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Negative Feedback: output is fed back into input and subtracted from it. Overall
transfer function
H(s) =
H1(s)
1 + H2(s)H1(s)
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Y (s)
X(s)
H1 (s)
H2 (s)
x(t)
y(t)
H1 (s)
X(s)
Y (s)
y(t)
x(t)
H2 (s)
Cascade (top) and parallel (bottom) connections of systems with transfer function H1(s)
and H2(s). The input/output are given in the time or frequency domains
x(t)
e(t)
H1 (s)
y(t)
H2 (s)
Negative feedback connection of systems with transfer function H1(s) and H2(s). The
input and the output are x(t) and y (t), e(t) is the error signal
3 / 22
e(t)
Hc (s)
G(s)
(t)
y(t)
x(t)
Hc (s)
G(s)
y(t)
Closed-loop system
Open-loop system
Closed- and open-loop control of systems. The transfer function of the plant is G (s) and
the transfer function of the controller is Hc (s)
Openloop control: Controller cascaded with plant. So output y (t) follows reference
4 / 22
= E1(s) + E2(s)
1 + G (s)Hc (s) 1 + G (s)Hc (s)
steadystate e(t) 0, poles E1(s), E2(s) in open lefthand splane
5 / 22
x(t)
+
e(t)
Plant
c(t)
1
Hc (s) = 1 +
s
v(t)
Hp (s)
Cruise control system: reference speed x(t) = V0u(t), output speed of car v (t). Car
model Hp (s) = /(s + ), mass > 0 and friction coefficient > 0
Hc (s)Hp (s)
V0
X (s) =
1 + Hc (s)Hp (s)
s(s + 1)
B
V0
V (s) =
+
steadystate lim v (t) = V0
t
s +1
s
V (s) =
Error in steadystate
1
V0
1
finalvalue theorem E (s) = X (s) V (s) =
s
s +1
1
lim e(t) = lim sE (s) = lim V0 1
=0
t
s0
s0
s +1
Controlling signal c(t)
c(t) = e(t) +
e( )d
6 / 22
Causal LTI system with transfer function H(s) = B(s)/A(s) exhibiting no polezero
cancellation is
Asymptotically stable if all-pole transfer function H1 (s) = 1/A(s), used to determine
the zeroinput response, has all its poles in the open lefthand splane (the jaxis
excluded), or
A(s) 6= 0 for Re[s] 0
BIBO stable if all the poles of H(s) are in the open lefthand s-plane (the j-axis
excluded), or equivalently
asymptotically stable.
7 / 22
Stabilization
x(t)
y(t)
Ha (s)
G(s)
x(t)
y(t)
K
G(s)
Stabilization of an unstable plant G (s) = 1/(s 2) using (top) an all-pass filter, and
(bottom) a proportional controller of gain K .
s 2
s +2
Ha (j)Ha (j) = Ha (j)Ha(j) = |Ha (j)|2 = 1
Allpass system Ha (s) =
1
s +2
same magnitude as G (s) : |H(j)| = |G (j)||Ha (j)| = |G (j)|
KG (s)
K
=
Negative feedback system H(s) =
1 + KG (s) s + (K 2)
gain K > 2, stable feedback system
stabilized system H(s) = G (s)Ha (s) =
8 / 22
Transient analysis
vi (t)
+
e(t)
vc (t)
1
G(s) =
RCs
vi (t) _
vC (t)
+
C
1
1
1
=
s(sRC + 1) s s + 1/RC
1
RC=1
vc(t)
0.8
0.6
RC=10
0.4
RC=10
0.2
0.5
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
9 / 22
x(t)
y(t)
e(t)
G(s)
0.8
0.4
0.8
0.2
0.6
0
0
0.4
0.2
0.6
10
20
30
40
50
30
40
50
0
0.2
0.4
1.5
0.6
y(t)
0.8
1
1
0.5
1
0.5
0
0
10
20
t
Clustering
of poles (left) and time responses
10 / 22
vi (t)
v c (t)
vc (t)
RC circuit represented by vC (t) + dvC (t)/dt = vi (s), t 0, and initial condition vC (0)
statevariable vC (t)
for t1 > t0 > 0, vC (t1) = e (t1t0)vC (t0) +
t1
e (t1 )vi ( )d
t0
