Environment

Contents
1 Introduction To Environment
1.1 What is Environment? . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Abiotic Components . . . . . .
1.1.2 Biotic Components . . . . . . .
1.1.3 What is Natural Environment?
1.2 Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Human Environment . . . . . .
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2 Introduction to Ecology
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Evolution Of The Discipline . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 The Basis Of Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Levels of Ecological Organisation . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1 Study of Levels of ecological organization
2.5 Habitat and Organism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6 Niche and Organism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7 Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7.1 Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7.2 Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8 Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.9 Species Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.9.1 Extinction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.10 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.11 Communities and their Characteristics . . . . . .
2.11.1 Organization of a biotic community . . .
2.11.2 Stratification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.11.3 Succession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.11.4 Stages of succession . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.11.5 The Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.11.6 Types Of Successions . . . . . . . . . . .
2.11.7 Primary succession . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.11.8 Secondary succession . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.12 Biotic Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.12.1 Types Of Interactions . . . . . . . . . . .
2.13 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.14 Practice Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Contents
Banking Awareness
3 Ecosystem
3.0.1 Ecological Succession . . . . . . . . . . .
3.0.2 Nutrient Cycling . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.0.3 Ecosystem Services . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.0.4 Energy Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.0.5 Food Chain and Food Web . . . . . . .
3.0.6 What happens further up the food web?
3.1 Energy Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 The Water Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2 The Carbon Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4 Climate-Change
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Causes of Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 The role of human activity . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Solar Irradiance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Consequences of Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Vital Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1 Global Warming Vs Climate Change . . . . . .
4.4.2 Weather Vs Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.3 Is Sun Responsible For Global Warming? . . .
4.4.4 Is it too late to prevent Climate Change? . . .
4.4.5 Is the Ozone hole causing the Climate Change?
4.4.6 Do Scientists agree on climate change? . . . . .
4.4.7 Greenhouse gas and Temperature Levels . . . .
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Chapter
Introduction To Environment
1.1
What is Environment?
bon dioxide. Rest are inert gases (0.93% Argon,

Neon etc).
Every living organism is constantly interacting with

its environment comprised of air, light, water, land
or substratum and the various kinds of living organisms. The environment may be defined as the surroundings or conditions in which an organism lives
or operates. It is a combination of natural and human made phenomena. While the natural environment refers to both biotic and abiotic conditions
existing on the earth, human environment reveals
the activities, creations and interactions among human beings.
5. Substratum Organisms may be terrestrial or

aquatic. Land is covered by soil and a wide variety of microbes, protozoa, fungi and small animals (invertebrates) thrive in it. Roots of plants
pierce through the soil to tap water and nutrients. Terrestrial animals live on land. Aquatic
plants, animals and microbes live in fresh water
as well as in the sea. Some microbes live even
in hot water vents under the sea.
1.1.2
1.1.1
Abiotic Components
Biotic Components
1. Green Plants Prepare food through photosynthesis for all living organisms.
1. Light Sunlight provides energy. Green plants

utilize sun light for photosynthesis for synthesizing food for themselves as well as all other
living organisms.
2. Animals Individuals of the same species occur in a particular type of habitat. They also
live with other species. One species forms food
for another. Micro-organisms and fungi decompose dead plants and animals releasing nutrients
locked in bodies of dead organisms for reuse by
the growing plants.
2. Rainfall Water is essential for all living beings.

Majority of biochemical reactions take place in
an aqueous medium. Water helps to regulate
body temperature. Further, water bodies form
the habitat for many aquatic plants and animals.
Living organisms, therefore, need both abiotic

and biotic components of the environment for
survival. A delicately balanced relationship between living organisms and their environment is
critically important for their survival.
3. Temperature Temperature is a critical factor

of the environment which greatly influences survival of organisms. Organisms can tolerate only
a certain range of temperature and humidity.
1.1.3
What is Natural Environment?
4. Atmosphere - The earths atmosphere is made Land, water, air, plants and animals comprise the
of 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen and 0.038% car- natural environment.
3
Introduction To Environment
Lithosphere
Lithosphere is the solid crust or the hard top layer
of the earth. It is made up of rocks and minerals
and covered by a thin layer of soil. It is an irregular
surface with various landforms such as mountains,
plateaus, plains, valleys, etc. Landforms are found
over the continents and also on the ocean floors.
Lithosphere is the domain that provides us forests,
grasslands for grazing, land for agriculture and human settlements.
Banking Awareness
est, grassland, desert, mountains, lake, river, ocean

and even a small pond.
1.2.1
Human Environment
Human beings interact with the environment and

modify it according to their need. Early humans
adapted themselves to the natural surroundings.
They led a simple life and fulfilled their requirements
from the nature around them. With time needs grew
and became more varied. Humans learn new ways
to use and change environment. They learn to grow
crops, domesticate animals and lead a settled life.
Hydrosphere
The wheel was invented, surplus food was produced,
The domain of water is referred to as hydrosphere. barter system emerged, trade started and commerce
It comprises various sources of water and different developed. Industrial revolution enabled large scale
types of water bodies like rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, production. Transportation became faster. Inforetc. It is essential for all living organisms.
mation revolution made communication easier and
speedy across the world.
Atmosphere
The atmosphere is the thin layer of air that surrounds the earth. The gravitational force of the
earth holds the atmosphere around it. It protects
us from the harmful rays and scorching heat of the
sun. It consists of a number of gases, dust and water vapour. The changes in the atmosphere produce
changes in the weather and climate.
Biosphere
Plant and animal kingdom together make biosphere
or the living world. It is a narrow zone of the earth
where land, water and air interact with each other
to support life.
1.2
Ecosystem
All plants, animals and human beings depend on

their immediate surroundings. It includes all of the
living things (plants, animals and organisms) in a
given area, interacting with each other, and also with
their non-living environments (weather, earth, sun,
soil, climate, atmosphere). Often they are also interdependent on each other. This relation between the
living organisms, as well as the relation between the
organisms and their surroundings form an ecosystem. There could be an ecosystem of large rain for-
Chapter
Introduction to Ecology
2.1
Introduction
exist. The basic principles of ecology are:
Ecology is a discipline focused on studying the inter1. Everything is connected with everything else
actions between organisms (plants, human and mi2. Everything must go some where
crobes) and their environment. Or simply, it can be
said as a study of animal and plants in their rela3. Nature knows best
tions to each other and to their environment. The
emphasis is on relationships between organisms and
4. Everything we do has an effect
the components of the environment namely abiotic
(non-living) and biotic (living).
Ecology has been variously defined by scientists
as Scientific Natural History", The Study Of Bi- 2.4 Levels of Ecological Organisation
otic Communities", or The Science Of Community
Ecology not only deals with the study of the relationPopulation".
ship of individual organisms with their environment,
but also with the study of populations, communities,
2.2 Evolution Of The Discipline
ecosystems, biomes, and biosphere as a whole (See
Fig. 2.4)
The word ecology derived from the Greek word
Oikos meaning habitation, and logos meaning dis2.4.1 Study of Levels of ecological orgacourse or study, implies a study of the habitations of
nization
organisms. Ecology was first described as a separate
field of knowledge in 1866 by the German Zoologist
1. Organisms (individual): The basic unit of
Ernst Haeckel, who invented the word Ecology for
study
the relation of the animal to its organic as well as
2. Population: A group of organisms consisting
its inorganic environment, particularly its friendly
of a number of different populations that live in
or hostile relations to those animals or plants with
defined area and interact with each other.
which it comes in contact.
2.3
3. Community: A group of organisms consisting

of a number of different species that live in an
area and interact with each other
The Basis Of Ecology
The environment encompasses everything that is

around us. Not just other living things but the nonliving components like air, water and rocks. Ecology
is the study of the complex inter-relationships that
4. Ecosystem: A communities of organisms and

their physical environment, interacting as an
ecological unit.
5
Banking Awareness
Figure 2.1: Levels of ecological organization

5. Biome: A large community unit, characterized by a major vegetation type and associated
fauna, found in a specific climatic region is a
biome. Biomes refer basically to terrestrial areas. The aquatic systems like the seas, rivers
etc. are also divided into distinct life zones on
basis of salinity.
2.5
Habitat and Organism

Figure 2.2: Structural components of a habitat
Habitat is the physical environment in which an organism lives. Each organism has particular requirements for its survival and lives where the environment provides for those needs. The environmental requirement of an elephant would be a forest.
You would not expect an elephant in the ocean nor
would you expect a whale in the forest? A habitat
may support many different species having similar
requirements. For example, a single ocean habitat
may support a whale, a sea-horse, seal, phytoplankton and many other kinds of organisms. The various species sharing a habitat thus have the same
address. Forest, ocean, river etc. are examples of

habitat.
The features of the habitat can be represented by
its structural components namely (1) space (2) food
(3) water (4) and cover or shelter (Fig. 4.2). Earth
has four major habitats-(1) Terrestrial (2) Freshwater (3) Estuarine (Where rivers meet the ocean) and
(4) Ocean. The human gut is the habitat of a tapeworm and the rotting log a habitat of a fungus.
Dr. JP Publications
2.6
Niche and Organism
In nature, many species occupy the same habitat

but they perform different functions. The functional
characteristics of a species in its habitat is referred
to as niche" in that common habitat. Habitat of
a species is like its address (i.e. where it lives)
whereas niche can be thought of as its profession"
(i.e. activities and responses specific to the species).
The term niche means the sum of all the activities
and relationships of a species by which it uses the
resources in its habitat for its survival and reproduction.
A niche is unique for a species while many species
share the habitat. No two species in a habitat can
have the same niche. This is because if two species
occupy the same niche they will compete with one
another until one is displaced. For example, a large
number of different species of insects may be pests
of the same plant but they can co-exist as they feed
on different parts of the same plant as seen in (Fig.
2.3).
Another example is the vegetation of the forest.
The forest can support a large number of plant
species as they occupy different niches: the tall trees,
the short trees, shrubs, bushes and grasses are all
part of the forest but because of varying heights they
differ in their requirements for sunlight and nutrients
Figure 2.3: Different species of insects feeding on
and so can survive together (Fig.
The most important resources in the niches of an- different parts of the same plant
imals are food and shelter while in case of plants,
they are moisture and nutrients (phosphorous and
nitrogen). Fig. 2.5 shows the niche of human beings.
2.7
Adaptation
Every organism is suited to live in its particular habitat. You know that the coconuts cannot grow in
a desert while a camel cannot survive in an ocean.
Each organism is adapted to its particular environment. An adaptation is thus, the appearance or
behaviour or structure or mode of life of an organism that allows it to survive in a particular environment". Presence of gills and fins are exam- Figure 2.4: The three species of warbler birds search
ples of adaptation in fishes to aquatic habitat. In for insects as food in the forest at different levels in
aquatic flowering plants absence of wood formation the tree and so occupy different niches
and highly reduced root system are adaptations to
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Figure 2.6: Adaptation in the types of beaks in birds:

The beaks of different birds are adopted for feeding
on different kinds of food
aquatic environment. Adaptations that can be observed in structure (Fig.2.6) or behaviour or physiology of an organism. Adaptations have genetic basis and have been produced and perfected through
evolution. This means that the adaptations have
developed over many generations to help a species
survive successfully in its environment. Examples of
basic adaptations that help animals and plants to
survive in their respective environments.
Shape of birds beak.
The thickness or thinness of fur.
Presence of feathers and wings in birds.
Evergreen and deciduous nature of trees.
Presence and absence of thorns on leaves and
stems.
Figure 2.5: The ecological niche of human being
2.7.1
Species
A species is defined as a group of similar populations of organisms whose members are capable of
interbreeding, and to produce fertile offspring (children)". A tiger, a lion, a lotus and a rose are examples of different species. Every species has a scientific name, understood by people of all over the
world. Humans belong to species of Homo sapiens.
Only members of the same species can interbreed to
produce fertile offspring. Every species has its own
set of genetic characteristics that makes the species
unique and different from other species.
Dr. JP Publications
1. Organisms tend to produce more off springs

that can be supported by the environment.
2. Mutation (a change in genetic material that results from an error in replication of DNA) causes
new genes to arise in a population. Further, in
a sexually reproducing population, meiosis and
fertilization produce new combination of genes
every generation, which is termed recombination. Thus members of the same species show
variation and are not exactly identical. Variations are heritable.
Figure 2.7: The populations of these four types of
dogs look different but all are capable of breeding
among themselves and capable of producing fertile
offspring. All four belong to same species Canis lupus.
2.7.2
Variation
However, species are generally composed of a number of distinct populations which freely interbreed
even though they appear to be different in appearance.
Difference in colour of skin, type of hair; curly or
straight, eye colour, blood type among different ethnic groups represent variation within human species.
Similarly, different shape and size of cows, dogs and
cats etc. are examples of variation with in each of
these species (Fig. 2.7). In plants, tall and short pea
varieties, various shape and size of brinjals exhibit
variation among these plant species. Variations are
produced as a result of chance mutation. Competition and natural selection determines as to which
variation will succeed and survive. Those variations
that enable a species to survive in the struggle for
existence are encouraged and promoted.
In plants one can observe wide variation in size
and shapes of mangoes, brinjals etc.
2.8
Evolution
A valid theory of evolution was propounded by

Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace in 1859. This
theory has been extended in the light of progress in
genetics and is known as Neo-Darwinism. It has the
following features:
3. An evolutionary force which Darwin termed

natural selection, selects among variations i.e.
genes that help the organism to adopt to its environment. Such genes are reproduced more in
a population due to natural selection.
4. Those offspring which are suited to their immediate environment have a better chance of surviving, reaching reproductive age and passing
on the suitable adaptations to their progeny.
5. Evolution thus results in adaptation and diversity of the species.
2.9
Species Formation
The number of species surviving in the world today

is the outcome of two processes- speciation and extinction.
Speciation is the process by which new species are
formed and evolution is the mechanism by which speciation is brought about.
A species comprises of many populations. Often
different populations of a species remain isolated due
to some geographic barrier such as mountain, ocean,
river, etc. Geographic isolation occurs when a physical barrier develops between two populations of a
species as you can see in fig. 2.8. The most common way a population undergoes speciation is by
geographic isolation.
The members of a population of a species live
in a particular environment and are capable of
breeding with the member of another population of the same species.
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Figure 2.8: Process of natural selection

The population then becomes separated into
two completely isolated populations by a barrier which prevents their interbreeding and gene
exchange. The isolating mechanism may be
a physical barrier like water, mountain, ocean
represent geographical isolation.
Ecological isolation caused by differences in
temperature, humidity, pH etc. in the environment of the two populations.
Reproductive isolation caused by interference
in interbreeding between members of different
populations of species i.e. species. When two
populations of a species are unable to interbreed
due to reproductive barrier.
Reproductive isolation may occurs due to any
one or more of the following reasons:
1. When two different populations become
sexually receptive at different times of the
year. For example a population of frogs
that breeds in May is effectively isolated
from one that breeds in July, though both
populations may occur in the same area.
2. Members of different populations are not

attracted by courtship behaviour towards
one another.
3. Pollination mechanism fails, between flowers of two populations.
4. Cross fertilization is prevented as sex organs of different populations of a species
do not match.
Mutations occur randomly in isolated populations giving rise to new variation within each
sub-population of these mutations those that
help to adapt to the environment are reproduced in greater numbers in the next generation
due to natural selection.
In other words since no two environments are
identical, natural selection pressures that occur
on each separate sub-population are different,
depending on local conditions such as climate,
disease, predators etc. Natural selection affects
each sub-population differently and so different variations caused by nutrition or recombination in different sub-populations get established. With the passage of time, the sub populations become more and more different from
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Figure 2.10: (a) Fossil of fern plant. (b) Fossil fish
2.9.1
Figure 2.9: The Kaibab squirrel of the north rim

and the Abert squirrel of the south rim had common
ancestors
each other.
After a long period of time, the sub-populations
become very different and get isolated, reproductively, i.e. they no longer interbreed.
Later even when the barrier is removed the subpopulations are unable to interbreed and thus
subsequently the sub-populations become two
different species.
An example of formation of new species
A current example of speciation can be seen in the
two species of squirrels Kaibab squirrels and Abert
squirrels that live on opposite sides of the Grand
Canyon. Biologists assume that the two squirrel
populations became separate species when about one
million years ago, the Colorado river changed its
course, splitting the original population of squirrels
into two. Since the environment on opposite sides of
the canyon is different, different characteristics were
favoured on each side of the canyon, by natural selection. After many years of separation, the genetic
differences between the populations became so large
that the two squirrel populations became two separate species. They look different and can no longer
interbreed (Fig 2.9).
Extinction
Ever since life evolved on earth, new species better

suited or adapted to the environment have appeared
and older less successful forms have died or become
extinct. Extinction is generally a natural occurrence.
It means the dying out of a variety of or a species.
The primary reason for these extinctions is environmental change or biological competition. Extinction
occurs when species cannot evolve fast enough to
cope with the changes taking place in their environment. (Fig. 2.10). Many species have gone extinct
during geological history of the earth. Fossils are,
the preserved remains of animals, plants, and other
organisms that lived in the geological past.
Extinction may take place due to catastrophic natural phenomena such as tsunami, volcanoes etc. In
recent time, human activities such as deportation,
over exploitation, environmental pollution and environmental change are other factors responsible for
extinction. Deforestation for expansion of industries and human settlements has promoted economic
growth but at the same time it has resulted in habitat loss for many wild plants and animals. Pollution
has killed many an aquatic species.
2.10
Population
Population is defined as a group of freely interbreeding individuals of the same species present in a
specific area at a given time. For example, when we
say that the population of a city is 50,000, we mean
that there are 50,000 humans in that city. However,
all populations of humans living in any part of the
world constitute the species Homo sapiens.
A population has traits of its own which are different from those of the individuals forming the population. An individual is born and dies but a population
continues. It may change in size depending on birth
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and death rates of the population. An individual is

either female or male, young or old but a population
has a sex ratio and age structure, which means, the
ratio of male to female in the population and the
various age groups into which the population may
be divided.
The characteristics of any population depends on:
(i) density of the population, (ii) natality (birth
rate), (iii) mortality (death rate), (iv) dispersal, (v)
biotic potential (vi) age distribution (vii) dispersion
and (viii) growth form.
Density: The number of individuals per unit area
at a given time is termed as population density. The
density of species varies from time to time and from
one place to another. For example, you may notice
more plant and animal species in the garden during
the monsoon season. Density of a particular organism in a region is determined by selecting random
samples of a particular dimension size called quadrat
from that region.
In case of large, mobile animals like tigers, leopards, lions, deer etc, the density may be determined
by counting individual animals directly or by the
pugmarks (foot imprints) left by the animals in a
defined area (Fig. 2.11). Pug-marks of each individual animals are unique and different from one others.
Study of pug marks can provide the following information reliably if analysed skillfully:
Presence of different species in the area of study.
Identification of individual animals.
Population of large cats (tigers, lions etc.).
Sex ratio and age (young or adult) of large cats Figure 2.11: Pugmark of a lion/cat (Foot prints) of
soft padded wild animals
Counting of human population is called census and
is carried out by the Indian government every 10
years. In census however each individual is physically counted.
Natality:
The rate at which new individuals are born and
added to a population under given environmental
conditions is called natality. Birth, hatching, germination and vegetative propagation cause an increase
in the number of individuals in a population.
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reproductive group: consisting of individuals

capable of reproduction,
post-reproductive group: contains aged individuals who are incapable of reproduction.
A rapidly growing population will usually contain
a large proportion of individuals in the reproductive
Figure 2.12: Parameters of population
age group; a stationary population (where there is
no increase or decrease in population) contains an
In case of humans, natality or birth rate is usually even distribution of all age groups, and a declining
expressed in terms of births per thousand per year. population contains a large proportion of old or postreproductive age of individuals.
Mortality:
Sex ratio
Loss of individuals from a population due to death

under given environmental conditions is called morSex ratio is an important aspect of population. It
tality. The number of individuals dead in a year is refers to the ratio between female and male individcalculated for obtaining the mortality rate or death uals in a population.
rate. Mortality rate in human population may be
expressed in terms of number of persons dead per
2.11 Communities and their Characteristhousand per year.
tics
Dispersal:
In ecology the term community, or more appropriately biotic community, refers to the populations of
The movement of individuals of a population out
different kinds of organisms living together and sharof a region on a permanent basis is termed emiing the same habitat.
gration while immigration refers to the movement
of individuals into a new area where dispersal includes both emigration and immigration of individ- 2.11.1 Organization of a biotic community
uals. The population of a region is affected by dispersal. Active migration is not possible in plants The characteristic pattern of the community is
though seeds may be dispersed over long distance termed as structure of the community and is deterby wind, water and animals.
mined by:
The density of a population thus basically depends
on four factors: i) natality, ii) mortality, iii) immi the roles played by its various populations;
gration and iv) emigration (Fig. 2.12)
the range of its various populations;
Age distribution
Natural populations include individuals of all age
groups. It, therefore, becomes necessary for us to
consider age distribution of a population. Age distribution refers to the proportions of individuals of
different age groups in a population.The population
may be broadly divided into three age groups:
the type of area that is inhabited by the populations of the community;

the diversity of species in the community;
the interactions between various populations of
the community inhabiting the area.
Members of a community also actively interact

pre-reproductive group: comprising of juvenile with their environment. In a community only those
individuals or children,
plants and animals survive which are adapted to a
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the canopy dominates the area. They modify the

light and moisture conditions for the shorter trees
growing under them, which in turn determine the
conditions for the ground vegetation. The vertical
stratification of the plant community determines the
structure of the community. The vegetation provides
a number of habitats for the various organisms. Different layers of the community are occupied by different species of plants and animals. Plants and animals of each layer differ in size, behaviour and adaptation from those of other layers. The different layers of organisms minimize competition and conflict
among the members of the community. The various
species in the community compete with each other
Figure 2.13: Stratification in a biotic community
for nutrients, space, light and other resources. Stratification is a practical strategy to minimize interparticular environment. The climate determines the specific competition.
type of environment, hence, the type of organisms in
a community. For example, it is the climate of the Community Characteristics
area which determines whether a given area becomes
Species diversity
a desert or a forest.
Communities created by human such as lawns or
An important attribute of a community is its
crop communities are such man made communication are crop communities are relatively simple and species diversity.
The different kinds of organisms present in a comconsists of only one species as opposed to a natural community characterized by a large number of munity represent its species diversity. The species
species. Man made communities are very unstable composition or diversity differs from one community
and require great deal of care and constant manipu- to another. Even in the same community, there may
be seasonal variation in species composition.
lation and maintenance.
Species diversity also influences the stability of the
community. A stable community is one which is able
2.11.2 Stratification
to return to its original condition after being disStratification of a community refers to the vertical turbed in some way. Communities with high species
layers of the vegetation. Tropical forests represent diversity have been found to be comparatively more
a good example of vertical stratification. In moist stable.
tropical rain forests up to five distinct strata or layers
The diversity is calculated both by the number of
of vegetation can be formed. These include from the species (richness) and the relative abundance of each
forest floor to the top (Fig. 2.13):
species (evenness). Relative abundance is measure
of relative proportion of different species occurring
in a community. The greater the number of species
and more even their distribution the greater is the
species diversity.
2.11.3
Succession
Succession is the process by which new community

gets established at an area which had been uninhabAs you can see in the fig. 2.13 the tropical forest ited. The community which gets established at the
Dr. JP Publications
site is called climax community. It is the aggregation

of changes of species structure in an ecological community over time. Even though ecologists have tried
to define the processes and events of succession, they
are more or less a continuum of activities which are
overlapped in the ecological time scale.
2.11.4
Stages of succession
The process begins with establishment of a few pioneer species which are replaced or reduced in abundance by species of increasing complexity. The diversity increases until the ecosystem as a whole gets
stabilized with the establishment of climax community. The establishment of pioneer species at a bare
site causes changes in soil structure and nutrient content. Changes in physical environment soon follow
the first step.
New species of plants replace the existing plants
due to the change of physical factors and soil structure. These in turn alter the existing conditions
paving way for newer species to get established.
These changes are often accompanied by the introduction of animal species into the area.
The cyclic process ends after reaching a stabilized
community called as climax community. The ecosystem is fully balanced at this stage until they get disturbed by any other external factors.
Disturbances eventually destroy the existing climax community and the process of succession starts
anew.
2.11.5
15
2. Invasion or migration: The process of invasion or migration helps the arrival of seeds,
spores or other reproductive propagules for establishment of species. Invasive species are nonnative organisms which can spread widely in
a community. These are usually threatening
the normal ecosystem and causative agents for
community disturbance. However, in succession
process, they help to alter the soil texture and
function.
3. Ecesis: This is the initial establishment of
plant community. This is dependent on the
soil structure. The stage is also called as colonization. In this stage, the early colonizing
species proliferate abundantly through germination, growth, and reproduction. Ecesis is due
to allogenic mechanisms alone. This is the stage
at which the pioneer species survive the dispersal mechanisms. The different pioneer species
can have different maturation rates which allow
this process to be longer and gradually allowing replacement of some species by others. The
process also makes the soil structure suitable for
those species whose seeds were present in the existing ecosystem but were unable to germinate
for lack of suitable community support.
4. Aggregation: It is the increase in population
of the species which has become established in
the area. The shrubs replace the small herbs in
most successions. This also proves as a source
of food for future inhabitants.
The Process
The processes of ecological succession are

1. Nudation: It is the development of a bare site
uninhabited by any organisms. The process is
usually caused by disturbances. These factors
can be either topographic (soil erosion, wind
action etc); climatic (hails, storm, glaciations,
fire etc.); or biotic (human activities). The area
thus formed can sustain only autotrophic organisms which can utilize inorganic substrates. The
environmental conditions are set up for the inhabitation of new species. For example, secretion of acidic substances by lichen species helps
in break down of rocks into soil.
5. Competition: Once the few initial species

have become established the intra as well as
inter-specific competition among the species
starts. This stage is called competition. The
competition is usually for resources such as
food, water etc. Competition is found in both
plants as well as animal species. The process
leads to sharing of resources (resource partitioning) or competitive exclusion.
6. Reaction: The environmental conditions get
modified by the action of species occupying the
habitat. These changes subsequently trigger the
displacement and replacement of one species by
another. The existing community will be unable
16
to support itself due to the harsh conditions.

