant impairment)
Body dysmorphic disorder: unrealistic negative
evaluation of ones appearance or a specific body part
Stress
Dissociative disorders
Dissociative amnesia: inability to recall past
experience. May involve dissociative fugue, a
sudden change in location that can involve the
assumption of a new identity
Dissociative identity disorder: two or more
personalities that take control of behavior
Depersonalization/derealization disorder:
feelings of detachment from the mind and
body, or from the environment
formation of Identity
Personality
SchachterSinger
Conscious
Preconscious
Good health
(homeostasis)
bad stress
2. Resistance
stage
superego
id
3. Exhaustion
stage
1. Alarm
stage
panic zone
Resistance
good health
Unconscious
breakdown
(burnout)
Time
01_MCAT_QS_BehavSci.indd 3
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Culture
Assimilation: one culture begins to melt into
another
Multiculturalism: encouragement of multiple
cultures within a community to enhance
diversity
Subculture: a group that distinguishes itself
from the primary culture to which it belongs
Socialization
Socialization: the process of developing and
spreading norms, customs, and beliefs
Norms: boundaries of acceptable behavior
within society
Stigma: extreme disapproval or dislike
of a person or group based on perceived
differences
Deviance: any violation of norms, rules, or
expectations within a society
Conformity: changing beliefs or behaviors in
order to fit into a group or society
Compliance: individuals change behavior
based on the request of others; techniques
for gaining compliance include foot-in-thedoor, door-in-the-face, lowball, and thatsnot-all
Obedience: change in behavior based on a
command from someone seen as an authority
figure
01_MCAT_QS_BehavSci.indd 4
social interaction
social thinking
Social Behavior
Interpersonal attraction: influenced by
physical, social, and psychological factors
Aggression: behavior with the intention to
cause harm or increase social dominance
Attachment: an emotional bond to another
person; usually refers to the bond between a
child and a caregiver
Altruism: helping behavior in which the
persons intent is to benefit someone else at a
personal cost
Culture
Material culture: physical items one
associates with a given group (art, clothing,
foods, buildings)
Symbolic culture: the ideas associated with a
cultural group
Demographics
Demographics: the statistical arm of sociology
Migration refers to the movement of people into
(immigration) or out of (emigration) a geographical
location.
Demographic transition: a model used to represent
drops in birth and death rates as a result of
industrialization
social stratification
Social Class
Social stratification is based on socioeconomic
status (SES).
Class: a category of people with shared
socioeconomic characteristics
Power: the capacity to influence people
through real or perceived rewards and
punishments
Social capital: the investment people make
in society in return for economic or collective
rewards
Social reproduction: the passing on of
social inequality, especially poverty, to other
generations
Poverty: low SES; in the US, the poverty line is
the governments calculation of the minimum
income requirements to acquire the minimum
necessities of life
Epidemiology
Incidence:
new cases
population - at risk
Prevalence:
per time
per time
total population
Morbidity: the burden or degree of illness associated
with a given disease
Mortality: deaths caused by a given disease
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CARBOHYDRATE STRUCTURE
AND FUNCTION
Carbohydrate Classification
Carbohydrates are organized by their number of
carbon atoms and functional groups.
high-energy
bonds
N
N
ATP
OH OH
DNA Structure
Nucleosides contain a five-carbon sugar bound to a
nitrogenous base; nucleotides are nucleosides with
one to three phosphate groups added.
WatsonCrick Model
Monosaccharides
CH2OH
C
HO
CHO
HO
CHO
OH
HO
HO
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
HO
OH
OH
CH2OH
HO
D-fructose
CHO
OH
CH2OH
D-glucose
CH2OH
D-galactose
CH2OH
D-mannose
Disaccharides
Common disaccharides include sucrose (glucose-1,2-fructose), lactose (galactose--1,4-glucose), and
maltose (glucose--1,4-glucose).
with H1
02_MCAT_QS_Biochem.indd 6
without H1
10 nm
30 nm
Polysaccharides
DNA Replication
O
O
O
O P O P O P O
CH2 O
O
O
O
H2A
H3
H2B
H1
H4
H3
H2A
H2B
expanded view
expanded view of
a nucleosome
H4
Step in
Replication
Prokaryotic
Cells
Eukaryotic
Cells (Nuclei)
Origin of
replication
One per
chromosome
Multiple per
chromosome
Unwinding of
DNA double
helix
Helicase
Helicase
Stabilization
of unwound
template
strands
Singlestranded
DNA-binding
protein
Singlestranded
DNA-binding
protein
Synthesis of
RNA primers
Primase
Primase
Synthesis of
DNA
DNA
polymerase III
DNA
polymerases
and
Removal of RNA
primers
DNA
polymerase I
(5'3'
exonuclease)
RNase H
(5'3'
exonuclease)
Replacement of
RNA with DNA
DNA
polymerase I
DNA
polymerase
Joining of
Okazaki
fragments
DNA ligase
DNA ligase
Removal
of positive
supercoils
ahead of
advancing
replication
forks
DNA
topoisomerase
II (DNA gyrase)
DNA
topoisomerase
II (DNA gyrase)
Synthesis of
telomeres
Not applicable
Telomerase
5
3
ssDNA-binding protein
parent DNA
helicase
Okazaki fragment
primase
5
lagging strand template
4/10/14 12:02 PM
DNA
3'
Membrane Transport
TGA
coding region
3'
5'
promoter
3' untranslated
region (UTR)
5' untranslated
region (UTR)
transcription
terminates
transcription
mRNA
ShineDalgarno
sequence
5'
AUG
GC-rich stem
and loop
UGA
coding region
UUUUUU 3'
5' UTR
3' UTR
translation
H2NproteinCOOH
Posttranscriptional modifications:
7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap added
to 5' end
Polyadenosyl (poly-A) tail added to 3' end
Splicing done by spliceosome; introns
removed and exons ligated together.
Alternative splicing combines different exons
to acquire different gene products.
ATG
+1
TATA
box
35 10
5'
BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES
transcription
A U G C C G U A U G C U
U A CG G C
anticodon
o
Pr
02_MCAT_QS_Biochem.indd 7
Met
transport
proteins
simple
diffusion
facilitated
diffusion
passive transport
energy
(ATP or ion gradient)
active transport
Posttranslational modifications:
Folding by chaperones
Formation of quaternary structure
Cleavage of proteins or signal sequences
Covalent addition of other biomolecules
(phosphorylation, carboxylation, glycosylation,
prenylation)
operator
promoter
structural
regulator
promoter
operator
structural
RNA polymerase
RNA polymerase
R
binds
repressor
repressor
Pro
incoming tRNA
molecules
concentration
gradient
A U G C C G U A U G C U
U A C
cell membrane
= iMRT
Passive transport does not require ATP because the
molecule is moving down its concentration gradient
or from an area of higher concentration to an area of
lower concentration.
