NPTEL Course On Power Quality in Power Distribution Systems

NPTEL Course
on
Power Quality in Power Distribution Systems
Dr. Mahesh Kumar
Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Chennai - 600 036
Contents
SINGLE PHASE CIRCUITS: POWER DEFINITIONS AND COMPONENTS

(Lectures 1-8)
1.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Power Terms in a Single Phase System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
Sinusoidal Voltage Source Supplying Non-linear Load Current . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4
Non-sinusoidal Voltage Source Supplying Non-linear Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.4.1
Active Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.2
Reactive Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.3
Apparent Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.4
Non Active Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.5
Distortion Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.6
Fundamental Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.7
Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
THREE PHASE CIRCUITS: POWER DEFINITIONS AND VARIOUS COMPONENTS

(Lectures 9-18)
2.1
29
Three-phase Sinusoidal Balanced System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.1.1
Balanced Three-phase Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1.2
Three Phase Instantaneous Active Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

i
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.1.3
Three Phase Instantatneous Reactive Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.1.4
Power Invariance in abc and 0 Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Instantaneous Active and Reactive Powers for Three-phase Circuits . . . . . . . . 35

2.2.1
Three-Phase Balance System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.2
Three-Phase Unbalance System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Symmetrical components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3.1
Effective Apparent Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.3.2
Positive Sequence Powers and Unbalance Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Three-phase Non-sinusoidal Balanced System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

2.4.1
Neutral Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.4.2
Line to Line Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.4.3
Apparent Power with Budeanu Resolution: Balanced Distortion Case . . . 56
2.4.4
Effective Apparent Power for Balanced Non-sinusoidal System . . . . . . 56
Unbalanced and Non-sinusoidal Three-phase System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

2.5.1
Arithmetic and Vector Apparent Power with Budeanus Resolution . . . . . 60
2.5.2
Effective Apparent Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
FUNDAMENTAL THEORY OF LOAD COMPENSATION

(Lectures 19-28)
71
3.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.2
Fundamental Theory of Load Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

3.2.1
Power Factor and its Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.2.2
Voltage Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.2.3
An Approximation Expression for the Voltage Regulation . . . . . . . . . 77
3.3
Some Practical Aspects of Compensator used as Voltage Regulator . . . . . . . . . 83
3.4
Phase Balancing and Power Factor Correction of Unbalanced Loads . . . . . . . . 86

3.4.1
Three-phase Unbalanced Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

ii
3.5
3.6
3.4.2
Representation of Three-phase Delta Connected Unbalanced Load . . . . . 89
3.4.3
An Alternate Approach to Determine Phase Currents and Powers . . . . . 92
3.4.4
An Example of Balancing an Unbalanced Delta Connected Load . . . . . . 94
A Generalized Approach for Load Compensation using Symmetrical Components . 97

3.5.1
Sampling Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.5.2
Averaging Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Compensator Admittance Represented as Positive and Negative Sequence Admittance Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
CONTROL THEORIES FOR LOAD COMPENSATION

(Lectures 29-40)
4.1
121
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.1.1
State Space Modeling of the Compensator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.1.2
Switching Control of the VSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.1.3
Generation of Ploss to maintain dc capacitor voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.1.4
Computation of load average power (Plavg ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.2
Some Misconception in Reactive Power Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.3
Theory of Instantaneous Symmetrical Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

4.3.1
Compensating Star Connected Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
4.3.2
Compensating Delta Connected Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
SERIES COMPENSATION: VOLTAGE COMPENSATION USING DVR

(Lectures 41-48)
171
5.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.2
Conventional Methods to Regulate Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.3
Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.4
Operating Principle of DVR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

5.4.1
General Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

iii
5.5
Mathematical Description to Compute DVR Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.6
Transient Operation of the DVR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

5.6.1
Operation of the DVR With Unbalance and Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.7
Realization of DVR voltage using Voltage Source Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
5.8
Maximum Compensation Capacity of the DVR Without Real Power Support from
the DC Link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
iv
Chapter 1
SINGLE PHASE CIRCUITS: POWER

DEFINITIONS AND COMPONENTS
(Lectures 1-8)
1.1
Introduction
The definitions of power and its various components are very important to understand quantitative
and qualitative power quality aspects in power system [1][5]. This is not only necessary from the
point of view of conceptual clarity but also very much required for practical applications such as
metering, quantification of active, reactive power, power factor and other power quality parameters
in power system. These aspects become more important when power system is not ideal i.e., it
deals with unbalance, harmonics, faults and fluctuations in frequency. We therefore, in this chapter
explore the concept and fundamentals of single phase system with some practical applications and
illustrations.
1.2
Power Terms in a Single Phase System
Let us consider a single-phase system with sinusoidal system voltage supplying a linear load as
shown in Fig. 1.1. A linear load is one which consists of ideal resistive, inductive and capacitive
elements. The voltage and current are expressed as below.
v(t) = 2 V sin t
i(t) = 2 I sin(t )
The instantaneous power can be computed as,
1
(1.1)
Fig. 1.1 A single phase system
p(t) = v( t) i(t) =
=
=
=
=
V I [2 sin t sin(t )]
V I[cos cos(2t )]
V I cos (1 cos 2t) V I sin sin 2t
P (1 cos 2t) Q sin 2t
pactive (t) preactive (t)
(1.2)
R T +t
Here, P = T1 t=t1 1 p(t) dt = average value of pactive (t). This is called as average active power.
The reactive power Q is defined as,
Q = max {preactive (t)}
(1.3)
It should be noted that the way Q is defined is different from P . The Q is defined as maximum
value of the second term of (1.2) and not an average value of the second term. This difference
should always kept in mind.
Equation (1.2) shows that instantaneous power can be decomposed into two parts. The first term
has an average value of V I cos and an alternating component of V I cos 2t, oscillating at twice
the line frequency. This part is never negative and therefore is called unidirectional or dc power.
The second term has an alternating component V I sin sin 2t oscillating at twice frequency with
a peak vale of V I sin . The second term has zero average value. The equation (1.2) can further
be written in the following form.
p(t) =
=
=
=
V I cos V I cos(2t )
p(t) + p(t)
paverage + poscillation
pusef ul + pnonusef ul
(1.4)
With the above definitions of P and Q, the instantaneous power p(t) can be re-written as following.
p(t) = P (1 cos 2t) Q sin 2t
2
(1.5)

Example 1.1 Consider a sinusoidal supply voltage v(t) = 230 2 sin t supplying a linear load of
impedance ZL = 12 + j13 at = 2f radian per second, f = 50 Hz. Express current i(t) as a
function of time. Based on v(t) and i(t) determine the following.
(a) Instantaneous power p(t), instantaneous active power pactive (t) and instantaneous reactive
power preactive (t)
(b) Compute average real power P , reactive power Q, apparent power S, and power factor pf .
(c) Repeat the above when load is ZL = 12 j13 , ZL = 12 , and ZL = j13
(d) Comment upon the results.
Solution: A single phase circuit supplying linear load is shown Fig. 1.1. In general, the current in
the circuit is given as,
i(t) =
2 I sin(t )
where = tan1 (XL /RL ), and I = (V /|ZL |)

Case 1: When load is inductive, ZL = 12 + j13
p
|ZL | = RL2 + XL2 = 122 + 132 = 17.692 , and I = 230/17.692 = 13 A

= tan1 (X/R) = tan1 (13/12) = 47.29o
Therefore we have,
v(t) = 230 2 sin t
i(t) = 13 2 sin(t 47.29o )

The instantaneous power is given as,
p(t) =
=
=
=
V I cos (1 cos 2t) V I sin sin 2t

230 13 cos 47.29o (1 cos(2 314t)) 230 13 sin 47.29o sin(2 314t)
2028.23(1 cos(2 314t)) 2196.9 sin(2 314t)
pactive (t) preactive (t)
The above implies that,

pactive (t) = 2028.23(1 cos(2 314t))
preactive (t) = 2196.9 sin(2 314t)
Average real power (P ) is given as,
Z
1 T
P =
p(t) dt
T 0
P = V I cos = 230 13 cos 47.29o = 2028.23 W
Reactive power (Q) is given as maximum value of preactive , and equals to V I sin as given below.
Q = V I sin = 230 13 sin 47.2906 = 2196.9 VAr
p
Apparant power, S = V I = P 2 + Q2 = 230 13 = 2990 VA
2028.23
P
=
= 0.6783
Power factor =
S
2990
For this case, the voltage, current and various components of the power are shown in Fig. 1.2. As
seen from the figure the current lags the voltage due to inductive load. The pactive has an offset of
2028.23 W, which is also indicated as P in the right bottom graph. The preactive has zero average
value and its maximum value is equal to Q, which is 2196.9 VArs.
Case 2: When load is Capacitive, ZL = 12 j13 that implies |ZL | = 122 + 132 = 17.692,
and I = 230/17.692 = 13 A, = tan1 (13/12) = 47.2906o .
v(t) = 230 2 sin t
i(t) = 13 2 sin(t + 47.2906o )

p(t) = V I cos (1 cos 2t) V I sin sin 2t
= 230 13 cos(47.2906o )(1 cos(2 314t)) 230 13 sin(47.2906o ) sin(2 314t)
= 2028.23(1 cos(2 314t)) + 2196.9 sin(2 314t)
pactive (t) = 2028.23(1 cos(2 314t))
preactive (t) = 2196.9 sin(2 314t)
P = V I cos = 230 13 cos 47.2906o = 2028.23 Watt
Q = V I sin = 230 13 sin(47.2906o ) = 2196.9 VAr
p
S = V I = P 2 + Q2 = 230 13 = 2990 VA
For Case 2, the voltage, current and various components of the power are shown in Fig. 1.3. The
explanation given earlier also holds true for this case.
Case 3: When load is resistive, ZL = RL = 12 , I = 230/12 = 19.167 A, and = 0o .
4
400
6000
Voltge (V)
4000
VA, W, VAr
200
-200
-400
2000
0
-2000
0.01
0.02
-4000
0.03
p(t)
0
0.02 pact(t)
0.01
sec
sec
20
0.03
preact(t)
2400
Current (A)
-10
-20
Average Power (W)

Reactive Power (VAr)
2300
W, VAr
10
2200
2100
0.01
0.02
2000
0.03
0.01
sec
0.02
0.03
sec
Fig. 1.2 Case 1: Voltage, current and various power components
Therefore, we have
v(t) = 230 2 sin t
i(t) = 19.167 2 sin t

p(t) = 230 19.167 cos 0o {1 cos(2 314t)} 230 19.167 sin 0o sin(2 314t)
= 4408.33(1 cos(2 314t))
pactive (t) = 4408.33{1 cos(2 314t)}
preactive (t) = 0
P = V I cos = 230 19.167 cos 0o = 4408.33 W
Q = V I sin = 230 19.167 sin 0o = 0 VAr
p
S = V I = P 2 + Q2 = 230 19.167 = 4408.33 VA
4408.33
Power factor =
=1
4408.33
5
400
6000
Voltage (V)
4000
VA, W, VAr
200
-200
-400
2000
0
-2000
0.01
0.02
-4000
0.03
0.01
sec
0.02
sec
20
p(t)
p (t) 0.03
act
preact(t)
3000
Current (A)
2000
10
W, VAr
1000
0
Average Power (W)

0
-1000
-10
-2000
-20
0.01
0.02
-3000
0.03
0.01
sec
0.02
sec
0.03
0.04
For Case 3, the voltage, current and various components of the power are shown in Fig. 1.4. Since
the load is resistive, as seen from the graph preactive is zero and p(t) is equal to pactive . The average
value of p(t) is real power (P ), which is equal to 4408.33 W.
Case 4: When the load is purely reactive, ZL = j13 , |ZL | = 13 , I = 230
= 17.692 A, and
13
= 90o . Therefore, we have
v(t) = 230 2 sin t
i(t) = 17.692 2 sin(t 90o )

p(t) = 230 17.692 cos 90o (1 cos(2 314t)) 230 17.692 sin 90o sin(2 314t)
= 0 4069 sin(2 314t)
pactive (t) = 0
preactive (t) = 4069 sin(2 314t)
P = V I cos = 230 17.692 cos 90o = 0 W
Q = V I sin = 230 17.692 sin 90o = 4069 VAr
p
S = V I = P 2 + Q2 = 230 17.692 = 4069 VA
0
Power factor =
=0
4069
6
400
10000
Voltage (V)
8000
VA, W, VAr
200
6000
4000
2000
-200
0
-400
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.01
sec
0.02
sec
30
p(t)
pact(t) 0.03
preact(t)
5000
Current (A)
4000
10
3000
W, VAr
20
2000
-10
1000
-20
-30
0.01
0.02
-1000
0.03
Average Power (W)

0.01
sec
0.02
0.03
sec
For Case 4, the voltage, current and various components of the power are shown in Fig. 1.5. The
load in this case is purely reactive, hence their is no average component of p(t). The maximum
value of p(t) is same as preactive (t) or Q, which is equal to 4069 VArs.
1.3
Sinusoidal Voltage Source Supplying Non-linear Load Current
The load current is now considered as nonlinear load. A non-linear load is one which consists
of switched elements such as diode, transistors, MOSFET, etc., in the circuit. In power circuit,
non-linear load current exists, when source supplies to power electronics based loads such as rectifier, inverter, cyclo-converters etc.. These loads cause presence of harmonics in the load current.
Assuming that all harmonics are present in the load current, the voltage and current are expressed
as following.
v(t) =
2 V sin t
X
i(t) =
2
In sin(nt n )
n=1
The instantaneous power is therefore given by,

7
(1.6)
400
5000
Voltage (V)
VA, W, VAr
200
-200
-400
0.01
0.02
-5000
0.03
0.01
0.02
sec
p(t)
pact(t) 0.03
preact(t)
30
5000
Current (A)
20
4000
W, VAr
10
0
3000
Active Power (W)
2000
-10
1000
-20
-30
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.01
0.02
0.03
p(t) = v(t) i(t) =
X
In sin(nt n )
2 V sin t 2
n=1
= V
[In 2 sin t sin(nt n )]
n=1
= V [I1 2 sin t sin(t 1 )]
X
+ V
[In 2 sin t sin(nt n )]
(1.7)
n=2
Note that 2 sin A sin B = cos(A B) cos(A + B), using this, Eqn. (1.7) can be re-written as
the following.
8
p(t) = V I1 [cos 1 cos(2t 1 )] V I1 sin 1 sin 2t
X
+V
In [ (cos n cos(2nt n )) sin n sin 2nt]
n=2
= V I1 cos 1 (1 cos 2t) V I1 sin 1 sin 2t
X
+
V In [ cos n (1 cos 2nt) sin n sin 2nt]
(1.8)
n=2
A + B
In above equation, average active power P and reactive power Q are given by,
P = P1 = average value of p(t) = V I1 cos 1
Q = Q1 = peak value of second term in A = V I1 sin 1
(1.9)
The apparent power S is given by

S = V Iq
S = V [I12 + I22 + I32 + .....]
(1.10)
Equation (1.10) can be re-arranged as given below.

S 2 = V 2 I12 + V 2 [I22 + I32 + I42 + ...]
= (V I1 cos 1 )2 + (V I1 sin 1 )2 + V 2 [I22 + I32 + I42 + .....]
= P 2 + Q2 + H 2
(1.11)
In above equation, H is known as harmonic power and represents V As corresponding to harmonics

and is equal to,
H=V
q
[I22 + I32 + I42 + .....]
(1.12)
The following points are observed from description.

1. P and Q are dependent on the fundamental current components
2. H is dependent on the current harmonic components
3. Power components V I cos 2t and V I1 sin 1 sin 2t are oscillating components and can
be eliminated using appropriately chosen capacitors and inductors
4. There are other terms in (1.10), which are functions of multiple integer of fundamental frequency are reflected in B terms of Eqn. (1.8). These terms can be eliminated using tuned
LC filters.
9
This is represented by power tetrahedron instead of power triangle (in case of voltage and current
of sinusidal nature of fundamental frequency). In this context, some important terms are defined
here.
Displacement Power Factor (DPF) or Fundamental Power Factor (pf1 ) is denoted by cos 1
and is cosine angle between the fundamental voltage and current. This is equal to,
DPF = pf1 = cos 1 =
P1
.
S1
(1.13)
The Power Factor (pf ) is defined as ratio of average active power to the total apparent power
(V I) and is expressed as,
P
S

I1
V I1 cos 1
=
=
cos 1
VI
I
= cos cos 1
Power Factor (pf ) =
(1.14)
The equation (1.14) shows that power factor becomes less by a factor of cos , which is ratio of
fundamental to the total current. This is due to the presence of the harmonics in the load current.
The nonlinear load current increases the ampere rating of the conductor for same amount of active
power transfer with increased VA rating. Such kind of load is not desired in power system.
Example 1.2 Consider an ideal single-phase voltage
source supplying a rectifier load as given
in Fig. 1.6. Given a supply voltage, v(t) = 230 2 sin t and source impedance is negligible,
draw the voltage and current waveforms. Express current using Fourier series. Based on that
determine the following.
1. Plot instantaneous power p(t).
2. Plot components of p(t) i.e. pactive (t), preactive (t).
3. Compute average real power, reactive power, apparent power, power factor, displacement
factor (or fundamental power factor).
4. Comment upon the results in terms of VA rating and power output.
Solution: The above system has been simulated using MATLAB/SIMULINK. The supply voltage
and current are shown in Fig. 1.7. The current waveform is of the square type and its Fourier series
expansion is given below.
i(t) =
X
4Idc
sin(nt) where h = 0, 1, 2 . . .
n
n=2h+1
The instantaneous power is therefore given by,

10
i (t )
Id
v (t )
Fig. 1.6 A single phase system with non-linear load
p(t) = v(t) i(t) =
X
4Idc
2 V sin t
sin(nt).
n
n=2h+1
(1.15)
By expansion of the above equation, the average active power (P ) and reactive power (Q) are given
as below.
P = P1 = average value of Pactive (t) or p(t) = V I1 cos 1
= V I1 (since, 1 = 0, cos 1 = 1, sin 1 = 0)
Q = Q1 = peak value of Preactive (t) = V I1 sin 1 = 0

The rms value of fundamental and rms value of the total source current are given below.
Irms = Id = 103.5 A
2 2
I1 =
Id = 93.15 A
The real power (P ) is given by

P = V I1
2 2
Id = 21424.5 W .
= V
The reactive power (Q) is given by

Q = Q1 = 0.
The apparent power (S) is given by
S = V Irms
= V Id = 23805 VA .
11
300
Supply current (A)

Supply voltage (V)
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
1
1.001
1.002
1.003
Time(Sec)
1.004
1.005
1.006
5
x 10
x 10
3
2.5
2
1.5
instantaneous power
Average power (W)
Reactive power (Var)
1
0.5
0
-0.5
1
1.001
1.002
1.003
Time (Sec)
1.004
1.005
1.006
5
x 10
Fig. 1.7 Supply voltage, current and instantaneous power waveforms
The displacement power factor (cos 1 ) is,

DP F = cos 1 = 1.
Therefore power factor is given by,
P
S1 P1
=
S
S S1
V I1
=
cos 1
V Irms
I1
=
DP F = 0.9 (lag)
Irms
pf =
1.4
Non-sinusoidal Voltage Source Supplying Non-linear Loads
The voltage source too may have harmonics transmitted from generation or produced due to nonlinear loads in presence of feeder impedance. In this case, we shall consider generalized case of
non-sinusoidal voltage source supplying nonlinear loads including dc components. These voltages
and currents are represented as,
v(t) = Vdc +
2Vn sin(nt vn )
n=1
12
(1.16)
and
i(t) = Idc +
2In sin(nt in )
(1.17)
n=1
Therefore, instantanteous power p(t) is given by,
X
X
2Vn sin(nt vn )].[Idc +

2In sin(nt in )]
p(t) = [Vdc +
p(t) = Vdc Idc + Vdc

| {z }
I
| n=1
+
(1.18)
n=1
n=1
2In sin(nt in ) + Idc
2Vn sin(nt vn )
n=1
{z
II
2Vn sin(nt vn )
|n=1
{z
III
2In sin(nt in )
{zn=1
}
(1.19)
IV
p(t) = pdcdc + pdcac + pacdc + pacac
(1.20)
The term I (pdcdc ) contributes to power from dc components of voltage and current. Terms II
(pdcac ) and III (pacdc ) result from the interaction of dc and ac components of voltage and current.
In case, there are no dc components all these power components are zero. In practical cases, dc
components are very less and the first three terms have negligible value compared to IV term.
Thus, we shall focus on IV (pacac ) term which corresponds to ac components present in power
system. The term IV can be written as,
th
IV term = pacac =
2Vn sin(nt vn )
n=1
2Ih sin(ht ih )
(1.21)
h=1
where n = h = 1, 2, 3..., similar frequency terms will interact. When n 6= h, dissimilar

13
frequency terms will interact. This is expressed below.
2V1 sin(t v1 ) 2I1 sin(t i1 )

pacac (t) =
|
{z
}
A
2Ih sin(ht ih )
+ 2V1 sin(t v1 )
h=2,h6=1
|
{z
B
+ 2V2 sin(2t v2 ) 2I2 sin(2t i2 )

|
{z
}
+ 2V2 sin(2t v2 )
2Ih sin(ht ih ) + . . . + . . .
h=1,h6=2
{z
|
B
+ 2Vn sin(nt vn ) 2In sin(nt in )

|
{z
}
+ 2Vn sin(nt vn )
2Ih sin(ht ih )
(1.22)
h=1,h6=n
{z
The terms in A of above equation form similar frequency terms and terms in B form dissimilar
frequency terms, we shall denote them by pacacnn and pacacnh . Thus,
pacacnn (t) =
Vn In 2 sin(nt vn ) sin(nt in )
(1.23)
n=1
and
pacacnh (t) =
2Vn sin(nt vn )
n=1
2In sin(ht ih )
(1.24)
h=1,h6=n
Now, let us simplify pacacnn in

pacacnn (t) =
=
X
n=1
Vn In [cos(in vn ) cos(2nt in vn )]
Vn In [cos(n ) cos(2nt (in vn ) 2vn )]
n=1
=
=
X
n=1
Vn In [cos(n ) cos (2nt 2vn ) n ]

Vn In [cos(n ) cos(2nt 2vn ) cos n sin(2nt 2vn ) sin n ]
n=1
(1.25)
14
where n = (in vn ) = is phase angle between nth harmonic current and voltage. Therefore,
X
pacacnn (t) =
[Vn In cos n {1 cos(2nt 2vn )}]
n=1
[Vn In sin n sin(2nt 2vn )].
(1.26)
n=1
Thus, the instantaneous power is given by,

p(t) = pdcdc + pdcac + pacdc + pacacnn + pacacnh
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
I
II
III
| IVA {z IVB }
IV
p(t) = Vdc Idc + Vdc
2Vn sin(nt vn )
n=1
n=1
X
n=1
[Vn In sin n . sin(2nt 2in )]
(1.27)
n=1
1.4.1
Active Power
Instantaneous active power, pactive (t) is expressed as,

pactive (t) = Vdc Idc +
(1.28)
n=1
It has non-negative value with some average component, giving average active power. Therefore,
Z
1 T
P =
p(t) dt
T 0
X
= Vdc Idc +
Vn In cos n .
(1.29)
n=1
The reactive component of the instantaneous power is denoted by preactive (t) and is given as following.
preactive (t) =
[Vn In sin n sin(2nt 2vn )]
n=1
resulting in
15
(1.30)
Q , max of (1.30) magnitude
X
=
Vn In sin n .
(1.31)
n=1
From (1.29)
P = Pdc +
Vn In cos n
n=1
= Pdc + V1 I1 cos 1 + V2 I2 cos 2 + V3 I3 cos 3 + . . .

= Pdc + P1 + P2 + P3 + . . .
= Pdc + P1 + PH
(1.32)
In above equation,
Pdc = Average active power corresponding to the dc components
P1 = Average fundamental active power
PH = Average harmonic active power
Average fundamental active power (P1 ) can also be found from fundamentals of voltage and current i.e.,
P1
1
=
T
v1 (t) i1 (t)dt
(1.33)
and harmonic active power (PH ) can be found as below.
PH =
Vn In cos n = P P1 .
(1.34)
n=1
1.4.2
Reactive Power
The reactive power or Budeanus reactive power (Q) can be found by summing maximum value of
each term in (1.30). This is given below.
Q =
Vn In sin n
n=1
= V1 I1 sin 1 + V2 I2 sin 2 + V3 I3 sin 3 + . . .

= Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + . . .
= Q1 + QH
16
(1.35)
Usually this reactive power is referred as Budeanus reactive power, and sometimes we use subscript B to indicate that i.e.,
QB = Q1B + QHB
(1.36)
The remaining dissimilar terms of (1.27) are accounted using prest (t). Therefore, we can write,
p(t) = pdcdc + pactive (t) + preactive (t) +
{z
}
|
Similar frequency terms
p (t)
{z }
| rest
(1.37)
Non-similar frequency terms
where,
pdcdc = Vdc Idc
X
pactive (t) =
[Vn In cos n {1 cos(2nt 2 vn )}]
n=1
preactive (t) =
[Vn In sin n . sin(2nt 2 vn )]
n=1
prest (t) = Vdc

2Vn sin(nt vn )
n=1
n=1
+
2Vn sin(nt vn )
n=1
1.4.3
2Im sin(mt im )
(1.38)
m=1,m6=n
Apparent Power
The scalar apparent power which is defined as product of rms value of voltage and current, is
expressed as following.
S = V
qI
q
2
2
2
2
=
Vdc + V1 + V2 + Idc
+ I12 + I22 +
q
q
2
2
=
Vdc2 + V12 + VH2 Idc
+ I12 + IH
(1.39)
Where,
VH2 = V22 + V32 + =
Vn2
n=2
2
IH
= I22 + I32 + =
In2
(1.40)
n=2
VH and IH are denoted as harmonic voltage and harmonic current respectively. Expanding (1.39)
we can write
17
S2 =
=
=
=
=
=
V 2I 2
2
2
(Vdc2 + V12 + VH2 )(Idc
+ I12 + IH
)
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
2
Vdc Idc + Vdc I1 + Vdc IH + V1 I1 + V12 Idc
+ V12 IH
+ VH2 Idc
+ VH2 I12 + VH2 IH
2
2
2
2
2
Vdc2 Idc
+ V12 I12 + VH2 IH
+ Vdc2 (I12 + IH
) + Idc
(V12 + VH2 ) + V12 IH
+ VH2 I12
2
2
2
Sdc
+ S12 + SH
+ SD
2
2
2
+ SH
+ SD
S12 + Sdc
{z
}
|
2
= S12 + SN
(1.41)
In above equation, the term SN is as following.

2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
SN
= Vdc2 I12 + Vdc2 IH
+ V12 Idc
+ V12 IH
+ VH2 Idc
+ VH2 I12 + VH2 IH
+ Idc
IH + Idc
Vdc2
(1.42)
Practically in power systems dc components are negligible. Therefore neglecting the contribution
of Vdc and Idc associated terms in (1.42), the following is obtained.
2
2
2
SN
= I12 VH2 + V12 IH
+ VH2 IH
2
= DV2 + DI2 + SH
(1.43)
The terms DI and DV in (1.43) are known as apparent powers due to distortion in current and
voltage respectively. These are given below.
DV = I1 VH
DI = V1 IH
(1.44)
These are further expressed in terms of THD components of voltage and current, as given below.
T HDV
T HDI
VH
V1
IH
=
I1
=
(1.45)
From (1.45), the harmonic components of current and voltage are expressed below.
VH = T HDV V1
IH = T HDI I1
(1.46)
DV = V1 I1 T HDV = S1 T HDV
DI = V1 I1 T HDI = S1 T HDI
SH = VH IH = S1 T HDI T HDV
(1.47)
Using (1.44) and (1.46),
Therefore using (1.43) and (1.47), SN could be expressed as following.

18
2
SN
= S12 (T HDI2 + T HDV2 + T HDI2 T HDV2 )
(1.48)
Normally in power system, T HDV << T HDI , therefore,

SN S1 DI
(1.49)
The above relationship shows that as the THD content in voltage and current increases, the non fundamental apparent power SN increases for a given useful transmitted power. This means there are
more losses and hence less efficient power network.
1.4.4
Non Active Power
Non active power is denoted by N and is defined as per following equation.

S2 = P 2 + N 2
(1.50)
This power includes both fundamental as well as non fundamental components, and is usually
computed by knowing active power (P ) and apparent power (S) as given below.
N = S2 P 2
(1.51)
1.4.5
Distortion Power
Due to presence of distortion, the total apparent power S can also be written in terms of active
power (P ), reactive power (Q) and distortion power (D)
S 2 = P 2 + Q2 + D2 .
(1.52)
Therefore,
D=
1.4.6
p
S 2 P 2 Q2 .
(1.53)
Fundamental Power Factor
Fundamental power factor is defined as ratio of fundamental real power (P1 ) to the fundamental
apparent power (S1 ). This is given below.
pf1 = cos 1 =
P1
S1
(1.54)
The fundamental power factor as defined above is also known as displacement power factor.
19
1.4.7
Power Factor
Power factor for the single phase system considered above is the ratio of the total real power (P )
to the total apparent power (S) as given by the following equation.
P
S
P 1 + PH
= p 2
2
S1 + SN
(1 + PH /P1 ) P1
= p
1 + (SN /S1 )2 S1
pf =
(1.55)
Substituting SN from (1.48), the power factor can further be simplified to the following equation.
(1 + PH /P1 )
pf = p
pf1
1 + T HDI2 + T HDV2 + T HDI2 T HDV2
(1.56)
Thus, we observe that the power factor of a single phase system depends upon fundamental (P1 )
and harmonic active power (PH ), displacement factor (DP F = pf1 ) and THDs in voltage and
current. Further, we note following points.
1. P/S is also called as utilization factor indicator as it indicates the usage of real power.
2. The term SN /S1 is used to decide the overall degree of harmonic content in the system.
3. The flow of fundamental power can be characterized by measurement of S1 , P1 , pf1 , and Q1 .
For a practical power system P1 >> PH and T HDV << T HDI , the above expression of power
factor is further simplified as given below.
pf1
pf = p
1 + T HDI2
Example 1.3 Consider the following voltage and current in single phase system.
vs (t) = 230 2 sin(t) + 50 2 sin(3t 30 )
i(t) = 2 + 10 2 sin(t 30 ) + 5 2 sin(3t 60 )

Determine the following.
(a) Active power, (P )
(b) Reactive power, (Q)
(c) Apparent power, (S)
(d) Power factor, (pf )
20
(1.57)
Solution: Here the source is non-sinusoidal and is feeding a non-linear load. The instantaneous
power is given by,
p(t) = v(t) i(t)
X
X
2 Vn sin(nt vn )} {Idc +
2 In sin(nt in )}
p(t) = {Vdc +
n=1
n=1
(a) The active power P is given by,

Z
1 T
P =
p(t) dt
T 0
= Pdc + V1 I1 cos 1 + V2 I2 cos 2 + ...... + Vn In cos n
= Pdc + P1 + PH
(1.58)
where,
n = in vn
Pdc = Vdc Idc
P1 = V1 I1 cos 1
X
Vn In cos n
PH =
n=2
Here, Vdc = 0, V1 = 230 V, v1 = 0, V3 = 50 V, v3 = 30 , Idc = 2 A, I1 = 10 A, i1 = 30 ,

I3 = 5 A, i3 = 60 . Therefore, 1 = i1 v1 = 30 and 3 = i3 v3 = 30 .
Substituting these values in (1.58), the above equation gives,
P = 0 2 + 230 10 cos 30 + 50 5 cos 30 = 2208.36 W.
(b). The reactive power (Q) is given by,
X
Vn In sin n
Q =
n=1
= V1 I1 sin 1 + V2 I2 sin 2 + .....Vn In sin n

= 230 10 sin 30 + 50 5 sin 30 = 1275 VAr.
(c). The Apparent power S is given by,
S = Vrms Irms
q
q
2
2
2
2
2
=
Vdc + V1 + V2 + ....Vn
Idc
+ I12 + I22 + .....In2
q
q
2
2
=
Vdc2 + V12 + VH2 Idc
+ I12 + IH
where,
q
V22 + V32 + ....Vn2
q
=
I22 + I32 + .....In2
VH =
IH
21
Substituting the values of voltage and current components, the apparent power S is computed as
following.
0 + 2302 + 502 22 + 102 + 52

S =
= 235.37 11.357 = 2673.31 VA
(d). The power factor is given by
pf =
P
2208.36
=
= 0.8261 lag
S
2673.31
Example 1.4 Consider following system with distorted supply voltages,
v(t) = Vdc +
2Vn
sin(nt vn )
n2
n=1
with Vdc = 10 V, Vn /n2 = 230 2/n2 and vn = 0 f or n = 1, 3, 5, 7, . . .

The voltage source supplies a nonlinear current of,
i(t) = Idc +
X
n=1
2In
sin(nt in ).
n
with Idc = 2 A, In = 20/n A and in = n 30o for n = 1, 3, 5, 7, . . .

Compute the following.
(a) Plot instantaneous power p(t), pactive (t), preactive (t), Pdc , and prest (t).
(b) Compute P, P1 , PH (= P3 + P5 + P7 + . . .).
(c) Compute Q, Q1 , QH (= Q3 + Q5 + Q7 + . . .).
(d) Compute S, S1 , SH , N, D.
(e) Comment upon each result.
Solution: Instantaneous power is given as following.
22
!
!
X
X
230 2
20 2
p(t) = v(t) i(t) =
10 +
sin n(t 300 )
sin(nt)
2+
2
n
n
n=1,3,5
n=1,3,5
X
X
230 2
20 2
0
= |{z}
20 + 10
sin n(t 30 ) + 2
sin(nt)
n
n2
n=1,3,5
n=1,3,5
I
{z
} |
{z
}
|
II
III
!
!
X
X
230 2
20 2
+
sin n(t 300 )
sin(nt)
2
n
n
n=1,3,5
n=1,3,5
|
{z
}
IV
X
X
200 2
460
2
= |{z}
20 +
sin n(t 300 ) +
sin(nt)
2
n
n
n=1,3,5
n=1,3,5
I
|
{z
} |
{z
}
II
III
X
4600
+
(cos(30o n)(1 cos 2nt) sin (2nt) sin(30o n))
3
n
n=1,3,5
|
{z
}
IV A
X
230 2
+
sin nt
2
n
n=1,3,5
|
X
h=1,3,5;h6=n
20
!
sin h(t 300 )
{z
IV B
a. Computation of p(t), pactive (t), preactive (t), Pdc ., and prest (t)
pdcdc (t) = 20 W
X
4600
pactive (t) =
cos n300 (1 cos 2nt)
3
n
n=1,3,5
X
4600
preactive (t) =
sin(n300 ) sin(2nt)
3
n
n=1,3,5
X
X
200 2
460 2
0
prest (t) =
sin n(t 30 ) +
sin(nt)
n
n2
n=1,3,5
n=1,3,5
!
!
X
X
230 2
20 2
+
sin nt
sin h(t 300 )
2
n
h
n=1,3,5
h=1,3,5;h6=n
23
b. Computation of P, P1 , PH
1
P =
T
p(t)dt
0
= 20 +
X
4600
cos(30o n)
3
n
n=1,3,5
= 20 + 4600 cos 300 +
4600
cos(30o n)
3
n
n=3,5,7...
= 20 + 3983.71 + (43.4841)
= Pdc + P1 + PH
Thus,
Active power contributed by dc components of voltage and current, Pdc = 20 W.
Active power contributed by fundamental frequency components of voltage and current, P1 =
3983.71 W.
Active power contributed by harmonic frequency components of voltage and current, PH = 43.4841
W.
c. Computation of Q, Q1 , QH
X
4600
sin(30o n)
Q =
3
n
n=1,3,5
0
= 4600 sin 30 +
4600
sin(30o n)
3
n
n=3,5,7...
= 2300 + 175.7548 VArs

= Q1 + QH
The above implies that, Q1 = 4600 VArs and QH =

VArs.
3
o
n=3,5,7... (4600/n ) sin(30
d. Computation of Apparent Powers and Distortion Powers
24
n) = 175.7548
The apparent power S is expressed as following.

q
Vrms =
Vdc2 + V12 + V32 + V52 + V72 + V92 + ....
p
102 + 2302 + (230/32 )2 + (230/52 )2 + (230/72 )2 + (230/92 )2 + ....
=
= 231.87 V
(up to n = 9)
q
2
+ I12 + I32 + I52 + I72 + I92 + ....
Idc
p
=
22 + 202 + (20/3)2 + (20/5)2 + (20/7)2 + (20/9)2 + ....
= 21.85 A
(up to n = 9)
Irms =
The apparent power, S = Vrms Irms = 231.87 21.85 = 5066.36 VA.

Fundamental apparent power, S1 = V1 x I1 = 4600 VA.
Apparent power contributed by harmonics SH = VH IH
VH
q
V32 + V52 + V72 + V92 + ....
=
p
(230/32 )2 + (230/52 )2 + (230/72 )2 + (230/92 )2 + ....
=
= 27.7 V
(up to n = 9)
q
I32 + I52 + I72 + I92 + ....
p
(20/3)2 + (20/5)2 + (20/7)2 + (20/9)2 + ....
=
= 8.57 A
(up to n = 9).
IH =
Therefore the harmonic apparent power, SH = VH IH = 237.5 VA.