i.e., given the state at t0 and the input vi (t), we can compute future value vC (t1) for
t1 > t0 independent of how vC (t0) is attained
dvC (t)
Stateequation:
= [1][vC (t)] + [1][vi (t)]
dt
11 / 22
State {xk (t)}, k = 1, , N, of LTI system: the smallest set of variables that if known
at a certain time t0 allows us to compute the response of the system at times t > t0 for
specified inputs {wi (t)}, i = 1, , M
Multiple-input multiple-output state equation
x (t) = Ax(t) + Bw(t)
xT (t) = [x1(t) x2(t) xN (t)],
x T (t) = [x 1(t) x 2(t) x N (t)]
A = [aij ] N N matrix
B = [bij ] N M matrix
wT (t) = [w1(t) w2(t) wM (t)]
state vector
input vector
Output equation
y(t) = Cx(t) + Dw(t)
y(t) = [y1(t) y2(t) yL(t)],
C = [cij ] L N matrix
D = [dij ] L M matrix
12 / 22
output vector
Example:
R=6
+
vs (t)
_
L = 1H
iL (t)
+
vC (t)
_
w(t)
C = 1/8 F
x2 (t)
6
1
Initial conditions
w(t) = vs (t)
x2 (t) = iL (t)
x1 (t) = vC (t)
y(t) = vC (t)
1
dvC (t)
= iL(t)
dt
C
1
R
1
diL(t)
= vC (t) iL(t) + vs (t)
dt
L
L
L
x 1(t)
0 8
x1(t)
0
=
+
w (t)
x 2(t)
1 6
x2(t)
1
x1(t)
+ [0] w (t)
y (t) = 1 0
x2(t)
y (t) = x1(t)
y (t) = x 1(t) = 8x2(t)
13 / 22
x1 (t)
y(t)
8
4Vs (s) 4Vs (s)
V
(s)
=
+
s
s 2 + 6s + 8
s + 2) | s {z
+4}
| {z }
2 (s)
X
1 (s)
X
Letting x1(t), x2(t) state variables, w (t) = vs (t) input, and y (t) = vC (t) output:
x 1(t)
x 2(t)
x1(t)
2 0
x2(t)
0 4
x1(t)
y (t) = 1 1
x2(t)
=
4
w (t)
4
x (t) = F1AF
x(t) + F1bw (t)
y (t) = cT F
x(t)
1
1
2
4
where F =
,
F1 =
so that
0.25 0.5
1 4
2
0
4
F1AF =
,
F1b =
,
cT F = 1 1
0 4
4
14 / 22
Nonuniqueness of states
15 / 22
Canonical realizations
x1 (t)
x2 (t)
w(t)
y(t)
y(t)
y(t)
a1
a0
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W (s)
N(s)
D(s)
| {z }
Z (s)
Z (s)
1
=
,
W (s) D(s)
(ii)
Y (s)
= N(s)
Z (s)
From which
d n1z(t)
d n z(t)
+ an1
+ + a0z(t) = w (t)
D(s)Z (s) = W (s)
dt n
dt n1
requiring n integrators (minimal realization)
d m z(t)
d m1z(t)
N(s)Z (s) = Y (s) bm
+ bm1
+ + b0z(t) = y (t)
m
m1
dt
dt
requiring n integrators (minimal realization)
17 / 22
Example:
d 2y (t)
dy (t)
dw (t)
+
a
+
a
y
(t)
=
b
+ b0w (t)
1
0
1
dt 2
dt
dt
Y (s)
Z (s)
1
H(s) =
= [b0 + b1s]
Z (s) W (s)
a0 + a1 s + a2 s 2
Realizations of
dz(t) d 2z(t)
+
w (t) = a0z(t) + a1
dt
dt 2
dz(t)
y (t) = b0z(t) + b1
dt
and of
b1
w(t)
x1 (t)
x2 (t)
b0
y(t)
a1
a0
bc
18 / 22
N(s)
proper rational
H(s) =
D(s)
N
X
parallel realization H(s) =
Hi (s)
i=1
1 + 2s
1 + 2s
1
3
=
=
+
2 + 3s + s 2 (s + 1)(s + 2) s + 1 s + 2
1
x1 (t)
w(t)
19 / 22
x2 (t)
y(t)
1 0
x1(t)
0 2
x2(t)
x1(t)
y (t) = 1 1
x2(t)
x 1(t)
x 2(t)
1
w (t)
3
1
1
G (s) =
+
not minimal
s + 1 (s + 1)2
cascade and parallel realization:
1
1
G (s) =
1+
minimal
s +1
s +1
1 0
x1(t)
1 1
x2(t)
x1(t)
y (t) = 0 1
x2(t)
x 1(t)
x 2(t)
20 / 22
1
w (t)
1
Complete solution
x(t)
= Ax(t) + bw(t)
y (t) = cT x(t),
t>0
Complete solution
T A(t)
y (t) = c e
x(0) + c
exponential matrix e
At
e A(t )bw( )d t 0
= [I + At + A
Impulse response
h(t) = cT e At b
21 / 22
2t
2!
+A
3t
3!
x1(0)
1
x2(0) + 8W (s) s + 6
Y (s) = X1(s) =
s(s + 6) + 8
s +6
8
x1(0)(s + 6) + x2(0) + 8W (s)
=
+
=
2
s 2 + 6s + 8
6s + 8} s(s 2 + 6s + 8)
|s + {z
|
{z
}
det
Yzi (s)
22 / 22
Yzs (s)