Translation
Initiation: AUG
Termination: UAA, UGA, UAG
Redundancy and wobble (third base in the
codon) allow mutations to occur without
affecting the protein.
Transcription
inducer
I
I
R
inducerrepressor
complex cannot bind
to operatorstructural
genes are transcribed
inducible system
R
repressor cannot
bind to operator
by itself
repressorcorepressor
complex binds to
operator and represses
enzyme synthesis
repressible system
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
Glycolysis
Occurs in the cytoplasm of all cells, and does not
require oxygen. Yields 2 ATP per glucose. Important
enzymes include:
Glucokinase: present in the pancreatic -islet
cells as part of the glucose sensor and is
responsive to insulin in the liver
Hexokinase: traps glucose
Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1): rate-limiting
step
Phosphofructokinase-2 (PFK-2): produces
F2,6-BP, which activates PFK-1
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase:
produces NADH
3-phosphoglycerate kinase and
pyruvate kinase: perform substrate-level
phosphorylation
Glucokinase/hexokinase, PFK-1, and pyruvate kinase
catalyze irreversible reactions.
The NADH produced in glycolysis is oxidized
aerobically by the mitochondrial electron transport
chain and anaerobically by cytoplasmic lactate
dehydrogenase.
4/10/14 12:02 PM
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase
Converts pyruvate to acetyl-CoA. Stimulated by
insulin and inhibited by acetyl-CoA.
Pyruvate
Fatty acids
Ketones
Alcohol
Citrate
synthase
Oxaloacetate
Citrate
cis-Aconitase
NADH
Isocitrate
NAD
NAD
Isocitrate
dehydrogenase
Malate
CO2
NADH
Fumarase
-Ketoglutarate
+
Succinate
dehydrogenase
(complex II)
-Ketoglutarate
dehydrogenase
NAD
Fumarate
FADH2
NADH
FAD
Succinate
GTP
Succinyl-CoA
GDP + Pi
CO2
Succinyl-CoA
synthetase
Figure I-13-1. Citric Acid Cycle
The Electron Transport
Chain
2 e
Q
QH2
4H
Fe-S
centers
NADH NAD + H
Q
QH2
2H
2H
FAD
FMN
Fe
Heme
Step 2
Cyt c
(ox)
2H
Fe-S
centers
QH2
Q
1 e
2 H+
Cyt c
(red)
2 H+
c
4 Cyt
(red)
Cyt c
(red)
c
4 Cyt
(ox)
4 e
Cu
Fe
QH2
QH2
Cyt c
(ox)
1 e
4 H + O2
2 H+
Fe
Cu
+
2 H2O 2 H
FADH2
Succinate
Complex I
Fumarate + 2 H+
Complex II
Complex III
Complex IV
Oxidative Phosphorylation
The proton-motive force is the electrochemical gradient
generated by the electron transport chain across the
inner mitochondrial membrane. The intermembrane
space has a higher concentration of protons than the
matrix; this gradient stores energy, which can be used
to form ATP via chemiosmotic coupling.
ATP synthase is the enzyme responsible for generating
ATP from ADP and an inorganic phosphate (Pi ).
Summary of the energy yield of the various
carbohydrate metabolism processes:
Glycolysis: 2 NADH and 2 ATP
Pyruvate dehydrogenase: 1 NADH (2 NADH
per molecule of glucose because each glucose
forms two molecules of pyruvate)
Citric acid cycle: 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 GTP
(6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 GTP per molecule
of glucose)
02_MCAT_QS_Biochem.indd 8
PDH
Acetyl-CoA
Malate
dehydrogenase
Gluconeogenesis
Occurs in both the cytoplasm and mitochondria,
predominantly in the liver. Most of gluconeogenesis
is just the reverse of glycolysis, using the same
enzymes.
The three irreversible steps of glycolysis must be
bypassed by different enzymes:
Pyruvate carboxylase and PEP carboxykinase
bypass pyruvate kinase
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase bypasses
phosphofructokinase-1
Glucose-6-phosphatase bypasses hexokinase/
glucokinase
Intestine
(epithelium)
TGL
CE
TGL
CE
Chylomicron
(lymph)
Chylomicron
(blood)
Adipose
Lipoprotein
lipase
Fatty acids
Glycerol 3-P
TGL
CE
Cholesterol
Chylomicron
remnant
Liver
Triacylglycerol
TGL
chol
Triacylglycerol
VLDL
(blood)
Glucose
Lipoprotein
lipase
Glycerol 3-P
Fatty acids
TGL
chol
IDL
Cholesterol Metabolism
Cholesterol may be obtained through dietary
sources or through synthesis in the liver.
The key enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis is
HMG-CoA reductase.
Palmitic acid, the only fatty acid that humans can
synthesize, is produced in the cytoplasm from
acetyl-CoA transported out of the mitochondria.
Fatty acid oxidation occurs in the mitochondria,
following transport by the carnitine shuttle, via
-oxidation.
Ketone bodies form (ketogenesis) during a
prolonged starvation state due to excess acetyl-CoA
in the liver. Ketolysis regenerates acetyl-CoA for use
as an energy source in peripheral tissues.
Protein Catabolism
Protein digestion occurs primarily in the small
intestine. Carbon skeletons of amino acids are used
for energy, either through gluconeogenesis or ketone
body formation. Amino groups are fed into the urea
cycle for excretion.
Glycogen
synthesis
Lipid
synthesis
Insulin
Glucagon
Cellular glucose
uptake
Glycogenolysis
Plasma glucose
Protein
synthesis
Glucose efflux
Glucose
utilization
Lipolysis
Stimulates
Inhibits
Protein
catabolism
Ureagenesis
Gluconeogenesis
Ketogenesis
Tissue-Specific Metabolism
Liver: maintains blood glucose through
glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.
Processes lipids, cholesterol, bile, urea, and
toxins.