Non active power, N =
Distortion Power D =
VArs (up to n=9).
S 2 P 2 = 50672
3960.22 = 3160.8 VArs (up to n=9)
p
2
2
2
S P Q =
50672 3960.22 2475.772 = 1965.163
Displacement power factor (cos 1 )

cos 1 =
P1
3983.7
=
= 0.866 lagging
S1
(230)(20)
Power factor (cos )

P
3960.217
=
= 0.781 lagging
S
5067
The voltage, current, various powers and power factor are plotted in the Fig. 1.8, verifying
above values.
cos =
25
20
Current (A)
Voltage (v)
200
100
0
-100
-200
10
0
-10
-20
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0.035
0.04
0.005
0.01
0.015
4000
2000
0
-2000
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0.035
0.04
0
-500
-1000
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0.035
0.04
Avg. active power (W)

2000
Avg. reactive power (VAr)

0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
Distortion power (W)

0.03
0.035
0.04
Non active power (VA)
Total apparent power (VA)

2500
0.005
0.025
0.03
0.035
0.04
0.025
0.03
0.035
0.04
0.025
0.03
0.035
0.04
1000
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
2000
-2000
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
time (sec)
3000
1000
0
0.04
2000
time (sec)
1500
0.035
3000
Rest of inst. power (W)
Inst. reactive power
500
0.01
0.03
time (sec)
1000
0.005
0.025
4000
time (sec)
0.02
time (sec)
Inst. active power (W)
Inst. Power (W)
time (sec)
1168
1167
1166
1165
0
0.005
0.01
time (sec)
0.015
0.02
time (sec)
Fig. 1.8 System voltage, current and related powers
References
[1] IEEE Group, IEEE trial-use standard definitions for the measurement of electric power quantities under sinusoidal, nonsinusoidal, balanced, or unbalanced conditions, 2000.
[2] E. Watanabe, R. Stephan, and M. Aredes, New concepts of instantaneous active and reactive
powers in electrical systems with generic loads, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 8,
no. 2, pp. 697703, 1993.
[3] T. Furuhashi, S. Okuma, and Y. Uchikawa, A study on the theory of instantaneous reactive
power, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 8690, 1990.
[4] A. Ferrero and G. Superti-Furga, A new approach to the definition of power components in
three-phase systems under nonsinusoidal conditions, IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation
and Measurement, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 568577, 1991.
[5] J. Willems, A new interpretation of the akagi-nabae power components for nonsinusoidal
three-phase situations, IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, vol. 41,
no. 4, pp. 523527, 1992.
26
Chapter 2
THREE PHASE CIRCUITS: POWER

DEFINITIONS AND VARIOUS
COMPONENTS
(Lectures 9-18)
2.1
Three-phase Sinusoidal Balanced System
Usage of three-phase voltage supply is very common for generation, transmission and distribution
of bulk electrical power. Almost all industrial loads are supplied by three-phase power supply for
its advantages over single phase systems such as cost and efficiency for same amount of power
usage. In principle, any number of phases can be used in polyphase electric system, however
three-phase system is simpler and giving all advantages of polyphase system. In previous section,
we have seen that instantaneous active power has a constant term V Icos as well pulsating term
V I cos(2t ). The pulsating term does not contribute to any real power and thus increases the
VA rating of the system.
In the following section, we shall study the various three-phase circuits such as balanced, unbalanced, balanced and unbalanced harmonics and discuss their properties in details [1][5].
2.1.1
Balanced Three-phase Circuits
A balanced three-phase system is shown in Fig. 2.1 below.

Three-phase balanced system is expressed using following voltages and currents.
va (t) =
2V sin(t)
vb (t) =
2V sin(t 120 )
vc (t) =
2V sin(t + 120 )
27
(2.1)
Fig. 2.1 A three-phase balanced circuit
and
2I sin(t )
ib (t) =
2I sin(t 120 )
ic (t) =
2I sin(t + 120 )
ia (t) =
(2.2)
In (2.1) and (2.2) subscripts a, b and c are used to denote three phases which are balanced. Balanced
three-phase means that the voltage or current magnitude (V or I) are same for all three phases and
they have a phase shift of 120o and 120o . The currents are assumed to have degree lag with
their respective phase voltages. The balanced three phase system has certain interesting properties.
These will be discussed in the following section.
2.1.2
Three Phase Instantaneous Active Power
Three phase instantaneous active power in three phase system is given by,
p3 (t) = p(t) = va (t)ia (t) + vb (t)ib (t) + vc (t)ic (t)
= pa + pb + pc
(2.3)
In above equation, pa (t), pb (t) and pc (t) are expressed similar to single phase system done previously. These are given below.
pa (t) = V I cos {1 cos 2t} V I sin sin 2t
pb (t) = V I cos {1 cos 2(t 120o )} V I sin sin 2(t 120o )
pc (t) = V I cos {1 cos 2(t + 120o )} V I sin sin 2(t + 120o )
(2.4)
Adding three phase instantaneous powers given in (2.4), we get the three-phase instantaneous
power as below.
p(t) = 3 V I cos V I cos {cos 2t + cos 2(t 120o ) + cos 2(t + 120o )}
V I sin {sin 2t + sin 2(t 120o ) + sin 2(t + 120o )} (2.5)
Summation of terms in curly brackets is always equal to zero. Hence,
28
p3 (t) = p(t) = 3V I cos .
(2.6)
This is quite interesting result. It indicates for balanced three-phase system, the total instantaeous
power is equal to the real power or average active power (P ), which is constant. This is the reason
we use 3-phase system. It does not involve the pulsating or oscillating components of power as in
case of single phase systems. Thus it ensures less VA rating for same amount of power transfer.
Here, total three-phase reactive power can be defined as sum of maximum value of preactive (t)
terms in (2.4). Thus,
Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = 3V I sin .
(2.7)
Is there any attempt to define instantaneous reactive power q(t) similar to p(t) such that Q is
average value of that term q(t)?. H. Akagi et al. published paper [6], in which authors defined term
instantaneous reactive power. The definition was facilitated through 0 transformation. Briefly
it is described in the next subsection.
2.1.3
Three Phase Instantatneous Reactive Power
H. Akagi et.al. [6] attempted to define instantaneous reactive power(q(t)) using 0 transformation. This transformation is described below.
The abc coordinates and their equivalent 0 coordinates are shown in the Fig. 2.2 below.
vc
-j
- c /2
- b /2
vb
60
va
Fig. 2.2 A abc to 0 transformation
Resolving a, b, c quantities along the axis we have,

r
2
vb vc
v =
(va )
3
2
2
r
2 3
v =
(vb vc )
3 2
29
(2.8)
(2.9)
q
Here, 23 is a scaling factor, which ensures power invariant transformation. Along with that, we
define zero sequence voltage as,
r r
2 1
v0 =
(va + vb + vc )
(2.10)
3 2
Based on Eqns.(4.60)-(2.10) we can write the above equations as follows.
r 1
v0 (t)
2 2
v (t) =
1
3
v (t)
0
1
2
1
2
3
2
1
2
1
2
3
2
va (t)
vb (t)
vc (t)
(2.11)
v0
va
v = [Ao ] vb
v
vc
The above is known as Clarke-Concordia transformation. Thus, va , vb and vc can also be expressed
in terms of v0 , v and v by pre-multiplying (2.11) by matrix [A0 ]1 , we have
v0
va
vb = [A0 ]1 v
vc
v
It will be interesting to learn that
[A0 ]1
[A0 ]1
1
r 1
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
= [Aabc ] =
2
2
3
3
3
0
2
1
2
1
0
r
2
2 1 1 3
T
=
2 2
= [A0 ] = [Aabc ]
2
3
3
1
1
(2.12)
Similarly, we can write down instantaneous symmetrical transformation for currents, which is
given below.
r 1
1
1
i0
i
a
2
2
2
i = 2 1 1 1 ib
(2.13)
2
2
3
3
3
i
ic
0
2
2
Now based on 0 transformation, the instantaneous active and reactive powers are defined as
follows. The three-phase instantaneous power p(t) is expressed as the dot product of 0 components of voltage and currents such as given below.
30
p(t) = v i + v i + v0 i0
"

2
vb vc
ib ic
3
3
va
ia
+
(vb vc )
(ib ic )
=
3
2
2
2
2
2
2

1
1
+ (va + vb + vc ) (ia + ib + ic )
3
3
= va ia + vb ib + vc ic
(2.14)
Now what about instantaneous reactive power? Is there any concept defining instantaneous reactive
power? In 1983-84,authors H.akagi have attempted to define instantaneous reactive power using
stationary 0 frame, as illustrated below. In [6], the instantaneous reactive power q(t) is defines
as the cross product of two mutual perpendicular quantities, such as given below.
q(t) = v i + v i
q(t) = v i v i
"

#
2
vb vc 3
3
ib ic
=
va
(ib ic )
(vb vc ) ia
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
h

2 3
vb vc vb vc
vb vc vb vc i
=
(vb + vc ) ia + va +
ib + va + + +
ic
3 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
= [(vb vc ) ia + (vc va ) ib + (va vb ) ic ]
3
(2.15)
= [vbc ia + vca ib + vab ic ] / 3
This is also equal to the following.

ib ic
ib ic
ib ic
1
ib ic
q(t) = (ib ic ) va + + ia + +
vb + + + ia
vc
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
1
= [(ib ic ) va + (ic ia ) vb + (ia ib ) vc ]
(2.16)
3
2.1.4
Power Invariance in abc and 0 Coordinates
As a check for power invariance, we shall compute the energy content of voltage signals in two
transformations. The energy associated with the abc0 system is given by (va2 + vb2 + vc2 ) and the
energy associated with the 0 components is given by v02 + v2 + v2 . The two energies must
be equal to ensure power invariance in two transformations. It is proved below. Using, (2.11) and
31
squares of the respective components, we have the following.

"r
v2 =
v2
vb vc
2
va
3
2
2
#2

vb2 vc2 2va vb 2vb vc 2va vc
2
2
=
v +
+
3 a
4
4
2
4
2
2
2
v
2va vb vb vc 2va vc
2 2 vb
va +
+ c
+
=
3
6
6
3
3
3
(2.17)
Similary we can find out square of v term as given below.
v2
" r
#2
3 2
=
(vb vc )
2
3

1 2
=
vb + vc2 2vb vc
2
v2 v2
= b + c vb vc
2
2
(2.18)
Adding (2.17) and (2.18), we find that,

2 2
va + vb2 + vc2 vc vb vb vc vc va
3
2

va vb2 vc2 2va vb 2vb vc 2va vc
2
2
2
= va + vb + vc
+
+
+
+
+
3
3
3
3
3
3

1
= va2 + vb2 + vc2 (va + vb + vc )2
3

2

1
2
2
2
= va + vb + vc (va + vb + vc )
3
v2 + v2 =
Since v0 =
1 (va
3
(2.19)
+ vb + vc ), the above equation, (2.19) can be written as,

v2 + v2 + v02 = va2 + vb2 + vc2 .
(2.20)
From the above it is implies that the energy associated with the two systems remain same instant to
instant basis. In general the instantaneous power p(t) remain same in both transformations. This
is proved below.
32
Using (2.14), following can be written.

p(t) = v i + v i + vo io
v0
i0
p(t) = v i
v
i
va
ia
= [Aabc ] vb [Aabc ] ib
vc
ic
va
ia
= vb [Aabc ]T [Aabc ] ib
vc
ic
va
ia
= vb [Aabc ]1 [Aabc ] ib
vc
ic

ia
va vb vc ib
=
ic
= va ia + vb ib + vc ic
(2.21)
In the above, the following property of matrices of from (2.12), is used.

[Aabc ]T [Aabc ] = [Aabc ]1 [Aabc ] = I
(2.22)
In above, I is identity matrix.
2.2
Instantaneous Active and Reactive Powers for Three-phase Circuits
In the previous section instantaneous active and reactive powers were defined using 0 transformation. In this section we shall study these powers for various three-phase circuits such as
three-phase balanced, three-phase unbalanced, balanced three-phase with harmonics and unbalanced three-phase with harmonics. Each case will be considered and analyzed.
2.2.1
Three-Phase Balance System
For three-phase balanced system, three-phase voltages have been expressed by equation (2.1). For
these phase voltages, the line to line voltages are given as below.

vab = 3 2V sin (t + 30 )

vbc = 3 2V sin(t 90 )

vca = 3 2V sin (t + 150 )
(2.23)
33
Vc
Vb
V
ab
30
V
Va V0o
Vb
Fig. 2.3 Relationship between line-to-line and phase voltage
The above relationship between phase and line to line voltages is also illustrated in Fig. 2.3. For
the above three-phase system, the instantaneous power p(t) can be expressed using (2.21) and it is
equal to,
p(t) = va ia + vb ib + vc ic
= v i + v i + v0 i0
= 3 V I cos
(2.24)
The instantaneous reactive power q(t) is as following.
1
q(t) = [ 3 2V sin (t 90o ) 2I sin (t )
3

+ 3 2V sin (t + 150o ) 2I sin (t 120o )

+ 3 2V sin (t + 30o ) 2I sin (t + 120 )]

= V I [cos (90 ) cos (2t 90o )
+ cos (90o ) cos (2t 30o )
+ cos (90o ) cos (2t + 150o )]
= V I [3 sin cos (2t + 30o ) cos (2t + 30o + 120o )
cos (2t + 30o 120o )]
= V I [3 sin 0]
q(t) = 3V I sin
(2.25)
The above value of instantaneous reactive power is same as defined by Budeanus [1] and is given
in equation (2.7). Thus, instantaneous reactive power given in (2.15) matches with the conventional definition of reactive power defined in (2.7). However the time varying part of second terms
of each phase in (2.4) has no relevance with the definition given in (2.15).
Another interpretation of line to line voltages in (2.15) is that the voltages vab , vbc and vca have
34
90o phase shift with respect to voltages vc , va and vb respectively. These are expressed as below.
vab = 3vc 90o
vbc = 3va 90o

(2.26)
o
vca = 3vb 90
In above equation, vc 90o implies that vc 90o lags vc by 90o . Analyzing each term in
(2.15) contributes to,
vbc ia = 3va 90 . ia

= 3 2V sin (t 90 ) . 2I sin (t )
= 3V I 2 sin (t 90 ) . sin (t )
= 3V I [cos (90 ) cos (2t 90 )]
= 3V I [sin cos {90 + (2t )}]
= 3V I [sin + sin (2t )]
= 3V I [sin + sin 2t cos cos 2t sin ]
vbc ia / 3 = V I [sin (1 cos 2t) + cos sin 2t]

Similarly,

2
vca ib / 3 = V I sin 1 cos 2 t
3

2
+V I cos . sin 2 t
3

2
vab ic / 3 = V I sin 1 cos 2 t +
3

2
+V I cos . sin 2 t +
(2.27)
3
Thus, we see that the role of the coefficients of sin and cos have reversed. Now if we take
average value of (2.27), it is not equal to zero but V I sin in each phase. Thus three-phase reactive
power will be 3V I sin . The maximum value of second term in (2.27) represents active average
power i.e., V I cos . However, this is not normally convention about the notation of the powers.
But, important contribution of this definition is that average reactive power could be defined as the
average value of terms in (2.27).
2.2.2
Three-Phase Unbalance System
Three-phase unbalance system is not uncommon in power system. Three-phase unbalance may
result from single-phasing, faults, different loads in three phases. To study three-phase system
with fundamental unbalance, the voltages and currents are expressed as following.
va = 2Va sin (t va )
vb = 2Vb sin (t 120o vb )
vc = 2Vc sin (t + 120o vc )

35
(2.28)
and,
ia = 2Ia sin (t ia )
ib = 2Ib sin (t 120o ib )
ic = 2Ic sin (t + 120o ic )
(2.29)
For the above system, the three-phase instantaneous power is given by,
p3 (t) = p(t) = va ia + vb ib + vc ic
= 2Va sin (t va ) sin (t ia )
+ 2Vb sin (t 120o vb ) 2Ib sin (t 120o ib )
+ 2Vc sin (t + 120o vc ) 2Ic sin (t + 120o ic )
(2.30)
Simplifying above expression we get,

p3 (t) = Va Ia cos a {1 cos (2t 2va )}
{z
}
|
pa,active
V I sin a sin (2t 2va )

| a a
{z
}
pa,reactive
+Vb Ib cos b [1 cos {2 (t 120 ) 2vb }]

Vb Ib sin b sin {2 (t 120 ) 2vb }
+Vc Ic cos c [1 cos {2 (t + 120 ) 2vc }]
Vc Ic sin c sin {2 (t + 120 ) 2vc }
where a = (ia va )
(2.31)
Therefore,
p3 (t) = pa,active + pb,active + pc,active + pa,reactive + pb,reactive + pc,reactive
= pa + pb + pc + pea + peb + pec
(2.32)
where,
pa = Pa = Va Ia cos a
pb = Pb = Vb Ib cos b
pc = Pc = Vc Ic cos c
(2.33)
pea = Va Ia cos (2 t a 2 va )
peb = Vb Ib cos (2 t 240o b 2 vb )
pec = Vc Ic cos (2t + 240 c 2 vc )
(2.34)
and
Also it is noted that,

pa + pb + p c
= va ia + vb ib + vc ic = P
36
(2.35)
and,
pea + peb + pec
= Va Ia cos(2t va ib )
Vb Ib cos {2(t 120) vb ib }
Vc Ic cos {2(t + 120) vc ic }
6= 0
This implies that, we no longer get advantage of getting constant power, 3V I cos from interaction
of three-phase voltages and currents. Now, let us analyze three phase instantaneous reactive power
q(t) as per definition given in (2.15).
1
q(t) = (vb vc )ia + (vc va )ib + (va vb )ic
3
2 h
= {Vb sin(t 120o vb ) Vc sin(t + 120o vc )} Ia sin(t ia )
3
+ {Vc sin(t + 120o vc ) Va sin(t va )} 2Ib sin(t 120o ib )

(2.36)
i
o
o
o
+{Va sin(t 120 va ) Vb sin(t 120 vb )} 2Ic sin(t + 120 ic )
From the above,
h
3 q(t) = Vb Ia {cos(ia 120o vb ) cos(2t 120o ia vb )}

Vc Ia {cos(ia + 120o vc ) cos(2t + 120o ia vc )}
+Vc Ib {cos(ib + 240o vc ) cos(2t ib vc )}
Va Ib {cos(ib 120o va ) cos(2t 120o va ib )}
+Va Ic {cos(ic 120o va ) cos(2t + 120o va ic )}
i
o
Vb Ic {cos(ic 240 vb ) cos(2t ic vb )}
(2.37)
Now looking this expression,we can say that

1
T
Z
0
1 h
q(t)dt = Vb Ia cos(ia vb 120o )
3
Vc Ia cos(ia vc + 120o )
+Vc Ib cos(ib + 240o vc )
Va Ib cos(ib 120o va )
+Va Ic cos(ic 120o va )
i
o
Vb Ic cos(ic 240 vb )
= q a (t) + q b (t) + q c (t)
6
=
Va Ia sin a + Vb Ib sin b + Vc Ic sin c
(2.38)
Hence the definition of instantaneous reactive power does not match to that defined by Budeanues
reactive power [1] for three-phase unbalanced circuit. If only voltages or currents are distorted, the
37
above holds true as given below. Let us consider that only currents are unbalanced, then
va (t) =
vb (t) =
vc (t) =
2V sin(t)
2V sin(t 120 )
(2.39)
2V sin(t + 120 )
and
ia (t) =
ib (t) =
ic (t) =
2Ia sin(t a )
2Ib sin(t 120o b )
(2.40)
2Ic sin(t + 120 c )
And the instantaneous reactive power is given by,

q(t)
= 13 [vbc ia + vca ib + vab ic ]
= 13 [ 3 va /2 ia + 3 vb /2 ib + 3 vc /2 ic ]
= [ 2V sin(t /2) 2Ia sin(t

ia )
o
+2V sin(t 120 /2) 2Ib sin(t 120o ib )
+ 2V sin(t + 120o + /2) 2Ic sin(t + 120o ic )]
= [V Ia cos(/2 ia ) cos {/2 (2t ia )}
+V Ib cos(/2 ib ) cos(2t 240o /2 ib )
+V Ic cos(/2 ic ) cos(2t + 240o /2 ic )]
= [(V Ia sin ia + V Ib sin ib + V Ic sin ic )
+V Ia sin(2t ia ) + V Ib sin(2t 240o ib ) + V Ic sin(2t + 240o ic )]
Thus,
1
Q=
T
q(t)dt = (V Ia sin ia + V Ib sin ib + V Ic sin ic )
(2.41)
Which is similar to Budeanus reactive power.

The oscillating term of q(t) which is equal to qe(t) is given below.
qe(t) = V Ia sin(2t ia ) + V Ib sin(2t 240o ib ) + V Ic sin(2t + 240o ic ) (2.42)
which is not similar to what is being defined as reactive component of power in (2.4).
2.3
Symmetrical components
In the previous section, the fundamental unbalance in three phase voltage and currents have been
considered. Ideal power systems are not designed for unbalance quantities as it makes power system components over rated and inefficient. Thus, to understand unbalance three-phase systems,
38
a concept of symmetrical components introduced by C. L. Fortescue, will be discussed. In 1918,

C. L Fortescue, wrote a paper [7] presenting that an unbalanced system of n-related phasors can
be resolved into n system of balanced phasors, called the symmetrical components of the original
phasors. The n phasors of each set of components are equal in length and the angles. Although,
the method is applicable to any unbalanced polyphase system, we shall discuss about three phase
systems.
For the discussion of symmetrical components, a complex operator denoted as a is defined as,
a
a2
a3
= 1120o = ej2/3 = cos 2/3 + j sin 2/3
= 1/2 + j 3/2
= 1240o = 1 120o = ej4/3 = ej2/3 = cos 4/3 + j sin 4/3
= 1/2 j 3/2
= 1360o = ej2 = 1
Also note an interesting property relating a, a2 and a3 ,

a + a2 + a3 = 0.
a 1120
(2.43)
a 1o
3
a 2 1 120o
Fig. 2.4 Phasor representation of a, a2 and a3
These quantities i.e., a, a2 and a3 = 1 also represent three phasors which are shifted by 120o
from each other. This is shown in Fig. 2.4.
Knowing the above and using Fortescue theorem, three unbalanced phasor of a three phase unbalanced system can be resolved into three balanced system phasors.
1. Positive sequence components are composed of three phasors, equal in magnitude, phase shift
39
of 120o and 120o between phases with phase sequence same to that of the original phasors.
2. Negative sequence components consist of three phasors equal in magnitude, phase shift of
120o and 120o between phases with phase sequence opposite to that of the original phasors.
3. Zero sequence components consist of three phasors equal in magnitude with zero phase shift
from each other.
These are denoted as following.
Positive sequence components: V a+ , V b+ , V c+
Negative sequence components: V a , V b , V c
Zero sequence components: V a0 , V b0 , V c0
Thus, we can write,
V a = V a+ + V a + V a0
V b = V b+ + V b + V b0
V c = V c+ + V c + V c0
(2.44)
Graphically, these are represented in Fig. 2.5. Thus if we add the sequence components of each
phase vectorially, we shall get V a , V b and V s as per (2.44). This is illustrated in Fig. 2.6.
V c
V b
Va0
V a
V b
(a)
Va
V c
(b)
Vb 0
Vc0
(c)
Fig. 2.5 Sequence components (a) positive sequence (b) negative sequence (c) zero sequence
Now knowing all these preliminaries, we can proceed as following. Let V a+ be a reference phasor,
therefore V b+ and V c+ can be written as,
V b+ = a2 V a+ = V a+ 120
V c+ = aV a+ = V a+ 120
Similarly V b and V c can be expressed in terms of V a as following.
40
(2.45)
V c
Vc0
V c
Vc
V a
V a
Va0
Va
Vb
Vb
Vb
Vb 0
Fig. 2.6 Unbalanced phasors as vector sum of positive, negative and zero sequence phasors
V b = aV a = V a 120
V c = a2 V a = V a 120
(2.46)
The zero sequence components have same magnitude and phase angle and therefore these are
expressed as,
V b0 = V c0 = V a0
(2.47)
Using (2.45), (2.46) and (2.47) we have,

V a = V a0 + V a+ + V a
(2.48)
V b = V b0 + V b+ + V b
= V a0 + a2 V a+ + a V a
(2.49)
V c = V c0 + V c+ + V c
= V a0 + a V a+ + a2 V a
(2.50)
Equations (2.48)-(2.50) can be written in matrix form as given below.

Va
V a0
1 1 1
V b = 1 a2 a V a+
1 a a2
Vc
V a
41
(2.51)
1 1 1
Premultipling by inverse of matrix [Asabc ] = 1 a2 a , the symmetrical components are
1 a a2
expressed as given below.

V a0
Va
1 1 1
V a+ = 1 1 a a2 V b
(2.52)
3 1 a2 a
V a
Vc

Va
= [A012 ] V b
Vc
The symmetrical transformation matrices A012 and Asabc are related by the following expression.
[A012 ] = [Asabc ]1 = [Asabc ]
(2.53)
From (2.52), the symmetrical components can therefore be expressed as the following.
1
V a0 = (V a + V b + V c )
3
1
V a+ = (V a + aV b + a2 V c )
3
1
V a = (V a + a2 V b + aV c )
3
(2.54)
The other component i.e., V b0 , V c0 , V b+ , V c+ , V b , V c can be found from V a0 , V a+ , V a+ . It

should be noted that quantity V a0 does not exist if sum of unbalanced phasors is zero. Since sum
of line to line voltage phasors i.e., V ab +V bc +V ca = (V a V b )+(V b V c )+(V c V a ) is always
zero, hence zero sequence voltage components are never present in the line voltage, regardless of
amount of unbalance. The sum of the three phase voltages, i.e., V a + V b + V c is not necessarily
zero and hence zero sequence voltage exists.
Similarly sequence components can be written for currents. Denoting three phase currents by
I a , I b , and I c respectively, the sequence components in matrix form are given below.

I a0
Ia
1 1 1
I a+ = 1 1 a a2 I b
(2.55)
3 1 a2 a
I a
Ic
Thus,
1
I a0 = (I a + I b + I c )
3
1
I a+ = (I a + aI b + a2 I c )
3
42
1
I a = (I a + a2 I b + aI c )
3
In three-phase, 4-wire system, the sum of line currents is equal to the neutral current (I n ). thus,
In = Ia + Ib + Ic
= 3I a0
(2.56)
This current flows in the fourth wire called neutral wire. Again if neutral wire is absent, then zero
sequence current is always equal to zero irrespective of unbalance in phase currents. This is illustrated below.
c
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.7 Various three phase systems (a) Three-phase three-wire system (b) Three-phase four-wire system
In 2.7(b), in may or may not be zero. However neutral voltage (VN n ) between the system and
load neutral is always equal to zero. In 2.7(a), there is no neutral current due to the absence of the
neutral wire. But in this configuration the neutral voltage, VN n , may or may not be equal to zero
depending upon the unbalance in the system.
Example 2.1 Consider a balanced 3 system with following phase voltages.
V a = 1000o
V b = 100 120o
V c = 100120o
Using (2.54), it can be easily seen that the zero and negative sequence components are equal to
zero, indicating that there is no unbalance in voltages. However the converse may not apply.
Now consider the following phase voltages. Compute the sequence components and show that the
energy associated with the voltage components in both system remain constant.
V a = 1000o
V b = 150 100o
V c = 75100o
43
Solution Using (2.54), sequence components are computed. These are:

1
V a0 = (V a + V b + V c )
3
= 31.91 50.48o V
1
V a+ = (V a + aV b + a2 V c )
3
= 104.164.7o V
1
V a = (V a + a2 V b + aV c )
3
= 28.96146.33o V
If you find energy content of two frames that is abc and 012 system, it is found to be constant.
Eabc = k [Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2 ] = 381.25 k
2
2
2
E0+ = 3 k [Va0
+ Va+
+ Va
] = 381.25 k
Thus, Eabc = E0+ with k as some constant of proportionality.
The invariance of power can be further shown by following proof.
Ia
S v = P + jQ = [ V a V b V c ] I b
Ic
T
Va
Ia
= Vb
Ib
Vc
Ic
V a0
I a0
= [Asabc ] V a+ [Asabc ] I a+
V a
I a
V a0
I a0
= V a+ [Asabc ]T [Asabc ] I a+
V a
I a
(2.57)
The term S v is referred as vector or geometric apparent power. The difference between will be
given in the following. The transformation matrix [Asabc ] has following properties.
[Asabc ]T [Asabc ] = 3 [I]

44
(2.58)
The matrix, [I], is identity matrix. Using (2.58), (2.57) can be written as the following.
T

V a0
I a0
S v = P + jQ = V a+ 3[I]I a+
V a
I a
T
V a0
I a0
= 3 V a+
I a+
V a
I a
S v = P + jQ = V a I a + V b I b + V c I c
= 3 [V a0 I a0 + V a+ I a+ + V a I a ]
(2.59)
Equation (2.59) indicates that power invariance holds true in both abc and 012 components. But,
this is true on phasor basis. Would it be true on the time basis? In this context, concept of instantaneous symmetrical components will be discussed in the latter section. The equation (2.59) further
implies that,
S v = P + jQ = 3 [ (Va0 Ia0 cos a0 + Va+ Ia+ cos a+ + Va Ia cos a )
+j(Va0 Ia0 sin a0 + Va+ Ia+ sin a+ + Va Ia sin a ) ]
(2.60)
The power terms in (2.60) accordingly form positive sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence powers denoted as following. The positive sequence power is given as,
P + = Va+ Ia+ cos a+ + Vb+ Ib+ cos b+ + Vc+ Ic+ cos c+
= 3Va+ Ia+ cos a+ .
(2.61)
Negative sequence power is expressed as,

P = 3Va Ia cos a .
(2.62)
P 0 = 3Va0 Ia0 cos a0 .
(2.63)
The zero sequence power is
Similarly, sequence reactive power are denoted by the following expressions.

Q+ = 3Va+ Ia+ sin a+
Q = 3Va Ia sin a
Q0 = 3Va0 Ia0 sin a0
(2.64)
Thus, following holds true for active and reactive powers.

P = Pa + Pb + Pc = P0 + P1 + P2
Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = Q0 + Q1 + Q2
45
(2.65)
Here, positive sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence apparent powers are denoted as the
following.
p
+
S + = |S | = P +2 + Q+2 = 3Va+ Ia+
p
+
S = |S | = P 2 + Q2 = 3Va Ia
p
+
S 0 = |S | = P 02 + Q02 = 3Va0 Ia0
(2.66)
The scalar value of vector apparent power (S v ) is given as following.
0
Sv = |S a + S b + S c | = |S + S + S |
= |(Pa + Pb + Pc ) + j(Qa + Qb + Qc )|
p
= P 2 + Q2
(2.67)
Similarly, arithematic apparent power (S A ) is defined as the algebraic sum of each phase or sequence apparent power, i.e.,
SA = |S a | + |S b | + |S c |
= |Pa + jQa | + |Pb + jQb | + |Pc + jQc |
q
p
p
= Pa2 + Q2a + Pb2 + Q2b + Pc2 + Q2c
(2.68)
In terms of sequence components apparent power,

0
SA = |S | + |S | + |S |
= |P 0 + jQ0 | + |P + + jQ+ | + |P + jQ |
q
q
q
2
2
2
2
0
0
+
+
= P + Q + P + Q + P 2 + Q 2
(2.69)
Based on these two definitions of the apparent powers, the power factors are defined as the following.
P
Sv
P
Arithematic apparent power = pfA =
SA
Vector apparent power = pfv =
46
(2.70)
(2.71)
Example 2.2 Consider a 3-phase 4 wire system supplying resistive load, shown in Fig. 2.8
below. Determine power consumed by the load and feeder losses.
a'
'
c'
n
'
jx
jx
Va
jx
Vb c
jx
Vc
Ia
b
Ib
Ic
In
Fig. 2.8 A three-phase unbalanced load
( 3V )2
3V 2
Power dissipated by the load =
=
R
R
3V
VaVb
The current flowing in the line =
=|
|
R
R
and I b = I a
!2
!2
3V
3V
r+
r
Therefore losses in the feeder =
R
R
r 3 V 2
=2
R
R
Now, consider another example of a 3 phase system supplying 3-phase load, consisting of three
resistors (R) in star as shown in the Fig. 2.9. Let us find out above parameters.
2
V
3V 2
Power supplied to load = 3
R=
R
R
2

V
r 3V 2
Losses in the feeder = 3
r =
R
R
R
Thus, it is interesting to see that power dissipated in the unbalanced system is twice the power loss
in balanced circuit. This leads to conclusion that power factor in phases would become less than
unity, while for balanced circuit, the power factor is unity. Power analysis of unbalanced circuit
shown in Fig. 2.8 is given below.
47
a'
b'
c'
n'
jx
jx
Ia
Va b
jx
Vb c
jx
Vc
Ib
R
Ic
In
Fig. 2.9 A three-phase balanced load
VaVb
V ab
3 Va
The current in phase-a, I a =
=
=
30
R
R
R
3V
The current in phase-b, I b = I a =
(30 180)o
R
3V
=
150o
R
The current in phase-c and neutral are zero, I c = I n = 0
The phase voltages are: V a = V 0o , V b = V 120o , V c = V 120o .
The phase active and reactive and apparent powers are as following.
Pa = Va Ia cos a = V I cos 30 =
Qa = Va Ia sin a = V I sin 30 =
3
VI
2
1
VI
2
Sa = Va Ia = V I
3
VI
2
1
Vb Ib sin b = V I sin(30) = V I
2
Vb Ib = V I
Qc = Sc = 0
3
Pa + Pb + Pc = 2
V I = 3V I
2
3V
3V
R
3V 2
R
Qa + Qb + Qc = 0
Pb = Vb Ib cos b = V I cos(30) =
Qb =
Sb =
Pc =
Thus total active power P =
=
P =
Total reactive power Q =
48
p
The vector apparent power, Sv = P 2 + Q2 = 3 V 2 /R = P
The arithmetic apparent power, SA = Sa + Sb + Sc = 2 V I = (2/ 3) P

From the values of Sv and SA , it implies that,
P
P
=
=1
Sv
P
P
P
3
=
=
= 0.866
=
SA
2
(2/ 3) P
pfv =
pfA
This difference between the arthmetic and vector power factors will be more due to the unbalances
in the load.
For balance load SA = SV , therefore, pfA = pfV = 1.0. Thus for three-phase electrical circuits, the following holds true.
pfA pfV
2.3.1
(2.72)
Effective Apparent Power
For unbalanced three-phase circuits, their is one more definition of apparent power, which is known
as effective apparent power. The concept assumes that a virtual balanced circuit that has the same
power output and losses as the actual unbalanced circuit. This equivalence leads to the definition
of effective line current Ie and effective line to neutral voltage Ve .
The equivalent three-phase unbalanced and balanced circuits with same power output and losses
are shown in Fig. 2.10. From these figures, to maintain same losses,
a'
b
'
c'
n
'
jx
Va
jx
Vb
r
r
jx
jx
Ra
Ia
Ib
Vc
Vn
(a)
Rb
a'
b'
Rc
c'
Ic
n'
jx
jx
jx
jx
In
Re
Iea
Vea
Veb
Vec
(b)
Ieb
Re
Re
Iec
In 0
Fig. 2.10 (a) Three-phase with unbalanced voltage and currents (b) Effective equivalent three-phase system
rIa2 + rIb2 + rIc2 + rIn2 = 3rIe2

The above equation implies the effective rms current in each phase is given as following.
r
(Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 + In2 )
Ie =
3
49
(2.73)
For the original circuit shown in Fig. 2.8, the effective current Ie is computed using above equation
and is given below.
r
(Ia2 + Ib2 )
since, Ic = 0and In = 0
Ie =
3 s
r
2
2 Ia2
2 ( 3V /R)
=
=
3
3
2V
=
R
To account same power output in circuits shown above, the following identity is used with Re = R
in Fig. 2.10.
Va2 Vb2 Vc2 Vab2 + Vbc2 + Vca2
3Ve2 9Ve2
+
+
+
=
+
R
R
R
3R
R
3R
From (2.74), the effective rms value of voltage is expressed as,
r
1
Ve =
{3 (Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2 ) + Vab2 + Vbc2 + Vca2 }
18
Assuming, 3 (Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2 ) Vab2 + Vbc2 + Vca2 , equation (2.75) can be written as,
r
Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2
Ve =
=V
3
(2.74)
(2.75)
(2.76)
Therefore, the effective apparent power (Se ), using the values of Ve and Ie , is given by,
3 2V 2
Se = 3 Ve Ie =
R
Thus the effective power factor based on the definition of effective apparent power (Se ), for the
circuit shown in Fig. 2.8 is given by,
pfe =
3 V 2 /R
1
P
=
= = 0.707
2
S e 3 2 V /R
2
Thus, we observe that,

SV SA Se ,
pfe (0.707) pfA (0.866) pfV (1.0).
When the system is balanced,
Va = Vb = Vc = Ven = Ve ,
Ia = Ib = Ic = Ie ,
In = 0,
and SV = SA = Se .
50
2.3.2
Positive Sequence Powers and Unbalance Power
The unbalance power Su can be expressed in terms of fundamental positive sequence powers P + ,
Q+ and S + as given below.
q
Su = Se2 S + 2
(2.77)
2
where S + = 3 V + I + and S + = P + + Q+ .
2.4
Three-phase Non-sinusoidal Balanced System
A three-phase nonsinusoidal system is represented by following set of equaitons.

va (t) =
X
2V1 sin(wt 1 ) + 2
Vn sin(nwt n )
n=2
vb (t) =
2V1 sin(wt 120 1 ) +
X
2
Vn sin(n(wt 120 ) n )
(2.78)
n=2
vc (t) =
Vn sin(n(wt + 120 ) n )
2V1 sin(wt + 120 1 ) + 2
n=2
Similarly, the line currents can be expressed as,

ia (t) =
X
In sin(nwt n )
2I1 sin(wt 1 ) + 2
n=2
ib (t) =
2I1 sin(wt 120 1 ) +
X
In sin(n(wt 120 ) n )
2
(2.79)
n=2
ic (t) =
2I1 sin(wt + 120 1 ) + 2

In sin(n(wt + 120 ) n )
n=2
In this case,
Sa
Pa
Qa
Da
= Sb = Sc ,
= P b = Pc ,
= Qb = Qc ,
= Db = Dc .
(2.80)
In above the terms Da , Db and Dc are known as distortion powers in phase-a, b, c respectively. The
definition of The distortion power, D, is given in Section 1.4.5. The above equation suggests that
such a system has potential to produce significant additional power loss in neutral wire and ground
path.
51
2.4.1
Neutral Current
The neutral current for three-phase balanced system with harmonics can be given by the following
equation.
in = ia + ib + ic
2 [ Ia1 sin (wt 1 ) + Ia2 sin (2wt 2 ) + Ia3 sin (3wt 3 )

=
+Ia1 sin (wt 120o 1 ) + Ia2 sin (2wt 240o 2 ) + Ia3 sin (3wt 360o 3 )
+Ia1 sin (wt + 120o 1 ) + Ia2 sin (2wt + 240o 2 ) + Ia3 sin (3wt + 360o 3 )
+Ia4 sin (4wt 4 ) + Ia5 sin (5wt 5 ) + Ia6 sin (6wt 6 )
+Ia4 sin (wt 4 120o 4 ) + Ia5 sin (5wt 5 120o 5 ) + Ia6 sin (6wt 6 120o 6 )
+Ia4 sin (wt + 4 120o 4 ) + Ia5 sin (5wt + 5 120o 5 ) + Ia6 sin (6wt + 6 120o 6 )
(2.81)
+Ia7 sin (7wt 7 ) + Ia8 sin (8wt 8 ) + Ia9 sin (9wt 9 )
+Ia7 sin (7wt 7 120o 7 ) + Ia8 sin (8wt 8 120o 8 ) + Ia9 sin (9wt 9 120o 9 )
+Ia7 sin (7wt + 7 120o 7 ) + Ia8 sin (8wt + 8 120o 8 ) + Ia9 sin (9wt + 9 120o 9 ) ]
From the above equation, we observe that, the triplen harmonics are added up in the neutral current.
All other harmonics except triplen harmonics do not contribute to the neutral current, due to their
balanced nature. Therefore the neutral current is given by,
in = ia + ib + ic =
3 2In sin(nwt n ).
(2.82)
n=3,6,..
The RMS value of the current in neutral wire is therefore given by,
"
#1/2
X
In = 3
In2
.
(2.83)
n=3,6,..
Due to dominant triplen harmonics in electrical loads such as UPS, rectifiers and other power
electronic based loads, the current rating of the neutral wire may be comparable to the phase wires.
It is worth to mention here that all harmonics in three-phase balanced systems can be categorized in three groups i.e., (3n + 1), (3n + 2) and 3n (for n = 1, 2, 3, ...) called positive, negative and zero sequence harmonics respectively. This means that balanced fundamental, 4th, 7th
10th,... form positive sequence only. Balanced 2nd, 5th, 8th, 11th,... form negative sequence only
and the balanced triplen harmonics i.e. 3rd, 6th, 9th,... form zero sequence only. But in case of
unbalanced three-phase systems with harmonics, (3n + 1) harmonics may start forming negative
and zero sequence components. Similarly, (3n + 2) may start forming positive and zero sequence
components and 3n may start forming positive and negative sequence components.
2.4.2
Line to Line Voltage
For the three-phase balanced system with harmonics, the line-to-line voltages are denoted as vab ,
vbc and vca . Let us consider, line-to-line voltage between phases a and b. It is given as following.
52
vab (t) = va (t) vb (t)
X
X
=
2Vn sin(n t n )
2Vn sin(n (t 120o ) n )
=
=
n=1
n=1
n=1
2Vn sin(n t n )
2Vn sin((n t n ) n 120o )
n=1
2Vn [sin(n t n ) sin(n t n ) cos(n 120o )
n=1
+ cos(n t n ) sin(n 120o )]

=
2Vn [sin(n t n ) sin(n t n ) (1/2)
n6=3,6,9...
+ cos(n t n ) ( 3/2)
h
i
Vn (3/2) sin(n t n ) + ( 3/2) cos(n t n )
n6=3,6,9...

