APPLIED PHYSICS LETTERS 94, 103505 2009

Smart Sanda wide bandwidth vibration energy harvesting platform

Bozidar Marinkovic and Hur Kosera
Department of Electrical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA

Received 29 November 2008; accepted 14 February 2009; published online 10 March 2009
We propose a concept for true wide bandwidth vibration energy harvesting. Our approach exploits
nonlinear stretching of fixed-fixed beams in an off-resonance mode, effectively expanding the
operational frequency range well beyond the narrow bandwidth of linear resonators. Our initial
prototype demonstrates operation between 160400 Hz, without the need for frequency tuning. A
simple dynamic model shows good agreement with measurements. Optimized device geometry will
allow for even lower frequency operation starting at 60 Hz at strain levels above 1e-3 ideal for
piezoelectric transduction. 2009 American Institute of Physics. DOI: 10.1063/1.3097207
Harvesting power from the environment is an attractive
alternative to battery-operated systems, especially for longterm, low-power sensing applications.19 Vibration energy
harvesting, among other methods, to realize robust, lowpower, and self-sustaining systems has been pursued on both
macro-24 and microscales57 in recent years. The approach is
practical especially where mechanical vibrations from infrastructures or vehicles are abundant.8 However, conventional
vibration energy harvesters are designed as linear resonant
structures with narrow operating bandwidths e.g., Fig. 1a,
rendering them impractical when deployed in a real world
environment with stochastic or varying vibration spectra. Recent attempts to extend the operational bandwidth of resonant harvestersthrough additional hardware or continuous
active resonance tuning4,5have made only small gains in
bandwidth using linear system dynamics.
Here, we propose an alternative concept for largedeflection based i.e., nonlinear vibration energy harvesters
that can be used specifically to realize self-powered sensor
nodes. Unlike conventional vibration-to-electric conversion
systems, these piezoelectric-based microscale devices will
not require any design customization, mechanical trimming,
or resonance tuning. This substantial advantage is obtained
simply because our devices are designed to operate offresonance Fig. 1bwith the target minimum proof mass
deflection being equal to the input vibration amplitude.
Moreover, instead of relying on cantilevers that bend to generate strain energy localized only near their base Fig. 1c,
we utilize fixed-fixed thin beams that get stretched by large
deflections, generating optimal strain from a much larger surface area over the actuator Fig. 1d. This approach will
allow effective and practical energy harvesting at low frequencies using microscale devices. Correspondingly, the vibration energy harvesters utilizing proposed mechanical
platformnamed here as Smart Sand for its eventual
small volumeoffer a potential for substantial increase in
energy density over linear resonant harvesters.
In this letter, we present a model and experimental verification for the nonlinear mechanical behavior of the Smart
Sand platform. We later augment this model to include electrical power generation through a piezoelectric transducer,
and demonstrate the wide-bandwidth energy harvesting capability of the platform.
a

Electronic mail: hur.koser@yale.edu.

0003-6951/2009/9410/103505/3/$25.00

Proposed device consists of four very thin fixed-fixed

beams, or tethers, arranged compactly to support a large
proof mass in the center Fig. 1b inset. We analyzed
the nonlinear dynamics of this device using the lumpedelement modeling approach10 modified according to recent
literature.11,12 The resulting model is a mass-spring-dashpot
system, as depicted in Eq. 1 and illustrated as inset in
Fig. 2a.
m

dx
d2y
d 2x
+ kx = 1m 2 .
2 +b
dt
dt
dt

Here, y is the input vibration, x is the displacement of the

proof mass m, b is the overall damping coefficient, and k is
the nonlinear, position-dependent spring constant of the tethers. The correction factor 1 is a measure of the quality of
the lumped-element model, and depends on the ratio of the
proof mass to the distributed modal mass of the tethers. This
factor is virtually unity in our case where the proof mass is
over two orders of magnitude heavier than the tethers.11,12

FIG. 1. Color online a A traditional resonant structure such as the one

depicted here, with a 8000 200 10 m3 cantilever and a proof mass of
1.6 104 gr, corresponding to 50 Hz fundamental resonance has a narrow
bandwidth. b Our device is designed to operate off-resonance, resulting in
a wide operational bandwidth starting at a critical frequency f c. c The
strain along a linear structure depicted here for the structure in a is
significant only at its resonance and close to its fixed end. d Stretching
dominates the strain along the tethers of our device length L = 2300 m,
width W = 125 m, and height H = 5 m, providing uniform strain from
almost the entire beam surface.