Adipose: stores and releases lipids
Resting muscle: conserves carbohydrates as
glycogen and uses free fatty acids for fuel
Active muscle: may use anaerobic
metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation, direct
phosphorylation (creatine phosphate), or fatty
acid oxidation
Cardiac muscle: uses fatty acid oxidation
Brain: uses glucose except in prolonged
starvation, when it can use ketolysis
4/10/14 12:02 PM
Hormone
Follicle-stimulating (FSH)
Luteinizing (LH)
Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH)
Thyroid-stimulating (TSH)
Anterior pituitary
Prolactin
Endorphins
Growth hormone
Oxytocin
Action
Stimulates follicle maturation; spermatogenesis
Stimulates ovulation; testosterone synthesis
Stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete
glucocorticoids
Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid
Nervous system, epidermis, lens
Ectoderm
hormones
eye, inner ear
Attractoderm
Stimulates milk production andofsecretion
Inhibits the perception of pain in
the brain
Lining
of digestive tract, lungs,
Endoderm
Stimulates bone
and muscle growth/lipolysis
liver and pancreas
Endernal
organs
Stimulates uterine contractionsMuscles,
during labor,
skeleton, circulatory
Mesoderm
milk secretion during lactation system, gonads, kidney
Meansoderm
day 14
LH surge
follicle
LH
day 0
corpus luteum
GnRH
ruptures-egg released
(ovulation)
no pregnancy
pr e
gn
pr ogesterone
pituitary
an
cy
early in cycle
(prevents multiple
egg development)
FSH
later in
cycle
maintains
uterine wall
hCG
(LH analog)
ovary
Resting Potential:
Rest
Hydrolysis
Reaction All gates closed
Depolarization
Na+ gates open
Salivary amylase
Action Potential:
Repolarization
Na+ gates inactivate
Salivary glands
Mouth
Starch
maltose
(ptyalin)
K+ gates open
Stimulus acts on the neuron, depolarizing the
Pancreatic amylase
Pancreas
Small intestine IV Starch
maltose
Hyperpolarization
All gates closed
Maltase
Intestinal
glands
Small
intestine
Maltose 2 glucoses
membrane of the cell body
Sucrase
Intestinal glands
Small intestine
Sucrose glucose, fructose
Blood
RBC
Antibodies
Donates
Receives
Lactase
Intestinal glands
Small intestine
Lactose glucose, galactose
type
antigen
to:
From:
Impulse Propagation:
A
A
anti-B
A, O
axon A, AB
+ rushing into axon) followed
Depolarization (Na
Enzyme
Production Site Function SiteB
Function
B
anti-A
B, AB
B, O
+
Gastric glands
rushing out of axon) along
by repolarization (K
Stomach AB Hydrolyzes
peptide bonds AB only
Pepsin
A, B specific None
All
(chief
cells)
the nerve axon
O
None
anti-A, B
All
O only
Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
Trypsin
Converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin
Enzyme
The Synapse:
Chymotrypsin
Production Site
Pancreas Enzyme
Function Site
I
II
III
Production
Site peptide
Function
action
Hydrolyzes
specific
bonds Site
Hydrolysis Reaction
Initiation:
Depolarization of a neuron leads to an action
potential.
Sarcomere shortening:
Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+.
Ca2+ binds to troponin on the actin filament.
Tropomyosin shifts, exposing myosin-binding sites.
Myosin binds, ATPase activity allows myosin to
pull thin filaments towards the center of the
H zone, and then ATP causes dissociation.
actin filament
tropomyosin
troponin
potential
At the synaptic knob, voltage-gated Ca2+
Small
+
+
+
+
+
+
Carboxypeptidases
Salivary amylase
2+ into the cell.
Salivary glands
Mouth
Hydrolyzes
terminal peptide
bond at C-terminus Starch maltose
channels open, sending Ca
Intestine
(ptyalin)
+
+
A and B
calcium
+ Ca2+
Na
myosin binding site
Vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane
bond
at N-terminus
+ terminal
+
Pancreatic amylase Hydrolyzes
Pancreas
Small
intestine
Starch
maltose
Aminopeptidase
peptide
glands
of amino
+ Small
+
+
+
+
+
sending the neurotransmitter across the
Maltase
Intestinal
intestine
2 glucoses
Maltose
Intestinal glands
Dipeptidases
Hydrolyzes
pairs
acids
Sucrase
Intestinaltrypsinogen
glands to trypsin
Small intestine
Sucrose glucose, fructose
synapticEnteropeptidase
cleft.
Converts
Lactase
Intestinal glands
Small intestine
Lactose glucose, galactose
Neurotransmitter binds to receptors on
action
Relaxation:
K
the postsynaptic membrane, triggering
potential
Table 1
Site
+
+
+
+
+ Site
+
Enzyme
Production
Function
Function
Ca2+ is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic
depolarization.
Surface Colony Growth
Starch
Digestion
Gastric
glands
+
+
Stomach
Hydrolyzes
specific
peptide bonds
Pepsin
reticulum.
Na
A
B
C (chiefAcells)
C+ +
B
Strain 1 +
+
+
+ +
+ Hydrolyzes
+
+
+
specific peptide bonds
Bone Formation and Remodeling
K
Strain 2 +Trypsin +
+
+
+Intestine
terminal
peptide bond at C-terminus
Reformation: inorganic ions are absorbed from
A and B
+
+
+
+
Surface
Colony Growth Deep-Agar Colony Growth
NaHydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at N-terminus
the blood for use in bone
Aminopeptidase
+
+
+
+
Intestinal glands
Dipeptidases
pairs
of amino acids
Degradation (resorption): inorganic ions are
+
+
+ +
Hydrolyzes
Strain 1
+
K
Enteropeptidase
Converts trypsinogen to trypsin
released into the blood
Strain 2
+
+
key: + = growth; = no growth
Table 1
Surface Colony Growth Starch Digestion
03_MCAT_QS_Biology.indd 10
4/10/14 12:05 PM
A
B
C
A
B
C
+
CIRCULATION
Circulatory Pathway Through Heart
pulmonary veins
L. pulmonary artery
aorta
L. atrium
mitral valve
R. pulmonary artery
IMMUNE SYSTEM
Respiration
L. ventricle
superior vena cava
R. atrium
inferior vena cava
septum
tricuspid Valve R. ventricle
Fetal Circulation
Foramen ovale: connects right and left atria
Ductus arteriosus:Nervous
connects
pulmonary
artery
system,
epidermis,
lens
Ectoderm
to aorta. Along with
foramen
of eye,
inner ovale,
ear shunts
Attractoderm
blood away from lungs
Lining of digestive tract, lungs,
Endoderm
umbilical vein
Ductus
venosus: connects
liver and pancreas
Endernal
organs
to inferior vena cava,
connecting
Muscles,
skeleton,umbilical
circulatory
Mesoderm
circulation to central
circulation
system,
gonads, kidney
Meansoderm
Gas Exchange
posterior pituitary
Thyroid
Thyroid
Parathyroid
Stimulates
reabsorption
Stimulates water
metabolic
activity in kidneys
Nonspecific
Immune
Response
Decreases
(tones
down)
blood calcium
level
Stimulates metabolic activity
Increases blood
calcium
level
Decreases
(tones
down)
blood calcium
level cilia, macrophages,
Includes
skin,
passages
lined
with
Increases blood
blood calcium
glucose level
level and decreases
Increases
inflammatory
response,
and interferons (proteins that
protein
synthesis;
anti-inflammatory
Increases
blood glucose
level and decreases
Increases
water reabsorption
kidneys
help synthesis;
prevent
the
spreadin of
a virus)
protein
anti-inflammatory
Increases
kidneys
Increases water
blood reabsorption
glucose levelinand
heart rate
% saturation of hemoglobin
Parathyroid
Source
Action
HormoneBlood Components
Adrenal cortex
Glucocorticoids
Mineralocorticoids
Stimulates follicle maturation; spermatogenesis
Follicle-stimulating (FSH)
Adrenal
cortex
Plasma: aqueous mix of nutrients, wastes,
Mineralocorticoids
Stimulates ovulation; testosterone synthesis
Luteinizing (LH)
Epinephrine, Norepinephrine
Adrenal medulla
hormones, blood proteins, gases, and salts
Stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete
Epinephrine, Norepinephrine
Adrenal medulla
Increases
blood
glucose
and heart
rate in
Lymphatic
System
Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH)
Stimulates
conversion
of level
glycogen
to glucose
glucocorticoids
carry oxygen
Erythrocytes (red blood cells):
Glucagon
the
liver;
increases
blood
glucose
Stimulates
conversion
of
glycogen
to
glucose
in
Lymph
vessels
meet
at
the
thoracic
duct in the
Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid
Anterior pituitary
Pancreas
pharynx
oral cavity Glucagon
Insulin
Hemoglobin: four subunits carry O2 and CO2.