=
3 2
h
i
Vn ( 3/2) sin(n t n ) + (1/2) cos(n t n ) (2.84)
n6=3,6,9...
Let 3/2 = rn cos n and 1/2 = rn sin n . This impliles rn = 1 and n = 30o . Using this,
equation (2.84) can be written as follows.
vab (t) =
X
3 2
Vn [sin(n t n 30o )] .
(2.85)
n6=3,6,9...
In equations (2.84) and (2.85), vab = 0 for n = 3, 6, 9, . . . and for n = 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, . . ., the sign
of 1/2 or sign of 300 changes alternatively. Thus it is observed that triplen harmonics are missing
in the line to line voltages, inspite of their presence in phase voltages for balanced three-phase
system with harmonics. Thus the following identity hold true for this system,
VLL
3 VLn
(2.86)
Above equation further implies that,
3 VLL I 3 VLn I.
(2.87)
In above equation,
I refers the rms value of the phase current. For above case, Ia = Ib = Ic = I
P
2
and In = 3
n=3,6,9... In . Therefore, effective rms current, Ie is given by the following.
53
s
Ie =
3 I2 + 3
n=3,6,9... In
v
u
u
= tI 2 +
In 2
(2.88)
n=3,6,9...
I
2.4.3
Apparent Power with Budeanu Resolution: Balanced Distortion Case
The apparent power is given as,

q
2
S = 3Vln I = P 2 + Q2B + DB
p
=
P 2 + Q2 + D2
(2.89)
where,
P = P1 + PH = P1 + P2 + P3 + ....
X
Vn In cos n
= 3V1 I1 cos 1 + 3
n=1
(2.90)
where, n = n n . Similarly,
Q = QB = QB1 + QBH
= Q1 + QH
(2.91)
Where Q in (2.89) is called as Budeanus reactive power (VAr) or simply reactive power which is
detailed below.
Q = Q1 + QH = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + ....
X
= 3V1 I1 sin 1 + 3
Vn In sin n
(2.92)
n=1
2.4.4
Effective Apparent Power for Balanced Non-sinusoidal System
The effective apparent power Se for the above system is given by,
Se = 3Ve Ie
(2.93)
For a three-phase, three-wire balanced system, the effective apparent power is found after calculating effective voltage and current as given below.
q
Ve =
(Vab2 + Vbc2 + Vca2 )/9
= Vll / 3
(2.94)
54
q
(Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 )/3
Ie =
= I
(2.95)
Therefore
Se = S =
3Vll I
(2.96)
For a four-wire system, Ve is same is given (2.94) and Ie is given by (2.88). Therefore, the
effective apparent power is given below.
3Vll I 3 Vln Ie
(2.97)

Se SA .
(2.98)
Therefore, it can be further concluded that,

pfe (= P/Se ) pfA (= P/SA ).
2.5
(2.99)
Unbalanced and Non-sinusoidal Three-phase System
In this system, we shall consider most general case i.e., three-phase system with voltage and current
quantities which are unbalanced and non-sinusoidal. These voltages and currents are expressed as
following.
va (t) =
2Van sin(n t an )
n=1
vb (t) =
2Vbn sin {n (t 120o ) bn }
(2.100)
n=1
2Vcn sin {n (t + 120o ) cn }

vc (t) =
n=1
Similarly, currents can be expressed as,

ia (t) =
2Ian sin(n t an )
n=1
ib (t) =
2Ibn sin {n (t 120o ) bn }
n=1
ic (t) =
2Icn sin {n (t + 120o ) cn }
n=1
55
(2.101)
For the above voltages and currents in three-phase system, instantaneous power is given as following.
p(t) = va (t)ia (t) + vb (t)ib (t) + vc (t)ic (t)
= pa (t) + pb (t) + pc (t)
!
!
X
X
=
2Van sin(nt an )
2Ian sin(nt an )
n=1
n=1
2Vbn sin {n(t 120o ) bn }
n=1
(2.102)
!
2Ibn sin {n(t 120o ) bn }
n=1
2Icn sin {n(t + 120o ) cn }
!
2Vcn sin {n(t + 120o ) cn }
n=1
n=1
In (2.102), each phase power can be found using expressions derived in Section 1.4 of Unit 1. The
direct result is written as following.
pa (t) =
Van Ian cos an {1 cos(2nt 2an )}
!
2Iam sin(mt am )
Qan cos(2nt 2an )
Pan {1 cos(2nt 2an )}
m=1, m6=n
n=1
2Van sin(nt an )
n=1
Van Ian sin an cos(2nt 2an )
n=1
n=1
!
2Van sin(nt an )
n=1
n=1
!
2Iam sin(mt am )
(2.103)
m=1, m6=n
In the above equation, an = (an an ). Similarly, for phases b and c, the instantaneous
power is expressed as below.
pb (t) =
Pbn [1 cos {2n(t 120 ) 2bn }]
n=1
Qbn cos {2n(t 120o ) 2bn }
n=1
2Vbn sin {n(t 120o ) bn }
n=1
!
2Ibm sin {m(t 120o ) bm }
m=1, m6=n
(2.104)
56
and
pc (t) =
Pcn [1 cos {2n(t + 120 ) 2cn }]
n=1
Qcn cos {2n(t + 120o ) 2cn }
n=1
2Vcn sin {n(t + 120o ) cn }
n=1
2Icm sin {m(t + 120o ) cm }
m=1, m6=n
(2.105)
From equations (2.103), (2.104) and (2.105), the real powers in three phases are given as follows.
Pa =
Van Ian cos an
n=1
Pb =
Pc =
Vbn Ibn cos bn
n=1
(2.106)
Vcn Icn cos cn
n=1
Similarly, the reactive powers in three phases are given as following.
Qa =
Van Ian sin an
n=1
Qb =
Qc =
X
n=1
Vbn Ibn sin bn
(2.107)
Vcn Icn sin cn
n=1
Therefore, the total active and reactive powers are computed by summing the phase powers using
equations (2.106) and (2.107), which are given below.
P = P a + Pb + Pc =
(Van Ian cos an + Vbn Ibn cos bn + Vcn Icn cos cn )
n=1
= Va1 Ia1 cos a1 + Vb1 Ib1 cos b1 + Vc1 Ic1 cos c1
X
+
(Van Ian cos an + Vbn Ibn cos bn + Vcn Icn cos cn )
n=2
= Pa1 + Pb1 + Pc1 +
(Pan + Pbn + Pcn )
n=2
= P1 + PH
(2.108)
57
and,
Q = Qa + Qb + Qc =
(Van Ian sin an + Vbn Ibn sin bn + Vcn Icn sin cn )
n=1
= Va1 Ia1 sin a1 + Vb1 Ib1 sin b1 + Vc1 Ic1 sin c1
X
+
(Van Ian sin an + Vbn Ibn sin bn + Vcn Icn sin cn )
n=2
= Qa1 + Qb1 + Qc1 +
(Qan + Qbn + Qcn )
n=2
= Q1 + QH
2.5.1
(2.109)
Arithmetic and Vector Apparent Power with Budeanus Resolution
Using Budeanus resolution, the arithmetic apparent power for phase-a, b and c are expressed as
following.
Sa =
Sb =
Sc =
Pa2 + Q2a + Da2
Pb2 + Q2b + Db2
Pc2 + Q2c + Dc2
(2.110)
The three-phase arithmetic apparent power is arithmetic sum of Sa , Sb and Sc in the above equation.
This is given below.
SA = Sa + Sb + Sc
The three-phase vector apparent power is given as following.
p
Sv = P 2 + Q2 + D2
(2.111)
(2.112)
Where P and Q are given in (2.108) and (2.109) respectively. The total distortion power D is given
as following.
D = Da + Db + Dc
(2.113)
Based on above definitions of the apparent powers, the arithmetic and vector power factors are
given below.
P
SA
P
=
Sv
pfA =
pfv
(2.114)
From equations (2.111), (2.112) and (2.114), it can be inferred that

SA Sv
pfA pfv
58
(2.115)
2.5.2
Effective Apparent Power
Effective apparent power (Se =3Ve Ie ) for the three-phase unbalanced systems with harmonics can
be found by computing Ve and Ie as following. The effective rms current (Ie ) can be resolved into
two parts i.e., effective fundamental and effective harmonic components as given below.
q
2
2
+ IeH
(2.116)
Ie =
Ie1
Similarly,
Ve
q
2
=
Ve12 + VeH
(2.117)
For three-phase four-wire system,

r
Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 + In2
Ie =
(2.118)
3
r
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Ia1
+ Ia2
+ ... + Ib1
+ Ib2
+ ... + Ic1
+ Ic2
+ ... + In1
+ In2
+ ...
=
3
r
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Ia1 + Ib1 + Ic1 + In1 + ... + Ia2 + Ib2
+ Ic2
+ In2
+ ...
=
3
r
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Ia1 + Ib1 + Ic1 + In1 Ia2 + Ia3
+ ... + Ib2
+ Ib3
+ ... + Ic2
+ Ic3
+ ... + In2
+ In3
...
=
+
3
3
q
Ie =
2
2
Ie1
+ IeH
In the above equation,

r
2
2
2
2
Ia1
+ Ib1
+ Ic1
+ In1
3
r
2
2
2
2
IaH + IbH + IcH
+ InH
=
3
Ie1 =
IeH
Similarly, the effective rms voltage Ve is given as following.

r
1
Ve =
[3(Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2 ) + (Vab2 + Vbc2 + Vca2 )]
18
q
2
=
Ve12 + VeH
(2.119)
(2.120)
Where
r
1
2
2
2
2
[3(Va1
+ Vb12 + Vc12 ) + (Vab1
+ Vbc1
+ Vca1
)]
18
r
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
=
[3(VaH
+ VbH
+ VcH
) + (VabH
+ VbcH
+ VcaH
)]
18
Ve1 =
VeH
For three-phase three-wire system, In = 0 = In1 = InH .

59
(2.121)
2
2
2
+ Ic1
+ Ib1
Ia1
3
r
2
2
2
+ IcH
IaH + IbH
=
3
Ie1 =
IeH
(2.122)
Similarly
r
2
2
2
+ Vca1
+ Vbc1
Vab1
9
r
2
2
2
+ VcaH
VabH + VbcH
VeH =
9
The expression for effective apparent power Se is given as following.
Ve1 =
Se = 3 Ve Ie
q
q
2
2
2
+ IeH
Ie1
= 3 Ve12 + VeH
q
2
2
2 2
2 2
=
9 Ve12 Ie1
+ (9Ve12 IeH
+ 9VeH
Ie1 + 9VeH
IeH )
q
2
2
Se1
+ SeN
=
(2.123)
(2.124)

Se1 = 3 Ve1 Ie1
q
2
SeN =
Se2 Se1
q
2
2
2
=
DeV
+ DeI
+ SeH
q
2
2
2
2 2
= 3 Ie1
VeH
+ Ve12 IeH
+ VeH
IeH
(2.125)
(2.126)
In equation (2.126), distortion powers DeI , DeV and harmonic apparent power SeH are given as
following.
DeI = 3Ve1 IeH
DeV = 3VeH Ie1
SeH = 3VeH IeH
(2.127)
By defining above effective voltage and current quantities, the effective total harmonic distortion
(T HDe ) are expressed below.
T HDeV
T HDeI
VeH
Ve1
IeH
=
Ie1
=
Substituting VeH and IeH in (2.126),

q
2
2
2
2
SeN = Se1 T HDe1
+ T HDeV
+ T HDeI
T HDeV
.
60
(2.128)
(2.129)
In above equation,
DeI = Se1 T HDI
DeV = Se1 T HDV
SeH = Se1 (T HDI )(T HDV ).
Using (2.124) and (2.129), the effective apparent power is given as below.
q
q
2
2
2
2
2
2
Se = Se1 + SeN = Se1 1 + T HDeV
+ T HDeI
+ T HDeV
T HDeI
(2.130)
(2.131)
Based on above equation, the effective power factor is therefore given as,
P1 + P H
P
p
=
2
2
2
2
Se
Se1 1 + T HDeV
+ T HDeI
+ T HDeV
T HDeI
P1
(1 + PH /P1 )
= p
2 S
2
2
2
1 + T HDeV + T HDeI + T HDeV T HDeI e1
(1 + PH /P1 )
= p
pfe1
2
2
2
2
1 + T HDeV + T HDeI
+ T HDeV
T HDeI
pfe =
(2.132)
Practically, the THDs in voltage are far less than those of currents THDs, therefore T HDeV <<
T HDeI . Using this practical constraint and assuming PH << P1 , the above equation can be
simplified to,
pfe1
pfe p
2
1 + T HDeI
(2.133)
In the above context, their is another useful term to denote unbalance of the system. This is
defined as fundamental unbalanced power and is given below.
q
2
SU 1 =
Se1
(S1+ )2
(2.134)
Where, S1+ is fundamental positive sequence apparent power, which is given below.
q
+
2
(P1+ )2 + (Q+
S1 =
1)
(2.135)
+
+
+ +
In above, P1+ = 3V1+ I1+ cos +
1 and Q1 = 3V1 I1 sin 1 . Fundamental positive sequence power
+
+
factor can thus be expressed as a ratio of P1 and S1 as given below.
Pf+1 =
P1+
S1+
(2.136)
Example 2.3 Consider the following three-phase system. It is given that voltages V a , V b and V c
are balanced sinusoids with rms value of 220 V. The feeder impedance is rf +jxf = 0.02+j0.1 .
The unbalanced load parameters are: RL = 12 and XL = 13 . Compute the following.
a. The currents in each phase, i.e., I a , I b and I c and neutral current, I n .
61
r f jx f
Va
Ia
vb
vc
vn
Vb
Ib
Ic
XL
LOAD
va
Vc
Vn
RL
In
Fig. 2.11 An unbalanced three-phase circuit
b. Losses in the system.

c. The active and reactive powers in each phase and total three-phase active and reactive powers.
d. Arithmetic, vector and effective apparent powers and power factors based on them.
Solution:
a. Computation of currents
va (t) = 220 2 sin (t)
vb (t) = 220 2 sin (t 120 )
vc (t) = 220 2 sin (t + 120 )
vab (t) = 220 6 sin (t + 30 )

Therefore,
Ia
Ib
Ic
220 330
=
= 29.3160 A
1390
= I a = 29.31160 = 29.31120 A
220120
=
= 18.33120 A.
12
Thus, the instantaneous expressions of phase currents can be given as following.

ia (t) = 41.45 sin (t 60 )
ib (t) = ia (t) = 41.45 sin (t 60 ) = 41.45 sin (t + 120 )
ic (t) = 25.93 sin (t + 120 )
b. Computation of losses
62
The losses occur due to resistance of the feeder impedance. These are computed as below.
Losses = rf (Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 + In2 )
= 0.02 (29.312 + 29.312 + 18.332 + 18.332 ) = 47.80 W
c. Computation of various powers
Phase-a active and reactive power:
implies that,
S a = V a I a = 2200 29.3160 = 3224.21 + j5584.49

Pa = 3224.1 W, Qa = 5584.30 VAr
Similarly,
implies that,
S b = V b I b = 220120 29.3160 = 3224.21 + j5584.49

Pb = 3224.1 W, Qb = 5584.30 VAr
For phase-c,
implies that,
S c = V c I c = 220120 18.33120 = 4032.6 + j0

Pc = 4032.6 W, Qc = 0 VAr
Total three-phase active and reactive powers are given by,

P3phase = Pa + Pb + Pc = 3224.1 3224.1 + 4032.6 = 4032.6 W
Q3phase = Qa + Qb + Qc = 5584.30 + 5584.30 + 0 = 11168.60 VAr.
d. Various apparent powers and power factors
The arithmetic, vector and effective apparent powers are computed as below.
SA = |Sa | + |Sb | + |Sc |
= 6448.12 + 6448.12 + 4032.6 = 16928.84 VA
Sv = |Sa + Sb + Sc |
= |4032.6 + j11168.6| = |11874.3270.14| = 11874.32 VA
r
Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 + In2

Se = 3Ve Ie = 3 220
3
r
2
2
29.31 + 29.31 + 18.332 + 18.332
= 3 220
= 3 220 28.22
3
= 18629.19 VA
63
Based on the above apparent powers, the arithmetic, vector and effective apparent power factors
are computed as below.
4032.6
P3phase
=
= 0.2382
SA
16928.84
P3phase
4032.6
=
=
= 0.3396
Sv
11874.32
4032.6
P3phase
=
= 0.2165
=
Se
18629.19
pfA =
pfv
pfe
In the above computation, the effective voltage and current are found as given in the following.
r
Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2
Ve =
= 220 V
3
r
Ie =
Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 + In2

= 28.226 A
3
Example 2.4 A 3-phase, 3-wire system is shown in Fig. 2.12. The 3-phase voltages are balanced
sinusoids with RMS value of 230 V. The 3-phase loads connected in star are given as following.
Za = 5 + j12 , Zb = 6 + j8 and Zc = 12 j5 .
Compute the following.
a. Line currents, i.e., I la , I lb and I lc and their instantaneous expressions.
b. Load active and reactive powers and power factor of each phase.
c. Compute various apparent powers and power factors based on them.
Vsa
I la
Vsc
I lc
Vsb
I lb
Zb
Fig. 2.12 A star connected three-phase unbalanced load
Solution:
a. Computation of currents
64
Given that Za = 5 + j 12 , Zb = 6 + j 8 , Zc = 12 j 5 .
V sa = 2300 V
V sb = 230120 V
V sc = 230120 V

1
V sa V sb V sc
V nN = 1
+
+
Zb
Zc
+ Z1b + Z1c Za
Za

2300 230120 230120
1
=
+
+
1
1
1
5 + j12
6 + 8j
12 j5
+ 6+j8
+ 12j5
5+j12
1
31.23164.50
=
0.201337.09
= 94.22 j123.18 = 155.09127.41 V
Now the line currents are computed as below.
V sa V nN
2300 155.09127.41
=
= 26.6746.56 A
Za
5 + j12
230120 155.09127.41
V sb V nN
=
= 7.88158.43 A
=
Zb
6 + j8
V sc V nN
230120 155.09127.41
= 24.85116.3 A
=
=
Zc
12 j5
I al =
I bl
I cl
Thus, the instantaneous expressions of line currents can be given as following.

ial (t) = 37.72 sin (t 46.56 )
ibl (t) = 11.14 sin (t 158.43 )
icl (t) = 35.14 sin (t + 116.3 )
b. Computation of load active and reactive powers
Sa = V a I a = 2300 26.6746.56 = 4218.03 + j4456.8
Sb = V b I b = 230120 7.88158.43 = 1419.82 + j1126.06

Sc
implies that,
Pa
Pb
Pc
= V c I c = 230120 24.85116.3 = 5703.43 + j368.11

= 4218.03 W,
= 1419.82 W,
= 5703.43 W,
Qa = 4456.8 VAr
Qb = 1126.06 VAr
Qc = 368.11 VAr
65
Total three-phase active and reactive powers are given by,

P3phase = Pa + Pb + Pc = 4218.03 + 1419.82 + 5703.43 = 11341.29 W
Q3phase = Qa + Qb + Qc = 4456.8 + 1126.06 + 368.11 = 5950.99 VAr.
The power factors for phases a, b and c are given as follows.
Pa
4218.03
4218.03
= 0.6873 (lag)
=
=
2
2
6136.3
|Sa |
4218.03 + 4456.8
Pb
1419.82
1419.82
=
= 0.7835 (lag)
=
=
2
2
1419.82 + 1126.06
1812.16
|Sb |
Pc
5703.43
5703.43
=
=
= 0.9979 (lag)
=
2
2
5703.43 + 368.11
5715.30
|Sc |
pfa =
pfb
pfc
c. Computation of various apparent powers and power factors

The arithmetic, vector and effective apparent powers are computed as below.
SA = |Sa | + |Sb | + |Sc |
= 6136.3 + 1812.16 + 5715.30 = 13663.82 VA
Sv = |Sa + Sb + Sc |
= |11341.29 + j5909.92| = 12807.78 VA
r
2
2
Ila
+ Ilb2 + Ilc2 + Iln
Se = 3Ve Ie = 3 230
3
r
2
2
26.67 + 7.88 + 24.852 + 02
= 3 220
= 3 230 21.53
3
= 14859.7 VA
The arithmetic, vector and effective apparent power factors are computed as below.
P3phase
11341.29
=
= 0.8300
SA
13663.82
P3phase
11341.29
=
=
= 0.8855
Sv
12807.78
P3phase
11341.29
=
=
= 0.7632
Se
14859.7
pfA =
pfv
pfe
References
[1] IEEE Group, IEEE trial-use standard definitions for the measurement of electric power quantities under sinusoidal, nonsinusoidal, balanced, or unbalanced conditions, 2000.
66
[2] E. Watanabe, R. Stephan, and M. Aredes, New concepts of instantaneous active and reactive
powers in electrical systems with generic loads, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 8,
no. 2, pp. 697703, 1993.
[3] T. Furuhashi, S. Okuma, and Y. Uchikawa, A study on the theory of instantaneous reactive
power, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 8690, 1990.
[4] A. Ferrero and G. Superti-Furga, A new approach to the definition of power components in
three-phase systems under nonsinusoidal conditions, IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation
and Measurement, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 568577, 1991.
[5] J. Willems, A new interpretation of the akagi-nabae power components for nonsinusoidal
three-phase situations, IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, vol. 41,
no. 4, pp. 523527, 1992.
[6] H. Akagi, Y. Kanazawa, and A. Nabae, Instantaneous reactive power compensators comprising switching devices without energy storage components, IEEE Transactions on Industry
Applications, no. 3, pp. 625630, 1984.
[7] C. L. Fortesque, Method of symmetrical co-ordinates applied to the solution of polyphase
networks, AIEE, 1918.
67
Chapter 3
FUNDAMENTAL THEORY OF LOAD

COMPENSATION
(Lectures 19-28)
3.1
Introduction
In general, the loads which have poor power factor, unbalance, harmonics, and dc components
require compensation. These loads are arc and induction furnaces, sugar plants, steel rolling mills
(adjustable speed drives), power electronics based loads, large motors with frequent start and stop
etc. All these loads can be classified into three basic categories.
1. Unbalanced ac load
2. Unbalanced ac + non linear load
3. Unbalanced ac + nonlinear ac + dc component of load.
The dc component is generally caused by the usage of half-wave rectifiers. These loads, particularly nonlinear loads generate harmonics as well as fundamental frequency voltage variations.
For example arc furnaces generate significant amount of harmonics at the load bus.
Other serious loads which degrade power quality are adjustable speed drives which include power
electronic circuitry, all power electronics based converters such as thyristor controlled drives, rectifiers, cyclo converters etc.. In general, following aspects are important, while we do provide the
load compensation in order to improve the power quality [1].
1. Types of load (unbalance , harmonics and dc component)
2. Real and Reactive power requirements
3. Rate of change of real and reactive power etc.
In this unit, we however, discuss fundamental load compensation techniques for unbalanced linear
loads such as combination of resistance, inductance and capacitance and their combinations. The
objective here will be to maintain currents balanced and unity factor with their voltages.
69
3.2
Fundamental Theory of Load Compensation
We shall find some fundamental relation ship between supply system the load and the compensator.
We shall start with the principle of power factor correction, which in its simplest form, and can be
studied without reference to supply system [2][5].
The supply system, the load and the compensator can be modeled in various ways. The supply
system can be modeled as a Thevenins equivalent circuit with an open circuit voltage and a series impedance, (its current or power and reactive power) requirements. The compensator can be
modeled as variable impedance or as a variable source (or sink) of reactive current. The choice of
model varied according to the requirements. The modeling and analysis done here is on the basis
of steady state and phasor quantities are used to note the various parameters in system.
3.2.1
Power Factor and its Correction
Consider a single phase system shown in 3.1(a) shown below. The load admittance is represented
Is
V
l
IX
IR
Il
Il
Fig. 3.1 (a) Single line diagram of electrical system (b) Phasor diagram
by Yl = Gl + jBl supplied from a load bus at voltage V = V 0. The load current is I l is given as,
I l = V (Gl + jBl ) = V Gl + jV Bl
= IR + jIX
(3.1)
According to the above equation, the load current has a two components, i.e. the resistive or in
phase component and reactive component or phase quadrature component and are represented by
IR and IX respectively. The current, IX will lag 90o for inductive load and it will lead 90o for
capacitive load with respect to the reference voltage phasor. This is shown in 3.1(b). The load
apparent power can be expressed in terms of bus voltage V and load current Il as given below.
Sl =
=
=
=
=
=
V (Il )
V (IR + j IX )
V (IR j IX )
V (Il cos l j Il sin l )
V Il cos l j V Il sin l
Sl cos l j Sl sin l
70
(3.2)
From (3.1), I l = V (Gl + jBl ) = V Gl + jV Bl , equation (3.2) can also be written as following.
Sl =
=
=
=
=
V (Il )
V (V Gl + jV Bl )
V (V Gl jV Bl )
V 2 Gl j V 2 Bl
Pl + jQl
(3.3)
From equation (3.3), load active (Pl ) and reactive power (Ql ) are given as,
Pl = V 2 Gl
Ql = V 2 Bl
(3.4)
Now suppose a compensator is connected across the load such that the compensator current, I is
equal to IX , thus,
I = V Y = V (G + jB ) = IX
= j V Bl
(3.5)
The above condition implies that G = 0 and B = Bl . The source current Is , can therefore
given by,
I s = I l + I = IR
(3.6)
Therefore due to compensator action, the source supplies only in phase component of the load
current. The source power factor is unity. This reduces the rating of the power conductor and
losses due to the feeder impedance. The rating of the compensator is given by the following
expression.
S = P + j Q = V (I )
= V (j V Bl )
= jV 2 Bl
(3.7)
Using (3.4), the above equation indicates the P = 0 and Q = Ql . This is an interesting
inference that the compensator generates the reactive power which is equal and opposite to the
load reactive and it has no effect on active power of the load. This is shown in Fig. 3.2. Using
(3.2) and (3.7), the compensator rating can further be expressed as,
Q = Ql = Sl sin l = Sl
p
1 cos2 l VArs
(3.8)
From (3.8),
|Q | = Sl
p
1 cos2 l
(3.9)
If |Q | < |Ql | or |B | < |Bl |, then load is partially compensated. The compensator of fixed
admittance is incapable of following variations in the reactive power requirement of the load. In
71
I I X
Is
V
Is IR
l
IX
Il
Il
Fig. 3.2 (a) Single line diagram of compensated system (b) Phasor diagram
practical however a compensator such as a bank of capacitors can be divided into parallel sections,
each of switched separately, so that discrete changes in the reactive power compensation can be
made according to the load. Some sophisticated compensators can be used to provide smooth and
dynamic control of reactive power.
Here voltage of supply is being assumed to be constant. In general if supply voltage varies, the
Q will not vary separately with the load and compensator error will be there. In the following
discussion, voltage variations are examined and some additional features of the ideal compensator
will be studied.
3.2.2
Voltage Regulation
Voltage regulation can be defined as the proportional change in voltage magnitude at the load bus
due to change in load current (say from no load to full load). The voltage drop is caused due to
feeder impedance carrying the load current as illustrated in Fig. 3.3(a). If the supply voltage is
represented by Thevenins equivalent, then the voltage regulation (VR) is given by,

E V
E |V |

VR =
(3.10)
=
V
|V |
for V being a reference phasor.
In absence of compensator, the source and load currents are same and the voltage drop due to the
feeder is given by,
V = E V = Zs Il
(3.11)
The feeder impedance, Zs = Rs + jXs . The relationship between the load powers and its voltage
and current is expressed below.
S l = V (I l ) = Pl + jQl
(3.12)
Since V = V , the load current is expressed as following.

Il =
Pl jQl
V
72
(3.13)
Substituting, Il from above equation into (3.11), we get

Pl jQl
V = E V = (Rs + jXs )
V
Rs Pl + Xs Ql
Xs Pl Rs Ql
=
+j
V
V
= VR + jVX
(3.14)
Thus, the voltage drop across the feeder has two components, one in phase (VR ) and another is
in phase quadrature (VX ). This is illustrated in Fig. 3.3(b).
Feeder
E
Z s Rs jX s
Is
l
Load
Il
j VX
VR
V
R Il
Yl Gl jBl
jX l I l
Il
Sl Pl jQl
Fig. 3.3 (a) Single phase system with feeder impedance (b) Phasor diagram
From the above it is evident that load bus voltage (V ) is dependent on the value of the feeder
impedance, magnitude and phase angle of the load current. In other words, voltage change (V )
depends upon the real and reactive power flow of the load and the value of the feeder impedance.
Now let us add compensator
in
parallel
with the load as shown in Fig. 3.4(a). The question is:
whether it is possible to make E = V , in order to achieve zero voltage regulation irrespective of
change in the load. The answer is yes, if the compensator consisting of purely reactive components,
has enough capacity to supply to required amount of the reactive power. This situation is shown
using phasor diagram in Fig. 3.4(b).
The net reactive at the load bus is now Qs = Q + Ql . The compensator
reactive power (Q ) has
to be adjusted in such a way as to rotate the phasor V until E = V .
From (3.14) and Fig. 3.3(b),

Rs Pl + Xs Qs
Xs Pl Rs Qs
E = V +
+j
V
V
(3.15)
The above equation implies that,

2
2
Rs Pl + Xs Qs
Xs Pl Rs Qs
2
E =
V +
+
V
V
(3.16)
73
Feeder
E
Z s Rs jX s
Il
V
Load
Comp.
Is
Is
Yl Gl jBl
Sl Pl jQl
jX s I s
Rs Is
Il
Fig. 3.4 (a) Voltage with compensator (b) Phasor diagram
The above equation can be simplified to,

E 2 V 2 = (V 2 + Rs Pl )2 + Xs2 Q2s + 2(V 2 +
RsPl ) Xs Qs
(
((
+Xs2 Pl2 + Rs2 Q2s (
2X
P(
(s(
l Rs Qs
(3.17)
Above equation, rearranged in the powers of Qs , is written as following.

(Rs2 + Xs2 ) Q2s + 2V 2 Xs Qs + (V 2 + Rs Pl )2 + (Xs Pl )2 E 2 V 2 = 0
(3.18)
Thus the above equation is quadratic in Qs and can be represented using coefficients of Qs as given
below.
a Q2s + b Qs + c = 0
(3.19)
Where a = Rs2 + Xs2 , b = 2V 2 Xs and c = (V 2 + Rs Pl )2 + Xs2 Pl2 E 2 V 2 .

Thus the solution of above equation is as following.
p
b (b2 4ac)
Qs =
(3.20)
2a
In the actual compensator, this value would be determined automatically by control loop. The
equation also indicates that, we can find the value of Qs by subjecting a condition such as E = V
irrespective of the requirement of the load powers (Pl , Ql ). This leads to the following conclusion
that a purely reactive compensator can eliminate supply voltage variation caused by changes in
both the real and reactive power of the load, provided that there is sufficient range and rate of Qs
both in lagging and leading pf. This compensator therefore acts as an ideal voltage regulator. It
is mentioned here that we are regulating magnitude of voltage and not its phase angle. In fact its
phase angle is continuously varying depending upon the load current.
It is instructive to consider this principle from different point of view. We have seen that compensator can be made to supply all load reactive power and it acts as power factor correction device.
If the compensator is designed to compensate power factor, then Qs = Ql + Q = 0. This implies that Q = Ql . Substituting Qs = 0 for Ql in (3.14) to achieve this condition, we get the
74
following.
V
(Rs + jXs )
Pl
V
(3.21)
From above equation, it is observed that V is independent of Ql . Thus we conclude that a purely
reactive compensator cannot maintain both constant voltage and unity power factor simultaneously.
Of course the exception to this rule is a trivial case when Pl = 0.
3.2.3
An Approximation Expression for the Voltage Regulation
Consider a supply system with short circuit capacity (Ssc ) at the load bus. This short circuit capacity can be expressed in terms of short circuit active and reactive powers as given below.

E
E2
S sc = Psc + jQsc = E I sc = E
=
(3.22)
Zsc
Zsc
Where Zsc = Rs + jXs and I sc is the short circuit current. From the above equation
|Zsc | =
Therefore, Rs =
Xs =
tan sc =
E2
Ssc
E2
cos sc
Ssc
E2
sin sc
Ssc
Xs
Rs
Substituting above values of Rs and Xs , (3.14) can be written in the following form.

