Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
A substation that has a step-up transformer increases the voltage while decreasing the current
while a step-down transformer decreases the voltage while increasing the current for domestic
and commercial distribution.
Substations may be on the surface in fenced enclosures, underground, or located in specialpurpose buildings. High-rise buildings may have several indoor substations. Indoor substations
are usually found in urban areas to reduce the noise from the transformers, for reasons of
appearance, or to protect stwitchgear from extreme climate or pollution conditions.
Where a substation has a metallic fence, it must be properly grounded to protect people from
high voltages that may occur during a fault in the network. Earth faults at a substation can cause
a ground potential rise. Currents flowing in the Earth's surface during a fault can cause metal
objects to have a significantly different voltage than the ground under a person's feet; this touch
potential presents a hazard of electrocution.
TYPES OF SUBSTATIONS
Distribution substation: A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system
to the distribution system of an area. It is uneconomical to directly connect electricity consumers
to the high-voltage main transmission network, unless they use large amounts of power, so the
distribution station reduces voltage to a value suitable for local distribution. The input for a
distribution substation is typically at least two transmission or sub transmission lines. Input
voltage may be, for example, 66 kV, or whatever is common in the area. The output is a number
of feeders. Distribution voltages are typically medium voltage, between 11 and 33 kV depending
on the size of the area served and the practices of the local utility.
The feeders will then run overhead, along streets (or under streets, in a city) and eventually
power the distribution transformers at or near the customer premises.
Besides changing the voltage, the job of the distribution substation is to isolate faults in either the
transmission or distribution systems. In a large substation, circuit breakers are used to interrupt
any short or overload currents that may occur on the network. Distribution substations may also
be the points of voltage regulation, although on long distribution circuits (several km/miles),
voltage regulation equipment may also be installed along the line.
Complicated distribution substations can be found in the downtown areas of large cities, with
high-voltage switching, and switching and backup systems on the low-voltage side.
CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTATION
1. According to service requirement
a) Transformer sub-station: Those sub-station which change the voltage level of electrical supply
is called Transformer sub-station. b) Switching sub-station: This sub-station simply perform the
switching operation of power line. c) Power factor correction S/S: This sub-station which
improves the p.f. of the system are called p.f. correction s/s. these are generally located at
receiving end s/s. d) Frequency changer S/S: Those sub-stations, which change the supply
frequency, are known as frequency changer s/s. Such s/s may be required for industrial
utilization e) Converting sub-station: That sub-station which change A.C power into D.C. power
are called converting s/s ignition is used to convert AC to dc power for traction, electroplating,
electrical welding etc. f) Industrial sub-station: Those sub-stations, which supply power to
individual industrial concerns, are known as industrial sub-station.
POWER TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through
inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary
winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic
field through the secondary winding. It is the costliest equipment in a substation and important
from the view of station layout.
One of the governing factors affecting the layout of a substation is that weather the transformer is
a 3 phase transformer or a bank of 3 single phase transformers. The space requirement with bank
of 3 single phase transformers is much more than a single 3 phase transformer. In case ofa 3,
single phase units it is normal to provide one spare single phase transformer to be used in case of
a fault or if one of the single phase transformer is under maintenance. On account of large
dimensions it is very difficult to accommodate two transformers in adjacent bays. In order to
reduce the risk of spread of fire, large transformers are provided with stone pebble filled soaking
pits and oil collecting pits.
With transformers, however, the high cost of repair or replacement, and the possibility of a
violent failure or fire involving adjacent equipment, may make limiting the damage a major
objective. The protection aspects of relays should be considered carefully when protecting
transformers. Faults internal to the transformer quite often involve a few turns. While the
currents in the shorted turns are large in magnitude, the changes of the currents at the terminals
of the transformer are low compared to the rating of the transformer.
Instrument Transformer:
They are devices used to transform voltage and current in the primary system to values suitable
for measuring instruments, meters, protective relays etc.
They are basically the current transformers and voltage transformers.
a) Current transformers: It may be of bushing or wound type. The bushing types are normally
accommodated within the transformer bushing and the wound types are separately mounted.
When current in a circuit is too high to directly apply to measuring instruments, a current
transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the current in the circuit,
which can be conveniently connected to measuring and recording instruments. The CT is
typically described by its current ratio from primary to secondary.
b) Voltage transformers: It may be either capacitive type or electromagnetic type. The
electromagnetic type VTs are more expensive than capacitive type and are used where higher
accuracy is required. Capacitive type is usually preferred at high voltages due to lower cost and
secondly because it serves the purpose of coupling capacitor for the power line carrier
equipment. Voltage transformers are usually connected on the feeder side of the circuit breaker.