Lowers
glucose;
increases
glycogen
stores into the left
Thyroid-stimulating (TSH)
the liver;blood
increases
blood
glucose
upper
chest
and
neck,
draining
hormones
Pancreas
tongueInsulin
Somatostatin
Supresses
secretion
glucagon glycogen
and insulinstores
Iron controls binding and
releasing.
Lowers
blood
glucose;ofincreases
subclavian
vein of the cardiovascular
system.
Stimulates milk production and secretion
Prolactin
Testosterone trachea
Testes
Maintains male
secondary
sexualand
characteristics
Somatostatin
Supresses
secretion
of glucagon
insulin
Oxygenhemoglobin
dissociation:
Inhibits
the
perception
of
pain
in
the
brain
Vessels
carry lymph
(excess
interstitial
Endorphins
Estrogen
Maintains
female
secondary
sexualcharacteristics
characteristics
Testosterone
Testes
Maintains
male
secondary
sexual
Ovary/Placenta
esophagus
Stimulates bone and muscle growth/lipolysis
100
Growth hormone Factors leading to right
and lacteals
collect
fats by absorbing
Progesterone
Promotesfluid),
growth/maintenance
of endometrium
Estrogen
Maintains
female
secondary
sexual
characteristics
Ovary/Placenta
Stimulates
uterine
contractions
during
labor,
Melatonin
Pineal
Regulateschylomicrons
sleepwake cycles
in the
small intestine.
Progesterone
Promotes
growth/maintenance
of endometrium
shift of curve:Hypothalamus;
Oxytocin
80
milk secretion during lactation
osmoregulation
and vasodilation
Atrial natriuretic peptide
Heart
Involved
Melatonin
Pineal
Regulates
sleepwake
cycles
nodes
are
in
Lymph
swellings along the vessels
stored in
Temperature
Antidiuretic (ADH,
Thymosin
Thymus
Stimulates
T-cell
development
Atrial
natriuretic peptide
Heart
Involved
in
osmoregulation
andcells
vasodilation
posterior pituitary 60Stimulates water reabsorption in kidneys
with
phagocytic
(leukocytes); they
vasopressin)
Thymosin
Thymus
Stimulates T-cell development
Bohr Effect
remove
foreign
particles
from lymph.
40
Thyroid hormones (T3, T4)
Stimulates metabolic activity
stomach
Thyroid
I
Rest
All gates closed
pH, PCO
Calcitonin
Decreases (tones down) blood calcium level liver
+
pancreas
2
20
Depolarization
Nagates
gates
open
Lipid
Digestion
III
Rest
All
closed
Parathyroid hormone
Parathyroid
Increases blood calcium level
gallbladder
curve shifts to the RIGHT
O2 release to
Repolarization
Na++ gates
gates open
inactivate
IIIII
Na
colon Depolarization
Increases blood
level and decreases
pH shiftsglucose
DOWN
When
chyme is present, the duodenum secretes
Glucocorticoids
+
0
K +gates
duodenum
tissuesAdrenal
enhanced
40
60anti-inflammatory
80
100
protein20synthesis;
cortex
III
Repolarization
Na
gatesopen
inactivate
PO (mmHg)
theopen
hormone cholecystokinin (CCK) into the blood.
small intestine
IV
Hyperpolarization
gates
closed
Mineralocorticoids
Increases water reabsorption in kidneys
when H+
KAll+ gates
CCK
stimulates the secretion of pancreatic
IV
Hyperpolarization
All
gates
closed
[ H+level
]: and heart rate
allosterically
to Hb.Increases
PCO leads
Epinephrine, Norepinephrine
Adrenalbinds
medulla
blood to
glucose
2
enzymesReceives
and bile, and promotes satiety.
Blood
RBC
Antibodies
Donates
carbonic
Stimulates conversion of glycogen to glucose in
type rectumRBC
antigen
to: Bile is made
From:in the liver and emulsifies fat in
anhydrase
Blood
Antibodies
Donates
Receives
Glucagon
the
liver;
increases
blood
glucose
anus
+
A
A
anti-B
A, ABthe smallFrom:
A,intestine;
O
CO2 + H2Pancreas
O H2CO3 H + HCO3
type
antigen
to:
its not an enzyme.
Insulin
Lowers blood glucose; increases glycogen stores
anti-A
B, AB
AB
B, O
O
AB
AB
anti-B
A,
A,
Lipase
is
an
enzyme made in the pancreas
Somatostatin
Supresses
secretion
of
glucagon
and
insulin
Leukocytes (white blood cells): function in immunity
AB
A,
B
None
AB
only
All
B
B
anti-A
B, AB
B, O
Testosterone
Testes
Maintains male secondary sexual characteristics
that hydrolyzes
O
None
anti-A, B
All only
O only lipids in the small intestine.