V
Pl cos sc + Ql sin sc
Pl sin sc Ql cos sc E 2
=
+j
V
V2
V2
Ssc
V
VR
VX
=
+j
V
V
V
Using an approximation that E V , the above equation reduces to the following.

V
Pl sin sc Ql cos sc
=
+j
V
Ssc
Ssc
VR
V
Ssc
VX
Pl sin sc Ql cos sc
V
Ssc
75
(3.23)
(3.24)
(3.25)
Often (VX /V ) is ignored on the ground that the phase quadrature component contributes negligible to the magnitude of overall phasor. It mainly contributes to the phase angle. Therefore the
equation (3.25) is simplified to the following.
VR
V
=
=
V
V
Ssc
(3.26)
Implying that the major change in voltage regulation occurs due to in phase component, VR .
Although approximate, the above expression is quite useful in terms of short circuit level (Ssc ),
(Xs /Rs , active and reactive power of the load.
On the basis of incremental changes in active and reactive powers of the load, i.e., Pl and Ql
respectively, the above equation can further be written as,
V
VR
=
=
.
V
V
Ssc
(3.27)
Further, feeder reactance (Xs ) is far greater than feeder resistance (Rs ), i.e., Xs >> Rs . This
implies that, sc 90o , sin sc 1 and cos sc 0. Using this approximation the voltage
regulation is given as following.
V
VR
Ql
Ql
sin sc
.
V
V
Ssc
Ssc
(3.28)
That is, per unit voltage change is equal to the ratio of the reactive power swing to the short circuit
level of the supply system. Representing V approximately by E V and assuming linear change
in reactive power with the voltage, the equation (3.28) can be writtwn as,
EV
Ql
.
V
Ssc
(3.29)
The above leads to the following expression,

V '
E
Ql
' E(1
)
Ql
Ssc
(1 + Ssc )
(3.30)
with the assumption that, Ql /Ssc << 1. Although above relationship is obtained with approximations, however it is very useful in visualizing the action of compensator on the voltage. The
above equation is graphically represented as Fig. 3.5. The nature of voltage variation is drooping
with increase in inductive reactive power of the load. This is shown by negative slope E/Ssc as
indicated in the figure.
The above characteristics also explain that when load is capacitive, Ql is negative. This makes
V > E. This is similar to Ferranti effect due to lightly loaded electric lines.
Example 3.1 Consider a supply at 10 kV line to neutral voltage with short circuit level of 250
MVA and Xs /Rs ratio of 5, supplying a star connected load inductive load whose mean power is
25 MW and whose reactive power varies from 0 to 50 MVAr, all quantities per phase.
76
E
S sc
Ql
Fig. 3.5 Voltage variation with reactive power of the load
(a) Find the load bus voltage (V ) and the voltage drop (V ) in the supply feeder. Thus determine
load current (I l ), power factor and system voltage (E ).
(b) It is required to maintain the load bus voltage to be same as supply bus voltage i.e. V =10 kV.
Calculate reactive power supplies by the compensator.
(c) What should be the load bus voltage and compensator current if it is required to maintain the
unity power factor at the supply?
Solution: The feeder resistance and reactance are computed as following.
Zs = Es2 /Ssc = (10 kV)2 /250 = 0.4 /phase
It is given that, Xs /Rs = tan sc = 5, therefore sc = tan1 5 = 78.69o . From this,
Rs = Zs cos sc = 0.4 cos(78.69o ) = 0.0784
Xs = Zs sin sc = 0.4 sin(78.69o ) = 0.3922
(a) Without compensation Qs = Ql , Q = 0
To know V , first the voltage at the load bus has to be computed. This is done by rearranging
(3.18) in powers of voltage V . This is given below.
(Rs2 + Xs2 ) Q2l + 2 V 2 Xs Ql + (V 2 + Rs Pl )2 + Xs2 Pl2 E 2 V 2 = 0
(R2 + X 2 ) Q2 + 2 V 2 X Q + V 4 + R2 P 2 + 2 V 2 R P + X 2 P 2 E 2 V 2 = 0
| s {z s }l | {z s }l |{z} | s{z l} | {z s }l | s{z l} | {z }
III
II
III
II
III
II
Combining the I, II and III terms in the above equation, we get the following.

V 4 + 2(Rs Pl + Xs Ql ) E 2 V 2 + (Rs2 + Xs2 )(Q2l + Pl2 ) = 0
Now substituting values of Rs , Xs , Pl , Ql and E in above equation, we get,

V 4 + 2 [0.0784 25 + 0.3922 50] 102 V 2 + (0.07842 + 0.39222 )(252 + 502 ) = 0
77
(3.31)
After simplifying the above, we have the following equation.

V 4 56.86V 2 + 500 = 0
Therefore
V
and V
56.86 4 500
=
2
= 45.985, 10.875
= 6.78 kV, 3.297 kV
56.86
Since rms value cannot be negative and maximum rms value must be a feasible solution, therefore
V = 6.78 kV.
Now we can compute V using (3.14), as it is given below.
V
R s Pl + X s Q l
Xs Pl Rs Ql
+j
V
V
0.3922 25 0.0784 50
0.0784 25 + 0.392 50
+j
=
6.78
6.78
= 3.1814 + j0.8677 kV = 3.297615.25o kV
=
Now the line current can be found out as following.

Pl Ql
25 j50
=
V
6.782
= 3.86 j7.3746 kA
= 8.242 63.44o kA
Il =
The power factor of load is cos (tan1 (Ql /Pl )) = 0.4472 lagging. The phasor diagram for this
case is similar to what is shown in Fig. 3.3(b).
(b) Compensator as a voltage regulator
Now it is required to maintain V = E = 10.0 kV at the load bus. For this let their be reactive power Q supplied by the compensator at the load bus. Therefore the net reactive power at the
load bus is equal to Qs , which is given below.
Qs = Ql + Q
Thus from (3.18), we get,
(Rs2 + Xs2 )Q2s + 2V 2 Xs Qs + (V 2 + Rs Pl )2 + Xs2 Pl2 E 2 V 2 = 0

(0.7842 + 0.39222 )2 Q2s + 2 102 0.3922 Qs + (102 + 0.784 25)2 + 0.39222 252 104 = 0
From the above we have,
0.16 Q2s + 78.44 Qs + 491.98 = 0.
78
Solving the above equation we get,
78.442 4 0.16 491.98

2 0.16
= 6.35 or 484 MVAr.
Qs =
78.44
The feasible solution is Qs = 6.35 MVAr because it requires less rating of the compensator.
Therefore the reactive power of the compensator (Q ) is,
Q = Qs Ql = 6.35 50 = 56.35 MVAr.
With Qs = 6.35 MVAr, the V is computed by replacing Qs for Ql in (3.14) as given below.
V
Xs Pl Rs Qs
Rs Pl + Xs Qs
+j
V
V
0.0784 25 + 0.39225 6.35
0.39225 25 0.0784 (6.35)
=
+j
10
10
1.96 2.4
9.805 + 0.4978
=
+j
10
10
= 0.0532 + j1.030 kV = 1.0313792.95o kV
=
Now, we can find supply voltage E as given below.

E = V + V
= 10 0.0532 + j1.030
= 9.9468 + j1.030 = 105.91o kV
The supply current is,
Pl jQs
25 j(6.35)
=
V
10
= 2.5 + j0.635 kA = 2.57914.25o kA.
Is =
This indicates that power factor is not unity for perfect voltage regulation i.e., E = V . For this
case the compensator current is given below.
jQ
j(56.35)
=
V
10
= j5.635 kA
I =
I
The load current is computed as below.

Pl jQl
25 j50
=
V
10
= 2.5 j5.0 = IlR + jIlX = 5.5963.44o kA
Il =
The phasor diagram is similar to the one shown in Fig. 3.4(b). The phasor diagram shown has
interesting features. The voltage at the load bus is maintained to 1.0 pu. It is observed that the
reactive power of the compensator Q is not equal to load reactive power (Ql ). It exceeds by 6.35
79
MVAr. As a result of this compensation, the voltage regulation is perfect, however power factor is
not unity. The phase angle between V and I s is cos1 0.969 = 14.25o as computed above. Therefore the angle between E and I s is (14.25o 5.91o = 8.34o ). Thus, source power factor (s ) is
cos(8.340 ) = 0.9956 leading.
(c) Compensation for unity power factor
To achieve unity power factor at the load bus, the condition Q = Ql must be satisfied, which
further implies that the net reactive power at the load bus is zero. Therefore substituting Ql = 0 in
(3.31), we get the following.

V 4 + 2(Rs Pl E 2 ) V 2 + (Rs2 + Xs2 )(Pl2 + Q2l ) = 0
V 4 + (2 0.0784 25 102 )V 2 + (0.07842 + 0.39222 ) 252 = 0
From the above,
V 4 + 96.08V 2 + 99.79 = 0
The solution of the above equation is,
96.08 93.97
= 95.02, 1.052
2
= 9.747 kV, 1.0256 kV.
V2 =
V
Since rms value cannot be negative and maximum rms value must be a feasible solution, therefore
V = 9.747 kV. Thus it is seen that for obtaining unity power factor at the load bus does not ensure
desired voltage regulation. Now the other quantities are computed as given below.
Il =
Pl jQ
25 j50
=
= 2.5648 j5.129 = 5.734563.43o kA
V
9.747
Since Q = Ql , this implies that I = jQ /V = jQl /V = j5.129 kA. The voltage drop across
the feeder is given as following.
V
Rs Pl + Xs Ql
Xs Pl Rs Ql
+j
V
V
(0.784 25 + j0.3922 25)
=
9.747
= 0.201 + j1.005 = 1.02495.01o kV
=
The phasor diagram for the above case is shown in Fig. 3.6.
The percentage voltage change = (10 9.748)/10 100 = 2.5. Thus we see that power factor
improves voltage regulation enormously compared with uncompensated case. In many cases, degree of improvement is adequate and the compensator can be designed to provide reactive power
requirement of load rather than as a ideal voltage regulator.
80
I j 5.13 kA
E 10 kV
5.77
VX
V = 9.75 kV VR
I lR = 2.56 kA
I lX j 5.13 kA
Is
I l 5.73 63.43 kA
Fig. 3.6 Phasor diagram for system with compensator in voltage regulation mode
3.3
Some Practical Aspects of Compensator used as Voltage Regulator
In this section, some practical aspects of the compensator in voltage regulation mode will be discussed. The important parameters of the compensator which play significant role in obtaining
desired voltage regulation are: Knee point (V k ), maximum or rated reactive power Qmax and the
compensator gain K .
The compensator gain K is defined as the rate of change of compensator reactive power Q
with change in the voltage (V ), as given below.
K =
dQr
dV
(3.32)
For linear relationship between Q and V with incremental change, the above equation be written
as the following.
Q = V K
(3.33)
Assuming compensator characteristics to be linear with Q Qmax limit, the voltage can be
represented as,
Q
V = Vk +
(3.34)
K
This is re-written as,
Q = K (V Vk )
81
(3.35)
Flat V-Q characteristics imply that K . That means the compensator which can absorb or
generate exactly right amount of reactive power to maintain supply voltage constant as the load
varies without any constraint. We shall now see the regulating properties of the compensator,
when compensator has finite gain Kr operating on supply system with a finite short circuit level,
Ssc . The further which are made in the following study are: high Xs /Rs ratio and negligible load
power fluctuations. The net reactive power at the load bus is sum of the load and the compensator
reactive power as given below.
Ql + Q = Qs
(3.36)
Using earlier voltage and reactive power relationship from equation (3.30), it can be written as the
following.
V ' E(1
Qs
)
Ssc
(3.37)
The compensator voltage represented by (3.34) and system voltage represented by (3.37) are shown
in Fig. 3.7(a) and (b) respectively.
V Vk
Q
K
Vk
Q
V E 1- s
S SC
Qs
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3.7 (a) Voltage characterstics of compensator (b) System voltage characteristics
Differentiating V with respect to Qs , we get, intrinsic sensitivity of the supply voltage with
variation in Qs as given below.
dV
E
=
(3.38)
dQs
Ssc
It is seen from the above equation that high value of short circuit level Ssc reduces the voltage
sensitivity, making voltage variation flat irrespective of Ql . With compensator replacing Qs =
Q + Ql in (3.37), we have the following.

Ql + Q
V 'E 1
Ssc
82
(3.39)
Substituting Q from (3.35), we get the following equation.

Ql /Ssc
1 + K Vk /Ssc
V 'E
1 + E K /Ssc 1 + E K /Ssc

(3.40)
Although approximate, above equation gives the effects of all the major parameters such as load
reactive power, the compensator characteristics V and K and the system characteristics E and
Ssc . As we discussed, V-Q characteristics is flat for high or infinite value K . However the higher
value of the gain K means large rating and quick rate of change of the reactive power with variation in the system voltage. This makes cost of the compensator high.
The compensator has two effects as seen from (3.40), i.e., it alters the no load supply voltage
(E) and it modifies the sensitivity of supply point voltage to the variation in the load reactive power.
Differentiating (3.40) with respect to Ql , we get,
dV
E/Ssc
=
dQl
1 + Kr E/Ssc
(3.41)
which is voltage sensitivity of supply point voltage to the load reactive power. It can be seen that
the voltage sensitivity is reduced as compared to the voltage sensitivity without compensator as
indicated in (3.38).
It is useful to express the slope (E/Ssc ) by a term in a form similar to K = dQ /dV , as given
below.
Ssc
E
E
=
Ssc
Ks =
Thus,
1
Ks
Substituting V from (3.39) into (3.35), the following is obtained.

Ql + Q
Q = K E 1
Vk
Ssc
Collecting the coefficients of Q from both sides of the above equation, we get

K
Ql
Q =
E 1
Vk
1 + K (E/Ssc )
Ssc
(3.42)
(3.43)
(3.44)
Setting knee voltage Vk of the compensator equal to system voltage E i.e., Vk = E, the above
equation is simplified to,
K (E/Ssc )
Ql
1 + K (E/Ssc )

K /Ks
=
Ql .
1 + K /Ks
Q =
83
(3.45)
From the above equation it is observed that, when compensator gain K , Q Ql . This
indicates perfect compensation of the load reactive power in order to regulate the load bus voltage.
Example 3.2 Consider a three-phase system with line-line voltage 11 kV and short circuit capacity
of 480 MVA. With compensator gain of 100 pu determine voltage sensitivity with and without
compensator. For each case, if a load reactive power changes by 10 MVArs, find out the change in
load bus voltage assuming linear relationship between V-Q characteristics. Also find relationship
between compensator and load reactive powers.
Solution: The voltage sensitivity can be computed using the following equation.
dV
E/Ssc
=
dQl
1 + K E/Ssc
Without compensator K = 0, E = (11/ 3) = 6.35 kV and Ssc = 480/3 = 160 MVA.

Substituting these values in the above equation, the voltage sensitivity is given below.
dV
6.35/160
=
= 0.039
dQl
1 + 0 6.35/160
The change in voltage due to variation of reactive power by 10 MVArs, V = 0.039 10 =
0.39 kV.
With compensator, K = 100
dV
6.35/160
=
= 0.0078
dQl
1 + 100 6.35/160
The change in voltage due to variation of reactive power by 10 MVArs, V = 0.0078 10 =
0.078 kV.
Thus it is seen that, with finite compensator gain their is quite reduction in the voltage sensitivity,
which means that the load bus is fairly constant for considerable change in the load reactive power.
The compensator reactive power Q and load reactive power Ql are related by equation (3.45) and
is given below.
K (E/Ssc )
100 (6.35/160)
Ql =
Ql
1 + K (E/Ssc )
1 + 100 (6.35/160)
= 0.79 Ql
Q =
It can be observed that when compensator gain, (Q ) is quite large, then compensator reactive
power Q is equal and opposite to that of load reactive power i.e., Q = Ql . It is further observed
that due to finite compensator gain i.e., K = 100, reactive power is partially compensated The
compensator reactive power varies from 0 to 7.9 MVAr for 0 to 10 MVAr change in the load
reactive power.
3.4
Phase Balancing and Power Factor Correction of Unbalanced Loads
So far we have discussed voltage regulation and power factor correction for single phase systems.
In this section we will focus on balancing of three-phase unbalanced loads. In considering unbalanced loads, both load and compensator are modeled in terms of their admittances and impedances.
84
3.4.1
Three-phase Unbalanced Loads
Consider a three-phase three-wire system suppling unbalanced load as shown in Fig. 3.8.
an
bn
Ia
I1
Ib
cn
Za
Zb
I2
Ic
Zc
Fig. 3.8 Three-phase unbalanced load
Applying Kirchoffs voltage law for the two loops shown in the figure, we have the following
equations.
V an + Za I 1 + Zb (I 1 I 2 ) + V bn = 0
V bn + Zb I 2 + Zb (I 2 I 1 ) + V cn = 0
(3.46)
Rearranging above, we get the following.

V an V bn = (Za + Zb ) I 1 Zb I 2
V bn V cn = (Zb + Zc ) I 2 Zb I 1
The above can be represented in matrix form as given below.

V an V bn
I1
(Za + Zb )
Zb
=
Zb
(Zb + Zc )
V bn V cn
I2
Therefore the currents are given as below.

1

I1
(Za + Zb )
Zb
V an V bn
=
Zb
(Zb + Zc )
I2
V bn V cn

1
(Zb + Zc )
Zb
V an V bn
=
Zb
(Za + Zb )
V bn V cn
Z

1
I1
(Zb + Zc )
Zb
V an V bn
Therefore,
=
.
Zb
(Za + Zb )
I2
V bn V cn
Z
(3.47)
(3.48)
(3.49)
Where, Z = (Zb + Zc )(Za + Zb ) Zb2 = Za Zb + Zb Zc + Zc Za . The current I 1 is given below.

1
I1 =
(Zb + Zc )(V an V bn ) + Zb (V bn V cn )
Z

1
=
(Zb + Zc )V an Zc V bn Zb V cn
(3.50)
Z
85
Similarly,
1
Z
1
=
Z
I2 =

Zb (V an V bn ) + (Za + Zb )(V bn V cn )

Zb V an + Za V bn (Za + Zb )V cn
(3.51)
Now,

1
(Zb + Zc )V an Zc V bn Zb V cn
Z
I2 I1

1

Zb V an + Za V bn (Za + Zb )V cn (Zb + Zc )V an + Zc V bn + Zb V cn
Z

(Zc + Za )V bn Za V cn Zc Van
Z
(Zc + Za )V bn Zc V an Za V cn
(3.52)
Z
Ia = I1 =
Ib =
=
=
=
and
(Za + Zb )V cn Zb V an Za V bn
Z
Alternatively phase currents can be expressed as following.
I c = I 2 = I b I a =
V an V N n
Za
V bn V N n
=
Zb
V cn V N n
=
Zc
(3.53)
Ia =
Ib
Ic
(3.54)
Applying Kirchoffs current law at node N , we get I a + I b + I c = 0. Therefore from the above
equation,
V an V N n V bn V N n V cn V N n
+
+
= 0.
Za
Zb
Zc
(3.55)
Which implies that,

V an V bn V cn
1
1
1
Za Zb + Zb Zc + Zc Za
+
+
=
+
+
V Nn =
V Nn
(3.56)
Za
Zb
Zc
Za Zb Zc
Za Zb Zc
From the above equation the voltage between the load and system neutral can be found. It is given
below.

Za Zb Zc V an V bn V cn
V Nn =
+
+
Z
Za
Zb
Zc

1
V an V bn V cn
= 1
+
+
(3.57)
Za
Zb
Zc
+ Z1b + Z1c
Za
86
Some interesting points are observed from the above formulation.

1. If both source voltage and load
impedances are balanced i.e., Za = Zb = Zc = Z, then
1
V N n = 3 V an + V bn + V cn = 0. Thus their will not be any voltage between two neutrals.
2. If supply voltage are balanced and load impedances are unbalanced, then V N n 6=0 and is
given by the above equation.
3. If supply voltages are not balanced but load impedances are identical, then V N n =
This equivalent to zero sequence voltage V 0 .
1
3

V an + V bn + V cn .
It is interesting to note that if the two neutrals are connected together i.e., V N n = 0, then each
phase become independent through neutral. Such configuration is called three-phase four-wire
system. In general, three-phase four-wire system has following properties.
)
V Nn = 0
(3.58)
I a + I b + I c = I N n 6= 0
The current I N n is equivalent to zero sequence current (I 0 ) and it will flow in the neutral wire.
For three-phase three-wire system, the zero sequence current is always zero and therefore following
properties are satisfied.
)
V N n 6= 0
(3.59)
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0
Thus, it is interesting to observe that three-phase three-wire and three-phase four-wire system have
dual properties in regard to neutral voltage and current.
3.4.2
Representation of Three-phase Delta Connected Unbalanced Load
A three-phase delta connected unbalanced and its equivalent star connected load are shown in Fig.
3.9(a) and (b) respectively. The three-phase load is represented by line-line admittances as given
below.
Ic
Ic
Yl
Z lc
ca
l
bc
Z lb
Ib
Ib
Yl
Ia
ab
Z la
Ia
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3.9 (a) An unbalanced delta connected load (b) Its equivalent star connected load
87

ab
Ylab = Gab
+
jB
l
l
bc
Ylbc = Gbc
l + jBl
ca
Ylca = Gca
l + jBl
(3.60)
The delta connected load can be equivalently converted to star connected load using following
expressions.
Zlab Zlca
= ab
Zl + Zlbc + Zlca
bc ab
Zl Zl
b
Zl = ab
Zl + Zlbc + Zlca
ca bc
Z
Z
l
l
c
Zl = ab
bc
ca
Zl + Zl + Zl
Zla
(3.61)
Where Zlab = 1/Ylab , Zlbc = 1/Ylbc and Zlca = 1/Ylca . The above equation can also be written in
admittance form
Ylab Ylbc + Ylbc Ylca + Ylca Ylab
Yl =
Ylbc
ab bc
bc ca
ca ab
Y
Y
+
Y
Y
+
Y
Y
l
l
l
l
Yl b = l l
Ylca
ab bc
bc ca
ca ab
Y
Y
+
Y
Y
+
Y
Y
l
l
l
l
Yl c = l l
Ylab
a
(3.62)
Example 3.3 Consider three-phase system supply a delta connected unbalanced load with Zal =
Ra = 10 , Zbl = Rb = 15 and Zcl = Rc = 30 as shown in Fig. 3.8. Determine the voltage
between neutrals and find the phase currents. Assume a balance supply voltage with rms value of
230 V. Find out the vector and arithmetic power factor. Comment upon the results.
88
Solution: The voltage between neutrals V N n is given as following.

VN n =
=
=
=
=
=
VN n =

V an V bn V cn
Ra Rb Rc
+
+
Ra Rb + Rb Rc + Rc Ra Ra
Rb
Rc

o
10 15 30
V 0
V 120o V 120o
+
+
10 15 + 15 30 + 30 10
10
15
30

o
o
o
4500 3V 0 + 2V 120 + V 120
900
30
"
!
!#
3
3
4500 1
1
1
V 3+2 j
+ +j
900 30
2
2
2
2
"
#
V
1
3
3
3 1 j2
+j
6
2
2
2
"
#

V 3
3
1
1
j
=V
j = V [0.25 j0.1443]
6 2
2
4
4 3
V
30o = 66.3930o Volts
2 3
Knowing this voltage, we can find phase currents as following.

Ia =
=
=
=
V an V N n
V 0o V /(2 3)30o
=
Ra
10
V [1 0.25 + j0.1443]
10
230 [0.075 + j0.01443]
17.5610.89o Amps
Similarly,
Ib
V bn V N n
V 120o V /(2 3)30o
=
=
Rb
15
= 230 [0.05 j0.04811]
= 15.94136.1o Amps
and
Ic
V 120o V /(2 3)30o

V cn V N n
=
=
Zc
30
= 230 [0.025 + j0.03367]
= 9.64 126.58o Amps
89
It can been seen that I a + I b + I c = 0. The phase powers are computed as below.
S a = V a (I a ) = Pa + jQa = 230 17.56 10.81o = 3976.12 j757.48 VA
S b = V b (I b ) = Pb + jQb = 230 15.94(120o + 136.1o = 3522.4 + j1016.69 VA
S c = V c (I c ) = Pc + jQc = 230 9.64(120o 126.58o ) = 2202.59 j254.06 VA
From the
apparent power S V = S a + S b + S c = 9692.11 + j0 VA. Therefore,
above the total

SV = S a + S b + S c = 9692.11 VA.

The total arithmetic apparent power SA = S a + S b + S c == 9922.2 VA. Therefore, the
arithmetic and vector apparent power factors are given by,
P
9692.11
=
= 0.9768
SA
9922.2
P
9622.11
= 1.00.
=
=
SV
9622.11
p fA =
p fV
It is interesting to note that although the load in each phase is resistive but each phase has some
reactive power. This is due to unbalance of the load currents. This apparently increases the rating
of power conductors for given amount of power transfer. It is also to be noted that the net reactive
power Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = 0 leading to the unity vector apparent power factor . However the
arithmetic apparent power factor is less than unity showing the effect of the unbalance loads on the
power factor.
3.4.3
An Alternate Approach to Determine Phase Currents and Powers
In this section, an alternate approach will be discussed to solve phase currents and powers directly
without computing the neutral voltage for the system shown in Fig.3.9(a). First we express threephase voltage in the following form.
V a = V 0o
V b = V 120o = 2 V
V c = V 1200 = V
(3.63)
Where, in above equation, is known as complex operator and value of and 2 are given below.
= ej2/3 = 1120o = 1/2 + j 3/2
2 = ej4/3 = 1240 = 1 120 = 1/2 j 3/2

(3.64)
Also note the following property,
1 + + 2 = 0.
Using the above, the line to line voltages can be expressed as following.
90
(3.65)
V ab = V a V b = (1 2 )V
V bc = V b V c = (2 )V
V ca = V c V a = ( 1)V
(3.66)
Therefore, currents in line ab, bc and ca are given as,

ab
2
I abl = Y ab
l V ab = Yl (1 )V
I bcl = Ylbc V bc = Ylbc (2 )V
I cal = Ylca V ca = Ylca ( 1)V
(3.67)
Hence line currents are given as,

I al = I abl I cal = [Ylab (1 2 ) Ylca ( 1)]V
I bl = I bcl I abl = [Ylbc (2 ) Ylab (1 2 )]V
I cl = I cal I bcl = [Ylca ( 1) Ylbc (2 )]V
(3.68)
Example 3.4 Compute line currents by using above expressions directly for the problem in Example 3.3.
Solution: To compute line currents directly from the above expressions, we need to compute Ylab .
These are given below
1
Zlc
=
Zlab
Zla Zlb + Zlb Zlc + Zlc Zla
Zla
1
=
=
Zlbc
1
Zlb
=
=
Zlca
Ylab =
Ylbc
Ylca
(3.69)
Substituting, Zal = Ra = 10 , Zbl = Rb = 15 and Zcl = Rc = 30 into above equation, we get

the following.
1
30
1
Ylbc = Gbc =
90
1
Ylca = Gca =
60
Ylab = Gab =
Substituting above values of the admittances in (3.68) , line currents are computed as below.
91
"
Ia =
1
30
(
)#
)
1
3
1
1
3
1 ( j
)
( + j
)1
V
2
2
60
2
2
= V (0.075 + j0.0144)
= 0.07637 V 10.89o
= 17.5610.89o Amps, for V=230 V
Similarly for Phase-b current,
" (
(
)
)#
1
1
3
1
3
1
1
3
Ib =
( j
) ( + j
)
1 ( j
)
V
90
2
2
2
2
30
2
2
= V (0.05 j0.0481)
= 0.06933 V 136.1o
= 15.94 136.91o Amps, for V=230 V
Similarly for Phase-c current,
"
Ic =
1
60
)
(
)#
1
3
1
1
3
1
3
( + j
) 1)
( j
) ( + j
)
V
2
2
90
2
2
2
2
= V (0.025 + j0.0336)
= 0.04194 V 126.58o
= 9.64126.58o Amps, for V=230 V
Thus it is found that the above values are similar to what have been found in previous Example
3.3. The other quantities such as powers and power factors are same.
3.4.4
An Example of Balancing an Unbalanced Delta Connected Load
An unbalanced delta connected load is shown in Fig. 3.10(a). As can be seen from the figure that
between phase-a and b there is admittance Ylab = Gab
l and other two branches are open. This is
an example of extreme unbalanced load. Obviously for this load, line currents will be extremely
unbalanced. Now we aim to make these line currents to be balanced and in phase with their phase
voltages. So, let us assume that we add admittances Yab , Ybc and Yca between phases ab, bc and
ca respectively as shown in Fig. 3.10(b) and (c). Let values of compensator susceptances are given
by,
Yab = 0
Ybc = jGab
l / 3
Yca = jGab
l / 3
92
3
/
j
G ab
j
G ab
l /
Yl bc
0
Y bc
ab
jG l
Yl bc
0
ab
jGl
ca
Yl
ca
Yl
ca
Ic
ca
Ic
Ic
bc
Ib
b
Ia
Yl G
ab
ab
l
Ib
Yl ab Glab
Yab 0
Ia
(a)
Ib
b
Y ab Glab
Ia
(b)
(c)
Fig. 3.10 (a) An unbalanced three-phase load (b) With compensator (c) Compensated system
Thus total admittances between lines are given by,

ab
Y ab = Ylab + Yab = Gab
l + 0 = Gl
ab
Y bc = Ylbc + Ybc = 0 + jGab
l / 3 = jGl / 3
ab
Y ca = Ylca + Yca = 0 jGab
l / 3 = jGl / 3.
Therefore the impedances between load lines are given by,

1
1
=
Y ab
Gab
l
j 3
1
=
=
Y bc
Gab
l
1
j 3
=
= ab
ca
Y
Gl
Z ab =
Z bc
Z ca
ab
ab
ab
Note that Z ab + Z bc + Z ca = 1/Gab
l j 3/Gl + j 3/Gl = 1/Gl .
The impedances, Za , Zb and Zc of equivalent star connected load are given as follows.
Z ab Z ca
Z ab + Z bc+ Z ca
1
j 3
1
= ( ab ab )/( ab )
Gl
Gl
Gl
j 3
=
Gab
l
Za =
93
Z bc Z ab
ca
Z ab + Z bc +
Z
j 3
1
1
)/( ab )
= ( ab
ab
Gl
Gl
Gl
j 3
=
Gab
l
Zb =
Z ca Z bc
Z ab
+ Z bc +Z ca
1
j 3 j 3
= ( ab ab )/( ab )
Gl
Gl
Gl
3
=
Gab
l
Zc =
The above impedances seen from the load side are shown in Fig. 3.11(a) below. Using (3.57),
Ic
Ic
3
Z ab
Gl
Load
Zlb j
c
1
Glab
c
l
3
Glab
Ib
b
Zla j
1
Glab
Source
n
3
Glab
Ib
Ia
N
1
Glab
Ia
Fig. 3.11 Compensated system (a) Load side (b) Source side
the voltage between load and system neutral of delta equivalent star load as shown in Fig. 3.11, is
computed as below.

1
V an V bn V cn
VN n = 1
+
+
Za
Zb
Zc
+ Z1b + Z1c
Za

1
V 0o
V 120o V 120o
+
+
=
1
3
1
3/Gab
+ (j 3/G
j 3/Gab
j 3/Gab
ab ) + Gab
l
l
l
(j 3/Gab
)
l
l
l
ab

ab
3V
Gl
G
=
j l
ab
3
Gl
3
!
1
3
j
= 2V
2
2
= 2 V 60o
94
Using above value of neutral voltage the line currents are computed as following.
Ia =
=
V an V N n
Za
[V 0o 2 V 60o ]
j Gab3
l
Ib =
=
Gab
l
Gab
l
V =
Va
V bn V N n
Zb
[V 120o 2 V 60o ]
j Gab3
l
=
=
Ic =
=
Gab
l
Gab
l
V 240
Vb
V cn V N n
Zc
[V 120o 2 V 60o ]
3
Gab
l
o
= Gab
l V 120
= Gab
l Vc
From the above example, it is seen that the currents in each phase are balanced and in phase with
their respective voltages. This is equivalently shown in Fig. 3.11(b). It is to be mentioned here that
the two neutrals in Fig. 3.11 are not same. In Fig. 3.11(b), the neutral N is same as the system
neutral as shown in Fig. 3.8, whereas in Fig. 3.11(a),
V N n = 2 V 60o .However the reader
ca
may be curious to know why Yab = 0, Ybc = jGab
= jGab
l / 3 and
l / 3 have been chosen
as compensator admittance values. The answer of the question can be found by going following
sections.
3.5
A Generalized Approach for Load Compensation using Symmetrical

Components
In the previous section, we have expressed line currents I a , I b and I c , in terms load admittances
and the voltage V for a delta connected unbalanced load as shown in Fig 3.12(a). For the sake of
completeness, theses are reproduced below.
95
I al = I abl I cal = [Ylab (1 2 ) Ylca ( 1)]V

I bl = I bcl I abl = [Ylbc (2 ) Ylab (1 2 )]V
I cl = I cal I bcl = [Ylca ( 1) Ylbc (2 )]V
c
c
Ic
I cl
Yl
Yl ab
ca
ca
l
Ybc bc
Yl
ca
l
bc
I bl
I al
(3.70)
Ib
Ia
(a)
Yl ab
Yab
(b)
Fig. 3.12 (a) An unbalanced delta connested load (b) Compensated system
Since loads currents are unbalanced, these will have positive and negative currents. The zero
sequence current will be zero as it is three-phase and three-wire system. These symmetrical components of the load currents are expressed as following.

I 0l
I al
1 1 1
I 1l = 1 1 a a2 I bl
(3.71)
2
3
1
a
a
I 2l
I cl
In equation (3.71), a factor of 1/ 3 is considered to have unitary symmetrical transformation.

From the above equation, zero sequence current is given below.

I 0l = I al + I al + I al / 3
The positive sequence current is as follows.

1
I 1l = I al + I bl + 2 I cl
3

1
= [ Ylab (1 2 ) Ylca ( 1) + Ylbc (2 ) Ylab (1 2 )
3

+2 Ylca ( 1) Ylbc ( 2 ) ] V
1
= [ Ylab 2 Ylab + Ylca Ylca + 3 Ylbc 2 Ylbc Ylab 3 Ylab + 3 Ylca 2 Ylca
3
4 Ylbc + 3 Ylbc ] V

= Ylab + Ylbc + Ylca V 3
96
Similarly negative sequence component of the current is,

1
I 2l =
I al + 2 I bl + I cl
3

1
= [Ylab (1 2 ) Ylca ( 1) + 2 Ylbc (2 ) Ylab (1 2 )
3

+ Ylca ( 1) Ylbc (2 ) ]V
1
= [ Ylab 2 Ylab Ylca + Ylca + 4 Ylbc 3 Ylbc 2 Ylab
3
+4 Ylab + 2 Ylca Ylca 3 Ylbc + 2 Ylbc ] V
1
= [ 32 Ylab 3Ylbc 3Ylca ] V
3
= [2 Ylab + Ylbc + Ylca ] 3V

From the above, it can be written that,
I 0l = 0

I 1l = Ylab + Ylbc + Ylca 3V
I 2l = 2 Ylab + Ylbc + Yl

ca
(3.72)
3V
When compensator is used, three delta branches Yab , Ybc and Yca are added as shown in Fig.
3.12(b). Using above analysis, the sequence components of the compensator currents can be given
as below.
I 0 = 0

3V

= 2 Yab + Ybc + Yca
3V
I 1 =
I 2
Yab + Ybc + Yca
(3.73)
bc
ca
Since, compensator currents are purely reactive, i.e., Gab
= G = G = 0,
ab
ab
Yab = Gab
+ jB = jB
bc
bc
Ybc = Gbc
+ jB = jB
ca
ca
Yca = Gca
+ jB = jB .
(3.74)
Using above, the compensated sequence currents can be written as,

I 0 = 0
I 1 = j Bab + Bbc + Bca
I 2
3V
= j(2 Bab + Bbc + Bca ) 3 V
(3.75)
Knowing nature of compensator and load currents, we can set compensation objectives as following.
1. All negative sequence component of the load current must be supplied from the compensator
negative current, i.e.,
I 2l = I 2
97
(3.76)
The above further implies that,

Re I 2l + j Im I 2l = Re I 2 j Im I 2
(3.77)
2. The total positive sequence current, which is source current should have desired power factor
from the source, i.e.,
Im (I 1l + I 1 )
= tan =
Re (I 1l + I 1 )
(3.78)
Where, is the desired phase angle between the line currents and the supply voltages. The above
equation thus implies that,
Im (I 1l + I 1 ) = Re (I 1l + I 1 )
(3.79)
Since Re (I 1 ) = 0, the above equation is rewritten as following.

Im (I 1l ) Re (I 1l ) = Im (I 1 )
(3.80)
The equation (3.77) gives two conditions and equation (3.79) gives one condition. There are
three unknown variables, i.e., Bab , Bbc and Bca and three conditions. Therefore the unknown
variables can be solved. This is described in the following section. Using (3.75), the current I 2 is
expressed as following.
I 2 = j[2 Bab + Bbc + Bca ] 3 V

"
#
!
!
1
1
3
3
= j
j
Bab + Bbc + + j
Bca
3V
2
2
2
2
"
!