94, 103505-1

2009 American Institute of Physics

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103505-2

B. Marinkovic and H. Koser

FIG. 2. Color online a The nonlinear relationship between proof mass

deflection and restoring force in tethers shown here for W = 125 m, H
= 5 m, L varied arises from spring stiffening as the tethers are stretched.
Inset: A simple lumped-element model with nonlinear spring. b Experimental and simulated response match very well for the prototype device
L = 2300 m, W = 125 m, and H = 5 m, silicon proof mass m = 9.3
103 gr for width Wmass = 2500 m and thickness Hmass = 500 m under
constant amplitude vibrations 50 m. The device enters its operational
range at a critical frequency f c of 160 Hz. Inset: Top view of a fabricated
prototype depicted here without its packaging.

The nonlinearity in k arises when the proof mass deflection is

comparable to, or larger than, the thickness of the tethers,
resulting in stretching in addition to bending.10 Smart Sand is
designed specifically to exploit this stretching-dominated behavior. We used a three-dimensional 3D nonlinear finite
element analysis program COMSOL, Burlington, MA, USA
to model the stretching in silicon tethers Fig. 2a. Notice
that the symmetric tether geometry of proposed device balances stretching in each tether and eliminates any proof mass
twist within the surface plane. Any out-of-plane tilting of the
proof mass that may be present also leads to symmetric
stretching of the tethers, complementing the intended operation of device see Supplementary Information13 for more
detailed analysis. We implemented Eq. 1 as a dynamic
model within Simulink Mathworks, Natick, MA, USA. The
model employs a Monte Carlo method to capture the multiple steady-state solutions that exist at a given frequency for
different initial conditions.
To test our model, we have built prototype devices on a
silicon-on-insulator substrate,13 with a 5 m thick top device layer forming the tethers Fig. 2b inset. This approach
allows for excellent uniformity of tether thickness across the
whole wafer. The packaging of the device includes travel
limiters, designed to ensure that deflection amplitudes remain below critical values for silicon structural integrity at
tether anchor points, and piezoelectric material integrity in
the middle section.
We measured device dynamics using a custom-built
shaker based on a voice coil actuator NCM0205005
4JBA, H2W Tech, Valencia, CA, USA, driven with a power
amplifier PLX1804, QSC Inc., Costa Mesa, CA, USA, and
controlled by a function generator 33220A, Agilent Inc.,
Santa Clara, CA, USA at different sinusoidal frequencies. A
noncontact laser vibrometer OFV-5000, Polytec Inc., Waldbronn, Germany characterized deflections many times at
each frequency to capture all the steady-states associated
with different initial conditions. Figure 2b compares experimental and theoretical results without any fitting parameters. The simple dynamic model explains the measured
data well, even through multiple steady states at each given
frequency. Small discrepancies are most likely due to the
out-of-plane vibration of the 3D mechanical structure, a case
not considered in the lumped-element analysis. Regardless,
proof mass deflections first exceeded the desired target

Appl. Phys. Lett. 94, 103505 2009

FIG. 3. Color online a Increasing tether length lowers f c to 40 Hz simulated for vibrations with 50 m deflections but reduces strain levels on the
tether. Here, we observe a broadening of the main resonance, in addition to
the off-resonance operation. b Very thin tethers L = 2000 m, W
= 125 m, and H = 0.1 m are required to achieve the target 1 millistrain
for input deflections of 100 m 1 g at 50 Hz at low frequencies. A pure
silicon proof mass m = 9.3 103 gr moves f c to about 110 Hz; a partially
tungsten proof mass m = 54.3 103 gr for the same dimensions lowers it
to 60 Hz.