The major underlying mechanism is autogenic
succession in which the plants themselves alter
the environmental conditions. Early colonizers
usually facilitate the way for establishment of
mature species.
7. Stabilization: It is the process by which the
climax community gets established. A climax
community is mature, self sustaining, stable and
is the final stage of succession. The physical and
chemical conditions are altered and stabilized to
such levels that it supports the entire community. The climax communities are best adapted
to the regions of succession and the community
structure is likely to continue until another disturbance steps in. This represents a steady state
of ecological equilibrium with specific composition, structure and energy flow.
The process of secondary succession is much
faster due to the availability of enriched soil and
other factors. The only limiting factor in such
succession is the disturbance. The process is
essentially the same as primary except for the
absence of some of the typical stages. Eventually both will result in the establishment of
stable communities which are made up mostly
of K-selected species.
2.11.6
Types Of Successions
There are two types of successions (i) Primary succession and (ii) Secondary succession.
2.11.7
Primary succession
Primary succession takes place an over a bare or unoccupied areas such as rocks outcrop, newly formed
deltas and sand dunes, emerging volcano islands and
lava flows as well as glacial moraines (muddy area exposed by a retreating glacier). where no community
has existed previously. The plants that invade first
bare land, where soil is initially absent are called
pioneer species. The assemblage of pioneer plants
is collectively called pioneer community. A pioneer
species generally show high growth rate but short
life span (Fig 2.14).
Primary succession is much more difficult to observe than secondary succession because there are
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relatively very few places on earth that do not already have communities of organisms. Furthermore,
primary succession takes a very long time as compared to secondary succession as the soil is to be
formed during primary succession while secondary
succession starts in an area where soil is already
present.
The community that initially inhabits a bare area
is called pioneer community. The pioneer community after some time gets replaced by another community with different species combination. This second community gets replaced by a third community. This process continues sequence-wise in which
a community replaced previous by another community.
Each transitional (temporary) community that is
formed and replaced during succession is called a
stage in succession or a seral community (Fig 2.15).
The terminal (final) stage of succession forms the
community which is called as climax community. A
climax community is stable, mature, more complex
and long lasting. The entire sequence of communities in a given area, succeeding each other, during
the course of succession is termed sere (Fig 2.15).
The animals of such a community also exhibit succession which to a great extent is determined by
plant succession. However animals of such successional stages are also influenced by the types of animals that are able to migrate from neighbouring
communities. A climax community as long as it
is undisturbed, remains relatively stable in dynamic
equilibrium with the prevailing climate and habitat
factors.
Succession that occurs on land where moisture
content is low for e.g. on bare rock is known as xerarch. Succession that takes place in a water body,
like ponds or lake is called hydrarch.
2.11.8
Secondary succession
Secondary succession is the development of a community which forms after the existing natural vegetation that constitutes a community is removed, disturbed or destroyed by a natural event like hurricane
or forest fire or by human related events like tilling
or harvesting land.
A secondary succession is relatively fast as, the soil
has the necessary nutrients as well as a large pool of
Dr. JP Publications
Figure 2.14: The orderly sequence of primary succession
Figure 2.15: Secondary succession on land
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seeds and other dormant stages of organisms.
2.12
Biotic Interaction
The biological community of an area or ecosystem is

a complex network of interactions. The interaction
that occurs among different individuals of the same
species is called intraspecific interaction while the
interaction among individuals of different species in
a community is termed as interspecific interaction.
Interactions between organisms belonging to the
same trophic level often involve competition. Individuals of population may compete for food, space
and mates. For example if a mouse has been eaten by
a cat, other cats competing for this resource would
have one less mouse to prey on. The snake another
predator of the mice would also have fewer mice to
eat during the night if the cat has succeeded. Direct
competition though, between the cat and snake is
not much as they prey at different times. They also
eat a variety of different foods. So competition may
be intraspecific as well as interspecific.
Interspecific relationship may be direct and close
as between a lion and deer or indirect and remote
as between an elephant and a beetle. This is because interactions between two species need not be
through direct contact. Due to the connected nature
of ecosystems, species may affect each other through
intermediaries such as shared resources or common
enemies. Specific terms are applied to interspecific
interactions depending upon whether the interaction
is beneficial, harmful or neutral to individuals of the
species. The various possible interactions between
two species are given in Figure 2.16.
Some types of interactions listed by the effects
they have on each partner. O is no effect, is
detrimental and + is beneficial.
2.12.1
Types Of Interactions
From the table you can see that in certain types of

interspecific associations at least one of the species is
harmed by the other. Such associations are termed
as negative, in case where both the associated species
are benefited is a positive association and when the
associated species are neither benefited nor harmed
represents a neutral interaction and include:
Figure 2.17: Example for Amensalism.

1. Amensalism:
This is a negative association between two
species in which one species harms or restricts
the other species without itself being adversely
affected or harmed by the presence of the other
species. Organisms that secrete antibiotics and
the species that get inhibited by the antibiotics are examples of amensalism. For example the bread mould fungi Pencillium produce
penicillin an antibiotic substance which inhibits
the growth of a variety of bacteria. Pencillium
benefits apparently by having greater availability of food when the competition because of the
bacteria is removed. Note that one could assert
that these relationships are actually competition. However, the populations affected by the
toxic compounds of the amensal partner" really
have no chance.
2. Predation: In this type of interaction predator
captures, kills and eats an animal of another
species called the prey. The predator naturally
benefits from this relationship; while the prey
is harmed. Predators like leopards, tigers and
cheetahs use speed, teeth and claws to hunt and
kill their prey.
3.
Dr. JP Publications
Figure 2.16: Possible biological interactions between two species.
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20
Figure 2.18: Example for Predation.
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Figure 2.20: Example for Competition.

when two populations or species, both need
a vital resource that is in short supply. The
vital resource could be food, water, shelter,
nesting site, mates or space. Such competition can be: (i) inter-specific competitionoccurring between individuals of two different
species occurring in a habitat and (ii) intraspecific competition-occurs between individuals
of same species. Intra-specific competition occurs between members of the same species and
so it is very intense.
Figure 2.19: Example for Parasitism.

3. Parasitism: involves parasite usually a small
size organism living in or on another living
species called the host from which the parasite
gets its nourishment and often shelter.
The parasite is benefited and the host is
harmed. Many organisms like animal, bacteria
and viruses are parasites of plants and animals.
Plants like dodder plant (Cuscuta) and mistletoe (Loranthus) are parasites that live on flowering plants. Tap worm, round worm, malarial
parasite, many bacteria, fungi, and viruses are
common parasites of humans.
4. Competition: This is an interaction between
two populations in which both species are
harmed to some extent. Competition occurs
5. Commensalism: In this relationship one of

the species benefits while the other is neither
harmed nor benefited. Some species obtain
the benefit of shelter or transport from another
species. For example sucker fish, remora often
attaches to a shark by means of its sucker which
is present on the top side of its head. This helps
the remora get protection, a free ride as well as
meal from the left over of the sharks meal. The
shark does not however get any benefit nor is it
adversely affected by this association. Another
example of commensalism is the Cattle Egret.
As large grazers move through the grass, they
stir up insects. Cattle Egrets follow them and
get a banquet. The large grazers are neither
helped nor harmed by the presence of the birds.
6. Mutualism: This is a close association between two species in which both the species benefit. For example, Insect pollinators receive vital nutrients (in nectar and pollen itself) from
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21
Figure 2.21: Example for Comensalism.
Figure 2.23: Another example for Mutualism.
mite and flagellates cannot survive without each

other.
Figure 2.22: Example for Mutualism.
their plant partners. The plant receives courier
service: pollinators deliver pollen (male) directly to the female parts of the flower. Without pollinators, many insect-pollinated plants
would go extinct due to lack of fertilization.
However, some mutualisms are so intimate that
the interacting species can no longer live without each other as they depend totally on each
other to survive. Such close associations are
called symbiosis. An example of such close mutualistic association is that of termite and their
intestinal flagellates. Termites can eat wood but
have no enzymes to digest it. However, their intestine contains certain flagellate protists (protozoans) that have the necessary enzymes to
digest the cellulose of the wood eaten by termites and convert it into sugar. The flagellates
use some of this sugar for their own metabolism
while enough is left for the termite. Both ter-
7. Neutralism: Neutralism describes the relationship between two species which do interact but do not affect each other. It is to
describe interactions where the fitness of one
species has absolutely no effect what so ever on
that of other. True neutralism is extremely unlikely and impossible to prove. When dealing
with the complex networks of interactions presented by ecosystems, one can not assert positively that there is absolutely no competition
between or benefit to either species. Since true
neutralism is rare or non-existent, its usage is
often extended to situations where interaction
are merely insignificant or negligible. The term
is often used to describe interactions in which
the effects of two populations on each other are
simply negligible. Say....a Bactrian Camel and
a Longtailed Tadpole Shrimp, both live in the
Gobi desert.
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Populations have attributes that individual organisms do not- birth rates and death rates, sex
ratio and age distribution.
The proportion of different age groups of males
and females in a population is often presented
graphically as age pyramid; its shape indicates
whether a population is stationary, growing or
declining.
Figure 2.24: Example for Neutralism.
2.13
Summary
Ecology is the study of the relationships of living

organisms with the abiotic (physico-chemical
factors) and biotic components (other species)
of their environment.
It is concerned with four levels of biological organisation organisms, populations, communities and biomes.
Temperature, light, water and soil are the most
important physical factors of the environment
to which the organisms are adapted in various
ways.
Maintenance of a constant internal environment
(homeostasis) by the organisms contributes to
optimal performance, but only some organisms
(regulators) are capable of homeostasis in the
face of changing external environment.
Others either partially regulate their internal
environment or simply conform.
A few other species have evolved adaptations to
avoid unfavourable conditions in space (migration) or in time (aestivation, hibernation, and
diapause).
Evolutionary changes through natural selection
take place at the population level and hence,
population ecology is an important area of ecology.
A population is a group of individuals of a
given species sharing or competing for similar
resources in a defined geographical area.
Ecological effects of any factors on a population are generally reflected in its size (population density), which may be expressed in different ways (numbers, biomass, per cent cover,
etc.,) depending on the species.
Populations grow through births and immigration and decline through deaths and emigration.
When resources are unlimited, the growth is
usually exponential but when resources become
progressively limiting, the growth pattern turns
logistic.
In either case, growth is ultimately limited by
the carrying capacity of the environment.
The intrinsic rate of natural increase (r) is a
measure of the inherent potential of a population to grow.
In nature populations of different species in a
habitat do not live in isolation but interact in
many ways.
Depending on the outcome, these interactions
between two species are classified as competition (both species suffer), predation and parasitism (one benefits and the other suffers), commensalism (one benefits and the other is unaffected), amensalism (one is harmed, other unaffected) and mutualism (both species benefit).
Predation is a very important process through
which trophic energy transfer is facilitated and
some predators help in controlling their prey
populations.
Plants have evolved diverse morphological and
chemical defenses against herbivory.
Dr. JP Publications
In competition, it is presumed that the superior competitor eliminates the inferior one,
but many closely related species have evolved
various mechanisms which facilitate their coexistence.
Some of the most fascinating cases of mutualism in nature are seen in plant-pollinator interactions.
2.14
23
8. Definition of ecosystem is
A. The community of organisms together with
the environment in which they live
B. The
abiotic component of a habitat
C. The part
of the earth and its atmosphere which inhibits
living organisms
D. A community of organisms interacting with one another
9. In a food chain of grassland ecosystem the top
consumers are
Practice Questions
1. Synecology deals with
A. Herbivorous B. Carnivorous C. Bacteria D. Either carnivorous or herbivorous
A. ecology of many species