#
3 ab
3 ca
1 ab
1
=
B +
B j B + Bbc Bca
3V
2
2
2
2

= Re I 2 j Im I 2
Thus the above equation implies that
!

1
3 ab
3 ca
1
B
B = Re I 2 = Re I 2l
2
2
3V
3V
(3.81)
(3.82)
and,

1
1
Bab + Bbc Bca
2
2

1
1
= Im I 2 = Im I 2l
3V
3V
(3.83)
Or

1
Bab + 2 Bbc Bca = 2 Im I 2l
3V
98
(3.84)
From (3.75), Im (I 1 ) can be written as,

Im (I 1 ) = Bab + Bbc + Bca
3 V.
(3.85)
Substituting Im (I 1 ) from above equation into (3.85), we get the following.

1
1
Im (I 1l ) Re (I 1l )
(Bab + Bbc + Bca ) = Im (I 1 ) =
3V
3V
(3.86)
Subtracting (3.86) from (??), the following is obtained,

Bbc =
1
[Im (I 1l ) 2 Im (I 2l ) Re (I 1l )].
3 3V
(3.87)
Now, from (3.82) we have

1
1
1
Bab Bca = Im (I 2l ) Bbc
2
2
3V

1
1
= Im (I 2l )
Im (I 1l ) Re (I 1l ) 2 Im (I 2l )
3V
3 3V

1
=
(3.88)
Im (I 2l ) + Im (I 1l ) Re (I 1l )
3 3V
Reconsidering (3.88) and (3.83), we have
1
Bab
2
1 ab
B
2

1 ca
1
B =
Im (I 1l ) + Im (I 2l ) Re (I 1l )
2
3 3V
1 ca
1
[ 3Re (I 2l )]
B =
2
3 3V
Adding above equations, we get

Bca =
1
[Im (I 1l ) + Im (I 2l ) + 3 Re (I 2l ) Re (I 1l )].
3 3V
(3.89)
Therefore,
2
Bab = Bca + [ 3 Re (I 2l )]
3 3V
1
[Im (I 1l ) + Im (I 2l ) + 3 Re (I 2l ) Re (I 1l ) 2 3 Re (I 2l )]
=
3 3V
1
= [Im (I 1l ) + Im (I 2l ) 3 Re (I 2l ) Re (I 1l )]
(3.90)
3 3V
Similarly, Bbc can be written as in the following.

1
Bbc =
Im(I 1l ) 2Im(I 2l ) Re(I 1l )
3 3V
(3.91)
(3.92)
99
From the above, the compensator susceptances in terms of real and imaginary parts of the load
current can be written as following.
1
[Im (I 1l ) + Im (I 2l ) 3 Re (I 2l ) Re (I 1l )]
3 3V
1
= [Im(I 1l ) 2Im(I 2l ) Re(I 1l )]
3 3V
1
= [Im (I 1l ) + Im (I 2l ) + 3 Re (I 2l ) Re (I 1l )]
3 3V
Bab =
Bbc
Bca
(3.93)
In the above equation, the susceptances of the compensator are expressed in terms of real and
imaginary parts of symmetrical components of load currents. It is however advantageous to express
these susceptances in terms of instantaneous values of voltages and currents from implementation
point of view. The first step to achieve this is to express these susceptances in terms of load
currents, i.e., I al , I bl and I cl , which is described below. Using equation (3.71), the sequence
components of the load currents are expressed as,

1
I0l = Ial + Ibl + Icl
3

1
I1l = Ial + Ibl + 2 Icl
3

1
I2l = Ial + 2 I1l + Icl .
3
(3.94)
Substituting these values of sequence components of load currents, in (3.93), we can obtain compensator susceptances in terms of real and inaginary components of the load currents. Let us start
from the Bbc , as obtained following.

1
Bbc =
Im(I 1l ) 2Im(I 2l ) Re(I 1l )
3 3V

1
I al + I bl + 2 I cl
I al + 2 I bl + I cl
I al + I bl + 2 I cl
=
Im
2 Im
Re
3 3V
3
3
3

1
=
Im (I al + (2 + 3)I bl + (2 + 32 )I cl Re (I al + I bl + 2 I cl )
9V

1
Im I al + 2I bl + 2I cl + 3I bl + 32 I cl Re (I al + I bl + 2 I cl )
=
9V
By adding and subracting I bl and I cl in the above equation we get,
Bbc =

1
Im (I al I bl I cl ) + 3I bl + 3I cl + 3 I bl + 2 I cl Re(I al + I bl + 2 I cl )
9V
We know that I al +I bl +I cl =0, therefore I al + I bl = I cl .

Bbc
1
=
3V
Im I al + Im I bl + Im I cl
100

2
Re I al + I bl + I cl
(3.95)
3
Similarly, it can be proved that,

Bca
1
=
3V

2
2
Im I al Im I bl + Im I cl Re I al + I bl + I cl
3
Bab
1
=
3V
Im I al + Im I bl Im I cl
Re I al + I bl + 2 I cl
3
(3.96)

(3.97)
The above expressions for Bca and Bab are proved below. For convenience, the last term associated
with is not considered. For the sake simplicity in equations (3.96) and (3.97) are proved to those
given in equations (3.93).

1
Im I al Im I bl + Im 2 I cl
3V " (

)#
2
I 0l + I 1l + I 2l
I 0l + 2 I 1l + I 2l
I
+
I
+
I
1
0l
1l
2l
=
Im
+ 2
3V
3
3
3
Bca =
Since I 0l =0
1
Bca =
3 3V
1
=
3 3V
1
=
3 3V
1
=
3 3V

Im I 1l 22 I 2l
"
! #
3
1
Im I 1l 2 j
I 2l
2
2
i
h
Im I 1l + I 2l + j 3I 2l
h

i
Im I 1l + Im I 2l + 3Re I 2l
Note that Im(jI 2l ) = Re(I 2l ). Adding term, we get the following.

i

1 h
Bca =
Im(I 1l ) + Im(I 2l ) + 3Re I 2l Re(I 1l )
3 3V
Similarly,

1
Im I al + Im I bl Im 2 I cl
3V " (

)#
2
I 0l + I 1l + I 2l
I 0l + 2 I 1l + I 2l
1
2 I 0l + I 1l + I 2l
=
Im
+
3V
3
3
3
Bab =
101

1
Bab = Im I 1l 2I 2l
3 3V
"
! #
3
1
1
= Im I 1l 2 + j
I 2l
2
2
3 3V
i
h
=
Im I 1l + I 2l j 3I 2l
3 3V

i
1 h
=
Im I 1l + Im I 2l 3Re I 2l
3 3V
Thus, Compensator susceptances are expressed as following.

1
2
2
Im(I al ) + Im(I bl ) Im( I cl ) Re(I al + I bl + I cl )
=
3V
3

1
bc
2
2
B =
Im(I al ) + Im(I bl ) + Im( I cl ) Re(I al + I bl + I cl )
(3.98)
3V
3

1
Bca =
Im(I al ) Im(I bl ) + Im(2 I cl ) Re(I al + I bl + 2 I cl )
3V
3
An unity power factor is desired from the source. For this cos l = 1, implying tan l = 0 hence
= 0. Thus we have,

1
Bab =
3V

1
Im I al + Im I bl + Im 2 I cl
(3.99)
Bbc =
3V

1
Bca =
Im I al Im I bl + Im 2 I cl
3V
The above equations are easy to realize in order to find compensator susceptances. As mentioned
above, sampling and averaging techniques will be used to convert above equation into their time
equivalents. These are described below.
Bab
3.5.1
Sampling Method
Each current phasor in above equation can be expressed as,

I al = Re(I al ) + jIm(I al )
= Ial,R + jIal,X
An instantaneous phase current is written as follows.
ial (t) = 2 Im (I al ejt )

= 2 Im (Ial,R + jIal,X ) ejt
= 2 Im [(Ial,R + jIal,X )(cos t + j sin t)]
= 2 Im [(Ial,R cos t Ial,X sin t) + j(Ial,R sin t + Ial,X cos t)]
= 2 [(Ial,R sin t + Ial,X cos t)]

102
(3.100)
(3.101)
ial (t)
Im (I al ) = I al,X =
2
at sin t = 0, cos t = 1
(3.102)
From equation (3.63), the phase voltages can be expressed as below.
va (t) = 2 V sin t
vb (t) = 2 V sin(t 120o )
vc (t) = 2 V sin(t + 120o )
(3.103)
From above voltage expressions, it is to be noted that, sin t = 0, cos t = 1 implies that the
phase-a voltage, va (t) is going through a positive zero crossing, hence, va (t) = 0 and dtd va (t) = 0.
Therefore, equation (3.102), can be expressed as following.
ial (t)
I a,l = when, va (t) = 0, dva /dt > 0
2
(3.104)
I b,l = Ibl,R + jIbl,X
(3.105)
Similarly,
Therefore,
(I b,l ) = (Ibl,R + jIbl,X )

!
1
3
= +j
(Ibl,R + jIbl,X )
2
2
!
!
1
3
3
1
= Ibl,R
Ibl,X + j
Ibl,R Ibl,X
2
2
2
2
(3.106)
From the above,
Im { (Ibl )} =
3
1
Ibl,R Ibl,X
2
2
103
(3.107)
Similar to equation, (3.101), we can express phase-b current in terms Im ( I bl ), as given below.
ibl (t) = 2 Im (I bl ejt )
= 2 Im ( I bl ejwt 1 )
0
= 2 Im (I bl ej(wt120 ) )
"
#
!
1
3
0
(I bl,R + jI bl,X ) ej(wt120 )
= 2 Im
+j
2
2
!
!
1
3
3
1
= 2 Im [ Ibl,R
Ibl,X + j
Ibl,R Ibl,X
2
2
2
2

(cos(wt 1200 ) + j sin(wt 1200 )) ]
(3.108)
"
#
1
3
3
1
= 2 ( I bl,R
I bl,X ) sin(wt 1200 ) + (
I bl,R I bl,X ) cos(wt 1200 )
2
2
2
2
From the above equation, we get the following.
ibl (t)
Im (I bl ) =
2
when, vb (t) = 0, dvb /dt > 0
(3.109)
when, vc (t) = 0, dvc /dt > 0
(3.110)
Similarly for phase-c, it can proved that,

icl (t)
Im (2 I cl ) =
2
Substituting Im (I al ) , Im (I bl ) and Im (2 I cl ) from (3.104), (3.109) and (3.110) respectively, in

(3.99), we get the following.
1
Brab =
3 2V
1
Brbc =
3 2V
1
Brca =
3 2V
ia |(va =0, dva >0) + ib |(v

dt
dvb
b =0, dt >0)
ic |(vc =0, dvc >0)
dt
ia |(va =0, dva >0) + ib |(v
+ ic |(vc =0, dvc >0)

dt
dt
h
i
ia |(va =0, dva >0) ib |(v =0, dvb >0) + ic |(vc =0, dvc >0)
dvb
b =0, dt >0)
dt
dt
(3.111)
dt
Thus the desired compensating susceptances are expressed in terms of the three line currents sampled at instants defined by positive-going zero crossings of the line-neutral voltages va , vb , vc . An
artificial neutral at ground potential may be created measuring voltages va , vb and vc to implement
above algorithm.
3.5.2
Averaging Method
In this method, we express the compensator susceptances in terms of real and reactive power terms
and finally expressed them in time domain through averaging process. The method is described
104
below.
From equation (3.99), susceptance, Bab , can be re-written as following.

1
3V

1
= 2 V Im I al + V Im I bl V Im 2 I cl
3V

1
= 2 Im V I al + Im V I bl Im V 2 I cl
3V
Bab =
(3.112)
Note the following property of phasors and applying it for the simplification of the above expression.

Im V I = Im V I
(3.113)
Using above equation (3.112) can be written as,

1
3V 2
1
=
3V 2
1
=
3V 2
Bab =

Im (V I al ) + Im (V a I bl ) Im (2 V I cl )
i
h

2
Im (V a I al ) + Im ( V a I bl ) Im (( ) V a I cl )
h
i

Im (V a I al ) + Im (2 V a I bl ) Im (V a I cl )
Since V a = V 0o is a reference phasor, therefore V a = V a = V , 2 V a = V b and V a = V c .

Using this, the above equation can be written as following.
1
=
3V 2
1
Similarly, Bbc =
3V 2
1
Bca =
3V 2
Bab
h
i
Im (V a I al ) + Im (V b I bl ) Im (V c I cl )
h
i
Im (V a I al ) + Im (V b I bl ) + Im (V c I cl )
h
i
Im (V a I al ) Im (V b I bl ) + Im (V c I cl )
(3.114)
It can be further proved that,

Z
1 T
Im (V
=
va (t)(/2) ial (t) dt
T 0
Z
1 T
Im (V b I b ) =
vb (t)(/2) ibl (t) dt
T 0
Z
1 T
Im (V c I c ) =
vc (t)(/2) icl (t) dt
T 0
a I a)
105
(3.115)
In (3.115), the term va (t)(/2) denotes the voltage va (t) shifted by /2 radian in time domain. For balanced voltages, the following relationship between phase and line voltages are true.
va (t)(/2) = vbc (t)/ 3
(3.116)
vb (t)(/2) = vca (t)/ 3
vc (t)(/2) = vca (t)/ 3

From (3.115) and (3.116), the following can be written.
Z T
1
Im (V a I a ) =
vbc (t) ial (t) dt
3T 0
Z T
1
Im (V b I b ) =
vca (t) ibl (t) dt
3T 0
Z T
1
Im (V c I c ) =
vab (t) icl (t) dt
3T 0
(3.117)
Substituting above values of Im (V a I a ), Im (V b I b ) and Im (V c I c ) into (3.114), we get the following.

Bab
Bbc
Bca
Z
1 T
1
(vbc ial + vca ibl vab icl ) dt

=
(3 3V 2 ) T 0
Z
1
1 T
=
(vbc ial + vca ibl + vab icl ) dt
(3 3V 2 ) T 0
Z
1 T
1
(vbc ial vca ibl + vab icl ) dt

=
(3 3V 2 ) T 0
(3.118)
The above equations can directly be used to know the the compensator susceptances by performing
the
R T averaging
R t1 +T on line the product of the line to line voltages and phase load currents. The term
= t1
can be implemented using moving average of one cycle. This improves transient
0
response by computing average value at each instant. But in this case the controller response
which changes the susceptance value, should match to that of the above computing algorithm.
3.6
Compensator Admittance Represented as Positive and Negative Sequence

Admittance Network
Recalling the following relations from equation (3.93) for unity power factor operation i.e. = 0,
we get the following.
1
Bab = [Im (I 1l ) + Im (I 2l ) 3 Re (I 2l )]
3 3V
1
Bbc = [Im (I 1l ) Re (I 1l ) 2Im (I 2l )]
(3.119)
3 3V
1
Bca = [Im (I 1l ) + Im (I 2l ) + 3 Re (I 2l )]
3 3V
106
From these equations, it is evident the the first terms form the positive sequence suceptance as they
involve I 1l terms. Similarly, the second and third terms in above equation form negative sequence
susceptance of the compensator, as these involve I 2l terms. Thus, we can write,
ab
ab
Bab = B1
+ B2
ab
ab
+ B2
Bab = B1
Bab
ab
B1
(3.120)
ab
B2
Therefore,

1
ab
bc
ca
B1
= B1
= B1
=
Im(I1l )
3 3V
(3.121)
And,
ab
B2
bc
B2
ca
B2
1
=
Im(I 2l ) 3Re(I 2l )
3 3V

1
=
2 Im(I 2l )
3 3V

1
=
Im(I 2l ) + 3Re(I 2l )
3 3V
(3.122)
Earlier in equation, (3.123), it was established that,

I 0l = 0

I 1l = Ylab + Ylbc + Ylca 3V
I 2l = 2 Ylab + Ylbc + Ylca
3V
Noting that,
ab
Ylab = Gab
l + jBl
bc
Ylbc = Gbc
l + jBl
ca
Ylca = Gca
l + jBl
Therefore,
Im (I 1l ) = Im ((Ylab + Ylbc + Ylca ) 3V )
= (Blab + Blbc + Blca ) 3V
(3.123)
Thus equation (3.121) is re-written as following.

ab
bc
ca
B1
= B1
= B1
=

1
Blab + Blab + Blca
3
107
(3.124)
ca
bc
ab
using equations (3.122) as following. Knowing that,
and B2
, B2
Now we shall compute B2

I2l = 2 Ylab + Ylbc + Ylca
3V
#
"
!
!

3
1
j
1 j 3
ab
bc
bc
ca
ca
Gab
+
jB
+
G
+
jB
+
+
(G
+
jB
)
3V
=
l
l
l
l
l
l
2
2
2
2
"
!#
Gab
3 ab
Gca
3 ca
3 ab Blab
3 ca Blca
l
l
bc
bc
=
+
Bl + Gl
Bl j
Gl +
Bl
Gl +
3V
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
!#
"
ca
ab
ca
3
G
3
3
B
3
B
Gab
l
l
l
l
Blab Gbc
+
Blca + j
Gab
Blbc
Gca
3V
=
l +
l +
l +
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
(3.125)
Im (I 2l ) =
3 Re(I 2l ) =
ca
3 ab Blab
3
B
l
Gl +
Blbc
Gca
3V
l +
2
2
2
2
!
3 ab 3 ab bc
3 ca 3 ca
G + Bl + 3Gl
G Bl
3V
2 l
2
2 l
2
ab
Thus, B2
can be given as,
ca i
1 h ab
ab
2Bl Blbc Blca + 3 Gbc
B2
=
3 Gl
3V
l
3 3V
i
1h
ca
= 2Blab Blbc Blca + 3 Gbc
G
l
l
3

1
1
bc
= Gca
Blbc + Blca 2Blab
+
l Gl
3
3
(3.126)
Similarly,
1 h
ca
Im(I2l ) + 3 Re(I2l )
B2
=
3 3V "
#
ab
ca
1
3 ab Bl
3 ca Bl
3 ab 3 ab
3 ca 3 ca
=
Gl +
Blbc
Gl +
+
Gl Bl 3Gbc
G + Bl
3V
l +
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 l
2
3 3V
i
1 h ab bc
=
3Gl 3Gl Blab Blbc + 2Blca
3
1

1
ab
(3.127)
= Gbc
+
Blab + Blbc 2Blca
l Gl
3
3
bc
And, B2
is computed as below.
108

1
bc
=
2Im(I2l )
B2
3 3V
!
ca
2
3 ab Blab
3
B
l
=
Gl +
Blbc
Gca
V 3
l +
2
2
2
2
3 3V
1

1
ca
+
Blab + Blca 2Blbc
= Gab
l Gl
3
3
(3.128)
Using (3.121), (3.126)-(3.128), We therefore can find the overall compensator susceptances as
following.
ab
ab
Bab = B1
+ B2

1

1
1
bc
= Bab + Bbc + Bca + Gca
+
Blca + Blbc 2Blab
l Gl
3
3
3

1
bc
= Blab + Gca
l Gl
3
Similarly,
bc
bc
Bbc = B1
+ B2

1

1
1
ca
ab
ca
bc
G
B
+
B
2B
+
= Bab + Bbc + Bca + Gab
l
l
l
l
3
3 l
3

1
ca
= Blbc + Gab
l Gl
3
And,
ca
ca
Bca = B1
+ B2

1
1
1
ab
Blbc + Blab 2Blca
= Bab + Bbc + Bca + Gbc
+
l Gl
3
3
3

1
ab
= Blca + Gbc
l Gl
3
Thus, the compensator susceptances in terms of load parameters are given as in the following.

1
bc
Bab = Blab + Gca
l Gl
3

1
ca
Bbc = Blbc + Gab
l Gl
3

1
ca
ca
ab
B = Bl + Gbc
l Gl
3
109
(3.129)
It is interesting to observe above equations. The first parts of the equation nullifies the effect of the
load susceptances and the second parts of the equations correspond to the unbalance in resistive
load. The two terms together make source current balanced and in phase with the supply voltages.
The compensators positive and negative sequence networks are shown in Fig. 3.13 .
What happens if we just use the following values of the compensator susceptances as given below?
Bab = Blab
Bbc = Blbc
Bca = Blca
(3.130)
In above case, load suceptance parts of the admittance are fully compensated. However the source
currents after compensation remain unbalanced due to unbalance conductance parts of the load.
isa
ila
ilb
Source
isb
ilc
isc
I 1,abc
Load
I 2,abc
Bab2
Bab1
Bbc1
Bca1
Bbc2
Bca2
Bab , Bbc , Bca
Fig. 3.13 Sequence networks of the compensator
Example 3.5 For a delta connected load shown in 3.14 , the load admittances are given as following,
ab
Ylab = Gab
l + jBl
bc
Ylbc = Gbc
l + jBl
ca
Ylca = Gca
l + jBl
Given the load parameters:

Zlab = 1/Ylab = 5 + j12
Zlbc = 1/Ylbc = 3 + j4
Zlca = 1/Ylca = 9 j12
Determine compensator susceptances (Bab , Bbc , Bca ) so that the supply sees the load as balanced
and unity power factor. Also find the line currents and source active and reactive powers before
and after compensation.
110
va
a
ia
ab
ca
vc
ca
ic
ab
vb
ib
bc
bc
Fig. 3.14 A delta connected load
Solution:
Zlab = 5 + j12 Ylab = 0.03 j0.0710 f

Zlbc = 3 + j4 Ylbc = 0.12 j0.16 f
Zlca = 9 j13 Ylca = 0.04 + j0.0533 f
Once we know the admittances we know,
ab
Gab
l = 0.03, Bl = 0.0710
bc
Gbc
l = 0.12, Bl = 0.16
ca
Gca
l = 0.04, Bl = 0.0533
1
bc
Bab = Blab + (Gca
l Gl ) = 0.0248 f
3
1
ca
Bbc = Blbc + (Gab
l Gl ) = 0.1540 f
3
1
ab
Bca = Blca + (Gbc
l Gl ) = 0.0011 f
3
Total admittances are:
Y ab = Ylab + Yab = 0.03 j0.0462 f
Y bc = Ylbc + Ybc = 0.12 j0.006 f
Y ca = Ylca + Yca = 0.04 + j0.0522 f
Knowing these total admittances, we can find line currents using following expressions.
Current Before Compensation
111

I a = I abl I cal = (1 2 )Ylab ( 1)Ylca V = 0.2150 V 9.51o A

I b = I bcl I abl = (2 )Ylbc (1 2 )Ylab V = 0.4035 V 161.66o A

I c = I cal I bcl = ( 1)Ylca (2 )Ylbc V = 0.2358 V 43.54o A
Powers Before Compensation
Sa
Sb
Sc
Total real power, P
Total reactive power, Q
Power factor in phase-a, pfa
Power factor in phase-b, pfb
Power factor in phase-c, pfc
V a (I al ) = Pa + jQa = V (0.2121 + j0.0355)

V b (I bl ) = Pb + jQb = V (0.3014 + j0.2682)
V c (I cl ) = Pc + jQc = V (0.0552 + j0.2293)
Pa + Pb + Pc = V 0.5688 W
Qa + Qb + Qc = V 0.5330 VAr
cos a = cos(9.51o ) = 0.9863 lag
cos b = cos(41.63o ) = 0.7471 lag
cos c = cos(76.45o ) = 0.2334 lag
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Thus we observe that the phases draw reactive power from the lines and currents are unbalanced
in magnitude and phase angles.
After Compensation

I a = I ab I ca = (1 2 )Y ab ( 1)Y ca V = 0.1896 V 0o A

I b = I bc I ab = (2 )Y bc (1 2 )Y ab V = 0.1896 V 120o A

I a = I ca I bc = ( 1)Ylca (2 )Y bc V = 0.1896 V 120o A
Powers After Compensation
Sa
Sb
Sc
Total real power, P
Total reactive power, Q
Power factor in phase-a, pfa
Power factor in phase-b, pfb
Power factor in phase-c, pfc
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
V a (I al ) = Pa + jQa = V (0.1986 + j0.0)

V b (I bl ) = Pb + jQb = V (0.1986 + j0.0)
V c (I cl ) = Pc + jQc = V (0.1986 + j0.0)
Pa + Pb + Pc = (V 0.5688 )W
Qa + Qb + Qc = 0 VAr
cos a = cos(0o ) = 1.0
cos b = cos(0o ) = 1.0
cos c = cos(0o ) = 1.0
From above results we observe that after placing compensator of suitable values as calculated
above, the line currents become balanced and have unity power factor relationship with their voltages.
112
Example 3.6 Consider the following 3-phase, 3-wire system. The 3-phase voltages are balanced
sinusoids with RMS value of 230 V at 50 Hz. The load impedances are Za = 3 + j 4 , Zb =
5 + j 12 , Zc = 12 j 5 . Compute the following.
1. The line currents I la , I lb , I lc .
2. The active (P ) and reactive (Q) powers of each phase.
3. The compensator susceptance ( Bab , Bbc , Bca ), so that the supply sees the load balanced and
unity power factor.
4. For case (3), compute the source, load, compensator active and reactive powers (after compensation).
Vsa
I la
Vsc
I lc
Vsb
I lb
Zb
Fig. 3.15 An unbalanced three-phase three-wire star connected load
Solution:
Given that Za = 3 + j 4 , Zb = 5 + j 12 , Zc = 12 j 5 .
1. Line currents I la , I lb , andI lc are found by first computing neutral voltage as given below.
V nN =
1
( Z1a
1
Zb
Va
1 (
) Za
Zc
=
=
=
Vb Vc
+
)
Zb
Zc
Va Vb Vc
Za Zb Zc
)(
+
+
)
Za Zb + Zb Zc + Zc Za Za
Zb
Zc
Zabc V a V b V c
(
+
+
)
Z Za
Zb
Zc
5097.82o
(24.1299.55o )
o
252.4155.5
43.79 j 67.04 V
80.7557.15o V
= (
=
Now the line currents are computed as below.

113
V a V nN
Za
2300o 80.7557.15o
=
3+j4
= 33.2 j 21.65
= 39.6333.11o A
I la =
V b V nN
Zb
230120o 80.7557.15o
=
5 + j 12
= 15.85152.21o A
I lb =
V c V nN
Zc
230120o 80.7557.15o
=
12 j 5
= 23.89143.35o A
I lc =
2. Active and Reactive Powers

For phase a
Pa = Va Ia cos a = 230 39.63 cos(33.11o ) = 7635.9 W
Qa = Va Ia sin a = 230 39.63 sin(33.11o ) = 4980 VAr
For phase b
Pb = Vb Ib cos b = 230 15.85 cos(152.21o 120o ) = 140.92 W
Qb = Vb Ib sin b = 230 15.85 sin(152.21o 120o ) = 3643.2 VAr
For phase c
Pc = Vc Ic cos c = 230 23.89 cos(143.35o + 120o ) = 5046.7 W
114
Qc = Vc Ic sin c = 230 23.89 sin(143.35o + 120o ) = 2179.3 VAr

Total three phase powers
P = Pa + Pb + Pc = 12823 W
Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = 6443.8 VAr
3. Compensator Susceptance
First we convert star connected load to a delta load as given below.
Zlab =
Za Zb +Zb Zc +Zc Za
Zc
Zlbc =
Z
Za
= 50.44 + j 2.08 = 50.422.36o
Zlca =
Z
Zb
= 19.0 j 4.0 = 19.42 11.89o
= 4 + j 19 = 19.4277.11o

ab
Ylab = 1/Zlab = Gab
l + j Bl = 0.0106 j0.050 f
bc
Ylbc = 1/Zlbc = Gbc
l + j Bl = 0.0198 j0.0008 f
ca
Ylca = 1/Zlca = Gca
l + j Bl = 0.0504 + j0.0106 f
From the above, the compensator susceptances are computed as following.

Bab = Blab +
Gbc
(Gca
l )
l
3
= 0.0681 f
Bbc = Blbc +
(Gab
Gca
l
l )
3
= 0.0222 f
Bca = Blca +
(Gbc
Gab
l
l )
3
= 0.0053 f
Zab = j 14.69 (capacitance)

Zbc = j 45.13 (inductance)
Zca = j 188.36 (inductance)
115
4. After Compensation
0
Zlab = Zlab || Zab = 24.97 j 41.59 = 48.52 59.01o

0
Zlbc = Zlbc || Zbc = 21.52 j 24.98 = 32.9749.25o

0
Zlca = Zlca || Zca = 24.97 j 41.59 = 19.7332 6.0o

Let us convert delta connected impedances to star connected.
Za =
=
=
Zb =
=
=
Zc =
=
=
Zab0 Zca0
Zab0 + Zbc0 + Zca0
9.0947 j 10.55
13.93 49.25o
Zbc0 Zab0
Zab0 + Zbc0 + Zca0
23.15 + j 2.43
23.286.06o
Zca0 Zbc0
Zab0 + Zbc0 + Zca0
4.8755 + j 8.12
9.4759.01o
The new voltage between the load and system neutral after compensation is given by,
1
V nN =
( Z1a
1
Zb
Va
1 (
) Za
Zc
o
+ +
= 205.4257.15 V
Vb Vc
+
)
Zb
Zc
Based on the above, the line currents are computed as following.

0
Ia =
=
Ib =
=
V a V nN
Za
18.580o A
0
V b V nN
Zb
18.58 120o A
0
Ic
V c V nN
=
Zc
= 18.58120o A
116
Thus, it is seen that after compensation, the source currents are balanced and have unity power
factor with respective supply voltages.
Source powers after compensation
Pa = Pb = Pc = 230 18.58 = 4272.14 W
P = 3Pa = 12820.2 W
Qa = Qb = Qc = 0
Q = 0 VAr
Compensator powers
ab
ab
= V ab (I )
= V ab (V ab .Yab )
2
= V ab Yab
= (230 3)2 (j 0.0068)

= j 10802 VA
bc
ca
= Vbc2 Ybc
= (230 3)2 (j 0.0222)

= j 3516 VA
= Vca2 Yca
= (230 3)2 (j 0.0053)

= j 842 VA
References
[1] A. Ghosh and G. Ledwich, Power quality enhancement using custom power devices. Kluwer
Academic Pub, 2002.
[2] T. J. E. Miller, Reactive power control in electric systems.
Wiley, 1982.
[3] L. Gyugyi, Reactive power generation and control by thyristor circuits, IEEE Transactions
on Industry Applications, no. 5, pp. 521532, 1979.
117
[4] R. Otto, T. Putman, and L. Gyugyi, Principles and applications of static, thyristor-controlled
shunt compensators, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, no. 5, pp. 1935
1945, 1978.
[5] N. Hingorani and L. Gyugyi, Understanding FACTS: Concepts and Technology of Flexible AC
Transmission Systems, 2000. Wiley-IEEE Press, 1999.
118
Chapter 4
CONTROL THEORIES FOR LOAD

COMPENSATION
(Lectures 29-40)
4.1
Introduction
In the previous chapter, we studied the methods of load compensation. These methods can eliminate only the fundamental reactive power and unbalance in the steady state. These kinds of compensators can be realized using passive LC filters and thyristor controlled devices. However, when
harmonics are present in the system, these methods fails to provide correct compensation. To correct load with unbalance and harmonics, instantaneous load compensation methods are used. The
two important theories in this context are Instantaneous Theory of load compensation often known
as pq theory [1] and Instantaneous Symmetrical Component Theory for load compensation [2].
These theories will be discussed in this chapter. Their merits and demerits and applications will be
explored in detail.
To begin with pq theory, we shall first recall the 0 transformation, which was discussed in
Chapter 2. For three-phase system shown in Fig. 4.1, the 0 transformations for voltages and
currents are given below.
c
n
Fig. 4.1 A three phase system

119

r 1 1
1
va
v0
2
2
2
2
1
1
v =
1
2
vb
2
3
3
3
v
v
c
0
2
2
(4.1)

r 1 1
1
ia
i0
2
2
2 2
1
1
i =
1
ib
2
2
3
3
3
ic
i
2
0
2
(4.2)
The instantaneous active, p(t) and reactive, q(t) powers were defined in Chapter 2 through equations (2.14)-(2.15) respectively. For the sake of completeness these are given below.
p3 (t) =
=
=
=
va ia + vb ib + vc ic
v i + v v + v0 i0
p + p + p0
p + p0
(4.3)
Where, p = p + p = v i + v i and p0 = v0 i0 .
In the instantaneous reactive power theory, as discussed in Chapter 2, the instantaneous reactive
power, q(t) was defined as,
Therefore, powers po , p
q(t) = q = v i + v i
= v i v i
1
= [vbc ia + vca ib + vab ic ]
3
and q can be expressed in matrix form as given below.

i0
v0 0
0
p0
p = 0 v v i
i
0 v v
q
(4.4)
(4.5)
From the above equation, the currents, i0 , i and i are computed as given below.

1
2

v + v2
0
0
i0
v0 0
0
p0
p0
1
i = 0 v v p =
0
p (4.6)
v0 v v0 v
2 + v2 )
v
(v
0
i
0 v v
q
q
0
v0 v v0 v
i0 =
p0 (v2 + v2 )
v0 i0
p0
=
= i0
=
v0 (v 2 + v 2 )
v0
v0
v
v
p + 2
(q )
2
+ v
v + v 2
= ip + iq
i =
(4.7)
v2
120
(4.8)
v
v
p + 2
q
2
+ v
v + v 2
= ip + iq
i =
v2
(4.9)
where
i0 = zero sequence instantaneous current
ip = -phase instantaneous active current =
ip = -phase instantaneous
iq = -phase instantaneous
iq = -phase instantaneous
v
2 +v 2 p
v
v
active current = v2 +v
2p
v
reactive current = v2 +v
2q
reactive current = v2v+v

2q
Using above definitions of various components of currents, the three phase instantaneous power
can be expressed as,
p3 = v0 i0 + v i + v i
= v0 i0 + v (ip + iq ) + v (ip + iq )
"
#
"
#
v
v
v
v
= v0 i0 + v 2
p + 2
q + v 2
p + 2
q
v + v2
v + v2
v + v2
v + v2
= v0 i0 + v ip + v iq + v ip + v iq
= v0 i0 + (pp + pq ) + (pp + pq )
= v0 i0 + (pp + pp )
(4.10)

pq + pq = v iq + v iq = 0
(4.11)
If referred to compensator (or filter), the equation (4.6) can be written as,
2
0
0
v + v2
pf 0
if 0
1
if =
0
v0 v v0 v pf
2
2
v
(v
+
v
)
0
if
qf
0
v0 v v0 v
(4.12)
Since the compensator does not supply any instantaneous real power, therefore,
pf 3 = pf 0 + pf = 0
(4.13)
The instantaneous zero sequence power exchanges between the load and the compensator and
compensator reactive power must be equal to load reactive power. Therefore we have,
pf o = plo = vo ilo
pf = plo = vo ilo
qf = ql = v il v il
121
(4.14)
(4.15)
(4.16)
Since over all real power from the compensator is equal to zero, therefore the following should be
satisfied.
pf o + pf = 0
(4.17)
The power flow description is shown in Fig. 4.2.
pl
o
plo
P
ql
p l p lo
Fig. 4.2 Power flow description of three-phase 4-wire compensated system
Also the zero sequence current should be circulated through the compensator, therefore,
if o = ilo
(4.18)
Using the conditions of compensator powers as given in the above, the and components of
compensator currents can be given as following.
v
v
p
+ 2
qf
2 f
+ v
v + v2
1
= 2
[v (vo ilo ) v (v il v il )]
v + v2
1
[v vo ilo v v il + v2 il )]
= 2
v + v2
if =
v2
(4.19)
Similarly,
1
[v ( pf ) + v ( qf )]
+ v2
1
= 2
[v (vo ilo ) + v (v il v il )]
v + v2
1
= 2
[vo v ilo v v il + v2 il ]
v + v2
if =
v2
122
(4.20)
The above equations are derived based on assumption that in general vlo 6= 0 If vo = 0 ,then
if 0 = ilo
1
[v 2 il v v il ]
+ v2
1
= 2
[v v il + v2 il ]
2
v + v
if =
if
(4.21)
v2
Once the compensator currents, if o , if and if are known, they are transformed back to the abc
frame in order to implement in real time. This transformation is given below.
1
0
r
if a
if o
2
2 1
3
1
if b =
i
2
f
2
2
3
3
1
1
if
if c
2 2
2
(4.22)
These reference currents are shown in Fig. 4.3. Once reference compensator currents are known,
these are tracked using voltage source inverter (VSI). The other details of the scheme can be as
following.
Thus, compensator powers can be expressed in terms of load powers as following.
v sa
N
v sb
i sa
ila
LOAD
ilb
i sb
LOAD
v sc
i sc
i lc
LOAD
i*fa
i*fc
i*fb
n'
Fig. 4.3 A three-phase four-wire compensated system with ideal compensator
pf o = plo
pf = (pl plavg ) plo = pel
pf = pf o + pf = pel
123
The power components and various components of currents are related as following.

p
v i
=
p
v i

v (ip + iq )
=
v (ip + iq )

v ip
v iq
=
+
v ip
v iq

pp
p
=
+ q
pp
pq
(4.23)
The following quantities are defined.