input vibration amplitudeat 160 Hz f c in Fig. 2b and

remained at or above that target for all higher frequencies
measured up to 400 Hz.
Combined eventually with piezoelectric thin films covering the central 80% of the tethers as in Fig. 1d, this
device would generate electrical energy from vibrations in a
wide bandwidth. However, the vast majority of largeamplitude vibrations in the ambient are present at frequencies below 100 Hz.3 Getting f c to start below 100 Hz requires
more compliant tethers and/or a larger proof mass; using
longer tethers within the Smart Sand geometry achieves both
Fig. 3a. Such a larger device would operate with a f c of
40 Hz, though with reduced strain on its tethers, ultimately
diminishing its energy density.
Alternatively, tethers with a smaller cross-sectional area
will result in the same stretching strain under a smaller inertial load, achieving a lower f c dynamically. For a given
length of tether, reducing its width lowers the active piezoelectric film area. Therefore, minimizing the cross section
without sacrificing energy density requires thinner tethers.
However, for very thin silicon tethers, the piezoelectric film
on their surface will dominate tether compliance. Figure 3b
shows the simulated frequency response of such a device
with either a silicon or a partially tungsten proof mass.
With the heavier mass, a f c of 60 Hz is achieved. A bonus
advantage of very thin silicon tethers is a further increase in
stretching strain uniformity13 up to 95% of tether length for
the thin tether device whose frequency spectrum is depicted
in Fig. 3b.
Using published properties of a sol-gel deposited lead
zirconium titanate14 PZT, we developed a model that
combines the mechanical concepts of Smart Sand with a
simple electrical circuit through a detailed transduction
mechanism.13 This model captures both forward electrical
power generation, as well as the nonlinear feedback that the
electrical domain has on mechanical oscillations.15 Based on
this model, Fig. 4a depicts how electrical loading alters the
dynamic mechanical behavior in the presence of deflection
limiters. Figure 4b illustrates wide-bandwidth power generation starting at 60 Hz. According to our findings, energy
harvesters based on the Smart Sand platform will have at
least 25 W / cm3 of average power density across their entire operational bandwidth.
In summary, we report a mechanical platform that realizes a true broadband vibration energy harvester. We have

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103505-3

Appl. Phys. Lett. 94, 103505 2009

B. Marinkovic and H. Koser

Ultimately, power management circuitry, low-power sensors,

and wireless communication could be implemented on the
large silicon area of the Smart Sand proof mass, resulting in
truly integrated and microscale wireless sensor nodes.
The authors gratefully acknowledge support from the
National Science Foundation Grant No. ECCS-0601630
and the Office of Naval Research Grant No. N00014-09-010197.
1

FIG. 4. Color online a Adding a piezoelectric transducer PZT to the

Smart Sand model slightly alters the mechanical response of the device due
to the additional electromechanical coupling. For a device optimized for
large strain L = 2000 m, W = 125 m, H = 0.1 m, and m = 54.3
103 gr, we observe small changes in mechanical strain when load resistance is changed from zero to RL = 9.5 M optimum load at 60 Hzsee
Supplementary Information Ref. 13. In both cases, the target 1 millistrain
is achieved at a critical frequency of 60 Hz for vibration amplitude of
100 m. In this simulation, deflection limiters are included to limit maximum strain levels below the fracture strain of PZT. b With a fully packaged Smart Sand volume of 0.01 cm3, the average power generation with
a load resistance of 9.5 M is 25 W / cm3 at 60 Hz and above
100 W / cm3 for frequencies beyond 100 Hz.

demonstrated a theoretical model that agrees well with experiments from initial prototypes, and have shown that it is
possible to optimize operational bandwidth for either large
displacement or large strain at low frequencies. Stretching, as
opposed to bending, enables almost the entire surface of the
tether to be used for active piezoelectric energy conversion.

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