B. ecology of
many populations
C. ecology of community 10. Species that occur in different geographical
regions separated by special barrier are:
D. none of the above
2. Ecotype is a type of species in which environmentally induced variations are
A. Allopatric
B. Sympatric
D. None of the above
C. Sibling
A. temporary
B. Genetically fixed
C. ge- 11. Which of the following statement is true about
the Ecotone?
netically not related D. none of the above
3. The term Biocoenosis" was proposed by
A. Transley B. Karl Mobius
D. none of the above
C. Warming
12. Consider the following statements about the estuary:
4. Energy flow in an ecosystem is

A. unidirectional B. Bidirectional
tidirectional D. Cyclic
A. It is meeting place of two different ecosystems

B. It is meeting place of two same
eco-systems C. Density of species is very low
here D. All of the above.
C. Mul-
5. Flow of materials in an ecosystem is
1. Estuary is place where the river fresh

waster meets with ocean water
2. This area is highly productive
3. This area is highly unproductive
A. unidirectional B. Bidirectional
tidirectional D. Cyclic
C. Mul-
6. Trophic levels are formed by

A. only plants B. only animals C. only carnivorous D. organisms linked in food chain
7. Biotic potential is counteracted by
A. Competition with other organisms B. Producer is the largest
C. Limitation of food
supply D. None of the above
4. All of the above

Which of above the statements is/are true?
A. 1 only
only
B. 2 only
C. 1 and 2
D. 3
13. Which of following statement is incorrect about

the Biosphere?
A. Biosphere is combination of lithosphere, hydrosphere and Atmosphere
B. Biosphere
is missing at extreme of north and south pole
24
Banking Awareness
C. Organisms are uniformly present in Bio- 22. In grassland ecosystem, pyramid of biomass is
sphere D. All of the above
14. In an ecotone, the species which become abundant are called:
A. Edge species
C. Endemic species
B. Keystone species
D. Foster species
15. The pyramid of energy in terrestrial ecosystem is

A. upright B. inverted
D. none of these
C. spindle shaped
16. The pyramid of numbers is inverted in the case

of
D. none of these
C. spindle shaped
23. Which of the following system is incorrect

regarding ecological pyramid?
A. The pyramid of energy is inverted in ocean
ecosystem
B. The pyramid of biomass is inverted in aquatic ecosystem C. The pyramid
of numbers is upright in grassland ecosystem
D. The pyramid of biomass is upright in grassland ecosystem
24. Red data book contains data of
A. parasitic food chain B. forest land ecosystem C. grassland ecosystem D. lake ecosystem
A. all plant species

B. all animal species
C. economically important species D. threatened species
17. Which of the following ecological pyramid is

25. Which of the following region has maximum dialways upright?
versity
A. pyramid of energy B. pyramid of number
C. pyramid of biomass D. none of these
18. Pyramid of numbers in a single tree is
D. none of these
C. spindle shaped
A. mangroves
B. temperate rainforest
C. taiga D. coral reefs
26. Biodiversity
A. increases towards the equator
B. decreases towards the equator C. remains same
throughout the planet
D. has no effect on
change in latitude
19. The graphic representation of number of individuals of different species belonging to each 27. The most important reason for decrease in biotrophic level in an ecosystem is
diversity is
A. Pyramid of energy
B. Pyramid of number
C. pyramid of biomass
D. Ecological
pyramid
20. Pyramid of biomass is inverted in
A. Forest ecosystem B. Grassland ecosystem
C. Fresh water ecosystem D. Tundra
21. In Pond ecosystem, pyramid of biomass is
D. none of these
C. spindle shaped
A. habitat pollution B. introduction of exotic

species
C. over-exploitation
D. habitat
destruction
28. Hot spots are regions of high
A. rarity B. endemism C. critically endangered population D. diversity
29. Biodiversity Hotspot are characterized on the
basis of:
A. Endemic flowering plant and threat perception B. Endemic flowering plant C. Species
of flowering plants D. None of above
Dr. JP Publications
25
30. The most important human activity, leading to 37. What is the meaning of coral bleaching?
the extinction of wildlife, is
A. Paling of coral color or decline in zooxanthelA. Pollution of wildlife, is
B. Hunting for
lae due to climate change
B. Impacts of exvaluable wildlife products C. Introduction of
cessive sea trade on fishing industry C. Both
alien species
D. Alternation and destruction
a and b D. None of the above
of the natural habitats
38. A high Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) indi31. If we uncover half of the forest, covering of the
cates that:
earth, what crisis will be produced at most and
A. water is pure
B. absence of microbial
at first?
action
C. Low level of microbial pollution
A. Some species will be extinct B. Population
D. High level of microbial pollution
and ecological imbalance will rise up
C. Energy crisis will occur D. Rest half forests will 39. Growing agricultural crops between rows of
planted trees is known as
maintain this imbalance
32. What is the major cause of diminishing wildlife
number?
A. Felling of trees
C. Habitat destruction
ing water
A. Social forestry
B. Jhum
system D. Agroforestry
C. Taungya
40. The cutting down of trees and setting them on

B. Cannibalism
fire and raising crops on the resulting ash is
D. Paucity of drinkcalled:
33. Viable material of endangered species can be

preserved by
A. Gene bank
B. Gene library
pool D. Herbarium
A. Pyrolysis B. Jhum
D. Shift cultivation
C. Taungya system
C. Gene 41. What percent of area in the plain should be under forest?
A. 33% B. 67% C. 30% D. 10%

34. Which group of vertebrates comprises the highest number of endangered species?
42. Algal bloom is the result of
A. Mammals
B. Fishes
C. Birds
A. Global warming
B. Salination
C. EuD. Reptiles
trophication D. Biomagnification
35. Which of the following is mainly responsible for
43. Which of the following is not among the four
the extinction of wild life
coral reef regions of India identified by the GovA. Pollution of air and water
B. Hunting of
ernment for intensive conservation and manageflesh
C. Destruction of Habitats
D. All of
ment?
these
A. Gulf of Mannar
B. Gulf of Khambat
C.
Lakshadweep
Islands
D. Andaman and
36. Consider the following classification of BiodiverNicobar Islands
sity:
1.Alpha-diversity Between-community diver- 44. The relationship between water fern Azolla and
sity
cyanobacterium Anabaena is :
2. Beta-diversity Within-Community diversity
A. Symbiotic B. Mutualistic C. Commen3.Gamma diversity Overall Biodiversity
salism D. Proto-Cooperation
Which among the above is/are incorrectly 45. Which one of the following is a useful biological
indicator of Sulphur-dioxide pollution ?
paired?
A. Only 2
and 3
B. Only 3
C. 1 and 2
D. 1, 2
A. Bryophytes
B. Algal blooms
domonas D. Lichens
C. Pseu-
26
46. In Nitrogen Cycle, soil nitrates are transformed

into free nitrogen by:
1. Steppe in Central Asia
A. Nitrifying bacteria B. Denitrifying bacteria

C. Ammonifying bacteria
D. Both [A]
and[C]
3. Veld in South America
Banking Awareness
2. Prairie in North America
Choose the correct option:
A. 1 and 2 B. 1 and 3 C. 2 and 3 D. 1,

47. An aquatic plant introduced from America to
2 and 3
check pollution turned out to be a troublesome
weed in Indian water bodies. The name of this
54. Which of following is incorrectly matched:
invasive alien species is :
A. Sunderban : West Bengal
B. Simplipal :
A. Opuntia
B. Aegilops
C. Eichhornia
Tamilnadu
C. Nanda Devi : Uttarakhand
D. Pistia
D. Manas : Assam
48. Lion-tailed macaque is the key faunal species
55. Consider the following statements about the
of which Biosphere Reserve?
functions of wetland
A. Nilgiri
B. Dehang-Debang
C. DibruI) It stores the flood
Saikhowa D. Nokrek
II) It recharges the ground water
III) It provides different products such as fish,
49. Consider the statements about the Biosphere,
timber etc
which one is correct?
Which of above the statements are true about
A. Conserve the diversity of plants, animals and
the function of wetland?
micro organism
B. Conserve the diversity
and integrity of animal only C. Conserve the
A. I B. II C. I,II and III D. III
diversity and integrity of micro organism only
D. All of the above
56. Which of following statement is correct about
50. Which of following is part of world network of
Biosphere?
A. Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve B. Sunderban Biosphere Reserve
C. Nilgiri Biosphere
Reserve D. All of the above
the wetland in India?

A. Tso Marari and Chandartal are Glaciated
Wetlands B. Chilka in Odisha is an example
of lagoon wetland
C. Loktak lake is oxbow
wetland it is in Manipur D. All of the above
51. Consider the following statements about the bio- 57. Consider the following statements about the
Mangrove forests
diversity hotspot?
I) Mangrove trees grow in saline coastal regions
I) Norman Mayer is associated with scientists
II) Sundarban is world largest mangrove forest
responsible for making the list of biodiversity
III) Mangrove forest support varieties of life
hotspot
IV) Andaman and Nicobar island also have manII) These areas are biodiversity rich and species
grove forest
are endemic to this area
Which of above statements are true or correct?
III) Biodiversity is under the threat
Which of above the statement is/are true?
A. I only
B. II only
C. I, II , III and IV
D. IV only
A. I B. I and II C. I, II and III D. III
52. Which of following is hotspot in India?
A. Western Ghat
B. Simlipal
ban D. Nanda Devi
58. Lantana know as Phool Lakhri in local parlance, is a shrub found in abundance in Himachal
C. SundarPradesh.
53. The Temperate Grassland or Shrub-Land Biome

is commonly known as
1. It is a toxic weed and has affected the

mountain diversity of the state.
Dr. JP Publications
27
2. Lantana species are widely cultivated for 62. The Olive Ridley turtles are considered to be
endangered because of their few remaining nesttheir flowers.
ing sites in the world. In this context, which
3. It is endemic to India.
among the following Statement(s) is/are correct
4. It is considered as potential fire hazard and
?
it is combustible even when green.
1. Their peculiar behaviour of synchronized
Which of the statements given above is/are cornesting in mass numbers is known as Arrect about it?
ribada.
A. 1, 2 & 4 only.
B. 2 & 4 only.
only. D. 1, 2, 3 & 4.
C. 1 & 3
59. Consider the following animals found in India
2. Gahirmatha Beach in Orissa is one of their

few nesting grounds in the world.
A. Only 1
B. Only 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
C. Both 1 and 2
1. Namdapha flying squirrel

63. Consider the following Mangrove areas:
2. Pygmy hog
1. Bhitarkanika
3. Nicobar White-tailed Shrew
2. Pichavaram
Which of the animals given above is/are critically endangered?
A. 1 and 2
2 and 3
B. 2 and 3
C. 3 and 4
D. 1,
3. Coondapur
Which among the above is/are situated on the
Eastern Coast of India?
A. Only 1 B. 1 and 2 C. 1 and 3 D. 1,