- axis instantaneous active power = pp = v ip
- axis instantaneous reactive power = pq = v iq
- axis instantaneous active power = pp = v ip
- axis instantaneous reactive power = pq = v iq
It is seen that,
pp + pp = v ip + v ip
v2 + v2
(v )(v )
(v )(v )
p+ 2
p=( 2
)p = p
= 2
v + v2
v + v2
v + v2
(4.24)
and
pq + pq = v iq + v iq =
(v )(v )
(v )(v )
p+
p=0
v2 + v 2
v2 + v 2
(4.25)
Thus, it can be observed that the sum of pp and pp is equal to total instantaneous real power p(t)
and the sum of pq and pq is equal to zero. Therefore,
p3 = p + po
= p + p + po
= pp + pp + po
(4.26)
For an ideal compensator,

pf o = plo = vo ilo = po
pf = plo
qf = ql
(4.27)
For practical compensator, the switching and ohmic losses should be considered. These losses
should be met from the source in order to maintain the dc link voltage constant. Let these losses
are denoted by Ploss , then the following formulation is used to include this term. Let the average
124
power that must be supplied to the compensator be p, then p is given as following.
p = po + Ploss
(4.28)
Thus, the compensator powers can be expressed as,

pf 0 = pel0
pf = pel p
qf = ql
(4.29)
Once these compensator powers are obtained, the compensator currents if 0 , if and if are computed using (4.18), (4.19) and (4.20). Knowing these currents, we can obtain compensator currents
in abc frame using equation (4.22). These currents are realized using voltage source inverter (VSI).
One of the common VSI topology is illustrated in Fig. 4.4. This VSI topology is known as neutral
clamped inverter.
vsa
N
vsb
isc
ilc
LOAD
LOAD
i fa i fb i fc
S1
S3
S5
Vdc2
LOAD
isb
i1
Vdc1
ila
ilb
vsc
Cdc1
PCC
isa
S4
Rf
Rf
Lf
Lf
io
c
S2
S6
Cdc2
i2
Fig. 4.4 Voltage Source Inverter
While realizing compensator using voltage source inverter, there are switching and other losses
in the inverter circuit. Therefore, a fraction of total power is required to maintain dc capacitor
voltage to a reference value by generating Ploss term. Once reference filter currents (if 0 , if , if )
are obtained, the filter currents in abc system are obtained as below.
1

1
0
r
if a
if o
2
2 1
3
1
if b =
2 2
2 if
3
if
if c
1
21 23
2
As discussed above, the compensator powers are substituted in equation (4.29), the compensator
currents are expressed as below.
125
v + v2
0
0
plo
if o
1
0
if =
vo v v0 v pl + p0 ploss
2
2
)
v
(v
+
v
0
q l
if
0
v0 v v0 v
v + v2
0
0
plo
if o
1
0
if =
vo v v0 v pl + p0 ploss
2
2
)
v
(v
+
v
0
q l
if
0
v0 v v0 v
Now once we know if a , if b , if c signals, these have to be synthesized using voltage source
inverter. A typical voltage source inverter (VSI) along with a three-phase compensated system as
shown in Fig. 4.5.
ila
isa
vsa
Source
vsb
v sc
isn 0
i fa
Vdc
Vdc ref
ila
ilb
ilc
ifa
Active filter
controller
ifc
i fc
Voltage source
inverter
Voltage regulator
Ploss
L
O
A
D
isb
isc
S1
S6
il n
i fa
Dymanic
hysteresis current
control
i fc
vsa vsb vsc
Fig. 4.5 Control algorithm for three-phase compensated system
4.1.1
State Space Modeling of the Compensator
There are different VSI topologies to realize [3]. The most commonly used is neutral clamped
inverter topology as shown in Fig. 4.4. Since this is a three phase four-wire system each phase can
be considered independently. Therefore, to analyze above circuit, only one phase is considered,
which is shown in Fig. 4.6. The other phases work similarly. In Fig. 4.6(a), for switch S1 is closed
and switch S4 is open, the KVL can be written as below.
Lf
dif a
+ Rf if a + vsa Vdc1 = 0
dt
(4.30)
From the above equation,

dif a
Rf
vsa Vdc1
=
if a
+
dt
Lf
Lf
Lf
126
(4.31)
Cdc1
Cdc 2
+
Vdc1
+
Vdc2
-
S1 (ON)
Rf
i fa
Cdc1
Lf
+
Vdc1
-
vsa
S4 (OFF)
Cdc 2
+
Vdc2
-
(a)
S1 (OFF)
Rf
i fa
Lf
vsa
S4 (ON)
(b)
Fig. 4.6 Equivalent circuit (a) S1 (ON), S4 (OFF) (b) S1 (OFF), S4 (ON)
Similarly, when S1 is open and S4 is closed as shown in Fig. 4.6 (b),

Rf
vsa Vdc2
dif a
=
if a
.
dt
Lf
Lf
Lf
(4.32)
The above two equations can be combined into one by using switching signals Sa , S a , as given
below.
Rf
dif a
Vdc1
Vdc2 vsa
= if a + Sa
Sa
dt
Lf
Lf
Lf
Lf
(4.33)
Similarly, for phases b and c, the first order derivative of filter currents can be written as following.
dif b
Rf
Vdc1
Vdc2 vsb
= if b + Sb
Sb
dt
Lf
Lf
Lf
Lf
Rf
dif c
Vdc1
Vdc2 vsc
= i f c + Sc
Sc
dt
Lf
Lf
Lf
Lf
(4.34)
(4.35)
where, Sa = 0 and S a = 1 implies that the top switch is open and bottom switch is closed and,
Sa = 1 and S a = 0 implies that the top switch is closed and bottom switch is open. The two logic
signals Sa and S a are complementary to each other. This logic also holds for the other two phases.
The inverter currents i1 and i2 as shown in Fig. 4.4, can be expressed in terms of filter currents
and switching signals. These are given below.
i1 = Sa if a + Sb if b + Sc if c
i2 = S a if a + S b if b + S c if c
(4.36)
The relationship between DC capacitor voltages Vdc1 , Vdc2 and inverter currents i1 and i2 is given
as below.
Cdc1
Cdc2
dVdc1
= i1
dt
dVdc2
= i2
dt
127
(4.37)
Considering Cdc1 = Cdc2 = Cdc and substituting i1 and i2 from (4.36), the above equations can be
written as,
Sa
Sb
Sc
dVdc1
=
if a
if b
if c
dt
Cdc
Cdc
Cdc
dVdc2
Sa
Sb
Sc
=
if a +
if b +
if c
dt
Cdc
Cdc
Cdc
The equations (4.33), (4.34), (4.35), (4.38)
given below.
Rf
Sa
0
0
Lf
Lf
if a
R
Sb
if b 0
Lff
0
Lf

d
R
if c = 0
0
Lff LSfc

dt
Vdc1 Sa
C SCb SCc 0
Vdc2
Sb
Sa
Sc
0
C
C
C
(4.38)
(4.39)
and (4.39) can be represented in state space form as
1
LS fa
Lf
i
fa
Sb
Lf
0
if b
0
LSfc if c +
Vdc1
0
0
Vdc2
0
0
0
L1f
0
0
0
0

0
vsa
L1f vsb (4.40)
0 vsc
0
The above equation is in the form,

x = A x + B u.
(4.41)
Where, x is a state vector, A is system matrix, B is input matrix and u is input vector. This state
space equation can be solved using MATLAB to implement the compensator for simulation study.
4.1.2
Switching Control of the VSI
In the equation (4.40), the switching signals Sa , S a , Sb , S b , Sc , and S c are generated using a hysteresis band current control. This is described as following. The upper and lower bands of the
reference filter current (say phase-a) are formed using hysteresis h i.e., if a + h and if a h. Then,
following logic is used to generate switching signals.
If if a (if a + h)
Sa = 0 and S a = 1
else if if a (if a h)
Sa = 1 and S a = 0
else if (if a h) < if a < (if a + h)
Retain the current status of the switches.
end
The first order derivative of state variables can be easily solved using c2d (continuous to discrete) command in MATLAB. It is given below.
[Ad Bd ] = c2d(A, B, td )
128
(4.42)
The value of the state vector is updated using the following equation.
x[(k + 1)T ] = Ad x[kT ] + Bd u[kT ]
(4.43)
Where x(k + 1) refers the value of the state vector at (k + 1)th sample. The Ad and Bd computed
by c2d0 function as described above can be expressed as below.
The solution of state equation given by (4.41) is given as following [Nagrath].
x(t) = eA(tt0 ) x(t0 ) +
Zt
eA(t ) B u( )d
(4.44)
to
Where to represents initial time and t represents final time. The above equation can be re-written
as following.
Zt
x(t) = (t to ) x(to ) +
(t ) B u( ) d
(4.45)
to
Writing above equation for small time interval, kT t (k +1)T with to = kT and t = (k +1)T ,
x[(k + 1)T ] = eAT x[kT ] +
(k+1)T
Z
eA {(k+1)T } B u[kT ] d
kT
= eAT x[kT ] +
(k+1)T
Z
eA {(k+1)T } B d
u[kT ]
(4.46)
kT
Comparing (4.43) and (4.46), the discrete matrices Ad and Bd computed by c2d0 MATLAB function can be written as following.
Ad = eA T
(k+1)T
Z
Bd =
eA {(k+1)T } B d
(4.47)
kT
4.1.3
Generation of Ploss to maintain dc capacitor voltage
The next step is to determine Ploss in order to maintain the dc link voltage close to its reference
value. In compensation, what could be an indication of Ploss to account losses in the inverter. The
average voltage variation of dc link may be an indicator of Ploss in the inverter. If losses are more
than supplied by the inverter, the dc link voltage, i.e., Vdc = Vdc1 + Vdc2 , will decline towards zero
and vice versa. For proper operation of compensator, we need to maintain dc capacitor voltage
to two times of the reference value of each capacitor voltage i.e., Vdc1 + Vdc2 = Vdc = 2 Vdcref .
Thus, we have to replenish losses in inverter and sustain dc capacitor voltage to 2Vdcref with each
129
capacitor voltage to Vdcref . This is achieved with the help of proportional integral (PI) controller
described below [4]. Lets define an error signal as following.
eV dc = 2 Vdcref (Vdc1 + Vdc2 ) = 2 Vdcref Vdc
Then, the term Ploss is computed as following.
Td
eV dc dt
Ploss = Kp eV dc + Ki
0
This control loop need not be very fast and may be updated once in a voltage cycle, preferably at
the positive of phase-a voltage and generate Ploss term at these points. The above controller can be
implemented using digital domain as following.
Ploss (k) = Kp eVdc (k) + Ki
k
X
eVdc (j) Td .
(4.48)
j=0
In the above equation, k represents the k th sample of error, eVdc . For k = 1, the above equation can
be written as,
Ploss (1) = Kp eVdc (1) + Ki
1
X
eVdc (j) Td .
j=0
= Kp eVdc (1) + Ki [eVdc (0) + eVdc (1)] Td .
(4.49)
Similarly for k = 2, we can write,

Ploss (2) = Kp eVdc (1) + Ki [eVdc (0) + eVdc (1) + eVdc (2)] Td .
(4.50)
Replacing Ki [eVdc (0) + eVdc (1)] from (4.49), we get,

Ki [eVdc (0) + eVdc (1)] Td = Ploss (1) Kp eVdc (1)
(4.51)
Substituting above value in (4.50),we obtain the following.

Ploss (2) = Kp eVdc (2) + Ploss (1) Kp eVdc (1) + Ki eVdc (2) Td
= Ploss (1) + Kp [eVdc (2) eVdc (1)] + Ki eVdc (2) Td
(4.52)
In general, for k th sample of Ploss ,

Ploss (k) = Ploss (k 1) + Kp [eVdc (k) eVdc (k 1)] + Ki eVdc (k) Td .
(4.53)
The algorithm can be used to implement PI controler to generate Ploss . The control action can be
updated at every positive zero crossing of phase-a voltage for example.
4.1.4
Computation of load average power (Plavg )
In reference current expressions, the average load power (Plavg ) is required to be computed. Although low pass filter can be used to find this, however the dynamic response is quite slow. The
130
dynamic performance of computation of Plavg plays significant role in compensation. For this
reason, a moving average algorithm can be used, which is described below.
hpl i = Plavg = hva ila + vb ilb + vc ilc i
Z
1 T
(va ila + vb ilb + vc ilc ) dt
=
T 0
(4.54)
The above equation can be written with integration from t1 to t1 + T as given in the following.
Plavg
1
=
T
t1+T
(va ila + vb ilb + vc ilc ) dt
(4.55)
t1
This is known as moving average filter (MAF). Any change in variables instantly reflected with
settling time of one cycle.
4.2
Some Misconception in Reactive Power Theory
The instantaneous reactive power theory, that has evolved from Fortesque, Park and Clarke Transformations of voltage and current specified in phases-a, b and c coordinates [5]. In general, for
3-phase, 4-wire system,

r 1 1
1
vo
va
2
2
2
2
1
1
v =
1
2
vb
2
3
3
3
v
v
c
2
0
2
(4.56)
Similarly, for currents, the 0 components are given as following.

r 1 1
1
io
ia
2
2
2
2
1
1
i =
1
ib
2
2
3
3
3
i
ic
0
2
2
(4.57)
For balanced system v0 = (va +vb +vc )/ 3 = 0. For three-phase, three-wire system, ia +ib +ic =
0, which implies that i0 = 0. Using these details, the above transformations in equations (4.56)
and (4.57) result to the following.

r

1
1 va
2
2 1
v
2
vb
=
(4.58)
3
v
3 0 2 23 v
c

r

1
1 ia
2
2 1
i
2
ib
=
3
i
3 0 2 23 i
c
131
(4.59)
From equation (4.58), and using va + vb + vc = 0, we get the following.

r

vb + vc
2
va
v =
3
2
r h
vb vc i
2
va
=
3
2
2
r h

2
vb
va vb i
=
va
3
2
2
2
r
3
va
=
2
v =
=
=
=
r "
#
2
3
3
vb
vc
3 2
2
#
r "
2
3
3
vb
(va vb )
3 2
2
r "
#
2
3
3
3
vb +
va +
vb
3 2
2
2
1
va + 2 vb
2
Writing equations (4.60) and (4.61) in matrix form we get,

#
"q

3
0
va
v
2
=
1
v
2 vb
2
Similary, using ia + ib + ic = 0 the following can be written.
"q
#

3
0
i
ia
2
=
1
i
2 ib
2
(4.60)
(4.61)
(4.62)
(4.63)
According to the pq theory, the abc components of voltages and currents are transformed to the
and coordinates and the instantaneous powers p and q of the load can be expressed as following.
p = v i + v i
q = v i v i
(4.64)
(4.65)
The above equations representing instantaneous active and reactive powers can be expressed in
matrix form as following [1].

p
v v i
=
(4.66)
q
v v i
132
Therefore from above equation (4.66), the components of currents can be expressed as following.

1
i
v v
p
=
i
v v
q

1
v v
The matrix,
is given as following.
v v

1

1
v v
v v
= 2
(4.67)
v v
v + v2 v v
v
v
p
q
v2 + v2
v2 + v2
v
v
= 2
p+ 2
q
2
v + v
v + v2
i =
(4.68)
(4.69)
Which can further be written as,

i = ip + iq
i = ip + iq
(4.70)
(4.71)

v
p
+ v2
v
= 2
q
v + v2
v
= 2
p
v + v2
v
q
= 2
v + v2
ip =
iq
ip
ip
(4.72)
v2
(4.73)
(4.74)
(4.75)
The instantaneous active and reactive components of currents in supplying line can be calculated
from the and components of the current as given in the following.
"q
#1 " q
#

3
2
0
0
ia
i
i
+
i
p
q
2
3
=
=
ib
i
ip + iq
1
1
1
2
6
2
2
"q
# "q
#
2
2
0
0
i
iq
p
3
3
=
+
16 12 ip
16 12 iq

iap
ibp
"q

=
2
3
16
133
0
1
2
#
ip
ip

(4.76)
and,

iaq
ibq
"q

=
2
3
1
0
1
2
#
iq
iq

(4.77)
The active and reactive components of the line currents must be consistent to the basic definitions. However, these components of currents have little in common with the reactive power of the
load as defined in [5]. This is shown in the following illustrations.
Example 4.1 Assume a resistive load connected as shown in the4.7 below. It is supplied from
a symmetrical source of a sinusoidal balanced voltage with va = 2V sin t, with V = 230 Volts.
Express the voltage and currents for primary and secondary side of the transformer. Express the
active and reactive component of the currents, powers and discuss them.
VA 2300 V
VB
Ia
IA
Vb
Ib
IB
Vc
VC
IC
Va
Ic
Fig. 4.7 An unbalanced resistive load supplied by three-phase delta-star connected transformer
Solution: With he above given values, the primary side phase voltages with respect to virtual
ground could be expressed as the following.
2 V sin t = 230 2 sin t

vA =
vB =
2 V sin(t 120o ) = 230 2 sin(t 120o )
(4.78)
vC =
2 V sin(t + 120o ) = 230 2 sin(t + 120o )
In phasor form,
VA = 2300 V
VB = 230120 V
VC = 230120 V
Therefor the primary side line-to-line voltage are expressed as following.

2 3 V sin(t + 30o )
vAB =

vBC =
2 3 V sin(t 90o )

vCA =
2 3 V sin(t + 150o )
134
(4.79)
In phasor form,
V AB = 398.3730 V
V BC = 398.3790 V
V CA = 398.37150 V
These voltages are transformed to the secondaries and are expressed below.

va =
2 3 V sin t = 398.37 2 sin(t + 30 )

2 3 V sin(t 120o ) = 398.37 2 sin(t 90 )
vb =

vc =
2 3 V sin(t + 120o ) = 398.37 2 sin(t + 150 )
(4.80)
In phasor form,
Va = 398.3730 V
Vb = 398.3790 V
Vc = 398.37150 V
Therefore the currents on the secondary side are given below.

2 3V
cos t
ia =
R
ib = 0
ic = 0
(4.81)
Taking V = 230 V and R = 4 , the currents on the secondary side of the transformer are given as
following.

va
2 3V
ia =
=
sin t = 99.56 2 sin(t + 30 ) = 2I sin(t + 30 ) (4.82)
R
4
ib = 0
ic = 0
In phasor form, the above can be expressed as,
I a = 99.5930 A
Ib = 0 A
Ic = 0 A
(4.83)
(4.84)
(4.85)
This phase-a current ia in the secondary side of transformer is transformed to the primary of the
delta connected winding, therefore the currents on the secondary side of transformer are given as
following.
iB
iC
2I sin(t + 30 )
= iA = 2I sin(t + 30 )
= 0
iA =
135
(4.86)
The above can be written in phasor form as given below.

I A = 99.5930o = I30o A
I B = I A = 1 180o 99.5930o
= 99.59 150o = I 150o A
IC = 0 A
(4.87)
After, knowing the voltages and currents of the primary side of the transformer, their and
components are expressed as below.
#
"q 3
0
v
vA
= 12
(4.88)
v
2 vB
2
Substituting vA and vB from (4.78) in the above equation, we get the following.
#
"q 3

0
v
2 V sin t
3 V sin t
2
= 1
=
v
2 V sin(t 120 )
3 V cos(t)
(4.89)
And,
#
#
"q
"q 3

3
0
0
2
I
sin(t
+
30
)
i
i
A
2
2
= 1
=
i
iB
2 I sin(t + 30 )
1
2
2
2
2

3 I sin(t + 30 )
=
I sin(t + 30 )
(4.90)
Based on the above the active and reactive powers are computed as below.
p(t) = v i + v i
=
3V sin(t) 3I sin(t + 30 ) 3V cos(t)(I) sin(t + 30 ))
"
#
1
3
sin(t) + cos(t)
= 2 3V I sin(t + 30 )
2
2
3V I [2 sin(t + 30) sin(t + 30)]

=

=
3V I 2 sin2 (t + 30 )
=
3V I [1 cos 2(t + 30 )]
(4.91)
q(t) = v i v i
3V sin(t) {I sin(t + 30 )} ( 3V cos(t)) 3I sin(t + 30 )

=
"
#
1
3
= 3V I 2 sin(t + 30 )
sin t
cos t
2
2
= 3V I 2 sin(t + 30 )( cos(t + 30 ))
=
3V I sin 2(t + 30 )
(4.92)
136
Based on above values of p and q powers, the and components of active and reactive components are given below.

i
ip + iq
=
i
ip + iq
Where,
ip =
v2
v
p
+ v2
3V sin(t)
p
=
( 3V sin(t))2 + ( 3V cos(t))2
1
=
sin(t) 3V I(1 cos 2(t + 30 ))
3V
= I sin t {1 cos 2(t + 30 )}
(4.93)
Similarly,
ip =
v2
v
p
+ v2
3V cos(t)
p
=
( 3V I sin(t))2 + ( 3V cos(t))2
3V cos(t)
=
3V I(1 cos 2(t + 30 ))
3V 2
= I cos t {1 cos 2(t + 30 )}
(4.94)
v
q
+ v2
( 3V cos t)
3V I sin 2(t + 30 )
=
3V 2
= I cos t sin 2(t + 30 )
(4.95)
iq =
v2
iq =
v2
v
q
+ v2
3V sin t
3V I sin 2(t + 30 )
3V 2
= I sin t sin 2(t + 30 )
=
(4.96)
Thus knowing ip , iq , ip and iq we can determine active and reactive components of currents on
the source side as giben below.

1 ip
iap
= C
ibp
ip
137
Where,
"q
[C]1 =
3
2
1
2
#1
"q
=
2
3
1
1
2
Using above equation, we can find out the active and reactive components of the current, as given
below.
"q

2
iap
3
=
1
ibp
0
1
2
#
I sin t {1 cos 2(t + 30 )}

I cos t {1 cos 2(t + 30 )}
From the above,

r
2
I sin t {1 cos 2(t + 30 )}
3
r
2I
=
{2 sin t 2 sin t cos 2(t + 30 )}
32
I
= {2 sin t sin(3t + 60 ) sin(t 60 )}
6
I
= {2 sin t + sin(t + 60 ) sin(3t + 60 )}
6
iap =
1
1
ibp = ip + ip
6
2
1
1
= I sin t {1 cos 2(t + 30 )} + (I cos t) {1 cos 2(t + 30 )}
6
2

sin t cos t
= I {1 cos 2(t + 30 )} +
6
2
"
#
2I
1
3
= {1 cos 2(t + 30 )}
sin t +
cos t
2
2
6
2I
= {1 cos 2(t + 30 )} sin(t + 60 )
6
2I
= {sin(t + 60 ) sin(t + 60 ) cos 2(t + 30 )}
6
(
)
2I
1
3 1
1
=
sin(t) + cos(t)
+ sin(t) sin(3t + 120 )
2
2
2
2
6
I
= {sin(t) + 2 sin(t + 60 ) sin(3t + 120 )}
6
138
2
iq
3
r
2I
=
{2 sin 2(t + 30 ) cos t}
32
I
= {sin(t + 60 ) + sin(3t + 60 )}
6
iaq =
1
1
ibq = iq + iq
6
2
1
1
= I cos t {sin 2(t + 30 )} + (I sin t) {sin 2(t + 30 )}
6
2
(
)
1
I
3
= 2 sin 2(t + 30 ) cos t +
sin t)
2
2
6
I
= 2 sin 2(t + 30 ) sin(t 30 )
6
I
= {cos(t + 90 ) cos(3t + 30 )}
6
I
= { sin(t) cos(3t + 30 )}
6
Thus we have,
I
iap = {2 sin t + sin(t + 60 ) sin(3t + 60 )}
(4.97)
6
I
ibp = {sin(t) + 2 sin(t + 60 ) sin(3t + 120 )}
(4.98)
6
I
iaq = {sin(t + 60 ) + sin(3t + 60 )}
(4.99)
6
I
(4.100)
ibq = { sin(t) cos(3t + 30 )} .
6
From the above equations, the names instantaneous active current and instantaneous reactive current given in the pq theory do not have commonality with the notion of active and reactive currents
used in electrical engineering. Also, the reactive current iq occurs in supply lines of load in spite
of the absence of the reactive element of the in the load. Furthermore, the nature of load is linear
and harmonics are absent, still resolutions of active and reactive components of the current based
on pq theory gives harmonics. For example, in the above discussion,
I
iap = {2 sin t + sin(t + 60 ) sin(3t + 60 )}
(4.101)
6
is the active current component in the line a and it contains the third order harmonic. This
contradicts the basic notion of the active current that was introduced to electrical engineering by
139
Fryze [5]. Thus, it seems a major misconception of electrical phenomenon in three phase circuits
with balanced sinusoidal voltages for linear load that do not have harmonics. Moreover, the active
current ip that results from pq theory is not the current that should remain in the supply lines after
the load is compensated to unity power factor as defined by Fryze. Therefore it can not be a compensation goal.
Also, it is evident that the instantaneous reactive power q(t) as defined by pq theory does not
really identify the power properties of load instantaneously. For example for the above discussion,
the active and reactive power are given as following.
p(t) =
3V I {1 cos 2(t + 30 )}
q(t) =
3V I sin 2(t + 30 )
The following points are noted.
1. The active components of currents (iap , ibp , icp ) and reactive components of currents, (iaq , ibq , icq )
contain third harmonic, which is not possible for a linear load as discussed above.
2. The sum of reactive components of currents, iaq and ibq is not equal to zero, i.e., iaq +ibq 6= 0),
even though no overall reactive power is required from the load.
3. The instantaneous reactive power q(t) defined by pq theory does not identify the power properties of the load instantaneously. Both powers p(t) and q(t) are time varying quantities, so
that a pair of their values at any single point of time does not identify the power properties
of load. The possibility of instantaneous identification of active and reactive power p(t) and
q(t) does not mean that power properties of load are identified instantaneously. For example,
At ( + 30 ) = 90 ,
p(t) = 2 3V I
q(t) = 0
The above implies that as if it is resistive load.
Similarly at ( + 30 ) = 0 ,
p(t) = 0
q(t) = 0
Which implies as there is no load.

(
And when ( + 30 ) = 105 ,
q )
p(t) = 3V I (1 + 32 )
q(t) = 3 V I( 21 )
implies as it is capacitive load.

(
Similarly when ( + 30 ) = 75 ,
p(t) =
q(t) =
implies as if the load is inductive.

140
3V I (1 +
3 V I( 12 )
3
)
2
We therefore conclude that power properties cannot be identified without monitoring of the p(t)
and q(t) powers over the entire cycle period. For example, in above case, the instantaneous reactive
power q(t) has occurred is not because of load reactive power Q but because of voltage unbalance.
This unbalance nature of load can not be identified by instantaneous reactive power q(t) values.
Therefore, pq theory gives no advantage with respect to the time interval needed to identify the
nature of load and its property over the the over power theories based on time domain or frequency
domain approach that required the system to be monitored over one period.
Thus, we have seen that each phase has some reactive power. But there is no reactive element.
This reactive power appear because of unbalance in the system and not because of reactive component. So this is an additional information what is required. From this illustration, it is evident that
the instantaneous reactive power current has commonality with the load reactive power Q. It also
appears that the instantaneous active current in pq theory (iap , ibp , icp ) have no commonality with
the load active power P .
Powers computation
The secondary side powers are given as following.
S a = Pa + jQa = V a I a = 398.3730 99.59 30 = 39675 VA

Thus, Pa = 39675 W, Qa = 0 VAr
S b = Pb + jQb = V b I b = 398.37 90 0 = 0 VA
Pb = 0 W, Qb = 0 VAr
S c = Pc + jQc = V c I c = 398.37150 0 = 0 VA
Pc = 0 W, Qc = 0 VAr
The total active and reactive powers on the secondary side are given as following.
P = Pa + Pb + Pc = 39675 W
Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = 0 VAr
Svect = Sarith = P = 39675 VA
pfvect = pfarith = P/S = 1.0
The primary side powers are given as following.
S A = PA + jQA = V a I a = 2300 99.59 30 = 19837.50 j11453.16 VA

Thus, PA = 19837.50 W, QA = 11453.160 VAr
S B = PB + jQB = V b I b = 230 120 (99.5930 ) =

PB = 19837.50 W, QB = 11453.160 VAr
S C = PC + jQC = V C I C = 230120 0
PC = 0 W, QC = 0 VAr
141
The total active and reactive powers on the primary side are given as following.
P = Pa + Pb + Pc = 39675 W
Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = 0 VAr

Svect = S A + S B + S C = P = 39675 VA

Sarith = S A + S B + S C = 22906 + 22906 + 0 = 45813 VA
pfvect = P/Svect = 1.0
pfarith = P/S = 39675/45813 = 0.866
Example 4.2: Assume an Inductive load connected as shown in the
4.7 below. It is supplied from
a symmetrical source of a sinusoidal balanced voltage with va = 2V sin t, with V = 230 Volts.
Express the voltage and currents for primary and secondary side of the transformer. Express the
active and reactive component of the currents, powers and discuss them.
VA 2300 V
VB
Ia
IA
Vb
Ib
IB
Vc
VC
IC
Va
Ic
Fig. 4.8 An unbalanced reactive load supplied by three-phase delta-star connected transformer
Solution: With the above given values, the primary side phase voltages with respect to virtual
ground could be expressed as the following.
2 V sin t = 230 2 sin t

vA =
vB =
2 V sin(t 120o ) = 230 2 sin(t 120o )
(4.102)
2 V sin(t + 120o ) = 230 2 sin(t + 120o )

vC =
Therefore, the primary side line-to-line voltage are expressed as following.

vAB =
2 3 V sin(t + 30 )

vBC =
2 3 V sin(t 90 )

vCA =
2 3 V sin(t + 150 )
These voltages are transformed to the secondaries and are expressed below.

2 3 V sin t = 398.37 2 sin(t + 30 )

va =

vb =
2 3 V sin(t 120o ) = 398.37 2 sin(t 90 )

vc =
2 3 V sin(t + 120o ) = 398.37 2 sin(t + 150 )
142
In phasor form, the above voltages are expressed as below.
Va =
3 V 30
Vb =
3 V 90
Vc =
3 V 150
Therefore, the currents on the secondary side are given below.

2 3V
sin(t 60 ) = 99.59 2 sin(t 60 )
ia =
X
ib = 0
ic = 0
I a = 99.59 60 A.
The above phase-a current (ia ) is transformed to the primary of the delta connected winding. Since
the currents should have 90 phase shift with respect to the voltages across the windings as given
by (4.103), therefore the currents on the secondary side of transformer are given as following.
iA = = iAB = ia = 2I sin(t 60o )
iB = iA = 2I sin(t 60 )
iC = 0
I A = I 60 = 99.59 60 A
I B = I 60 = 99.59 60 A
I C = 0 A.
After, knowing the voltages and currents of the primary side of the transformer, their and
components are expressed as below.
#
"q 3
0
v
vA
= 12
v
2 vB
2
Substituting vA and vB from (4.102) in the above equation, we get the following.
#
"q 3

0
v
2
V
sin
t
3
V
sin
t
2
= 1
=
v
2 V sin(t 120 )
3 V cos(t)
2
2
(4.103)
And,
#
"q
#
"q 3

3
0
0
i
i
2
I
sin(t
60
)
A
2
2
= 1
=
i
iB
2 I sin(t 60 )
1
2
2
2
2

3 I sin(t 60 )
=
I sin(t 60 )
143
(4.104)
Based on the above, the active and reactive powers are computed as below.
p(t) = p = v i + v i
=
3V sin(t) 3I sin(t 60 ) + ( 3V cos t)(I sin(t 60 ))
"
#
3
1
= 2 3V I sin(t 60 )
sin t + cos t
2
2
3V I [2 sin(t 60 ) cos(t 60 )]
=
=
3V I sin 2(t 60 )
(4.105)
q(t) = v i v i
3V sin t {I sin(t 60 )} ( 3V cos t) 3I sin(t 60 )

=
"
#
3
1
= 3V I 2 sin(t 60 )
sin t
cos t
2
2
= 3V I 2 sin(t 60 )(sin(t 60 ))
= 3V I 2 sin2 (t 60 )
= 3V I {1 cos 2(t 60 )}
(4.106)
Based on above values of p and q powers, the and components of active and reactive components are given below.

i
ip + iq
=
i
ip + iq
Where,
ip =
v2
v
p
+ v2
3V sin t
=
p
( 3V sin t)2 + ( 3V cos t)2
1
=
sin t 3V I(sin 2(t 60 ))
3V
= I sin t sin 2(t 60 )
Similarly,
144
(4.107)
ip =
v2
v
p
+ v2
3V cos t
=
p
( 3V I sin t)2 + ( 3V cos t)2
3V cos t
=
3V I sin 2(t 60 )
3V 2
= I cos t sin 2(t 60 )
(4.108)
v
q
+ v2
i
( 3V cos t) h
3V I {1 cos 2(t 60 )}
=
3V 2
= I cos t(1 cos 2(t 60 ))
(4.109)
iq =
v2
iq =
v2
v
q
+ v2
i
3V sin t h
3V I {1 cos 2(t 60 )}
=
3V 2
= I sin t {1 cos 2(t 60 )}
(4.110)
Thus, knowing ip , iq , ip and iq , we can determine active and reactive components of currents
on the source side as given below.

1 ip
iap
= C
ibp
ip
Where,
"q
[C]1 =
#1 "q
2
0
= 13
2
6
3
2
1
2
1
2
(4.111)
Using above equation, we can find out the active and reactive components of the current, as given
below.

iap
ibp
"q

=
2
3
1
0
1
2
#

I sin t sin 2(t 60 )
I cos t sin2(t 60 )
From the above,

145
2
I sin t sin 2(t 60 )
3
r
2I
=
{2 sin t sin 2(t 60 )}
32
I
= {cos(t 2t + 120 ) cos(3t 120 )}
6
I
= {cos(t 120 ) cos(3t 120 )}
6
iap =
(4.112)
1
1
ibp = ip + ip
6
2
1
1
= I sin t {sin 2(t 60 )} + (I cos t) {sin 2(t 60 )}
6
2
"
#
1
I
3
sin t +
cos t
= {2 sin 2(t 60 )}
2
2
6
I
= {2 sin 2(t 60 ) sin(t + 60 )}
6
I
= {cos(t 180 ) cos(3t 60 )}
6
I
= {cos t + cos(3t 60 )}
6
r
iaq =
=
=
=
=
2
iq
3
r
2
I {1 cos 2(t 60 )} cos t

3
I
{2 cos t 2 cos t cos 2(t 60 )}
6
I
{2 cos t cos(3t 120 ) cos(t 120 )}
6
I
{2 cos t + cos(t 120 ) + cos(3t 120 )}
6
146
(4.113)
1
1
ibq = iq + iq
6
2
1
1
= [I cos t {1 cos 2(t 60 )}] + [I sin t {1 cos 2(t 60 )}]
6
2
)
(
3
I
1
sin t)
= 2 {1 cos 2(t 60 )} cos t
2
2
6
)
(
3
I
1
= 2 {1 cos 2(t 60 )}
cos t +
sin t)
2
2
6
I
= 2 {1 cos 2(t 60 } cos(t 60 )
6
I
= {2 cos(t 60 ) 2 cos(t 60 ) cos 2(t 60 )}
6
I
= {2 cos(t 60 ) + cos 3 t cos(t 60 )}
6
(4.114)
Thus we have,
I
iap = {cos(t 120 ) cos(3t 120 )}
6
I
ibp = {cos(t) + cos(3t 60 )}
6
I
iaq = {2 cos t + cos(t 120 ) + cos(3t 120 )}
6
I
ibq = {2 cos(t 60 ) + cos 3 t cos(t 60 )} .
6
From above equations, it is clear that there exist active components of current which also have third
harmonic component. Also, the reactive components too have third harmonics. This again does
not match with definitions of active and reactive components of currents proposed by Fryze [5].
Powers computation
The secondary side powers are given as following.
S a = Pa + jQa = V a I a = 398.3730 99.5960 = 39673.836190 VA

Thus, Pa = 0 W, Qa = 39673.8361 VAr
S b = Pb + jQb = V b I b = 398.37 90 0 = 0 VA
Pb = 0 W, Qb = 0 VAr
S c = Pc + jQc = V c I c = 398.37150 0 = 0 VA
Pc = 0 W, Qc = 0 VAr
147
The total active and reactive powers on the secondary side are given as following.
P = P a + Pb + Pc = 0 W
Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = 39673.83 VAr
Svect = Sarith = Q = 39673.83 VA
pfvect = pfarith = P/S = 0
The primary side powers are given as following.
S A = PA + jQA = V a I a = 2300 99.5960 = 11452.85 + j19836.91 VA

Thus, PA = 11452.85 W, QA = 19836.91 VAr
S B = PB + jQB = V b I b = 230 120 (99.59 120 ) =

PB = 11452.85 W, QB = 19836.91 VAr
S C = PC + jQC = V C I C = 230120 0
PC = 0 W, QC = 0 VAr
The total active and reactive powers on the primary side are given as following.
P = P a + Pb + Pc = 0 W
Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = 39673.82 VAr

Svect = S A + S B + S C = 39673.82 VA

Sarith = S A + S B + S C = 22906 + 22906 + 0 = 45811.4 VA
pfvect = P/Svect = 0
pfarith = P/S = 0
Example 4.3: Consider the star-delta connected ideal transformer with 1:1 turn ratio as shown in
Fig. 2. The secondary side of transformer, a load of 2 ohms is connected between the phase-a and
b. Compute the following.
(a) Time domain expressions of currents in each phase on both primary and secondary side.
(b) Does the load require reactive power from the source? If any, find its value. Also compute
the reactive power on each phase of either side of transformer.
(c) Also determine active powers on each phase and overall active power on either side of the
transformer.
(d) If you have similar arrangement with balanced load and same output power, comment upon
the rating of line conductors and transformers.
Solution In this example, we have three phase star-delta connected transformer of turns ratio 1:1
with star side connected to three phase balanced voltage source and neutral connected to ground.
148
Thus, in this three phase star delta connected transformer, delta side phase voltages equal the star
side line voltages. The primary side instantaneous phase voltages are given by,
vA = 230 2 sin(t) = 325.27 sin(t)
vB = 230 2 sin(t 120 ) = 325.27 sin(t 120 ).
vC = 230 2 sin(t + 120 ) = 325.27 sin(t + 120 )

Therefore, instantaneous line to line voltages at delta side (secondary) are given by,
vab = 230 2 sin(t) = 325.27 sin(t)
vbc = 230 2 sin(t 120 ) = 325.27 sin(t 120 )
vca = 230 2 sin(t + 120 ) = 325.27 sin(t + 120 ).