AB
A,
B
None
AB
All
Platelets: clotting
Estrogen
Maintains female secondary sexual characteristics
Ovary/Placenta
O
None
anti-A, B
All
O only
Carbohydrate
Digestion
Progesterone
Promotes growth/maintenance
Platelets release thromboplastin,
which (along of endometrium
Melatonin
Pineal
sleepwake cycles
Hydrolysis Reaction
Enzyme
Production Site
Function Site
with cofactors
calcium Regulates
and vitamin
K) converts
Atrial natriuretic peptide
Heart
Involved in osmoregulation and vasodilation
Hydrolysis Reaction
Enzyme
Production Site
Function Site
inactive prothrombin
toStimulates
active thrombin.
Salivary amylase
Thymosin
Thymus
T-cell development
Salivary glands
Mouth
Starch maltose
(ptyalin) amylase
Thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin, which
Salivary
Salivary
Mouth
Starch
Pancreatic amylase
Pancreasglands
Small intestine
Starch
maltose
maltose
(ptyalin)
surrounds blood cells to form the clot.
I
Rest
All gates closed
Maltase amylase
Intestinal glands
maltose
2 glucoses
Maltose
Pancreatic
Pancreas
Small
intestine
Starch
II
Depolarization
Na+ gates open
Sucrase
2glucose,
Sucrose
Maltase
Intestinal glands
Small intestine
glucosesfructose
Maltose
III
Repolarization
Na+ gates inactivate
Blood Typing
Lactase
Lactose glucose,
Sucrase
Intestinal glands
Small intestine
glucose,galactose
fructose
Sucrose
K+ gates open
Antigens IV
are located
on the surface
of red
blood
Lactase
Intestinal glands
Small intestine
Lactose glucose, galactose
Hyperpolarization
All gates
closed
Protein
DigestionProduction Site Function Site
cells.
Enzyme
Function
Gastric glands
Production
Site Function
StomachSite Hydrolyzes specificFunction
peptide bonds
PepsiEnzyme
n
Blood
RBC
Antibodies
Donates
Receives
(chief cells)
Gastric
glands
type
antigen
to:
From:
Stomach
Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
Pepsin
(chief cells)
Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
Trypsin
A
A
anti-B
A, AB
A, O
Converts chymotrypsinogen
to chymotrypsin
Hydrolyzes
specific peptide bonds
B
B
anti-A
B, AB
B, O
Trypsin
Converts
chymotrypsinogen
to
chymotrypsin
Pancreas
Chymotrypsin
Hydrolyzes
specific
peptide
bonds
AB
A, B
None
AB only
All
Small
Pancreas
O
None
anti-A, B
All
O only
Chymotrypsin
Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
Carboxypeptidases
Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at C-terminus
Intestine
Small
A and B
Carboxypeptidases
Blood cells with Rh factor are Rh+; these individuals
Hydrolyzes
Intestine
Aminopeptidase
Hydrolyzes terminal
terminal peptide
peptide bond
bond at
at C-terminus
N-terminus
A and B
blood cells lack
produce
no anti-Rh
RhSite
Hydrolysis Reaction
Enzyme
Production
Site antibody.
Function
Intestinal glands
Dipeptidases
pairs of amino
Aminopeptidase
Hydrolyzes terminal
peptideacids
bond at N-terminus
the antigen; these individuals produce an antibody
Enteropeptidase
Converts trypsinogen
to trypsin
Salivary amylase
Intestinal glands
Dipeptidases
Hydrolyzes
pairs of amino
acids
Salivary glands
Mouth
Starch maltose
if exposed.
(ptyalin)
Enteropeptidase
Converts trypsinogen to trypsin
Pancreatic amylase
Pancreas
Small intestine
Starch maltose
Table 1
Maltase
Intestinal glands
Small intestine
Maltose 2 glucoses
TableGrowth
1
Surface Colony
Starch Digestion
Sucrase
Intestinal glands
Small intestine
Sucrose glucose, fructose
A
B
C
A
BDigestion
C
Surface
Colony
Growth
Starch
Lactase
Intestinal glands
Small intestine
Lactose glucose, galactose
35
25
03_MCAT_QS_Biology.indd 11
Strain 1
A+
B+
+
C
4/10/14 12:05 PM
Attractoderm
Endoderm
Endernal organs
Mesoderm
Meansoderm
CLASSICAL GENETICS
MOLECULAR GENETICS
Source
Hormone
Ectoderm
Attractoderm
Endoderm
Endernal organs
Mesoderm
Meansoderm
GENETICS
Action
OF PROKARYOTIC CELLS
Source
Action
Hormone
Law of segregation: Homologous alleles
Many bacteria contain plasmids, or extragenomic
Nucleic
Stimulates follicle maturation; spermatogenesis
Follicle-stimulating
(FSH) Acids
Stimulates follicle maturation; spermatogenesis
Follicle-stimulating (FSH)
(chromosomes) separate so that each gamete has
material. Plasmids that can be integrated into the
Stimulates
ovulation;
testosterone
synthesis
Luteinizing (LH)
Stimulates ovulation; testosterone synthesis
Basic unit: nucleotide (sugar, nitrogenous Luteinizing (LH)
one copy of each gene.
genome are known as episomes.
Stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete
Stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete
base, phosphate)
Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH)
Adrenocorticotropic
(ACTH)
glucocorticoids
glucocorticoids
If both parents are Rr, the alleles separate
Transformation occurs when a bacterium
DNAs sugar: deoxyribose; RNAs sugar: ribose
Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid
Anterior pituitary
Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid
Anterior pituitary
to give a genotypic ratio of 1:2:1 and a Thyroid-stimulating (TSH)
Thyroid-stimulating (TSH)
acquires a piece of genetic material from
hormones
hormones
2 types of bases: double-ringed purines
phenotypic ratio of 3:1.
the environment and integrates that
Stimulates milk production and secretion
Prolactin
Stimulates milk production and
secretion
Prolactin
(adenine, guanine) and single-ringed
Inhibits the perception of pain in the brain
Endorphins
piece of genetic material into the host
Inhibits
the
perception
of
pain
in
the
brain
Endorphins
Law of independent assortment: Alleles of unlinked
pyrimidines (cytosine, uracil, thymine)
Stimulates bone and muscle growth/lipolysis
Growth hormone
cell genome. This is a common method
Stimulates bone and muscle growth/lipolysis
Growth hormone
genes assort independently in meiosis.