60. Which of the following two criteria have to be
2 and 3
met in order to qualify as a biodiversity hotspot
on the world hotspots map?
64. Which among the following is key faunal species
that is being conserved and monitored in
1. The region must contain at least 0.5 perDachigam National Park ?
cent or 1500 species of vascular plants as
A. Musk Deer B. Golden Oriole C. Yellowendemic species.
throated Marten D. Hangul or Kashmir Stag
2. The region has to have lost at least 70 per65. Consider the following Statements regarding
cent of its primary vegetation.
Keibul lamjao National Park:
Choose the correct option:
A. Only 1
B. Only 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
C. Both 1 and 2
61. The Red Data Book is the documention of rare

and endangered species of :
2. The animal species conserved here is the

endangered Brow-antlered deer or Sangai.
3. The national park is characterized by many
floating decomposed plant materials locally
called phumdis.
1. Animals
2. Plants
Which among the above Statement(s) is/are correct?
3. Fungi
A. Only 1
2 and 3
1. It is an integral part of Loktak lake and

also the only floating National Park in the
world.
B. 1 and 2
C. 2 and 3
D. 1,
A. 1 and 2
2 and 3
B. 1 and 3
C. 2 and 3
D. 1,
28
Banking Awareness
66. Which among the following awards has been re- 70. The largest number of Tiger Reserves are located
in :
cently instituted by the Government of India for
individuals or communities from rural areas that
A. Karnataka
B. Andhra Pradesh
have shown extraordinary courage and dedicaC. Madhya Pradesh D. West Bengal
tion in protecting Wildlife?
71. The Siberian Crane, an endangered migratory
A. Indira Gandhi Paryavaran Puraskar
bird is a regular visitor of which of the following
B. Medini Puruskar Yojana
C. Amrita Devi
national park/bird sanctuaries:
Bishnoi Award
D. Pitambar Pant National
A. Ranganathittu bird sanctuary
B. KeoAward
ladeo national park
C. Vedanthangal bird
67. Consider the following Tiger Reserves of India:
sanctuary D. Sultanpur bird sanctuary
1. Udanti Sitanadi Rajasthan
2. Dandeli Anashi Chattisgarh
3. Sariska Orissa
72. Which of the following Indian States/UT has the

maximum percentage of mangrove cover in the
country ?
A. Gujarat
and Nicobar
4. Satkosia Karnataka
B. West Bengal
D. Orissa
C. Andaman
Which of the above Tiger Reserves are correctly 73. All species of Lemur are endemic to which
among the following places of the world?
paired with their respective locations?
A. 1 and 2
B. 1, 2, and 4
D. None of them
C. 2 ,3 and 4
68. Consider the following Statements:

1. The State of Forests Report (SFR) is
brought out by Forest Research Institute,
Dehradun.
A. Seychelles Islands
B. Galapagos Islands
C. New Caledonia D. Madagascar
74. Which among the following is the Worlds largest
Wetland System?
A. Camargue (France)
B. Okavango
(Botswana) C. Everglades (USA) D. Pantanal (South America)
2. The forest cover assessment of India is pub75. Identify the correct match between tiger reserve
lished in this annual report.
and its state
Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct
A. Manas Assam
B. Corbett Madin this regard?
hya Pradesh
C. Bandipur Tamil Nadu
A. Only 1
B. Only 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
C. Both 1 and 2
69. Consider the following statements regarding Keoladeo National Park (formerly known as the
Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary) :
D. Palanau Orissa.
76. Which of the following is the matching pair of a
sanctuary and its main protected wild animal?
A. KazirangaMusk deer
B. GirLion
C. SunderbanRhino D. All of these.
1. It is one of the Ramsar Wetlands of Inter- 77. Identify the correctly matched pair
national Importance.
A. Corbett park Aves B. Runn of Kutch
2. It is inscribed in the UNESCO World Her Wild ass
C. Gir forest Rhino
itage list.
D. Kajiranga-Elephant.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are 78. Minamata disease was caused by pollution of wacorrect?
ter by
A. Only 1
B. Only 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
C. Both 1 and 2
A. mercury
iso cyanate
B. lead
C. tin
D. methyl
Dr. JP Publications
79. Green house effect is caused by

A. Caused by combustion of many gases
B. Caused by CO2 , CH4 , CFC, NO2 gases
C. Hydrocarbons and Nitrogens
D. None of
these
80. Which of the following is regarded as the main
cause of groundwater contamination?
A. agricultural products
B. landfills
C. septic tanks
D. All of the above main
sources of ground water contamination.
81. Which among the following is the most abundant Green-House-Gas (GHG) in the earths atmosphere?
A. Carbon dioxide
C. Sulphur Dioxide
B. Water Vapour
D. Tropospheric Ozone
82. The use of microorganism metabolism to remove

pollutants such as oil spills in the water bodies
is known as :
29
86. Which of following is One of the best solutions

to get rid of non-biodegradable wastes is :
A. Recycling waste
B. Burying waste
C. Burning waste D. All of the above
87. Consider following statements about the Ozone
Hole
I) Ozone formation and destruction keep on
happening
II) Ozone destruction rate is higher than its
formation rate
III) Ozone destruction rate is equal to the its
formation rate
Which of above statement is/ are true?
A. I only
B. I and II Only
only D. III Only
C. I and III
88. Earlier there was balance between the formation

and destruction of Ozone layer but after the release of varieties of harmful substances into atmosphere, this balance has been disturbed. Now
83. The ranking of countries as the highest per
rate of destruction is higher than the rate of forcapita emitters of Carbon Dioxide in the world,
mation of Ozone layer which is causing widentakes into account their annual CO2 emissions
ing of Ozone hole. CFC (Chlorofluorocarbons)
from :
is one of the sources responsible for causing hole
1. Burning of fossil fuels
in Ozone layer, which of following statement is
correct about the CFC:
2. Cement Manufacture
A. Biomagnification
B. Bioremediation
C. Biomethanation D. Bioreduction
3. Land Use such as deforestation

A. Only 1
2 and 3
B. 1 and 2
C. 1 and 3
D. 1,
84. Which of the following statements is NOT true?
A. CFC is made of Chlorine, fluorine, and carbon

B. CFC is released from Refrigerant,
foams in plastic manufacturing, etc
C. Refrigerant is the major source of CFC
D. All
of the above
A. Photochemical smog always contains Ozone. 89. Nitrogen Oxide is also held responsible for the
B. The toxic effect of Carbon Monoxide is due
depletion of Ozone layer, which of following is
to its greater affinity for haemoglobin as comsource of Nitrogen Oxide?
pared to oxygen.
C. Lead is the most hazA. Industrial emission
B. Fertilizers which
ardous metal pollutant of automobile exhaust.
are
used
in
agricultural
activities
C. TherD. None of the above
monuclear weapons D. All of the above
85. Which of following can be used for controlling
90. Which of following is/are green house gas(es)?
Gaseous Pollutant?
A. Arrestor B. Incineration
D. None of above
C. Absorption
A. Carbon dioxide
D. All of the above
B. Methane
C. CFC
30
91. The pioneers in xerach succession is the

A. crustose lichen
lichen D. shrubs
B. mosses
C. foliose
92. The final stable community in an ecological succession is called the

A. final community
B. ultimate community
C. climax community D. seral community
Banking Awareness
99. All the statements are correct regarding ecological succession except
A. It is a random process
B. Species diversity increases as succession proceeds
C. The
food chain relationships becomes more complex
D. The role of decomposers becomes more and
more important
100. What is the complex of vegetation called when

it undergoes no further change unless the climate
93. The process of successful establishment of the
changes perceptibly
species in a new area is called
A. an ecosystem
B. climatic climax commuA. sere B. climax C. invasion D. ecesis
nity
C. End of succession
D. Edaphic
climax community
94. The order of basic processes involved in succession is
A. Nudation->Invasion->
competition
and
co
action->reaction->stabilization
B. Nudation->stabilization-> competition and co action->Invasion->reaction
C. Invasion-> Nudation->competition
and co action->Reaction->stabilization
D. Invasion->stabilization-> competition and
co action->Reaction->nudation Explanation:
Nudation->Invasion-> competition and co
action->reaction->stabilization
95. The formation of a climax community from an
abandoned farm land is a an example of
A. Autogenic succession
B. Allogenic successsion
C. Primary succession
D. Secondary succession
96. The development of a bare area without any life
form is called
A. nudation
tion
B. ecesis
C. sere
D. reac-
97. The conversion of a pond to a climax forest community is an example of

A. xerarch succession B. mesarch succession
C. hydrarch succession D. all of these
98. The intermediate developmental stages in the
ecological succession is called
A. sere
B. ecesis
C. climax
D. nudation
Chapter
Ecosystem
3.0.1
Ecological Succession
You have learnt in Chapter 13, the characteristics of population and community and also
their response to environment and how such responses vary from an individual response.
Let us examine another aspect of community
response to environment over time.
An important characteristic of all communities
is that their composition and structure constantly change in response to the changing environmental conditions.
This change is orderly and sequential, parallel
with the changes in the physical environment.
These changes lead finally to a community that
is in near equilibrium with the environment and
that is called a climax community.
The gradual and fairly predictable change in the
species composition of a given area is called ecological succession.
During succession some species colonise an area
and their populations become more numerous,
whereas populations of other species decline and
even disappear.
In the successive seral stages there is a change

in the diversity of species of organisms, increase
in the number of species and organisms as well
as an increase in the total biomass.
The present day communities in the world have
come to be because of succession that has occurred over millions of years since life started
on earth.
Actually succession and evolution would have
been parallel processes at that time.
Succession is hence a process that starts where
no living organisms are there - these could be
areas where no living organisms ever existed,
say bare rock; or in areas that somehow, lost all
the living organisms that existed there.
The former is called primary succession, while
the latter is termed secondary succession.
Examples of areas where primary succession occurs are newly cooled lava, bare rock, newly created pond or reservoir.
The establishment of a new biotic community
is generally slow. Before a biotic community of
diverse organisms can become established, there
must be soil.
The entire sequence of communities that successively change in a given area are called sere(s).
Depending mostly on the climate, it takes natural processes several hundred to several thousand years to produce fertile soil on bare rock.
The individual transitional communities are

termed seral stages or seral communities.
Secondary succession begins in areas where natural biotic communities have been destroyed
31
32
Ecosystem
such as in abandoned farm lands, burned or cut

forests, lands that have been flooded.
Since some soil or sediment is present, succession is faster than primary succession.
Description of ecological succession usually focuses on changes in vegetation.
However, these vegetational changes in turn affect food and shelter for various types of animals.
Thus, as succession proceeds, the numbers and
types of animals and decomposers also change.
At any time during primary or secondary succession, natural or human induced disturbances
(fire, deforestation, etc.), can convert a particular seral stage of succession to an earlier stage.
Also such disturbances create new conditions
that encourage some species and discourage or
eliminate other species.
Succession of Plants
Based on the nature of the habitat - whether it
is water (or very wet areas) or it is on very dry
areas - succession of plants is called hydrarch or
xerarch, respectively.
Hydrarch succession takes place in wetter areas
and the successional series progress from hydric
to the mesic conditions.
As against this, xerarch succession takes place
in dry areas and the series progress from xeric
to mesic conditions.
Banking Awareness
They are, with time, succeeded by bigger plants,

and after several more stages, ultimately a stable climax forest community is formed.
The climax community remains stable as long
as the environment remains unchanged.
With time the xerophytic habitat gets converted
into a mesophytic one.
In primary succession in water, the pioneers
are the small phytoplanktons, they are replaced
with time by rooted-submerged plants, rootedfloating angiosperms followed by free-floating
plants, then reed- swamp, marsh-meadow, scrub
and finally the trees.
The climax again would be a forest. With time
the water body is converted into land (Figure
14.5).
In secondary succession the species that invade
depend on the condition of the soil, availability
of water, the environment as also the seeds or
other propagules present. Since soil is already
there, the rate of succession is much faster and
hence, climax is also reached more quickly.
What is important to understand is that succession, particularly primary succession, is a very
slow process, taking maybe thousands of years
for the climax to be reached.
Another important fact is to understand that all
succession whether taking place in water or on
land, proceeds to a similar climax community the mesic.
Hence, both hydrarch and xerarch successions 3.0.2 Nutrient Cycling

lead to medium water conditions (mesic) - nei You have studied in Class XI that organisms
ther too dry (xeric) nor too wet (hydric).
need a constant supply of nutrients to grow, re The species that invade a bare area are called
produce and regulate various body functions.
pioneer species. In primary succession on rocks
The amount of nutrients, such as carbon, nithese are usually lichens which are able to setrogen, phosphorus, calcium, etc., present in
crete acids to dissolve rock, helping in weatherthe soil at any given time, is referred to as the
ing and soil formation.
standing state.
These later pave way to some very small plants
It varies in different kinds of ecosystems and
like bryophytes, which are able to take hold in
also on a seasonal basis. What is important
the small amount of soil.
Dr. JP Publications
Ecosystem
33
is to appreciate that nutrients which are never

lost from the ecosystems, are recycled time and
again indefinitely.
According to one estimate 4 1013 kg of carbon is fixed in the biosphere through photosynthesis annually.
The movement of nutrient elements through the

various components of an ecosystem is called
nutrient cycling.
A considerable amount of carbon returns to the

atmosphere as CO2 through respiratory activities of the producers and consumers.
Another name of nutrient cycling is biogeochemical cycles (bio: living organism, geo:
rocks, air, water).
Decomposers also contribute substantially to