Therefore, instantaneous phase voltages with respect to ground are given as follows.
va =
vb =
vc =
230
2
3
230
2
3
230
2
3
sin(t 30 ) = 132.79 2 sin(t 30 )
sin(t 150 ) = 132.79 2 sin(t 150 )
sin(t + 90 ) = 132.79 2 sin(t + 90 )
(a) On delta side, we have a resistive load of R = 3 connected between terminals a and b. Thus,
expression for instantaneous currents flowing out of terminals a, b and c of the transformer are
given by,
ia
ib
ic
vab
230 2
=
=
sin t = 76.67 2 sin t
R
3
vab
230 2
= ia =
=
sin t = 76.67 2 sin t
R
3
= 0
Therefore, the winding currents on the secondary side are given as below.
iab = 76.67 2 sin t = 108.41 sin t

ibc = 0
ica = 0
These currents are transformed to the primary windings. Thus, the time domain expressions of
these currents are given as below.
149

iA = 76.67 2 sin t
iB = 0
iC = 0
(b) Load does not require any reactive power from the source because it is a purely resistive load.
This fact can also be verified by the looking at the expressions for instantaneous phase voltages
and currents on star side.
(c) Similarly, no current (and hence power) is drawn by the load from phases-B and C. Thus,
various powers on the primary side are as follows.
For phase-A,
SA
PA
For phase-B,
SB
PB
For phase-C,
SC
PC
= PA + jQA = V A I A = 2300 76.670 = 17634.1 VA

= 17634.1 W, QA = 0 VAr
= PB + jQB = V B I B = 230 120 0 = 0 VA

= 0 W, QB = 0 VAr
= PC + jQC = V C I C = 230120 0 = 0 VA
= 0 W, QC = 0 VAr
Thus, various powers on the secondary side are as follows.

For phase-a,
Sa
Pa
For phase-b,
Sb
Pb
For phase-c,
Sc
Pc
= Pa + jQa = V a I a = 132.79 30 76.670 = 8817.05 j5090.53 VA

= 8817.05 W, Qa = 5090.53 VAr
= Pb + jQb = V b I b = 132.79 150 (76.670 ) = 8817.05 + j5090.53 VA

= 8817.05 W, Qb = 5090.53 VAr
= Pc + jQc = V c I c = 132.7990 0 = 0 VA
= 0 W, Qc = 0 VAr
For the above analysis, it is observed that the total active power, P = PA + PB + PC = Pa +
Pb + Pc = 17634.1 W and total reactive power Q = QA + QB + QC = Qa + Qb + Qc = 0 VAr.
However, due to unbalanced load, on delta side of the transformer phase-b and phase-c experience
reactive power as calculated above. This creates some power factor in each phase.
(d) Because, the load which is currently getting power from one phase on delta side will be shared
150
by all the three phases phase voltages being the same. Thus, required current rating of the line
conductors and transformers will be reduced.
Example 4.4
Consider the a three-phase balanced system shown in Fig. 4.9. The supply voltages are: V a =
2200 , V b = 220 120 , V c = 220120 with balance load resistance of 1.32 . The output
power Po is 100 kW and the losses in the feeder are 5% of te output power. The reactance of feeder
is not considered in the study.
(a) Determine voltages at the load points, phase currents and feeder resistance.
(b) Now let us say that the load is unbalanced by connecting a resistive load between phases-a and
b with same power output. With this configuration, compute active, reactive, various apparent
powers and power factor based on them. Compute losses in the system and comment upon the
result.
(c) Now, with same losses and power output, find an equivalent three-phase balanced circuit and
repeat (b). Comment on the result.
Va ' 2300o
Ia
Va
Ra
Vb '
Ic
Vb
Rb
Vc '
Ib
Vc
Rc
Fig. 4.9 Study on three-phase unbalanced system
Solution:
(a) For the given system the phase voltages are V a = 2200 , V b = 220120 , V c = 220120 .
The load active power is 100 kW with 5% losses in the feeder, i.e., Ps = 5 kW. Using above
parameters the RMS value of the phase voltage is computed as following.
V2
1.32
From the above equation, value of V is given as following.
Po = 100 1000 = 3
r
V =
100000 1.32
= 209.76 V
3
Thus, the rms value of phase currents is given by,

V
209.76
I=
=
= 159.9 A
R
1.32
151
The voltage drop across the feeder is found using following equation.
V = 230 209.76 = 20.23 V
For 5% losses in the feeder, the value of feeder resistance can be computed as below.
3 (158.9)2 r = 0.05 100 1000
which implies, r = 0.066
Since the load is balanced, the various apparent powers (arithmetic, vector and effective) are same.
These are computed below.
SA =
=
=
=
=
Sa + Sb + Sc
Va Ia + Vb Ib + Vc Ic
3 Va Ia
3 209.5 158.9
100 kVA
Now we compute the vector apparent power (Sv ) as given below.

p
P 2 + Q2
Sv =
p
(Va Ia cos a + Vb Ib cos b + Vc Ic cos c )2 + (Va Ia sin a + Vb Ib sin b + Vc Ic sin c )2
=
p
=
(3 Va Ia cos a )2 + (3 Va Ia sin a )2
= 3 Va Ia
= 100 kVA
Similarly, the effective apparent power can be computed as below.
Se = 3 Ve Ie = 3Va Ia = 100 kVA
The power factors based on above apparent powers are given below.
pfA = pfv = pfe = 1.0
Now an unbalanced circuit with same power output is considered. This is achieved by placing a
resistance of 1.17 between any two phases (say between phases a and b). This is shown in Fig.
4.10.
For this circuit, the line currents are computed as below. Let I be the RMS value of the line
current, then following equation must be satisfied.
I 2 R = 100 1000
(4.115)
From the above equation, I is given as below.
r
100000
I =
= 292.35 A
1.17
152
a'
r
Va
'
Ia
b
Vb c
c'
r
n
Vc
'
Ib
Ic
In
Fig. 4.10 Three-phase unbalanved circuit
Thus, phase currents are as following.

I a = 292.3530 A
I b = I a = 292.3530 A
Ic = 0 A
Knowing the currents in the circuit we can compute the voltages V a , V b and V c as following.
Va =
=
=
=
2200 292.2530 0.066

220 (16.67 + j9.9296)
223.33 j9.6296
203.55 2.70 V
Similarly, voltages V b and V c can be computed which are given below.

V b = 220 120 (292.2530 ) 0.066
= 203.55 117.29 V
V c = 220120 0 0.066 = 220120
Thus, Va = Vb = 203.55 V and Vc = 0 V. Knowing three-phase voltages and currents, the active
and reactive powers are computed as following.
V a I a = 203.55 2.70 292.35 30

50088.79 j 32156.42
P + jQa
pa
Pa2 + Q2a = 59522.46 VA
Thus,
Sa =
=
=
Sa =
Thus,
S b = V b I b = 203.55 117.3 292.35150

= 50088.79 + j 32156.42
= Pb + jQb
q
Sb =
Pb2 + Q2b = 59522.46 VA
153
Thus,
Sc =
=
=
Sc =
V c I c = 220120 0
0+j0
Pc + jQc
p
Pc2 + Q2c = 0 VA
Based on the computations of active and reactive powers in the above, we shall compute arithmetic,
vector and effective apparent powers and corresponding power factors.
SA = Sa + Sb + Sc = 59522.46 + 59522.46 + 0 = 119094.92 VA
Sv = |S v | = |S a + S b + S c | = 100177.58 VA
The effective apparent power is computed as following.
Se = 3 Ve Ie
r
r
Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2
Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2
= 3
3
3
q
q
Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2
=
203.62 + 203.62 + 2202 292.352 + 292.352 + 02
= 149816.05 VA
Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2
Based on above apparent powers, the power factor are as following.

pfA = 100000/119044.92 = 0.84
pfv = 1000000/100000 = 1.0
pfe = 100000/149816.05 = 0.667
The power loss in the feeders is computed as below.
Ploss = Ia2 r + Ib2 r + Ic2 r
= 292.352 0.066 + 292.352 0.066 + 0
= 11260 = 11.26 kW
Thus it is observed that when the energy is delivered to the unbalanced load, the power loss in
the supply increases from 5 to 11.26 kW. It means that currents on the lines have increased and this
implies that an unbalanced purely resistive load cannot be considered as unity power factor load.
The calculation of the power factor using the vector apparent power leads to a value which is equal
to unity. This disqualifies, the vector apparent power Sv as an acceptable definition of the apparent
power in the presence of the load unbalance.
Since the value of the apparent power of balanced load is independent of this power definition,
we could ask the question: what is apparent power of a balanced load with the active power P =
100 kW , that causes same power loss of 11.26 kW, as the unbalanced load discussed earlier. For
154
power loss of 11.26 kW the following equation holds true.

3 I 2 r = 11260
r
11260
= 283.01 A
Therefore, I =
3 0.066
Now we use the condition of output power as below.
P0 = 100000 = 3 I 2 R
r
100000
Implying that, R =
= 0.59
3 238.015
The total input power must be equal to output power + losses. Therefore,
Implying
Pi = 11260 = 3 220 I cos

112600
cos =
220 238.05
= 0.7078 = = 44.94

X
R+r
X = 0.9978 (0.59 + 0.0659) = 0.65 .
tan = tan 44.94 = 0.9978 =

Therefore,
Therefore, load impedance (Z) is given as below.

Z = 0.59 + j0.65
(4.116)
Knowing above parameters the voltages at the load points can be computed which are given below.
Similarly,
Va =
=
=
Vb =
Vc =
2200 238.01544.94 0.0659

220 11.1 j11.07 = 208.89 j 11.07
209.18 3.03 V
209.18 123.03 V
209.18116.97 V
The phase currents are as following.

I a = 238.015 44.94 A
I b = 238.015 164.94 A
I c = 238.015 75.06 A
For this equivalent balanced circuit (with same output power and power loss), the three apparent
powers i.e., arithmetic, vector and effective are same and these are as following.
SA = Sv = Se = 3 Va Ia = 3 209.18 238.015 = 149.363 kVA
and P = Pa + Pb + Pc = 100 kW
Thus the power factor based on the above apparent powers will also be same. Therefore,
pfa = pfv = pfe = 100/149.363 = 0.67
155
4.3
Theory of Instantaneous Symmetrical Components
The theory of instantaneous symmetrical components can be used for the purpose of load balancing, harmonic suppression, and power factor correction [2], [4]. The control algorithms based on
instantaneous symmetrical component theory can practically compensate any kind of unbalance
and harmonics in the load, provided we have a high band width current source to track the filter
reference currents. These algorithms have been derived in this section. For any set of three-phase
instantaneous currents or voltages, the instantaneous symmetrical components are defined by,

ia0
1 1 1
ia
ia+ = 1 1 a a2 ib
3 1 a2 a
ic
ia
(4.117)
Similarly for three-phase instantaneous voltages, we have,

va
v a0
1 1 1
v a+ = 1 1 a a2 vb
3 1 a2 a
v
v
(4.118)
In the above equations, a is a complex operator and it is given by a = ej 2/3 and a2 = ej 4/3 .
It is to be noted that the instantaneous components of currents, ia+ and ia are complex time
varying quantities also they are complex conjugate of each other. This same is true for v a+ and
v a quantities. The terms ia0 and v a0 are real quantities, however (-) has been used as upper script
for the sake of uniformity of notation. These instantaneous symmetrical components are used to
formulate equations for load compensation. First a three-phase, four-wire system supplying star
connected load is considered.
4.3.1
Compensating Star Connected Load
A three-phase four wire compensated system is shown in Fig. 4.11. In the figure, three-phase load
currents (ila , ilb and ilc ), can be unbalanced and nonlinear load. The objective in either three or
four-wire system compensation is to provide balanced supply current such that its zero sequence
component is zero. We therefore have,
v sa
N
i sa
ila
i sb
i lb
i sc
i lc
v sb
v sc
Ideal
compensator
LOAD
LOAD
i*fa
i*fb
LOAD
i*fc
Fig. 4.11 A three-phase four-wire compensated system

156
isa + isb + isc = 0
(4.119)
Using equations (4.117)-(4.118), instantaneous positive sequence voltage (v a+ ) and current (ia+ )
are computed from instantaneous values of vsa , vsb , vsc and isa , isb , isc respectively. To have a
predefined power factor from the source, the relationship between the angle of v a+ and ia+ is given
as following.
v a+ = ia+ + +
(4.120)
Where + is desired phase angle between v a+ and ia+ . The above equation is rewritten as
follows.

1
1
2
2
[vsa + a vsb + a vsc ]

=
[isa + a isb + a isc ] + +
3
3
L.H.S = R.H.S
L.H.S of the above equation is expressed as below

" (
!
! )#
1
1
1
3
3
L.H.S =
vsa + + j
vsb + j
vsc
3
2
2
2
2
" (
)#
1
vsb vsc
3
=
vsa
+j
(vsb vsc )
3
2
2
2
1 ( 3/2) (vsb vsc )

= tan
(vsa vsb /2 vsc /2)
K
1
= tan1
(4.121)
K2
Where, K1 = ( 3/2) (vsb vsc ) and K2 = (vsa vsb /2 vsc /2). Similarly R.H.S of the equation is expanded as below.
" (
!
! )#
1
1
3
1
3
isa + + j
isb + j
isc
+ +
R.H.S =
3
2
2
2
2
" (
)#

1
isb isc
3
=
isa
+j
(isb isc )
+ +
3
2
2
2
1 ( 3/2) (isb isc )

= tan
+ +
(isa isb /2 isc /2)
K3
= tan1
+ +
(4.122)
K4
157

Where, K3 = ( 3/2) (isb isc ) and K4 = (isa isb /2 isc /2). Equating (4.121) and (4.122),
we get the following.
tan1
K1
K3
= tan1
+ +
K2
K4
Taking tangent on both sides, the following is obtained.

1 K1
1 K3
tan tan
= tan tan
+ +
K2
K4
(K3 /K4 ) + tan +
K1
=
Therefore,
K2
1 (K3 /K4 ) tan +
K1
K3 + K4 tan +
=
K2
K4 K3 tan +
The above equation implies that,
K1 K4 K1 K3 tan + K2 K3 K2 K4 tan + = 0
Substituting the values of K1 , K2 , K3 , K4 in the above equation, the following expression is obtained.

3
isb isc
3
(vsb vsc ) isa
(vsb vsc ) (isb isc ) tan +

2
2
2
4

3
vsb vsc
vsb vsc
isb isc
vsa
(isb isc ) vsa
isa
tan + = 0
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Above equation can be arranged with terms associated with isa , isb and isc . This is given below.
(
)
tan +
3
(vsb vsc ) +
(vsb + vsc 2 vsa ) isa
2
2
(
)
tan +
3
+
(vsc vsa ) +
(vsc + vsa 2 vsb ) isb
2
2
(
)
3
tan +
(vsa vsb ) +
(vsa + vsb 2 vsc ) isc = 0
+
2
2
Dividing above equation by 23 , it can be written as follows.

tan +
(vsb vsc ) + (vsb + vsc 2 vsa ) isa
3

tan +
+ (vsc vsa ) + (vsc + vsa 2 vsb ) isb
3

tan +
+ (vsa vsb ) + (vsa + vsb 2 vsc ) isc = 0
3
158

Assume = tan + / 3, the above equation is further simplified to,
{(vsb vsc ) + (vsb + vsc 2 vsa )} isa
+ {(vsc vsa ) + (vsc + vsa 2 vsb )} isb
+ {(vsa vsb ) + (vsa + vsb 2 vsc )} isc = 0.
(4.123)
Adding and subtracting vsa , vsb and vsc in terms and expressing vs0 = (vsa + vsb + vsc )/3, in
above equation, we get the following.
{(vsb vsc ) 3 (vsa vs0 )} isa
+ {(vsc vsa ) 3 (vsb vs0 )} isb
+ {(vsa vsb ) 3 (vsc + vs0 )} isc = 0.
(4.124)
The third objective of compensation is that the power supplied from the source (ps ) must be equal
to average load power (Plavg ). Therefore the following holds true.
ps = vsa isa + vsb isb + vsc isc = Plavg
(4.125)
The above equation has important implications. For example when supply voltage are balanced,
the above equation is satisfied for balanced source currents. However if supply voltage are unbalanced and distorted, above equation gives set of currents which are also not balanced and sinusoidal
in order to supply constant power.
Equations (4.119), (4.125) and (4.124), can be written in matrix form as given below.
1
1
1
(vsb vsc ) + (vsb + vsc 2vsa ) (vsc vsa ) + (vsc + vsa 2vsb ) (vsa vsb ) + (vsa + vsb 2vsc )
vsa
vsb
vsc

0
isa
isb = 0
Plavg
isc
Which can be further written as,

A isabc = Plavg
(4.126)
Therefore,
a
1 c11
ac21
A a
c31
a
1 c11
ac12
=
A a

isabc = A1 Plavg =
c13
ac12 ac13
0
ac22 ac23 0
ac32 ac33
Plavg
ac21 ac31
0
ac22 ac32 0
ac23 ac33
Plavg
Where acij is the cofactor of ith row and j th column of A matrix in (4.126) and A is the determinant of matrix A. Due to the presence of zero elements in first two rows of column vector with
159
power elements, the cofactors in first two columns need not to be computed. These are indicated
by dots in the following matrix.
a
0
a
i
c31
c31
sa

1
1
ac32 0 =
ac32 Plavg
isabc = isb =
A
A
ac33
Plavg
ac33
isc
The determinant of matrix A is computed as below.
A = [(vsc vsa ) + (vsc + vsa 2vsb )]vsc [(vsa vsb ) + (vsa + vsb 2vsc )]vsb
[(vsb vsc ) + (vsb + vsc 2vsa )]vsc + [(vsa vsb ) + (vsa + vsb 2vsc )]vsa
+[(vsb vsc ) + (vsb + vsc 2vsa )]vsb [(vsc vsa ) + (vsc + vsa 2vsb )]vsa
2
2
2
= [vsc
+ vsa vsc 2vsb vsc vsa vsb vsb
+ 2vsb vsc vsb vsc vsc
+ 2vsa vsc
2
2
2
+vsa + vsb vsa 2vsc vsa + vsb + vsc vsb 2vsa vsb vsc vsa vsa + 2vsb vsa ]
+(vsc vsa )vsc (vsa vsb )vsb (vsb vsc )vsc
+(vsa vsb )vsa + (vsb vsc )vsb (vsc vsa )vsa
The above equation can be further simplified to,

2
2
2
2
A = 0 + vsc
vsa vsc vsb vsa + vsb
vsb vsc + vsc
+ vsa
2
2
vsa vsb + vsb
vsc vsb vsa vsc + vsa
2
2
2
= 2vsa
+ 2vsb
+ 2vsc
2vsa vsb 2vsb vsc 2vsc vsa
2
2
2
2
2
2
= vsa + vsb 2vsa vsb + vsb
+ vsc
2vsb vsc + vsc
+ vsa
2vsc vsa
2
2
2
= (vsa vsb ) + (vsb vsc ) + (vsc vsa )
2
2
2
= (vsab
+ vsbc
+ vsca
)
2
2
2
in above equation, we get the following.
+ vsb
+ vsc
Further adding and subtracting, vsa
2
2
2
2
2
2
A = 3(vsa
+ vsb
+ vsc
) (vsa
+ vsb
+ vsc
+ 2vsa vsb + 2vsb vsc + 2vsc vsa )
(4.127)
Further,
2
2
2
(vsa + vsb + vsc )2 = vsa
+ vsb
+ vsc
+ 2vsa vsb + 2vsb vsc + 2vsc vsa
(4.128)
Using equations (4.127) and (4.128), we obtain the following.

2
2
A = 3(vsa
+ v 2 + vsc
) (vsa + vsb + vsc )2
X sb
2
2
9vso
= 3
vsj
j=a,b,c
"
= 3
#
X
2
2
vsj
3vso
j=a,b,c
160
(4.129)
In above equation, the term vso is the instantaneous zero sequence component of the source voltage
and it is given as following.
vso =
(vsa + vsb + vsc )

3
(4.130)
The determinant of matrix A, using (4.129), can also be expressed as,

(vsa + vsb + vsc )
2
2
2
A = 3 vsa + vsb + vsc 3 vso
3

2
2
2
2
2
= 3 vsa + vsb + vsc + 3vso 2 3vso
2
2
2
2
2
2
2vso (vsa + vsb + vsc )]
+ vso
+ vso
+ vso
+ vsc
+ vsb
= 3[vsa
2
2
2
2
2
2
= 3[(vsa + vso 2vsa vso ) + (vsb + vso 2vsb vso ) + (vsc
+ vso
2vsc vso )]
2
2
2
2
2
2
= 3[(vsa vso ) + (vsb vso ) + (vsc vso )]
The cofactors ac31 , ac32 , and ac33 are computed as below.

ac31 =
=
=
=
=
[(vsc vsa ) (vsc + vsa 2vsb ) + (vsa vsb ) + (vsa + vsb 2vsc )]
vsa vsb vsc + vsa + (vsc vsa + 2vsb + vsa + vsb 2vsc )
(2vsa vsb vsc ) + 3(vsb vsc )
(2vsa + vsa vsa vsb vsc ) + 3(vsb vsc )
3 (vsa vs0 ) + 3 (vsb vsc )
Similarly,
ac32 =
=
=
=
[(vsa vsb ) (vsa + vsb 2vsc ) + (vsb vsc ) + (vsb + vsc 2vsa )]
(vsa + vsb + vsb vsc ) + (vsa vsb + 2vsc + vsb + vsc 2vsa )
(2vsb vsc vsa ) + 3(vsc vsa )
3(vsb vso ) + 3(vsc vsa )
And,
ac33 = [(vsc vsa ) + (vsc + vsa 2vsb ) (vsb vsc ) (vsb + vsc 2vsa )]
= (2vsc vsa vsb ) + 3(vsa vsb )
= 3(vsc vso ) + 3(vsa vsb )
Knowing the value of cofactors, we now have,

isa
3(vsa vs0 ) + 3(vsb vsc )

1
isb =
hP
i 3(vsb vs0 ) + 3(vsc vsa ) Plavg
2
2
3
isc
3(vsc vs0 ) + 3(vsa vsb )
j=a,b,c vsj 3vso
(vsa vso ) + (vsb vsc )

1
i (vsb vso ) + (vsc vsa ) Plavg
= hP
2
2
(vsc vso ) + (vsa vsb )
j=a,b,c vsj 3vso
161
(4.131)
From the above equation, the desired source currents can be written as following.
isa =

P
Plavg
2
2
j=a,b,c vsj 3 vso
(4.132)
isb =
(vsb vso ) + (vsc vsa )

P
Plavg
2
2
j=a,b,c vsj 3 vso
(4.133)
isc =

P
Plavg
2
2
j=a,b,c vsj 3 vso
(4.134)
Applying Kirchoffs current law at the point of common coupling (PCC), we have,
if a = ila isa
if b = ilb isb
if c = ilc isc
(4.135)
(4.136)
(4.137)
Replacing isa , isb and isc from equations (4.132)-(4.134), we obtain the reference filter currents as
given in the following.
4.3.2
if a = ila isa = ila

P
Plavg
2
2
j=a,b,c vsj 3 vso
(4.138)
if b = ilb isb = ilb
(vsb vso ) + (vsc vsa )

P
Plavg
2
2
j=a,b,c vsj 3 vso
(4.139)
if c = ilc isc = ilc

P
Plavg
2
2
j=a,b,c vsj 3 vso
(4.140)
Compensating Delta Connected Load
The balancing of an unbalanced -connected load is a generic problem and the theory of instantaneous symmetrical components can be used to balance the load. The schematic diagram of this
compensated scheme is shown in Fig. 4.12. This compensator is connected between the phases of
isa
i*fca
i*fab
vsc
isc
ilab
Lo
a
isb
ad
Lo
vsb
vsa
ilca
ilbc
Load
i*fbc
Fig. 4.12 A compensation for delta connected load
the load. The aim is to generate the three reference current waveforms denoted by if ab , if bc , if ca
162
respectively based on the measurement of system voltages and load currents such that the supply
sees balanced load. As was in previous case, the requirements for compensating source currents
are same. Therefore the following equations are valid.
isa + isb + isc = 0
(4.141)
Applying Kirchoffs current law at nodes, we can express isa , isb and isc respectively as following.
isa = (ilab if ab ) (ilca if ca )
isb = (ilbc if bc ) (ilab if cb )
isc = (ilca if ca ) (ilbc if bc )
(4.142)
As can be seen from above equations, equation (4.141) is satisfied. Since in connected load,
zero sequence current cannot flow, therefore
(ilab if ab ) + (ilbc if bc ) + (ilca if ca ) = 0
(4.143)
The source supplies the average load power, Plavg and following equation is satisfied.
vsa isa + vsb isb + vsc isc = Plavg
(4.144)
From equation (4.124), the power factor between the source voltages and currents should be met.
Thus we have,
{(vsb vsc ) 3 (vsa vs0 )} isa
+ {(vsc vsa ) 3 (vsb vs0 )} isb
+ {(vsa vsb ) 3 (vsc + vs0 )} isc = 0.
(4.145)
Replacing isa , isb and isc from (4.142), above equation can be simplified to the following.
(vsb vsc ) 3(vsa vs0 ) [(ilab if ab ) (ilca if ca )]
+(vsc vsa ) 3(vsb vsa ) [(ilbc if bc ) (ilab if ab )]
+(vsa vsb ) 3(vsb vsa ) [(ilca if ca ) (ilbc if bc )] = 0
(4.146)
Simplifying above expression we get

[{(vsb vsc ) + (vsb + vsc 2vsa )} {(vsc vsa ) + (vsc + vsa 2vsb )}] (ilab if ab )
|
{z
}
I
+ [{(vsc vsa ) + (vsc + vsa 2vsb )} {(vsa vsb ) + (vsa vsb 2vsc )}] (ilbc if bc )
|
{z
}
II
+ [{(vsa vsb ) + (vsa vsb 2vsc )} {(vsb vsc ) + (vsb + vsc 2vsa )}] (ilca if ca )
|
{z
}
III
(4.147)
The first term I is as follows:
I = {(vsb vsc vsc + vsa ) + (vsb + vsc 2vsa vsc vsa + 2vsb )} (ilab if ab )
= {(vsa + vsb 2vsc ) 3(vsa vsb )} (ilab if ab )
= 3 {(vsc vs0 ) + (vsa vsb )} (ilab if ab )
(4.148)
163
Similarly, the second and third terms are given as below.

II = {(vsc vsa vsa + vsb ) + (vsc + vsa 2vsb vsa vsb + 2vsc )} (ilbc if bc )
= {(vsb + vsc 2vsa ) 3(vsb vsc )} (ilbc if bc )
(4.149)
= 3 {(vsa vs0 ) + (vsb vsc )} (ilbc if bc )
III = {(vsa vsb vsb + vsc ) + (vsa + vsb 2vsc vsb vsc + 2vsa )} (ilca if ca )
= {(vsc + vsa 2vsb ) 3(vsc vsa )} (ilca if ca )
(4.150)
= 3 {(vsb vs0 ) + (vsc vsa )} (ilca if ca )
Summing above three terms and simplifying we get,
{(vsc vs0 ) + (vsa vsb )} (ilab if ab )
+ {(vsa vs0 ) + (vsb vsc )} (ilbc if bc )
+ {(vsb vs0 ) + (vsc vsa )} (ilca if ca ) = 0
(4.151)
The third condition for load compensation ensures that the average load power should be supplied
from the sources. Therefore,
vsa isa + +vsb isb + vsc isc = Plavg
(4.152)
The terms isa , isb and isc are substituted from (4.142) in the above equation and the modified
equation is given below.

vsa (ilab if ab ) (ilca if ca ) + vsb (ilbc if bc ) (ilab if ab )

+vsc (ilca if ca ) (ilbc if bc ) = 0
(4.153)
(4.154)
The above is simplified to,
(vsa vsb )(ilab if ab ) + (vsb vsc )(ilbc if bc ) + (vsc vsa )(ilca if ca ) = 0
(4.155)
Equations (4.143), (4.151), (4.155) can be written in the matrix form as given below.
ilab if ab
1
1
1
(vsc vs0 ) + (vsa vsb ) (vsa vs0 ) + (vsb vsc ) (vsb vs0 ) + (vsc vsa ) ilbc if bc
vsa vsb
vsb vsc
vsc vsa
ilca if ca
0
= 0
(4.156)
Plavg
The above equation can be written in the following form.
ilab if ab
0
[A ] ilbc if bc = 0
Plavg
ilca if ca
164
(4.157)
Therefore,
ilab if ab
0
ilbc if bc = [A ]1 0
Plavg
ilca if ca
(4.158)
The above equation is solved by finding the determinate of A and the cofactors transpose as given
below.
ilab if ab
ac11 ac12 ac13
0
1
ilbc if bc =
ac21 ac22 ac23 0
|A
| a
Plavg
ilca if ca
c31 ac32 ac33
ac11 ac21 ac31

0
1
ac12 ac22 ac32 0
(4.159)
=
|A | a
a
a
P
c13
c23
c33
lavg
The determinant |A | and cofactors in above equation are calculated below.

|A | = [(vsa vso ) + (vsb vsc )](vsc vsa ) [(vsb vso ) + (vsc vsa )](vsb vsc )
[(vsc vso ) + (vsa vsb )](vsc vsa ) + [(vsb vso ) + (vsc vsa )](vsa vsb )
+[(vsc vso ) + (vsa vsb )](vsb vsc ) [(vsa vso ) + (vsb vsc )](vsa vsb )
Separating all the terms containing and rearranging the above equation, we get,
|A | = (vsa vso )(vsc vsa ) (vsb vso )(vsb vsc ) (vsc vso )(vsc vsa )
+(vsb vso )(vsa vsb ) + (vsc vso )(vsb vsc ) (vsa vso )(vsa vsb )
+ [(vsb vsc )(vsc vsa ) (vsc vsa )(vsb vsc ) (vsa vsb )(vsc vsa )
+(vsc vsa )(vsa vsb ) + (vsa vsb )(vsb vsc ) (vsb vsc )(vsa vsb )]
It is seen that the terms containing cancel each other and give zero. Thus, above equation
becomes,
|A | = (vsa vso )(vsc vsa vsa + vsb ) + (vsb vso )(vsb + vsc + vsa vsb )(4.160)
+(vsc vso )(vsc + vsa + vsb vsc ) + 0
In the above, using (vsa + vsb + vsc ) = 3vs0 ,
vsc vsa vsa + vsb = vsa + vsb + vsc 3vsa = 3(vsa vso )
vsb + vsc + vsa vsb = vsa + vsb + vsc 3vsb = 3(vsb vso )
vsc + vsa + vsb vsc = vsa + vsb + vsc 3vsc = 3(vsc vso ).
Replacing above term in (4.160), we get the following.
A = 3 [(vsa vs0 )(vsa vs0 ) + (vsb vs0 )(vsb vs0 ) + (vsc vs0 )(vsc vs0 )]
= 3[(vsa vs0 )2 + (vsb vs0 )2 + (vsc vs0 )2 ]
X
= 3
(vsj vs0 )2
(4.161)
j=a,b,c
165
The above equation can also be written as,

2
2
2
2
|A | = 3 [vsa
+ vsb
+ vsc
+ 3 vs0
2 vs0 (vsa + vsb + vsc )]
2
2
2
2
2
= 3 [vsa + vsb + vsc + 3 vs0 6 vs0
]
2
2
2
2
= 3 [vsa + vsb + vsc 3vs0 ]
!
X
2
2
= 3
vsj
3vs0
(4.162)
j=a,b,c
Calculation of cofactors of A
We need to calculate ac31 , ac32 and ac33 . These are computed as following.
ac31 =
=
=
=
=
[(vsb vso ) + (vsc vsa ) (vsa vso ) + (vsb vsc )]

[(vsb vsa ) (vsa + vsb 2 vsc )]
[(vsb vsa ) (vsa + vsb + vsc 3 vsc )]
[(vsb vsa ) (3 vs0 3 vsc )]
[vsab 3 (vsc vs0 )]
Similarly,
ac32 =
=
=
=
=
[(vsb vso ) + (vsc vsa ) (vsc vso ) + (vsa vsb )]

[(vsb vsc ) + (vsc + vsb 2 vsa )]
[(vsb vsc ) + (vsa + vsb + vsc 3 vsa )]
[(vsb vsc ) + (3 vs0 3 vsa )]
[vsbc 3(vsa vs0 )]
and
ac33 =
=
=
=
=
[(vsa vso ) + (vsb vsc ) (vsc vso ) + (vsa vsb )]

[(vsa vsc ) (vsa + vsc 2 vsb )]
[(vsa vsc ) (vsa + vsb + vsc 3 vsb )]
[(vsa vsc ) (3 vs0 3 vsb )]
[vsca 3(vsb vs0 )]
Therefore, the solution of the equation is given by,
ilab if ab
ilbc if bc = 1
A
ilca if ca
ac11
ac21
ac31
a
1 c11
ac12
=
A a
c13
166
ac12 ac13
0
ac22 ac23 0
ac32 ac33
Plavg

ac21 ac31
0
ac22 ac32 0
ac23 ac33
Plavg
(4.163)
From the above equation and substituting the values of cofactors obtained above, we get the following.
ac31
Plavg
|A |
[vsab 3(vsc vs0 )]
i Plavg
hP
=
2
2
3
v
3
v
s0
j=a,b,c sj
ilab if ab =
[vsab /3 (vsc vs0 )]

P
Plavg
2
2
j=a,b,c vsj 3 vs0
From the above equation, the reference compensator current (if ab ) can be given as follows.
vsab /3 (vsc vs0 )
Plavg
if ab = ilab P
2
2
j=a,b,c vsj 3 vs0
(4.164)
vsbc /3 (vsa vs0 )

Plavg
if bc = ilbc P
2
2
j=a,b,c vsj 3 vs0
(4.165)
vsca /3 (vsb vs0 )

if ca = ilca P
Plavg
2
2
j=a,b,c vsj 3 vs0
(4.166)
Similarly,
and
When the source power factor is unity, = 0, for balanced source voltages (fundamental) vs0 = 0.
Substituting these values in above equations, we get,
vsab
if ab = ilab P
Plavg
2
3 j=a,b,c vsj
vsbc
if bc = ilbc P
Plavg
2
3 j=a,b,c vsj
vsca
Plavg
if ca = ilca P
2
3 j=a,b,c vsj
(4.167)
Further it can be seen that,

2
2
2
+ vsbc
+ vsca
=
vsab
=
=
=
=
=
(vsa vsb )2 + (vsb vsc )2 + (vsc vsa )2

2
2
2
2
2
2
vsa
+ vsb
2vsa vsb + vsb
+ vsc
2vsb vsc + vsc
+ vsa
2vsc vsa
2
2
2
2(vsa + vsb + vsc ) (2vsa vsb + 2vsb vsc + 2vsc vsa )
2
2
2
2
2
2
3(vsa
+ vsb
+ vsc
) (vsa
+ vsb
+ vsc
+ 2vsa vsb + 2vsb vsc + 2vsc vsa )
2
2
2
3(vsa + vsb + vsc ) (vsa + vsb + vsc )2
2
2
2
2
3[(vsa
+ vsb
+ vsc
) 3 vs0
]
"
#
X
2
2
= 3
vsj
3 vs0
(4.168)
j=a,b,c
167
Replacing 3
i
2
2
3
v
v
s0 in equations (4.164), (4.165) and (4.166), we get the following.
j=a,b,c sj
hP
vsab 3 (vsc vs0 )

Plavg
2
2
2 )
+ vsca
+ vsbc
(vsab
vsbc 3 (vsa vs0 )
= ilbc
Plavg
2
2
2 )
(vsab
+ vsbc
+ vsca
vsca 3 (vsb vs0 )
Plavg
= ilca
2
2
2 )
+ vsca
+ vsbc
(vsab
if ab = ilab
if bc
if ca
(4.169)
For unity power factor and balanced source voltages (fundamental), the reference compensator
currents are given as following.
vsab
Plavg
9V 2
vsbc
Plavg
= ilbc
9V 2
vsca
= ilca
Plavg
9V 2
if ab = ilab
if bc
if ca
(4.170)
Where V is the rms value of phase voltages.
References
[1] H. Akagi, Y. Kanazawa, and A. Nabae, Instantaneous reactive power compensators comprising switching devices without energy storage components, IEEE Transactions on Industry
Applications, no. 3, pp. 625630, 1984.
[2] A. Ghosh and G. Ledwich, Load compensating DSTATCOM in weak ac systems, IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 13021309, Oct. 2003.
[3] V. George and Mahesh K. Mishra, DSTATCOM topologies for three-phase high power applications, International Journal of Power Electronics, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 107124, 2010.
[4] A. Ghosh and A. Joshi, A new approach to load balancing and power factor correction in
power distribution system, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 417
422, 2000.
[5] L. S. Czarnecki, Budeanu and Fryze: Two frameworks for interpreting power properties of
circuits with nonsinusoidal voltages and currents, Electrical Engineering (Archiv fur Elektrotechnik), vol. 80, no. 6, pp. 359367, 1997.
168
Chapter 5
SERIES COMPENSATION: VOLTAGE

COMPENSATION USING DVR
(Lectures 41-48)
5.1
Introduction
Power system should ensure good quality of electric power supply, which means voltage and current waveforms should be balanced and sinusoidal. Furthermore, the voltage levels on the system
should be within reasonable limits, generally within 100 5% of their rated value. If the voltage is
more or less than this pre-specified value, performance of equipments is sacrificed. In case of low
voltages, picture on television starts rolling, the torque of induction motor reduces to the square of
voltage and therefore there is need for voltage compensation.
5.2
Conventional Methods to Regulate Voltage
In order to keep load bus voltage constant, many conventional compensating devices such as listed
below can be used. In general, these can be referred as VAR compensator.
1. Shunt Capacitors
2. Series Capacitors
3. Synchronous Capacitor
4. Tap Changing Transformer
5. Booster Transformer
6. Static Synchronous Series Capacitor
7. Dynamic Voltage Restorer
169
The first six methods are employed at transmission level while the last method is by employing
Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR), is mostly employed in power distribution network to protect any
voltage variation at the load bus connected to the sensitive and critical electrical units. The DVR
is a series connected custom power device used to mitigate the voltage unbalance, sags, swells,
harmonics and any abrupt changes due to abnormal conditions in the system. In the following
section, dynamic voltage restorer will be described in detail.
5.3
Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR)
A dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) is a solid state inverter based on injection of voltage in series
with a power distribution system [1], [2]. The DC side of DVR is connected to an energy source or
an energy storage device, while its ac side is connected to the distribution feeder by a three-phase
interfacing transformer. A single line diagram of a DVR connected power distribution system is
shown in the figure below. In this figure, vs (t) represents supply voltage, vt (t) represents terminal
voltage and vl (t) represents the load voltage. Since DVR is a series connected device, the source
current, is (t) is same as load current, il (t). Also note in the figure, vf (t) is DVR injected voltage
in series with line such that the load voltage is maintained at sinusoidal nominal value.
vs (t )
Rs jX s
is il
vt (t )
v f (t )
vl (t )
L
O
A
D
Fig. 5.1 A single-line diagram of DVR compensated system
The three-phase DVR compensated system is shown in Fig. 5.2 below. It is assumed that the
transmission line has same impedance in all three phases. A DVR unit which is represented in Fig.
5.1, have following components [3]- [5].
1. Voltage Source Inverter
2. Filter capacitors and inductors
3. Injection transformer
4. DC storage system
These components are shown in Fig. 5.3. Some other important issues i.e., how much voltage
should be injected in series using appropriate algorithm, choice of suitable power converter topology to synthesize voltage and design of filter capacitor and inductor components have to be addressed while designing the DVR unit.
170
vsa
v fa
Rs jX s
isa
vsb
Rs jX s
isb
vs c
Rs jX s
vla
A
v fb
vlb
v fc
vlc
C
isc
Fig. 5.2 A single-line diagram of DVR compensated system
Cf
PCC
vt
Rs
Ls
vl
- v +
f
Injecion
transformer
Load
Lf
vs
VSI
Cdc
Energy
storage
Fig. 5.3 Schematic diagram of a DVR based compensation in a distribution system
5.4
Operating Principle of DVR
Consider a DVR compensated single phase system as shown in Fig. 5.4. Let us assume that source
voltage is 1.0 pu and we want to regulate the load voltage to 1.0 pu. Let us denote the phase angle
between V s and V l as . In this analysis, harmonics are not considered. Further we assume that
during DVR operation, real power is not required except some losses in the inverter and the non
ideal filter components. These losses for the time being are considered to be zero. This condition
implies that the phase difference between V f and I s should be 90o . Let us first consider a general
case to understand the concept.
The DVR equivalent circuit with fundamental voltages and current is shown in Fig. 5.4. Applying Kirchoffs voltage law in the circuit,
V s + V f = I s (Rs + jXs ) + V l
= I s Zs + V l .
171
(5.1)
Vs
Rs jX s
Vl
Vt
Is
Vf
L
O
A
D
Fig. 5.4 Schematic diagram of a DVR based compensation in a distribution system
Note that in above curcuit I s = I l = I. The load voltage V l can be written in terms of load current
and load impedance as given below.
V s + V f = I (Zs + Zl )
(5.2)
Using (5.1), the source voltage can be expressed as in the following.