DNA double helix: antiparallel strands joined
Stimulates uterine contractions during labor,
Oxytocin
Hypothalamus;
by which antibiotic resistance can be
Stimulates
uterine
contractions
during
labor,
milk
secretion during lactation
Given
recombination
frequencies
Mutations
III
8
Z
X and Y: 8%
X and Z: 12%
Y and Z: 4%
8
12
12
8
12
Patterns of
Inheritance
Enzyme
Salivary amylase
Repolarization
A
B
AB
Viruses
O
A
B
A, B
None
anti-B
anti-A
None
anti-A, B
A, AB
B, AB
AB only
All
Blood
RBC
type bacterium antigen
genome
A
A
bacteriophage
B
B
lysis of
bacterial cell,
A, B
release of AB
viral progenyO
None
A, O
B, O
Enzyme
All
O only Salivary amylase
Antibodies
anti-B
anti-A
None
viral
genome B
anti-A,
enters bacterium
Donates
to:
release of prophage
A, AB
B, AB
AB only
All
lytic cycle
lysogenic cycle
Production Site
Receives
From:
A, O
B, O integrated prophage
with
All replicates
bacterial cell
O only
Salivary glands
replication of
progeny assembly
viral chromosome
Pancreas
Intestinal glands
Intestinal glands
Intestinal glands
Function Site
may enter
lysogenic
cycle
Hydrolysis Reaction
prophage integrates
Mouth
Starch maltose
Small intestineprophage
Small intestine
Small intestine
Small intestine
Starch maltose
Maltose 2 glucoses
Sucrose glucose, fructose
Lactose glucose, galactose
may enter
lytic cycle
Strain
2 on
+ the +agar surface
+ and +lower
down
both
Enteropeptidase for surface colony growth and Converts
trypsinogen
to trypsin growth
stained
with iodine
key: + = growth; = no growth
p = frequency of dominant allele
within the oxygen-poor agar layer.
solution to determine the extent of starch digestion.
q = frequency of recessive allele
p2 = frequency of dominant homozygotes
2pq = frequency of heterozygotes
q2 = frequency of recessive homozygotes
Strain 1
Strain 2
Table 1
Surface Colony Growth Starch Digestion
A
B
C
A
B
C
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Table 2
Surface Colony Growth
Strain 1
Strain 2
+
+
key: + = growth; = no growth
Table 2
Once incubated, bacteria will grow if nutrients they can metabolize are available. Keep this in mind as you interpret the procedure and results.
Surface Colony Growth Deep-Agar Colony Growth
Experiment 1 and Table 1: What are the important aspects? Two strains (1 and 2) Experiment 2 and Table 2: Note the significant differences between the two
Strain
1 Look at Table 1,
+
undergo identical incubation on 3 plates with different starch
agars.
experiments. This time, the strains were separately distributed within the agar
one strain at a time. The researcher observes growth and starch digestion. Strain 1 grows
instead of jointly
streaked on top of multiple agars. The researcher observes
Strain 2
+
+
key: + = growth;
= on
no growth
on all plates, but doesnt digest the starch: it must be using another nutrient to grow. We
growth
top and within, the assumption being that the top is oxygen-rich and
dont know that Strain 1 cant digest starchwe just know that its not digesting it in the within is oxygen-poor. What does it mean that Strain 1 only grows in an oxygen-rich
first 48 hours. Strain 2 uses starch to grow on plates A and B, but doesnt digest starch environment? It is an obligate aerobe that requires oxygen for metabolism. What
or grow on plate C. Again, we dont know that Strain 2 cant digest the starch in medium does it mean that Strain 2 can grow in oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor environments?
Cwe just know its not doing so in the first 48 hours.
It is a facultative anaerobe.
03_MCAT_QS_Biology.indd 12
4/10/14 12:05 PM
Example
Geometric Arrangement
of Electron Pairs around
the Central Atom
Angle between
Electron Pairs
Shape
Efficiency of Reactions
Eauncatalyzed
uncatalyzed
free energy
Regions of
Electron Density
Eacatalyzed
catalyzed
free energy
reaction coordinate
Eaforward
Eareverse
H2 + Cl2
Kc =
cC + dD
aA + bB
2 HCl
reaction coordinate
Intermolecular Forces
1.
Cl
+ H
Cl
+ H
3.
Cl
04_MCAT_QS_GenChem.indd 14
asymmetrical
distribution
electron
nucleus
+
[A] [B]
2.
[C] [D]
THERMOCHEMISTRY
The law of conservation of energy dictates that
energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but that
all thermal, chemical, potential, and kinetic energies
are interconvertible.
Systems:
Isolated: no exchange of energy/matter with the
environment. Bomb calorimetry creates a nearly
isolated system.
Closed: can exchange energy but not matter with the
environment
Open: can exchange both energy and matter with
the environment. Human beings are open systems
because they can take in energy and matter (eat),
release matter into the environment (respiration,
urination, defecation), and release energy into the
environment (heat transfer from the skin and mucous
membranes).
4/10/14 12:06 PM
System processes:
Isothermal: temperature of system remains constant
Adiabatic: no heat exchange occurs
Isobaric: pressure of system remains constant
Isovolumetric (isochoric): volume remains constant
Heat: the transfer of thermal energy from one object
to another.
Endothermic: reactions that absorb heat energy
Exothermic: reactions that release heat energy
endothermic
Boyles Law
PV = k or P1V1 = P2V2
exothermic
Charless Law
heat
heat
heat
V1
V2
V
= k or
=
T1
T2
T
Gay-Lussacs Law
P
P
P
= k or 1 = 2
T
T1
T2
heat
n1
n2
n
= k or
=
V1
V2
V
PV = nRT
Real Gases
where XA =
n A (moles of A)
n T (total moles)
Avogadros Principle
K=
urms =
(3RMT )
pressure
heat
liquid
solid
critical
point
triple
point
gas
temperature
Q=
04_MCAT_QS_GenChem.indd 15
[C] [D]
[A] [B]
4/10/14 12:06 PM
= MRT
temperature (C)
100
heat used to vaporize water to
water vapor
75
Galvanic Cells
50
heating of water
25
pH = log[H+] = log(
1
+
[H ]
-25
Osmotic pressure
[OH ]
H+ (aq) + OH (aq)
H2O (l)
Kw = [H+][OH] = 1014
pH + pOH = 14
Grahams law of diffusion and effusion
Diffusion: occurs when gas molecules distribute
through a volume by random motion
Effusion: the flow of gas particles under pressure
from one compartment to another through a small
opening:
Ka =
Kb =
[H3O ][A ]
[HA]
[B ][OH ]
[BOH]
r1
1
=2
r2
m
2
m1
SOLUTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Mass of solute
=
100%
Mass of solution
# of molofcompound
100%
Mole fraction:
total# of molesinsystem
# of molofsolute
Molarity:
literofsolution
Titration is
a procedure
used to
determine the
molarity of an
acid or base
by reacting a
known volume
of a solution
of unknown
concentration
with a known
volume of
a solution
of known
concentration.