CO2 pool by their processing of waste materials
and dead organic matter of land or oceans.
Nutrient cycles are of two types: (a) gaseous

and (b) sedimentary.
Some amount of the fixed carbon is lost to sediments and removed from circulation.
The reservoir for gaseous type of nutrient cycle

(e.g., nitrogen, carbon cycle) exists in the atmosphere and for the sedimentary cycle (e.g.,
sulphur and phosphorus cycle), the reservoir is
located in Earths crust.
Burning of wood, forest fire and combustion of

organic matter, fossil fuel, volcanic activity are
additional sources for releasing CO2 in the atmosphere.
Environmental factors, e.g., soil, moisture, pH,

temperature, etc., regulate the rate of release of
nutrients into the atmosphere.
The function of the reservoir is to meet with the
deficit which occurs due to imbalance in the rate
of influx and efflux.
You have made a detailed study of nitrogen cycle in class XI. Here we discuss carbon and phosphorus cycles.
Ecosystem - Carbon Cycle
When you study the composition of living organisms, carbon constitutes 49 per cent of dry
weight of organisms and is next only to water.
If we look at the total quantity of global carbon, we find that 71 per cent carbon is found
dissolved in oceans.
This oceanic reservoir regulates the amount of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (Figure 14.6).
Do you know that the atmosphere only contains
about 1 per cent of total global carbon? Fossil
fuel also represent a reservoir of carbon.
Carbon cycling occurs through atmosphere,
ocean and through living and dead organisms.
Human activities have significantly influenced

the carbon cycle.
Rapid deforestation and massive burning of fossil fuel for energy and transport have significantly increased the rate of release of carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere.
Ecosystem - Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus is a major constituent of biological membranes, nucleic acids and cellular energy
transfer systems.
Many animals also need large quantities of this
element to make shells, bones and teeth.
The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock,
which contains phosphorus in the form of phosphates.
When rocks are weathered, minute amounts of
these phosphates dissolve in soil solution and
are absorbed by the roots of the plants (Figure
14.7).
Herbivores and other animals obtain this element from plants.
The waste products and the dead organisms
are decomposed by phosphate-solubilising bacteria releasing phosphorus. Unlike carbon cycle,
34
Ecosystem
Banking Awareness
there is no respiratory release of phosphorus into

atmosphere.
Can you differentiate between the carbon and
the phosphorus cycle?
The other two major and important differences
between carbon and phosphorus cycle are firstly,
atmospheric inputs of phosphorus through rainfall are much smaller than carbon inputs, and,
secondly, gaseous exchanges of phosphorus between organism and environment are negligible.
3.0.3
Ecosystem Services
Healthy ecosystems are the base for a wide Figure 3.1: The plant absorbs carbon dioxide from
range of economic, environmental and aesthetic the atmosphere, draws water up through its roots
goods and services.
and uses light to photosynthesise sugars, which it
uses as food. It excretes oxygen as a by-product of
The products of ecosystem processes are named
the process. Without water, photosynthesis cannot
as ecosystem services, for example, healthy
take place.
forest ecosystems purify air and water, mitigate droughts and floods, cycle nutrients, gener The cost of climate regulation and habitat for
ate fertile soils, provide wildlife habitat, mainwildlife are about 6 per cent each.
tain biodiversity, pollinate crops, provide storage site for carbon and also provide aesthetic,
cultural and spiritual values.
3.0.4 Energy Flow
Though value of such services of biodiversity
is difficult to determine, it seems reasonable
to think that biodiversity should carry a hefty
price tag.
Robert Constanza and his colleagues have very
recently tried to put price tags on natures lifesupport services.
Researchers have put an average price tag of
US $ 33 trillion a year on these fundamental
ecosystems services, which are largely taken for
granted because they are free.
The single essential requirement of all living things is

energy! Nothing works without energy. The energy
source for life on Earth is the sun. However, we can
not make use of energy directly for the sun not for
biological purposes at least. But solar energy does
reach us indirectly through plants. Green plants absorb sunlight, breathe in Carbon dioxide, absorb water and manufacture food products while breathing
out oxygen. This process is known as photosynthesis
and the food that plants produce is chemical energy
that we humans can eat...... sugars of all varieties!
3.0.5
Food Chain and Food Web
This is nearly twice the value of the global gross

national product GNP which is (US $ 18 tril- Food chains and food webs show the flow of energy
through an ecosystem. Food chains are linear delion).
pictions of energy flow, while food webs show the
Out of the total cost of various ecosystem ser- multiple interactions among the different types of
vices, the soil formation accounts for about 50 organisms. Food webs are generally a more realistic
per cent, and contributions of other services like portrayal of the energy flow in the system. After all,
recreation and nutrient cycling, are less than 10 most organisms eat more than one type of food and
per cent each.
can be eaten by more than one type of predator.
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35
Figure 3.3: Food web in a tropical forest
Figure 3.2 shows a typical food chain in a deciduous forest. Grasshoppers eat the grass; grasshopper mice eat the grasshoppers; and owls eat the
grasshopper mice.
Figure 3.3 shows a more complex portrayal of the
same system as a food web. Despite the visual complexity of the diagram, many species and many links
between species are not shown. In both images, the
arrows indicate the direction of energy flow.
Figure 3.2: Food chain in a tropical forest
So where does energy come from? The fundamental energy source for most of the environment
is the sun. Photoautotrophs capture the suns energy and use it to make organic compounds through
photosynthesis. The process of photosynthesis transforms carbon dioxide and water into simple carbohydrates. The photoautotrophs then use the simple
carbohydrates to build other more complex organic
molecules (proteins, lipids and starches) that are either used as building blocks for their cells or are
stored for later use. Photoautotrophs are often also
called primary producers because they establish the
basis for most other production; they create organic
material from inorganic, or non-living, sources.
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Ecosystem
Banking Awareness
Marine Food Chain and Food Web

How do algae fit into the marine food web? The
photoautotrophs with which we are most familiar
are the trees and flowers that we see everyday on
land. However, there are a substantial number of
photoautotrophs in the marine environment as well
most of which we cant see without a microscope!
Despite their small size, these microscopic primary
producers, marine algae and cyanobacteria, are vital
to our planets productivity since they are at the
base of the marine food web.
3.0.6
What happens further up the food

web?
Each level of a food web or a food chain is called a

trophic or feeding level, and the organisms in the
food web are classified by whether they are primary producers or consumers. The consumers in
food webs are called heterotrophs and they consume
the organic material made by the autotrophs. Heterotrophs cannot make their own food so they are
dependent on the autotrophs for survival.
A simple marine food chain might look like the one
to the left. The salmon is the top consumer; the herring are the secondary consumers; and the copepods
are the primary consumers. The phytoplankton are
the producers.
Figure 3.4 shows a simple marine food chain. The
shark is the top consumer; the small fish are the
secondary consumers; and the copepods are the primary consumers. The phytoplankton are the producers.
A more complex marine food web might look like
the one to the right. Despite the visual complexity of
the diagram, many species and many links between
species are not shown. Organisms may have more
than one trophic role because they eat a variety of
food types.
3.1
Figure 3.4: Marine food chain
Energy Cycles
If energy, in any form can not be created or destroyed

but only transformed it means that it goes around
in cycles and in fact it is energy that powers some
very important cycles that drive life. These include:
Figure 3.5: Marine food web
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Ecosystem
37
fossil fuels and the clearing of large forested areas

has resulted in an increase in of carbon dioxide in
the Earths atmosphere. This has lead to the Greenhouse effect but that is for another module.
Carbon cycle processes
If a diagram were drawn showing the different processes that move carbon from one form to another,
its main processes would be photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, natural weathering of rocks,
and the combustion of fossil fuels.
Photosynthesis:
Figure 3.6: The Water Cycle

1. The water cycle 2. The Carbon cycle 3. The
nitrogen cycle
3.1.1
The Water Cycle
Water may not be alive but it is moving all the time.

It moves in oceans in currents and tides but in addition, it moves because of the sun. The sun acts as a
furnace which heats up the Earth. This heat energy
from the sun causes water to be pulled into the atmosphere by evaporation. In the atmosphere water
as water vapour forms clouds and eventually returns
to the land or oceans as rain or snow. On land,
the water goes into the soil and underlying rocks as
ground water or flows directly into streams, rivers or
lakes.
3.1.2
The Carbon Cycle
All living things need carbon and are made form it

in one form or the other. Fossil fuels like coal and
crude oil are the concentrated remains of the carbon
from dead plants and animals that have formed over
millions of years. The burning of large amounts of
Carbon exists in the atmosphere as the compound

carbon dioxide. It first enters the ecological food web
(the connected network of producers and consumers)
when photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and
certain algae, absorb carbon dioxide through tiny
pores in their leaves. The plants then fix" or capture
the carbon dioxide and are able to convert it into
simple sugars like glucose through the biochemical
process known as photosynthesis. Plants store and
use this sugar to grow and to reproduce. Thus, by
their very nature as makers of their own food, plants
remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. When
plants are eaten by animals, their carbon is passed on
to those animals. Since animals cannot make their
own food, they must get their carbon either directly
by eating plants or indirectly by eating animals that
have eaten plants.
Respiration:
It is the next step in the cycle, and unlike photosynthesis, it occurs in plants, animals, and even
decomposers. Although we usually think only of
breathing oxygen when we hear the word respiration," it has a broader meaning that involves oxygen. To a biologist, respiration is the process in
which oxygen is used to break down organic compounds into carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and water (H2 O).
For an animal then, respiration is both taking in
oxygen (and releasing carbon dioxide) and oxidizing its food (or burning it with oxygen) in order to
release the energy the food contains. In both cases,
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Ecosystem
carbon is returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Carbon atoms that started out as components
of carbon dioxide molecules have passed through the
body of living organisms and been returned to the
atmosphere, ready to be recycled again.
Decomposition:
Banking Awareness
carbon dioxide. Luckily, more than half of the carbon dioxide emitted by the burning of fossil fuels is
absorbed by the oceans, by plants, and by soils. Regardless, scientists feel fossil fuel consumption could
be an example of a human activity that affects and
possibly alters the natural processes (photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition) that nature had previously kept in balance. Many scientists believe that
carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas." This means
that it traps heat and prevents it from escaping from
Earth. As a result, this trapped gas leads to a global
temperature rise, a natural phenomenon known as
the greenhouse effect, which can have disastrous effects on Earths environment.
It is the largest source through which carbon is

returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Decomposers are micro-organisms that live mostly in
the soil but also in water, and which feed on the rotting remains of plants and animals. It is their job
to consume both waste products and dead matter,
during which they also return carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere by respiration. Decomposers not only 3.1.3 Summary
play a key role in the carbon cycle, but also break
An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature and
down, remove, and recycle what might be called nacomprises abiotic and biotic components.
tures garbage.
Weathering of rocks:
Not all carbon atoms are always moving somewhere in the carbon cycle. Often, many become
trapped in lime-rock, a type of stone formed on the
ocean floor by the shells of marine plankton. Sometimes after millions of years, the waters recede and
the lime-rock is eventually exposed to the elements.
When lime-rock is exposed to the natural process
of weathering, it slowly releases the carbon atoms
it contains, and they become an active part of the
carbon cycle once again.
Human-caused increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere:

In recent history, humans have added to the carbon cycle by burning fossil fuels. Ever since the rapid
growth of the Industrial Revolution in the nineteenth century when people first harnessed steam to
power their engines, human beings have been burning carbon-containing fuels like coal and oil (called
fossil fuels) for artificial power. This constant burning produces massive amounts of carbon dioxide,
which are released into Earths atmosphere. Over
the last 150 years, the burning of coal, oil, and natural gas has released some 270 billion tons (245 billion metric tons) of carbon into the air in the form of
Abiotic components are inorganic materials- air,

water and soil, whereas biotic components are
producers, consumers and decomposers.
Each ecosystem has characteristic physical
structure resulting from interaction amongst
abiotic and biotic components.
Species composition and stratification are the
two main structural features of an ecosystem.
Based on source of nutrition every organism occupies a place in an ecosystem.
Productivity, decomposition, energy flow, and
nutrient cycling are the four important components of an ecosystem.
Primary productivity is the rate of capture of
solar energy or biomass production of the producers.
It is divided into two types: gross primary productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity
(NPP).
Rate of capture of solar energy or total production of organic matter is called as GPP.
NPP is the remaining biomass or the energy left
after utilisation of producers.
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Ecosystem
Secondary productivity is the rate of assimilation of food energy by the consumers.