V s = V l + I Rs (V f jI Xs )
(5.3)
With the help of above equation, the relationship between load voltage and the source and DVR
voltages can be expressed as below.

Vl =
Vs+Vf
Zs + Zl

Zl
(5.4)
Example 5.1 Let us apply condition to maintain load voltage same as source voltage i.e., V l = V s .
Discuss the feasibility of injected voltage in series with the line as shown in Fig. 5.4, to obtain load
voltage same as source voltage. Consider the following cases.
(a) Line resistance is negligible with Zs = j0.25 pu and Zl = 0.5 + j0.25 pu.
(b) When the load is purely resistive with Zs = 0.45 + j0.25 pu and Zl = 0.5 pu.
Solution:
(a) When line resistance is negligible
The above condition implies that, Xs = 0. Without DVR, the load terminal voltage V l can be
given as following.
Il =
Vs
1.00o
=
= 1.0 j1.0 = 1.4142 45o pu
Zl + jZs
0.5 + j0.5
172
Therefore the load voltage is given as following. V l = Zl I l = 0.559026.56o 1.414245o =

0.7906 18.43o pu. This is illustrated in Fig. 5.5(a). Thus the load voltage has reduced by 21%.
Now it is desired to maintain load voltage same as supply voltage in magnitude and phase angle.
Thus, substituting V s = V l in equation (5.1), we get,
V s + V f = I (Rs + jXs ) + V l
V f = I (Rs + jXs )
jXs
Vf =
V l , since Rs = 0 and
Zl
I = V l /Zl
Neglecting resistance part of the feeder impedance, Zs = j0.25, the DVR voltage can be computed
as above.
j0.25
1.00o for V l = 1.00o
0.5 + j0.25
= 0.447263.4349o pu.
Vf =
From the above the, line current is computed as following.
Is =
Vl
1.00o
= 1.7889 26.56o pu.
=
Zl
0.559026.56o
It is to be noted that, although V s = V l = 1.00o pu, it does not imply that no power flows from
source to load. In fact the total effective source voltage is V s = V s + V f = 1.264918.8 pu.
Therefore it implies that the effective source voltage is leading the load voltage by an angle of
18.43o . This ensures the power flow from the source to load. This is illustrated by drawing phasor
diagram in the Fig. 5.5(b). below.
26.56o
Vl
Vl =1.00o
(b)
(a)
Fig. 5.5 Terminal voltage (a) Without DVR (b) With DVR
(b) When load is purely resistive
173
I
s
jX
jX s I
45o
jX s I
Vs
Vs =1.00o
18.8o
For this case Xl = 0, therefore Zl = Rl = 0.5 pu. Substituting V s = V l in (5.1), we get the
following.
V f = (Rs + jXs )I
Substituting I = V l /Rl , we get,
Rs + jXs
Vf =
V l = Rs
Rl
Vl
Rl

+ jXs
Vl
Rl

= Rs I s + jXs I s .
From this above equation, it is indicated that DVR voltage has two components, the one is in phase
with I s and the other is in phase quadrature with I s . This implies that for purely resistive load, it
is not possible to maintain V l = V s without active power supplied from the DVR to the load. This
is due to the presence of in phase component of the DVR voltage in the above equation. This is
illustrated in the phasor diagram given in Fig. 5.6 below.
Vs
jX s I
Vl
I Rs
Fig. 5.6 When load is purely resistive
5.4.1
General Case
In general, it is desired to maintain the magnitude of the load voltage equal to the source voltage
i.e., 1.0 pu. The voltage equation in general relating the source, load and DVR has been expressed
in (5.3) and is given below.
V s = V l + I Rs (V f jI Xs )
The above equation is illustrated using phasor diagram description in Fig. 5.7 given below. Three
cases of voltage compensation are discussed below.
Case 1: When Rs I < CD
For this case, it is always possible to maintain load voltage same as source voltage i.e., Vl = Vs .
The DVR is expected to supply enough range reactive power to meet this condition. When Rs Is
is quite smaller than CD, the above condition can be met by suppling less reactive power from the
DVR. For this condition there are two solutions. Graphically, these solutions are represented by
points A an B in the Fig. 5.7.
Case 2: When Rs I > CD
For this condition, it is not possible to meet Vl = Vs . This is shown by lines passing through
174
A1
Vl
I Rs
Vs
jX s I
I
C
Locus of
V f jX s I
D1
D2
Vs
B1
B
Fig. 5.7 Compensation using DVR: General case
points between D1 and D2 . This may take place due to the higher feeder resistance or high current,
thus making product of I Rs relatively large.
Case 3: When Rs I = CD
This is limiting case of compensation to obtain Vs = Vl . This condition is now satisfied at only
one point when CD=Rs I. This is indicated by point D in the Fig. 5.7.
Now let us set the following objective for the load compensation.
Vl = Vs = V = 1.0 pu
(5.5)
From Fig. 5.7, OC = V cos l = cos l . Therefore, CD = OD OC = V (1 cos l ) =

(1 cos l ) pu. In order to meet the condition given by (5.5), the following must be satisfied.
Rs I V (1 cos l )
(5.6)
The above implies that

V (1 cos l )
I
V (1 cos l )
I
.
Rs
Rs
or
(5.7)
(5.8)
Thus it is observed that for a given power factor, the DVR characteristics can be obtained by
varying Rs and keeping I constant or vice versa. This is described below. Let us consider three
175
conditions Rs = 0.04 pu, Rs = 0.1 pu and Rs = 0.4 pu. For these values of feeder resistance, the
line currents are expressed as following using (5.8).
I = 25 (1 cos l ) pu for Rs = 0.04 pu
I = 10 (1 cos l ) pu for Rs = 0.1 pu
I = 2.5 (1 cos l ) pu for Rs = 0.4 pu.
The above currents are plotted as function of load power factor and are shown in Fig. 5.8. Since
Rs I = Vl (1 cosl ), when Rs increases, I has to decrease to make Vl (1 cosl ) to be a constant
for a given power factor. Thus if the load requires more current than the permissible value, the
DVR will not be able to regulate the load voltage at the nominal value, i.e., 1.0 pu. However
we can regulate bus voltage less than 1.0 pu. For regulating the load voltage less than 1.0 pu the
current drawing capacity of the load increases.
18
16
14
12
10
8
-600
00
-300
300
600
6
4
2
0
-80
-60
-40
-20
20
40
60
Fig. 5.8 DVR characteristics for different load power factor and feeder resistance
5.5
Mathematical Description to Compute DVR Voltage
The previous section explains DVR characteristics and describes the feasibility of realizing DVR
voltage graphically under different operating conditions. In this section, a feasible solution for
the DVR voltage is presented with a mathematical description. This plays significant role while
implementing DVR on real time basis. Reproducing equation (??) for sake of completeness,
V s + V f = V l + (Rs + jXs ) I.
176
(5.9)
Denoting, (Rs + jXs ) I = a2 + jb2 and V f = Vf V f = Vf (a1 + jb1 ), the above equation can be
written as following.
V s = V l + (a2 + jb2 ) V f
= V l + (a2 + jb2 ) Vf (a1 + jb1 )
= 1.00o + (a2 + jb2 ) Vf (a1 + jb1 )
(5.10)
Since, source voltage and load voltage have to be maintained at nominal value i.e., 1.0 pu, therefore
V s = Vs = 1.0. Substituting this value of V s in above equation, we get,
V s = 1.0 = cos + j sin = {(1 + a2 ) Vf a1 } + j(b2 Vf b1 )
(5.11)
Squaring and adding the real and imaginary parts from both the sides of the above equation, we
get,
(1 + a2 )2 + Vf2 a21 2(1 + a2 ) a1 Vf + b22 + Vf2 b21 2 b1 b2 Vf 1.0 = 0
(5.12)
Since a21 + b21 = 1, therefore summation of underlines terms, Vf2 (a21 + b21 ). = Vf2 . Using this and
rearranging above equation in the power of Vf , we get the following.
Vf2 2 {(1 + a2 ) a1 + b1 b2 } Vf + (1 + a2 )2 + b22 1.0 = 0
(5.13)
The above equation gives two solutions for Vf . These are equivalent to two points A and B shown
in the Fig. 5.7. However, the feasible value of the voltage is chosen on the basis of the rating of
the DVR.
Example 5.2 Consider a system with supply voltage 230 V = 1.0 pu, 50 Hz as shown in the Fig.
5.9. Consider feeder impedance as Zs = 0.05 + j0.3 pu and load impedance Zl = 0.5 + j0.3 pu.
1. Compute the load voltage without DVR.
2. Compute the current and DVR voltage such that Vl = Vs .
3. Compute the effective source voltage including DVR. Explain the power flow in the circuit.
4. Compute the terminal voltage with DVR compensation.
Solution: 1. When DVR is not connected.
The system parameters are given as following. The supply voltage Vs = 1.00o pu, Zs = Rs +
j Xs = 0.05 + j0.3 and Zl = Rl + j Xl = 0.5 + j0.3 pu. The current in the circuit is given by,
Vs
1.00
=
Zs + Zl
0.55 + j0.6
= 0.83 j0.91 = 1.2286 47.49o pu
Is = I = Il =
177
Rs jX s
vl (t )
vt (t )
is il
v f (t )
Rl jX l
vs (t )
Fig. 5.9 A DVR compensated system
The load voltage is therefore given by,

V l = Zl I s = 1.2286 47.490 0.5 + j0.3
= 0.7164 16.53o pu
Thus we observe that the load voltage is 71% of the rated value. Due to reduction in the load
voltage, the load may not perform to the expected level.
2. When DVR is connected
It is desired to maintain Vl = Vs by connecting the DVR. Taking V l as reference phasor i.e.,
V l = 1.00o , The line current is computed as below.
1.00
= 1.47 j0.88 = 1.715 30.96o pu
I =
0.5 + j0.3
Writing KVL for the circuit shown in (5.9),
V s + V f = V l + (Rs + jXs ) I.
The DVR voltage V f can be expressed as following.
V f = Vf (I s + 90o )
The angle of V f is taken as (I s + 90o ) so that DVR do not exchange any active power with the
system.
V f = Vf (I s + 90o )
= Vf (30.96o + 90o )
= Vf 59.04o = Vf (0.51 + j0.86) = Vf (a1 + jb1 ) pu
The above equation implies that a1 = 0.51, b1 = 0.86.
Let us now compute (Rs + jXs ) I.
(Rs + jXs ) I =
=
=
=
(0.05 + j0.3) (1.46 j0.86)

0.304180.54o 1.715 30.96o
0.519949.58o
0.3370 + j0.3958 pu
178
The above implies that a2 = 0.337 and b2 = 0.3958. As discussed in previous section, the equation
V s + V f = V l + (Rs + jXs ) I can be written in following form.
Vf2 2 {(1 + a2 ) a1 + b1 b2 } Vf + (1 + a2 )2 + b22 1.0 = 0.
Substituting a1 , b1 , a2 , b2 in the above equation, we get the following quadratic equation for the
DVR.
Vf2 2.0463 Vf + 0.9442 = 0
Solving the above equation, we get Vf = 0.7028, 1.3434 pu as two values of the DVR voltage.
These two values correspond to the points A and B respectively in Fig. 5.7. However, the feasible
solution is Vf = 0.7028 pu, as it ensures less rating of the DVR.
Therefore,
V f = 0.702859.04o
= 0.3614 + j0.6028 pu.
The source voltage can be computed using the following equation.
V s = V l + (Rs + jXs ) I V f .
= 1.00o + (0.05 + j0.3) 1.715 30.96o 0.702859.04o
= 0.9767 j0.2056 = 1.0 11.89o pu
3. Effective source voltage
It is seen that the magnitude of V s is 1.0 pu which is satisfying the condition Vs = Vl . However the angle of V s is 11.89o which implies that power is flowing from load to the source.
This is not true because the effective source voltage is now V s = V s +V f . This is computed below.
V s + V f = V s = 0.9767 j0.2056 + 0.3614 + j0.6028

= 1.3382 + j0.397
= 1.395816.52o pu
From above it is evident that the effective source voltage has magnitude of 1.3958 pu and an
angle of 16.52 which ensures that power flows from source to the load. For this the equivalent
circuit is shown in the Fig. 5.10 below.
4. Terminal voltage with DVR compensation
The terminal voltage can also be computed as following.
V t = V s Zs I = V l V f
= 1.00o 0.698359.06o
= 0.8796 43.28o pu
This indicates that for rated current flowing in the load, the terminal voltage is less than the 1.0 pu
and needs compensation. After compensation the load voltage is 1.0 pu as shown in the Fig. 5.10.
The details of voltages are depicted in the following figure.
179
1.3916.52o Rs jX s
Vl 1.00o
I s Il
Rl jX l
Vs' Vs V f
5.6
Transient Operation of the DVR
In the previous section the operation of the DVR in the steady state was discussed with assumption
that full system information is available. While implementing the DVR compensation scheme, the
above discussed method should be implemented on the real time basis. For the single phase DVR
operation, following steps are required.
1. Define a reference quantity such as the terminal voltage Vl (t) and other quantities are synchronized to it.
2. To compute phase angle of the DVR voltage, a fundamental of line current is extracted with
respect to reference quantity.
3. Then DVR voltage is computed using Equation (5.13), which is reproduced below.
Vf2 2 {(1 + a2 ) a1 + b1 b2 } Vf + (1 + a2 )2 + b22 1.0 = 0
4. DVR voltage Vf is then synthesized using magnitude Vf from the above equation and phase
angle that leads the fundamental of the line current by 90o .
The above method can be refereed as Type 1 control [1]. The method assumes that all circuit
parameters are known along with the information of the source impedance. This however may not
be feasible in all circumstances. To solve this problem Type 2 control is suggested. In Type 2
control only local quantities are required to compute the DVR voltage. The method is described
below.
The terminal voltage, which is local quantity to the DVR as shown in Fig. 5.1 can be expressed as
following.
Vt = VlVf
= Vl 0o Vf (a1 + jb1 )
= (Vl a1 Vf ) jb1 Vf
(5.14)
Since, V t = Vt t = Vt cos t + jVt sin t , the above equation is written as following.

Vt cos t + jVt sin t = (Vl a1 Vf ) jb1 Vf
180
(5.15)
Squaring adding both sides we get,

Vt2 = (Vl a1 Vf )2 + b21 Vf2
= Vl2 + a21 Vf2 + b21 Vf2 2a1 Vl Vf
= Vl2 + Vf2 2a1 Vl Vf
(since a21 + b21 = 1).
(5.16)
The above equation can be arranged in the powers of the DVR voltage as given below.
Vf2 2a1 Vl Vf + Vl2 Vt2 = 0
(5.17)
To implement DVR for unbalanced three-phase system without harmonics, the positive sequence
+
+
+
currents (I a , I b and I c ) of line currents are extracted using Fourier transform. Based on these
values of currents the angles of DVR voltages are found by shifting current angles by 90o i.e.,
+
V f a = I a + 90o
+
V f b = I b + 90o
(5.18)
V f c = I c + 90o
The magnitude of DVR voltage can be found using equations (5.13) and (5.17) for Type 1 and
Type 2 control respectively.
Based on above the DVR voltages vf a , vf b , vf c can be expressed in time domain as given below.
vf a =
2 Vf a sin( t + V f a )
vf b =
2 Vf b sin( t 120o + V f b )
(5.19)
o
vf c =
2 Vf c sin( t + 120 + V f c )
5.6.1
Operation of the DVR With Unbalance and Harmonics
In the previous analysis, it was assumed that the supply voltages are unbalanced without harmonics.
In this section the operation of the DVR with harmonics will be discussed. The terminal voltages
(vta , vtb and vtc ) are resolved into their fundamental positive sequence voltages and the rest part, as
given below.
+
vta = vta1
+ vta rest
+
vtb = vtb1 + vtb rest
+
vtc = vtc1
+ vtc rest
(5.20)
The angles of fundamental DVR voltages (V f a1 , V f b1 and V f c1 ) can be extracted as explained

above. The magnitudes of the fundamental DVR voltages (Vf a1 , Vf b1 and Vf c1 ) can be computed
using equations (5.13) and (5.17) for Type 1 and Type 2 control respectively. For example, using
Type 2 control the fundamental phase-a DVR voltage is computed as per following equation.
2
+
=0
Vf2a1 2 aa1 Vl Vf a1 + Vl2 Vta1
181
(5.21)
+
In above equation aa1 + jba1 = V f a1 and Vta1
is fundamental positive sequence phase-a terminal
voltage as given above in (5.20). Similar expression can be written for phase-b and phase-c. This
equation gives solution only for fundamental component of the DVR voltage. The rest of the DVR
voltages which consist of harmonics and unbalance must be equal and opposite to that of the rest
part of the terminal voltages i.e., vta rest , vtb rest and vtc rest . Therefore these can be given using
following equations.
vf a rest = vta rest

vf b rest = vtb rest
vf c rest = vtc rest
(5.22)
Thus, the total DVR voltage to be injected can be given as following.

vf a = vf a1 + vf a rest
vf a = vf b1 + vf b rest
vf a = vf c1 + vf c rest
(5.23)
In above equation, vf a1 , vf b1 , vf c1 are constructed using equation (5.19). Once vf a , vf b and vf c are
known, these voltages are synthesized using suitable power electronic circuit. It will be discussed
in the following section.
5.7
Realization of DVR voltage using Voltage Source Inverter
In the previous section, a reference voltage of DVR was extracted using discussed control algorithms. This DVR voltage however should be realized in practice. This is achieved with the help
of power electronic converter which is also known as voltage source inverter. Various components
of the DVR were listed in the beginning of chapter. They are shown in detail in the Fig. 5.11.
The transformer injects the required voltage in series with the line to maintain the load bus voltage
at the nominal value. The transformer not only reduces the voltage requirement but also provides
isolation between the inverters. The filter components of the DVR such as external inductance (Lt )
which also includes the leakage of the transformer on the primary side and ac filter capacitor on
the secondary side play significant role in the performance of the DVR [Sasitharan Thesis].
The same DC link can be extended to other phases as shown in Fig. 5.11. The single phase
equivalent of the DVR is shown in the Fig. 5.12.
In Figs. 5.11 and 5.12, vinv denotes the switched voltage generated at the inverter output terminals, the inductance, Lt represents the total inductance and resistance including leakage inductance
and resistance of transformer. The resistance, Rt models the switching losses of the inverter and
the copper loss of the connected transformer. The voltage source inverter (VSI) is operated in a
switching band voltage control mode to track the reference voltages generated using control logic
as discussed below.
Let Vf be the reference voltage of a phase that DVR needs to inject in series with the line with help
of the VSI explained above. We form a voltage hysteresis band of h over this reference value.
Thus, the upper and lower limits within which the DVR has to track the voltage can be given as
182
vf
Rs
vt
Ls
vl
Cf
il
Load
Load bus
vs
vp
Lt
S1
D1
S3
D3
Vdc
iinv
Rt
vinv
Cdc
S4
D4
S2
D2
To other
phases
Fig. 5.11 The DVR circuit details
Cf
i fac
vt
vl
Xt
vinv
Rt
Fig. 5.12 Equivalent circuit of the DVR
following.
vf up = vf + h
vf dn = vf h
(5.24)
The following switching logic is used to synthesize the reference DVR voltage.
If vf vf up
S1 S2 OFF and S3 S4 ON (-1 state)
else if vf vf dn
S1 S2 ON and S3 S4 OFF (+1 state)
else if vf dn vf vf up
retain the current switching status of switches
end.
It is to be noted that switches status S1 S2 ON and S3 S4 OFF is denoted by +1 state
183
and it gives vinv = +Vdc . The switches status S1 S2 OFF and S3 S4 ON corresponds to -1
state providing vinv = Vdc as shown in Fig. 5.11. The above switching logic is very basic and
has scope to be refined. For example 0 state of the switches of the VSI as shown in Fig. 5.11, can
also be used to have smooth switching and to minimize switching losses. In the zero state, vinv = 0
and refers switches status as S3 D1 or S4 D2 for positive inverter current (iinv > 0). Similarly, for
negative inverter current (iinv < 0), 0 state is obtained through S1 D3 or S2 D4 . With the addition
of 0 state, the switching logic becomes as follows.
If vf > 0
if vf vf up
0 state
else if vf vf dn
+1 state
end
else if vf < 0
if vf vf up
-1 state
else if vf vf dn
0 state
end
end.
In order to improve the switching performance one more term is added in the above equation
based on the feedback of filter capacitor current.
vf up = vf + h + if ac
vf dn = vf h + if ac
(5.25)
Where is a proportional gain given to smoothen and stabilize the switching performance of the
VSI [2]. The dimension of is and is thus is equivalent to virtual resistance, whose effect to
damp out and smoothen the DVR voltage trajectory resulted from the switching of the inverter
[4]. The value of hysteresis band (h) should be chosen in such a way that it limits switching
frequency within the prescribed maximum value. This kind of voltage control using VSI is called as
switching band control. The actual DVR voltage is compared with these upper and lower bands of
the voltage (Vf up , Vf dn ) and accordingly switching commands to the power switch are generated.
The switching control logic is described in the Table 5.1. To minimize switching frequency of
the VSI, three level logic has been used. For this an additional check of polarity of the reference
voltage has been taken into consideration. Based on this switching status, the inverter supplies
+Vdc , 0 and Vdc levels of voltage corresponding to the 1, 0 and -1 given in the table, in order to
synthesis the reference DVR voltage.
In addition to switching band control, an additional loop is required to correct the voltage in
the dc storage capacitor against losses in the inverter and transformer. During transients, the dc
capacitor voltage may rise or fall from the reference value due to real power flow for a short
184
Table 5.1 Three level switching logic for the VSI

Conditions
Vf
Vf
Vf
Vf
Switching value
Vf > Vup
Vf < Vdn
<0
Vf > Vup
-1
<0
Vf < Vdn
duration. To correct this voltage deviation, a small amount of real power must be drawn from the
source to replenish the losses. To accomplish this, a simple proportional-plus-integral controller
(PI) is used. The signal uc is generated from this PI controller as given below.
Z
uc = Kp e V dc + Ki e V dc dt
(5.26)
Where, e V dc = Vdc ref Vdc . This control loop need not to be too fast. It may be updated once
in a cycle preferably synchronized to positive zero crossing of phase-a voltage. Based on this
information the variable uc will be included in generation of the fundamental of DVR voltage as
given below.
V f 1 = Vf 1 (I s + 90o uc ) = Vf 1 (
a1 + jb1 )
(5.27)
Then the equation (5.17), is modified to the following.

Vf21 2 a
1 Vl Vf 1 + Vl2 Vt12 = 0
(5.28)
The above equation is used to find the DVR voltage. It can be found that the phase difference
between line current and DVR voltage differs slightly from 90o in order to account the losses in
the inverter.
5.8
Maximum Compensation Capacity of the DVR Without Real Power

Support from the DC Link
There is direct relationship between the terminal voltage, power factor of the load and the maximum possible achievable load voltage, with assumption that no real power is required from the dc
bus. Referring to quadratic equation in (5.28), for given value of Vt1 and a target load bus voltage
Vl , The equation gives two real values of Vf 1 for feasible solution. In case solution is not feasible,
the equation gives two complex conjugate roots. This concludes that the maximum voltage that
DVR can compensate corresponds to the single solution of the above equation, which is given
below. This solution corresponds to point D in Fig. 5.7.
p
(2 a
1 Vl )2 4 (Vl2 Vt12 )
(5.29)
Vf 1 =
2
Since, voltage should not be complex number, the value of the terms within square root must not
be negative. Therefore
2a
1 Vl
(2 a
1 Vl )2 4 (Vl2 Vt12 )
185
(5.30)
The above equation implies that

Vt1
.
Vl p
1a
21
(5.31)
And therefore, the DVR voltage is given by the following equation.

Vf 1 = a
1 Vl
(5.32)
Vt1
Vt1
=p
Vl p
2
1a
1
1 a21
(5.33)
With no losses in the VSI, uc = 0,
Since, a
1 + jb1 = 1(90o + l ) p
= cos(90o +pl ) + j sin(90o + l ) = sin l + j cos l . This
implies a
1 = sin l , therefore 1 a
21 = 1 ( sin l )2 = cos l . using this relation, the
above equation can be written as following.
Vl
Vt1
cos l
(5.34)
Example 5.3 A DVR is shown in Fig. 5.13. The feeder impedance of the line 0.1 + j0.5 pu.
Assume ih to be load current represented by square waveform approximated by the following
expression.
ih = 1.0 sin( t 30o ) + 0.3 sin(3 t 90o ) pu
1. Find the load voltage v(t) without DVR compensation i.e., vf = 0.
2. Is it possible to maintain load voltage, Vl to be 1.0 pu sinusoidal waveform? If yes what is the
DVR voltage, vf (t)?
3. If no, how much maximum voltage can be maintained at load terminal with the DVR without
taking any real power from the dc bus?
s
h
186
Solution:
1. When Vf = 0
vt = vs
Zsh ih
h=1,3
The impedance at the fundamental frequency, Zs1 = 0.1 + j0.5 = 0.5178.7o pu.
The impedance at third harmonic, Zs3 = 0.1 + j1.5 = 1.5086.18o pu.
Therefore the voltage drop due to fundamental component of the current,
Vzs1 = (0.1 + j0.5) 0.70730o
= 0.5178.69o 0.70730o
= 0.3648.69 pu.
The voltage drop due to third harmonic component of the current,
Vzs3 = (0.1 + j1.5) 0.2190o
= 0.313.820 pu.
The load voltage thus can be given by
vt = vs (is1 Zs1 + is3 Zs3 )
= 1.0 sin t 0.51 sin(t + 48.69o ) 0.45 sin(3 t 3.82o )
{z
}
|
o
= 0.7947 sin(t 28.81 ) 0.45 sin(3 t 3.82o ) pu
= vt1 (t) + vth (t).
Implying that,
V t1 =
0.7947
28.81o = 0.561928.81o pu
2
2. With DVR
From the above equation, Vt1 = 0.5619. With load voltage vl = 1.0 sin (t l ), the DVR
voltage Vf 1 can be solved using quadratic equation as mentioned in Type 2 control. Further,
V f 1 = Vf 1 (I s1 + 90o ) = Vf 1 (30o + 90o ) = Vf 1 60o
= Vf 1 (cos 60o + j sin 60o ) = Vf 1 (0.5 + j0.8666) = Vf 1 (a1 + jb1 ) pu.
The above implies a1 = 0.5, b1 = 0.866.. Knowing this, we can solve Vf 1 using following
quadratic equation.
Vf21 2 a1 Vl Vf 1 + Vl2 Vt12 = 0
187
From the above,

Vf 1
q
= a1 Vl a21 Vl2 (Vl2 Vt12 )
v
)
u

2 (
2
u
1
1
1
= 0.5 t(0.5)2
(0.5619)2
2
2
2
= 0.35 0.125 0.1842
The above solution is complex quantity, which implies that it is not possible to maintain load voltage at 1.0 sin (t l ).
3. Maximum possible load voltage
The maximum load voltage that can be obtained with the DVR, without any real power from
the dc bus can be given as following.
0.5619
Vt1
=
= 0.6488 pu.
Vl = p
1 0.52
1 a21
In the time domain the load voltage vl = vl1 = 2 0.6488 sin(t l ) = 0.9175 sin(t l ).
For this load voltage the DVR voltage is given as following.
Vf 1 = a1 Vl = 0.5 0.6488 = 0.3244 pu.
This implies
V f 1 = 0.324460o pu.
The time domain repression for the fundamental DVR voltage is given as,
vf 1 (t) = 2 0.3244 sin(t + 60o ) = 0.4587 sin(t + 60o ) pu.

The harmonic voltage that DVR compensates is as following.
vf h (t) = vth = 0.45 sin (3 t 3.82o ) pu.
The total DVR voltage is given as below.
vf (t) = vf 1 (t) + vth (t)
= 0.4587 sin(t + 60o ) + 0.45 sin (3 t 3.82o ) pu
References
[1] A. Ghosh and G. Ledwich, Compensation of distribution system voltage using dvr, IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 10301036, Oct. 2002.
188
[2] A. Ghosh and G. Ledwich, Structures and control of a dynamic voltage regulator (dvr), in
IEEE Power Engineering Society Winter Meeting, vol. 3. IEEE, 2001, pp. 10271032.
[3] A. Ghosh, A. Jindal, and A. Joshi, Design of a capacitor-supported dynamic voltage restorer
(dvr) for unbalanced and distorted loads, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 19, no. 1,
pp. 405413, Jan. 2004.
[4] S. Sasitharan and Mahesh K. Mishra, Constant switching frequency band controller for dynamic voltage restorer, IET Power Electronics, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 657667, Sept. 2010.
[5] S. Sasitharan, Mahesh K. Mishra, B. Kalyan Kumar, and V. Jayashankar, Rating and design
issues of dvr injection transformer, International Journal of Power Electronics, vol. 2, no. 2,
pp. 143163, 2010.
189

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SINGLE PHASE CIRCUITS: POWER DEFINITIONS AND COMPONENTS

Power Terms in a Single Phase System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sinusoidal Voltage Source Supplying Non-linear Load Current . . . . . . . . . . .

Non-sinusoidal Voltage Source Supplying Non-linear Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Non Active Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Fundamental Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

THREE PHASE CIRCUITS: POWER DEFINITIONS AND VARIOUS COMPONENTS

Three-phase Sinusoidal Balanced System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Balanced Three-phase Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Three Phase Instantaneous Active Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Three Phase Instantatneous Reactive Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Power Invariance in abc and 0 Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Instantaneous Active and Reactive Powers for Three-phase Circuits . . . . . . . . 35

Three-Phase Balance System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Three-Phase Unbalance System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Effective Apparent Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Positive Sequence Powers and Unbalance Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Three-phase Non-sinusoidal Balanced System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Line to Line Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Apparent Power with Budeanu Resolution: Balanced Distortion Case . . . 56

Effective Apparent Power for Balanced Non-sinusoidal System . . . . . . 56

Unbalanced and Non-sinusoidal Three-phase System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Arithmetic and Vector Apparent Power with Budeanus Resolution . . . . . 60

Effective Apparent Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

FUNDAMENTAL THEORY OF LOAD COMPENSATION

Fundamental Theory of Load Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Power Factor and its Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

An Approximation Expression for the Voltage Regulation . . . . . . . . . 77

Some Practical Aspects of Compensator used as Voltage Regulator . . . . . . . . . 83

Phase Balancing and Power Factor Correction of Unbalanced Loads . . . . . . . . 86

Three-phase Unbalanced Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Representation of Three-phase Delta Connected Unbalanced Load . . . . . 89

An Alternate Approach to Determine Phase Currents and Powers . . . . . 92

An Example of Balancing an Unbalanced Delta Connected Load . . . . . . 94

A Generalized Approach for Load Compensation using Symmetrical Components . 97

Sampling Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Averaging Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

CONTROL THEORIES FOR LOAD COMPENSATION

State Space Modeling of the Compensator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Switching Control of the VSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Generation of Ploss to maintain dc capacitor voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Computation of load average power (Plavg ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

Some Misconception in Reactive Power Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Theory of Instantaneous Symmetrical Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

Compensating Star Connected Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

Compensating Delta Connected Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

SERIES COMPENSATION: VOLTAGE COMPENSATION USING DVR

Conventional Methods to Regulate Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

Operating Principle of DVR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

General Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

Mathematical Description to Compute DVR Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

Transient Operation of the DVR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

Operation of the DVR With Unbalance and Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Realization of DVR voltage using Voltage Source Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

SINGLE PHASE CIRCUITS: POWER

Power Terms in a Single Phase System

Fig. 1.1 A single phase system

Q = max {preactive (t)}

where = tan1 (XL /RL ), and I = (V /|ZL |)

|ZL | = RL2 + XL2 = 122 + 132 = 17.692 , and I = 230/17.692 = 13 A