The halfequivalence
point defines
pH = pKa
B A S IC
HendersonHasselbalch equation:
is used to estimate the pH of a
solution in the buffer region where the
concentrations of the species and its
conjugate are present in approximately
equal concentrations
[conjugate base]
[weak acid]
Molality: #ofmolofsolute
kgofsolvent
pH = pKa + log
#ofgramequivalentweightsofsolute
Normality:
literofsolution
04_MCAT_QS_GenChem.indd 16
Electrolytic Cells
Units of Concentration
Percent composition by mass:
[conjugate acid]
[weak base]
3
3
3
4
A C ID IC
4/10/14 12:06 PM
ORGANIC OXIDATIONREDUCTION
Level 0 (no bonds to heteroatoms): alkanes
Level 1: alcohols, alkyl halides, amines
Level 2: aldehydes, ketones, imines
Level 3: carboxylic acids, anhydrides, esters,
amides
Level 4 (four bonds to heteroatoms): carbon
dioxide
Reducing Agents
Oxidation
PCC takes a primary alcohol to an aldehyde.
PCC
OH
HBr
OH2+
Br
Br
H2O
Ubiquinones
Synthesis
Oxidation of primary alcohols
Ozonolysis of alkenes
Reactions
O
NaI
+
I
ClSO2
SO3
+
R
+ Base
R
H
Nu
Nu
Aldol condensation
An aldehyde acts both as nucleophile (enol form)
and electrophile (keto form). One carbonyl forms an
enolate, which attacks the other carbonyl. After the
aldol is formed, a dehydration reaction results in an
,-unsaturated carbonyl.
O (reacts in
O
C
R
OH
catalytic H
protonated
form)
C
CH3
C
CH2
H
O
enol
H2O
C
CH2
H
aldol addition product
C
C
R
H
aldol condensation
product
R
Decarboxylation
O
H 2O
+
cat. H
OH
OH
H+
Nu
O
LiAIH4
O
H
LiAIH4
O
R
OH
H:Base
OH
LiAlH4
or
NaBH4
Base
R
cat. H+
OH
HO
1,4-benzoquinone
Na2Cr 2O7
p-benzenediol
(hydroquinone)
Reduction
OH+2
OH
Br
H2SO4
Reactions
+H+
Aldehydes
OH
Alcohols
Synthesis
H+
H2SO4
OH
Oxidizing Agents
Good oxidizing agents have a high affinity for
electrons (such as O2, O3, and Cl2) or unusually high
oxidation states (like Mn7+ in permanganate, MnO4,
and Cr6+ in chromate, CrO42).
OH
Na2Cr2O7
OH
OH
tosyl chloride
OH
05_MCAT_QS_OChem.indd 18
4/10/14 12:08 PM
Carboxylic Acids
Carboxylic acids have pKa values around 4.5 due
to resonance stabilization of the conjugate base.
Electronegative atoms increase acidity with inductive
effects. Boiling point is higher than alcohols because
of the ability to form two hydrogen bonds.
Synthesis
KMnO 4
OH
O
CH3Cl
CH3COH + NH+4
CH3CN
Reactions
Formation of soap by reacting carboxylic acids with
NaOH; arrange in micelles
O
+
NH3
+
NH2
O
O
+
H3N
Hydrolysis of nitriles
Amides
O
+
O
OH
H2N
Anhydrides
Synthesis via dehydration of two carboxylic acids
O
ONa +
nonpolar tail
polar head
O
OH
Reduction to an amine
+ H2O
OH
O
LiAlH4
NH2
phthalic anhydride
ortho-phthalic acid
NH2
Esters
Transesterification
Reduction to alcohols
Nitrogen-Containing Compounds
Hydrolysis
H2O
O
H +
Strecker Synthesis
Decarboxylation
O
H3O
NH3
O
NH+3
NH2
CN
H2O
H2N
H2N
H2O
H2N
OH
H2N
R
N
O
H
-lactam
N
O
H
-lactam
H2O
H2N
05_MCAT_QS_OChem.indd 19
O
+
CO2C2H5
H
CO2C2H5
CO2C2H5
N
SN2
H
CO2C2H5
base
potassium
phthalimide
CO2H
C
H
CO2
H3O ,
CO2
O
H2N
CO2
CO2C2H5
NaOH
H2O,
O Na+
HO
RC
O Na+ + HO
HO
O
O
RC
O Na+
soap
glycerol
CO2C2H5
C
CO2C2H5
(HPO2
4 ) and dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO4).
,
which
is
released
Pyrophosphate (PPi) is P2O4
7
during the formation of phosphodiester bonds
in DNA. Pyrophosphate is unstable in aqueous
solution, and is hydrolyzed to form two
molecules of inorganic phosphate.
4
O
O
diethyl
bromomalonate
H3N
NaOH
RC
PHOSPHORUS-CONTAINING COMPOUNDS
OH
O
O
triacylglycerol
N K + Br
OH
NH 2
NH2
OH
OH
H2 N
Lactones
OH+
H2N
N
O
H
-lactam
OH+2
NH3
O
N
H
-lactam
H2N
RC
RC
OH
OH
proton
transfer
OH
NH+3
OH
proton
transfer
Lactams
+
OH
LAH
O
NH
+OH
H2O
OH+2
NH+
Saponification
+
RC
N
O
+
OH 2
OH
NH2
NH+2
OH
OH
proton
transfer
+
O
Reduction
NH+3
H
OH
OH
+ OH
N
O
CO2C2H5
RBr
SN2
P
O
P
O
4/10/14 12:08 PM
Spectroscopy
Purification Methods
Extraction separates dissolved substances based
on differential solubility in aqueous vs. organic
solvents.