In decomposition, complex organic compounds
of detritus are converted to carbon dioxide, water and inorganic nutrients by the decomposers.
Decomposition involves three processes,
namely fragmentation of detritus, leaching and
catabolism.
Energy flow is unidirectional. First, plants capture solar energy and then, food is transferred
from the producers to decomposers.
Organisms of different trophic levels in nature
are connected to each other for food or energy
relationship forming a food chain.
The storage and movement of nutrient elements
through the various components of the ecosystem is called nutrient cycling; nutrients are repeatedly used through this process.
Nutrient cycling is of two types gaseous and
sedimentary. Atmosphere or hydrosphere is the
reservoir for the gaseous type of cycle (carbon),
whereas Earths crust is the reservoir for sedimentary type (phosphorus).
Products of ecosystem processes are named as
ecosystem services, e.g., purification of air and
water by forests.
The biotic community is dynamic and undergoes changes with the passage of time. These
changes are sequentially ordered and constitute
ecological succession.
Succession begins with invasion of a bare lifeless area by pioneers which later pave way for
successors and ultimately a stable climax community is formed.
The climax community remains stable as long
as the environment remains unchanged.
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Chapter
Climate-Change
4.1
Introduction
The Earths climate has changed throughout history. Just in the last 650,000 years there have been
seven cycles of glacial advance and retreat, with the
abrupt end of the last ice age about 7,000 years ago
marking the beginning of the modern climate era
and of human civilization. Most of these climate changes are attributed to very small variations
in Earths orbit that change the amount of solar energy our planet receives.
Earth-orbiting satellites and other technological

advances have enabled scientists to see the big picture, collecting many different types of information
about our planet and its climate on a global scale.
Studying these climate data collected over many
years reveal the signals of a changing climate.
The heat-trapping nature of carbon dioxide and
other gases was demonstrated in the mid-19th century. Their ability to affect the transfer of infra-red
energy through the atmosphere is the scientific basis
of many instruments flown by NASA. There is no
question that increased levels of greenhouse gases
must cause the Earth to warm in response.
Ice cores drawn from Greenland, Antarctica, and
tropical mountain glaciers show that the Earths climate responds to changes in greenhouse gas levels.
They also show that in the past, large changes in
climate have happened very quickly, geologicallyspeaking: in tens of years, not in millions or even
thousands.
The evidence for rapid climate change is
compelling:
Scientific evidence for warming of the climate

system is unequivocal. - Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change
The current warming trend is of particular significance because most of it is very likely humaninduced and proceeding at a rate that is unprecedented in the past 1,300 years.
40
1. Sea level rise: Global sea level rose about 17

centimetres (6.7 inches) in the last century. The
rate in the last decade, however, is nearly double
that of the last century.
2. Global temperature rise: Global surface
temperature show that Earth has warmed since
1880. Most of this warming has occurred since
the 1970s, with the 20 warmest years having occurred since 1981 and with all 10 of the warmest
years occurring in the past 12 years. Even
though the 2000s witnessed a solar output de-
Dr. JP Publications
Climate-Change
41
Figure 4.1: Flowing melt-water from the Greenland Figure 4.2: Visualization of the 2007 Arctic sea ice
ice sheet
minimum
cline resulting in an unusually deep solar minimum in 2007-2009, surface temperatures continue to increase.
3. Warming oceans: The oceans have absorbed
much of this increased heat, with the top
700 meters (about 2,300 feet) of ocean showing warming of 0.302 degrees Fahrenheit since
1969.8
4. Shrinking ice sheets: The Greenland and
Antarctic ice sheets have decreased in mass.
Data from NASAs Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment show Greenland lost 150 to Figure 4.3: The disappearing snowcap of Mount Kil250 cubic kilometres (36 to 60 cubic miles) of ice imanjaro, from space.
per year between 2002 and 2006, while Antarctica lost about 152 cubic kilometres (36 cubic
There is an increasing numbers of intense rainmiles) of ice between 2002 and 2005.
fall events the world over.
5. Declining Arctic sea ice: Both the extent
and thickness of Arctic sea ice has declined
rapidly over the last several decades.
6. Glacial retreat: Glaciers are retreating almost
everywhere around the world including in the
Alps, Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alaska and
Africa.
7. Extreme events: The number of record high
temperature events in the world has been increasing, while the number of record low temperature events has been decreasing, since 1950.
8. Ocean acidification: Since the beginning of

the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface
ocean waters has increased by about 30 percent.
This increase is the result of humans emitting
more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and
hence more being absorbed into the oceans. The
amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by the upper layer of the oceans is increasing by about 2
billion tons per year.
9. Decreased snow cover: Satellite observations
reveal that the amount of spring snow cover in
the Northern Hemisphere has decreased over the
42
Climate-Change
Banking Awareness
Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse effect is the way in which heat
is trapped close to the surface of the Earth by
greenhouse gases".
These heat-trapping gases can be thought
of as a blanket wrapped around the Earth,
which keeps it toastier than it would be without them. Greenhouse gases include carbon
dioxide, methane and nitrous oxides.
Figure 4.4: A layer of greenhouse gases primarily
water vapor, and including much smaller amounts of
carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide acts as
a thermal blanket for the Earth, absorbing heat and
warming the surface to a life-supporting average of
59 degrees Fahrenheit (15 degrees Celsius).
past five decades and that the snow is melting

earlier.
4.2
Causes of Climate Change

We live in a greenhouse
Life on Earth depends on energy coming from

the sun.
About half the light reaching Earths atmosphere passes through the air and clouds to
the surface, where it is absorbed and then radiated upward in the form of infra-red heat.
About 90 percent of this heat is then absorbed by the greenhouse gases and radiated
back toward the surface, which is warmed to a
life-supporting average of 59 degrees Fahrenheit (15 degrees Celsius).
Most climate scientists agree the main cause of the
current global warming trend is human expansion of
the greenhouse effect" warming that results when
the atmosphere traps heat radiating from Earth toward space.
Greenhouse gases arise naturally, and are

part of the make-up of our atmosphere. Earth
is sometimes called the Goldilocks" planet
its not too hot, not too cold, and the conditions are just right to allow life, including us,
to flourish.
Part of what makes Earth so amenable is
the naturally-arising greenhouse effect, which
keeps the planet at a friendly 15 C (59 F)
on average.
But in the last century or so, humans have
been interfering with the energy balance of
the planet, mainly through the burning of fossil fuels that give off additional carbon dioxide
into the air.
The level of carbon dioxide in Earths atmosphere has been rising consistently for
decades and traps extra heat near the surface
of the Earth, causing temperatures to rise.
Certain gases in the atmosphere block heat from
escaping.
Long-lived gases that remain semipermanently in the atmosphere and do not respond
physically or chemically to changes in temperature
are described as forcing" climate change. Gases,
such as water vapour, which respond physically or
chemically to changes in temperature are seen as
feedbacks."
Gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect include:
1. Water vapor: The most abundant greenhouse
gas, but importantly, it acts as a feedback to the
climate. Water vapor increases as the Earths
atmosphere warms, but so does the possibility
Dr. JP Publications
Climate-Change
43
sphere by international agreement for their ability to contribute to destruction of the ozone
layer. They are also greenhouse gases.
On Earth, human activities are changing the natural greenhouse. Over the last century the burning of
fossil fuels like coal and oil has increased the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). This
happens because the coal or oil burning process combines carbon with oxygen in the air to make CO2. To
Figure 4.5: Greenhouse Gases and their chemical a lesser extent, the clearing of land for agriculture,
bond structure
industry, and other human activities have increased
concentrations of greenhouse gases.
The consequences of changing the natural atmoof clouds and precipitation, making these some
of the most important feedback mechanisms to spheric greenhouse are difficult to predict, but certain effects seem likely:
the greenhouse effect.
2. Carbon dioxide (CO2): A minor but very
important component of the atmosphere, carbon dioxide is released through natural processes such as respiration and volcano eruptions
and through human activities such as deforestation, land use changes, and burning fossil fuels.
Humans have increased atmospheric CO2 concentration by a third since the Industrial Revolution began. This is the most important longlived forcing" of climate change.
3. Methane: A hydrocarbon gas produced both
through natural sources and human activities,
including the decomposition of wastes in landfills, agriculture, and especially rice cultivation,
as well as ruminant digestion and manure management associated with domestic livestock. On
a molecule-for-molecule basis, methane is a far
more active greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, but also one which is much less abundant
in the atmosphere.
On average, Earth will become warmer. Some

regions may welcome warmer temperatures, but
others may not.
Warmer conditions will probably lead to more
evaporation and precipitation overall, but individual regions will vary, some becoming wetter
and others dryer.
A stronger greenhouse effect will warm the
oceans and partially melt glaciers and other ice,
increasing sea level. Ocean water also will expand if it warms, contributing further to sea
level rise.
Meanwhile, some crops and other plants may
respond favourably to increased atmospheric
CO2 , growing more vigorously and using water more efficiently. At the same time, higher
temperatures and shifting climate patterns may
change the areas where crops grow best and affect the make up of natural plant communities.
4. Nitrous oxide: A powerful greenhouse gas

produced by soil cultivation practices, especially 4.2.1 The role of human activity
the use of commercial and organic fertilizers,
fossil fuel combustion, nitric acid production, In its Fourth Assessment Report, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, a group of 1,300
and biomass burning.
independent scientific experts from countries all over
5. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Synthetic the world under the auspices of the United Nations,
compounds entirely of industrial origin used in concluded theres a more than 90 percent probability
a number of applications, but now largely reg- that human activities over the past 250 years have
ulated in production and release to the atmo- warmed our planet.
44
Climate-Change
The industrial activities that our modern civilization depends upon have raised atmospheric carbon
dioxide levels from 280 parts per million to 379 parts
per million in the last 150 years. The panel also concluded theres a better than 90 percent probability
that human-produced greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide have caused
much of the observed increase in Earths temperatures over the past 50 years.
They said the rate of increase in global warming
due to these gases is very likely to be unprecedented
within the past 10,000 years or more.
4.2.2
Solar Irradiance
Its reasonable to assume that changes in the suns

energy output would cause the climate to change,
since the sun is the fundamental source of energy
that drives our climate system.
Indeed, studies show that solar variability has
played a role in past climate changes. For example, a decrease in solar activity is thought to have
triggered the Little Ice Age between approximately
1650 and 1850, when Greenland was largely cut off
by ice from 1410 to the 1720s and glaciers advanced
in the Alps.
Banking Awareness
Is the Sun to blame?