Functional Group
Alkanes
thermometer
Alkenes
condenser
vacuum adapter
clamp
clamp
water inlet
receiving flask
ice bath
heat source
vacuum distillation
1200
3080 3140
1645
Alkynes
2200
Aromatic
3300
2900 3100
C
C
C
1475 1625
Alcohols
3100 3500
H (broad)
Ethers
1050 1150
Aldehydes
2700 2900
(O)C
1700 1750
to vacuum source
water outlet
distilling flask
Vibration
2800 3000
Ketones
1700 1750
Carboxylic acids
1700 1750
2800 3200
H (broad)
3100 3500
H (sharp)
Amines
Column
Column packing
residue
filter paper
to vacuum trap
RCH3
RCH2
R3CH
CH=CH
CCH
ArH
CHX
CHOH/CHOR
RCHO
RCHCO
CHCOOH/CHCOOR
CHOHCH2OH
ArOH
COOH
NH2
glass projection to
hold up packing
Hb
Ha
deshielding
Cl
Cl
shielding
Hb
Hb
TMS
filtrate
a
vacuum filtration
fractional distillation
X
1
thin-layer chromatograms
solvent
sand
silica or alumina
sand
glass wool or cotton
stopcock to control flow
Rf = X
Y
05_MCAT_QS_OChem.indd 20
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
(ppm)
Type of
Chromatography
Mobile Phase
Stationary Phase
Common Use
Thin-layer or Paper
Nonpolar solvent
Polar card
Identify a sample
Reverse-phase
Polar solvent
Nonpolar card
Identify a sample
Column
Nonpolar solvent
Ion-exchange
Nonpolar solvent
Size-exclusion
Nonpolar solvent
Affinity
Nonpolar solvent
Gas (GC)
Inert gas
High-performance
liquid (HPLC)
Nonpolar solvent
collection flask
column chromatography
8.0
4/10/14 12:08 PM
Specific gravity =
circUitS
eLectroStAticS
kg
m
Density () =
[SI units: 3 ]
V
m
coulombs Law
subtance
kg
[no units]; water = 103 3
water
m
+q1
q2
Weight = gV
F=
kq1q2
r
electric Field
field lines
Archimedes Principle
Fbuoy = fluid gVsubmerged
N
3
6
1
N
3
U = qV = qEd =
6
1
Series circuits
Is
3
b
5V
c
d
Fe
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 +
IT = I1 = I2 = I3 =
Ip
Fe=qE
I1
I2
I3
In
Rp R 1
R2
R3
Rn
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + ...
Req R1 R2 R3
VT = V1 = V2 = V3 = ...
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + ...
Ip
electrical Potential
The amount of work required to move a positive test
charge q from infinity to a particular point divided by
U
2
P = IV = V = I2R
capacitors
V
C' =
Cp C1
C3
Cn
load
A2
d2
d1
electron pump
F1
A1
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + ...
Parallel circuits
Pascals Principle
1.
kQq
[SI units: J]
r
electric Dipoles
3 N displaced
Kirchhoffs laws:
2.
circuit Laws
+V
Q
U = 1 QV = 1 CV 2 = 1
2
2 C
kQ
J
W
Voltage (V) = q =
[SI units: volt = ]
r
C
F2
C1
Capacitors in series:
add as reciprocals,
then take reciprocal
of sum
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ ...
C eq
C1 C2 C3
C2
Cs
C3
C4
F
F
P = 1 = 2 and A1d1 = A2d2
A1
A2
so, W = F1d1 = F2d2
06_MCAT_QS_PhysMath.indd 22
4/10/14 12:09 PM
WAVeS
oPticS
Describing Waves
Converging lenses
refraction
c
m
n = (speed of light = 3 108 )
S
v
Longitudinal wave
f>0
Transverse wave
n
n
Wave formulas
1
T
Diverging lenses
Diffraction
v =
Standing Waves
A
N
= 2L
N
A
=L
Open pipes
= 2L (n = 1, 2, 3)
n
nv
=
(n = 1, 2, 3)
2L
L =
2
L=
3
L =
2
a sin = n (n = 1, 2, 3)
Spherical Mirrors
optics equation: 1 + 1 = 1 = 1
o
f>0
L = 5
SoUnD
Sound propagates through a deformable medium by
the oscillation of particles parallel to the direction of
the waves propagation.
f<0
P
W
[SI units: 2 ]
A
m
I
I
0
Doppler effect
When a source and a detector move relative
to one another, the perceived frequency of
the sound received differs from the actual
frequency emitted even though the source
velocity and frequency is unchanged.
f = f
(v v D )
(v v S )
Stationary source: vs = 0
Stationary detector: vD = 0
E = hf =
hc
L = 3
4
Photoelectric effect
K = hf W
L =
Closed pipes
4L
=
(n = 1, 3, 5)
n
nv
=
(n = 1, 3, 5)
4L
= 2L
i
0
Magnification (m) =
exponential Decay
Half-life
n = noet
Alpha decay
238U 234Th + 4He
92
90
2
Beta-minus decay
137 Cs 137Ba + 0 e +
ve
55
56
1
Beta-plus decay
22Na 22Ne + 0 e+ + v
11
10
+1
e
percentage of radioactive nuclei remaining
Strings
= 2L (n = 1, 2, 3)
n
nv
=
(n = 1, 2, 3)
2L
intensity (I ) =
f<0
100
50
25
12.5
6.25
3.125
1.5625
number of half-lives
06_MCAT_QS_PhysMath.indd 23
4/10/14 12:09 PM
MAtHeMAticS
DAtA AnALySiS
estimation
Scientific notation: A method of simplifying
calculations by reducing numbers to a significand
between one and ten and the exponent power of ten:
0.0000037 = 3.7 106. Allows estimation by powers
of ten, which is often all that is necessary on the MCAT.
Multiplication: If you round one number up, round
the other down to compensate.
Division: If you round one number up, round the
other up to compensate.
x2
x2
x2
x2
36
11
121
16
256
49
12
144
17
289
64
13
169
18
324
16
81
14
196
19
361
25
10
100
15
225
20
400
log x =
log (n
In x
2.303
10m)
error Sources
Small sample size: amplifies the effects of
statistical anomalies
Defects in precision and accuracy: create
random or systematic variations in the data
m + 0.n
68%
45
30
Probability
Mutually exclusive: two events that cannot
occur together
independent: the probability of either event is
not affected by the occurrence of the other
For independent events:
P(A and B) = P(A) P(B)
Probability is usually expressed as a percent, but all
math should be completed using decimals.
Statistical testing
2
1
60
1
45
1
opposite
hypotenuse
adjacent
cos =
hypotenuse
opposite
tan =
adjacent
sin =
Q
PQ P
Q
Q
P+Q
2.4%
13.5%
34%
34%
13.5%
+1
+2
2.4%
0.15%
+3
ethics
Beneficence: the requirement to do good
nonmaleficence: do no harm
Autonomy: the right of individuals to make
decisions for themselves
Justice: the need to consider only morally
relevant differences between patients and to
distribute healthcare resources fairly
generalizability
Statistical significance and causality do not make
something generalizable or a good intervention.
clinical significance and the target population must
also be considered.
1000
km
minus 299,000
s
0.15%
Speed of light
med x
99.7%
trigonometry
x med
95%
positively skewed
Question Selection
1
= log A
A
log
reSeArcH DeSign
log
negatively skewed
causality
900
800
true speed
700
Experiment No.
06_MCAT_QS_PhysMath.indd 24
4/10/14 12:09 PM