How do we know that changes in the sun
arent to blame for current global warming
trends?
Since 1978, a series of satellite instruments
have measured the energy output of the sun
directly. The satellite data show a very slight
drop in solar irradiance (which is a measure of
the amount of energy the sun gives off) over
this time period.
So the sun doesnt appear to be responsible
for the warming trend observed over the past
30 years.
Longer-term estimates of solar irradiance
have been made using sunspot records and
other so-called proxy indicators," such as the
amount of carbon in tree rings.
The most recent analyses of these proxies indicate that solar irradiance changes cannot
plausibly account for more than 10 percent
of the 20th centurys warming.
But several lines of evidence show that current

global warming cannot be explained by changes in
energy from the sun:
Since 1750, the average amount of energy coming 4.3
from the sun either remained constant or increased
slightly.
If the warming were caused by a more active sun,
then scientists would expect to see warmer temperatures in all layers of the atmosphere. Instead, they
have observed a cooling in the upper atmosphere,
and a warming at the surface and in the lower parts
of the atmosphere. Thats because greenhouse gasses
are trapping heat in the lower atmosphere.
Consequences of Climate Change
Global climate change has already had observable

effects on the environment. Glaciers have shrunk, ice
on rivers and lakes is breaking up earlier, plant and
animal ranges have shifted and trees are flowering
sooner.
Effects that scientists had predicted in the past

Climate models that include solar irradiance would result from global climate change are now occhanges cannot reproduce the observed temperature curring: loss of sea ice, accelerated sea level rise and
trend over the past century or more without includ- longer, more intense heat waves.
ing a rise in greenhouse gases.
Dr. JP Publications
Climate-Change
A degree of difference
4.4
45
Vital Signs
So, the Earths average temperature has increased about 1 degree Fahrenheit during the
20th century. Whats the big deal?
1. Carbon Dioxide: 400.57 ppm (April 2015)
One degree may sound like a small amount,

but its an unusual event in our planets recent history. Earths climate record, preserved in tree rings, ice cores, and coral reefs,
shows that the global average temperature is
stable over long periods of time. Furthermore, small changes in temperature correspond to enormous changes in the environment.
3. Arctic Sea Ice Minimum: Arctic sea ice

reaches its minimum each September. September Arctic sea ice is now declining at a rate of
13.3 percent per decade, relative to the 1981 to
2010 average.
For example, at the end of the last ice age,

when the North-east United States was covered by more than 3,000 feet of ice, average
temperatures were only 5 to 9 degrees cooler
than today.
Scientists have high confidence that global temperatures will continue to rise for decades to come,
largely due to greenhouse gasses produced by human
activities. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), which includes more than 1,300 scientists from around the world, forecasts a temperature rise of 2.5 to 10 degrees Fahrenheit over the next
century.
2. Global Temperature: 0.68 C January 2014
4. Land Ice: Data from NASAs Grace satellites

show that the land ice sheets in both Antarctica and Greenland are losing mass. The continent of Antarctica has been losing about 147
billion metric tons of ice per year since 2003,
while the Greenland ice sheet has been losing
an estimated 258 billion metric tons per year
5. Sea Level: 63.69 mm (February 2015) Sea
level rise is caused primarily by two factors related to global warming: the added water from
melting land ice and the expansion of sea water
as it warms. The graph shows the change in sea
level since 1993 as observed by satellites.
6. Forest Cover: Global forest loss between the
years 2000 and 2012 was 888,000 square miles
(2.3 million square kilometres), while 309,000
square miles (800,000 square kilometres) regrew
during that period.
According to the IPCC, the extent of climate

change effects on individual regions will vary over
4.4.1 Global
Warming
Vs
Climate
time and with the ability of different societal and enChange
vironmental systems to mitigate or adapt to change.
The IPCC predicts that increases in global mean Global warming" refers to the long-term warming
temperature of less than 1.8 to 5.4 degrees Fahren- of the planet. Global temperature shows a wellheit (1 to 3 degrees Celsius) above 1990 levels documented rise since the early 20th century and
will produce beneficial impacts in some regions and most notably since the late 1970s. Worldwide, since
harmful ones in others. Net annual costs will in- 1880 the average surface temperature has gone up
by about 0.8 C (1.4 F), relative to the mid-20thcrease over time as global temperatures increase.
century baseline (of 1951-1980).
Climate change" encompasses global warming,
Taken as a whole, the range of published evbut refers to the broader range of changes that are
idence indicates that the net damage costs of
happening to our planet. These include rising sea
climate change are likely to be significant and
levels, shrinking mountain glaciers, accelerating ice
to increase over time. - Intergovernmental
melt in Greenland, Antarctica and the Arctic, and
Panel on Climate Change
shifts in flower/plant blooming times. These are all
consequences of the warming, which is caused mainly
46
Climate-Change
Banking Awareness
by people burning fossil fuels and putting out heat- 4.4.4 Is it too late to prevent Climate
trapping gases into the air. The terms global warmChange?
ing" and climate change" are sometimes used interchangeably, but strictly they refer to slightly different things.
Humans have caused major climate changes to happen already, and we have set in motion more changes
still. Even if we stopped emitting greenhouse gases
4.4.2 Weather Vs Climate
today, global warming would continue to happen for
Weather" refers to the more local changes in the at least several more decades if not centuries. Thats
climate we see around us, on short time-scales from because it takes a while for the planet (for example,
minutes to hours to days to weeks. Examples are the oceans) to respond, and because carbon dioxide
familiar rain, snow, clouds, winds, thunderstorms, the predominant heat-trapping gas lingers in the
heat waves and floods. Climate" refers to longer- atmosphere for hundreds of years. There is a time
term averages (they may be regional or global), and lag between what we do and when we feel it.
can be thought of as the weather averaged over sevIn the absence of major action to reduce emissions,
eral seasons, years or decades. Climate change is
global
temperature is on track to rise by an average
harder for us to get a sense of because the time-scales
involved are much longer, and the impact of climate of 6 C (10.8 F), according to the latest estimates.
changes can be less immediate. Examples of climate Some scientists argue a global disaster" is already
change include several drier-than-normal summers, unfolding at the poles of the planet; the Arctic, for
a trend of, say, winters becoming milder from our example, may be ice-free in the summer within just
grandparents childhood to our own, or variations in a few years. Yet other experts are concerned about
Earth passing one or more tipping points" abrupt,
effects like El Nio or La Nia.
perhaps irreversible changes that tip our climate into
a new state.
4.4.3
Is Sun Responsible For Global

Warming?
No. The sun can influence the Earths climate, but

it isnt responsible for the warming trend weve seen
over the past few decades. The sun is a giver of
life; it helps keep the planet warm enough for us to
survive. We know subtle changes in the Earths orbit
around the sun are responsible for the comings and
goings of the ice ages. But the warming weve seen
over the last few decades is too rapid to be linked to
changes in Earths orbit, and too large to be caused
by solar activity. In fact, recently (2005-2010) the
sun has become less active, while temperatures have
marched upwards.
One of the smoking guns" that tells us the sun
is not causing global warming comes from looking
at the amount of the suns energy that hits the top
of the atmosphere. Since 1978, scientists have been
tracking this using sensors on satellites and what
they tell us is that there has been no upward trend
in the amount of the suns energy reaching Earth.
But it may not be too late to avoid or limit some

of the worst effects of climate change. Responding to
climate change will involve a two-tier approach: 1)
mitigation" reducing the flow of greenhouse gases
into the atmosphere; and 2) adaptation" learning
to live with, and adapt to, the climate change that
has already been set in motion. The key question
is: what will our emissions of carbon dioxide and
other pollutants be in the years to come? Recycling
and driving more fuel-efficient cars are examples of
important behavioral change that will help, but they
will not be enough. Because climate change is a truly
global, complex problem with economic, social, political and moral ramifications, the solution will require both a globally-coordinated response (such as
international policies and agreements between countries, a push to cleaner forms of energy) and local efforts on the city- and regional-level (for example, public transport upgrades, energy efficiency improvements, sustainable city planning, etc.). Its up
to us what happens next.
Dr. JP Publications
4.4.5
Climate-Change
47
Is the Ozone hole causing the Cli- 4.4.7

mate Change?
Greenhouse gas and Temperature

Levels
Yes and no. The ozone hole is basically a man-made

hole in the ozone layer above the South Pole during
the Southern Hemispheres spring. The ozone layer,
which lies high up in the atmosphere, shields us from
harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays that come from the
sun. Unfortunately we punched a hole in it, through
the use of gases like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in
spray cans and refrigerants, which break down ozone
molecules in the upper atmosphere.
While some of the suns UV rays slip through the
hole, they account for less than one percent of the
suns energy. So these UV rays cannot explain the
global warming of the planet.
What scientists have uncovered recently, however,
is that the ozone hole has been affecting climate in
the Southern Hemisphere. Thats because ozone is
also a powerful greenhouse gas, and destroying it
has made the stratosphere (the second layer of the
atmosphere going upwards) over the Southern Hemisphere colder. The colder stratosphere has resulted
in faster winds near the pole, which somewhat surprisingly can have impacts all the way to the equator,
affecting tropical circulation and rainfall at lower latitudes. The ozone hole is not causing global warming, but it is affecting atmospheric circulation.
4.4.6
Do Scientists agree on climate

change?
Yes, the vast majority of actively publishing climate

scientists 97 percent agree that humans are causing global warming and climate change. Most of
the leading science organizations around the world
have issued public statements expressing this, including international and U.S. science academies,
the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and a whole host of reputable scientific bodies around the world). The number of peerreviewed scientific papers that reject the consensus
on human-caused global warming is a vanishingly
small proportion of the published research. The
small amount of dissent tends to come from a few vocal scientists who are not experts in the climate field
or do not understand the scientific basis of long-term
climate processes.
Ice cores are scientists best source for historical climate data. Every winter, some snow coating Arctic and Antarctic ice sheets is left behind and compressed into a layer of ice. By extracting cylinders of
ice from sheets thousands of meters thick, scientists
can analyse dust, ash, pollen and bubbles of atmospheric gas trapped inside. The deepest discovered
ice cores are an estimated 800,000 years old. The
particles trapped inside give scientists clues about
volcanic eruptions, desert extent and forest fires.
The presence of certain ions indicates past ocean activity, levels of sea ice and even the intensity of the
sun. The bubbles can be released to reveal the makeup of the ancient atmosphere, including greenhouse
gas levels.
Other tools for learning about Earths ancient atmosphere include growth rings in trees, which keep
a rough record of each growing seasons temperature, moisture and cloudiness going back about 2,000
years. Corals also form growth rings that provide
information about temperature and nutrients in the
tropical ocean.
References
1. NASAs Global Climate Change website.

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Contents

bon dioxide. Rest are inert gases (0.93% Argon,

Every living organism is constantly interacting with

5. Substratum Organisms may be terrestrial or

1. Light Sunlight provides energy. Green plants

2. Rainfall Water is essential for all living beings.

Living organisms, therefore, need both abiotic

3. Temperature Temperature is a critical factor

What is Natural Environment?

est, grassland, desert, mountains, lake, river, ocean

Human beings interact with the environment and

All plants, animals and human beings depend on

exist. The basic principles of ecology are:

3. Community: A group of organisms consisting

The Basis Of Ecology

The environment encompasses everything that is

4. Ecosystem: A communities of organisms and

Figure 2.1: Levels of ecological organization

Habitat and Organism

address. Forest, ocean, river etc. are examples of

Niche and Organism

In nature, many species occupy the same habitat

Figure 2.6: Adaptation in the types of beaks in birds:

1. Organisms tend to produce more off springs

A valid theory of evolution was propounded by

3. An evolutionary force which Darwin termed

The number of species surviving in the world today

Figure 2.8: Process of natural selection

2. Members of different populations are not

Figure 2.10: (a) Fossil of fern plant. (b) Fossil fish

Figure 2.9: The Kaibab squirrel of the north rim

Ever since life evolved on earth, new species better

and death rates of the population. An individual is

reproductive group: consisting of individuals

Loss of individuals from a population due to death

the type of area that is inhabited by the populations of the community;

Members of a community also actively interact

the canopy dominates the area. They modify the

Succession is the process by which new community

site is called climax community. It is the aggregation

The processes of ecological succession are

5. Competition: Once the few initial species

to support itself due to the harsh conditions.

Figure 2.14: The orderly sequence of primary succession

Figure 2.15: Secondary succession on land

seeds and other dormant stages of organisms.

The biological community of an area or ecosystem is

From the table you can see that in certain types of

Figure 2.17: Example for Amensalism.

Figure 2.16: Possible biological interactions between two species.

Figure 2.18: Example for Predation.

Figure 2.20: Example for Competition.

Figure 2.19: Example for Parasitism.

5. Commensalism: In this relationship one of

Figure 2.21: Example for Comensalism.

Figure 2.23: Another example for Mutualism.

mite and flagellates cannot survive without each

Figure 2.24: Example for Neutralism.

Ecology is the study of the relationships of living

1. Synecology deals with

A. Herbivorous B. Carnivorous C. Bacteria D. Either carnivorous or herbivorous

A. ecology of many species

12. Consider the following statements about the estuary:

4. Energy flow in an ecosystem is