However they are also connected on the bus bar side for synchronization. They step down extra
high voltage signals and provide a low voltage signal, for measurement or to operate a protective
relay.
c) Capacitive Voltage Transformer (CVTs): In combination with wave traps are used for filtering
high frequency communication signals from power frequency. This forms a carrier
communication network throughout the transmission network.
TAP CHANGER
A device used to increase or decrease a transformer's voltage to alter the level of current it can
draw (tap) from the circuit supplying electricity. Changing the tap of a transformer or regulator
serves the same function in an electrical circuit as turning the tap handle of a water faucet serves
to adjust water flow.
BUS-BARS
In electrical power distribution, a bus bar is a thick strip of copper or aluminum that conducts
electricity within a switchboard, distribution board, substation or other electrical apparatus. Bus
bars are used to carry very large currents, or to distribute current to multiple devices within
switchgear or equipment. Bus bars are typically either flat strips or hollow tubes as these shapes
allow heat to dissipate more efficiently due to their high surface area to cross sectional area ratio.
The size of the bus bar is important in determining the maximum amount of current that can be
safely carried.
Bus bar may either be supported on insulators, or else insulation may completely surround it.
Bus bars are protected from accidental contact either by a metal enclosure or by elevation out of
normal reach. Bus bars may be connected to each other and to electrical apparatus by bolted or
clamp connections.
Various Bus bar Schemes
Single Bus
Single Bus with Bus Section
Main & Transfer Bus.
Double Bus.
Main 1, Main 2 & Transfer Bus
CIRCUIT BREAKER
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical
circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault
condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a
fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either
manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying
sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear
designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.
The type of the Circuit Breaker is usually identified according to the medium of arc extinction.
The classification of the Circuit Breakers based on the medium of arc extinction is as follows:
ISOLATOR
In electrical systems, an isolator switch is used to make sure that an electrical circuit is
completely de-energized for service or maintenance. Such switches are often found in electrical
distribution and industrial applications where machinery must have its source of driving power
removed for adjustment or repair. High-voltage isolation switches are used in electrical
substations to allow isolation of apparatus such as circuit breakers and transformers, and
transmission lines, for maintenance.
An isolator can open or close the circuit when either a negligible current has to be broken or
made or when no significant voltage change across the terminals of each pole of isolator occurs.
It can carry current under normal conditions and can carry short circuit current for a specified
time. They can transfer load from one bus to another and also isolate equipments for
maintenance. Isolators guarantee safety for the people working on the high voltage network,
providing visible and reliable air gap isolation of line sections and equipment. They are basically
motorized i.e. motor does the closing and opening of the isolator.
Isolators are distinguished as off load and on load isolator
EARTHING
The function of an earthing system is to provide an earthing system connection to which
transformer neutrals or earthing impedances may be connected in order to pass the maximum
fault current. The earthing system also ensures that no thermal or mechanical damage occurs on
the equipment within the substation, thereby resulting in safety to operation and maintenance
personnel. The earthing system also guarantees equipotential bonding such that there are no
dangerous potential gradients developed in the substation. In designing the substation, three
voltages have to be considered.
10
1. Touch Voltage: This is the difference in potential between the surface potential and the
potential at an earthed equipment whilst a man is standing and touching the earthed structure.
2. Step Voltage: This is the potential difference developed when a man bridges a distance of 1m
with his feet while not touching any other earthed equipment.
3. Mesh Voltage: This is the maximum touch voltage that is developed in the mesh of the
earthing grid.
RELAYS
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used
where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation
between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one
signal. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils
11
are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems
these functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".
Types of relays:
12
Multifunction meters
The MFM is an IED that can calculate values once the inputs from the secondary of the CTs and
PTs have been given. Each MFM is dedicated to a particular panel, be it, outgoing or incoming.
The MFM calculates and displays values on a hand held programming and display unit. These
values depend on the programmed primary value corresponding to the CT and PT ratio,
pertaining to that feeder.
There is a communication port available for each MFM. The communication ports of five MFMs
are looped. It is extended to the front face of an SLI card through a cable. A maximum of 32
MFMS can be connected to one single cable.
Capacitor Banks
A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used
to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain
at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common
construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are
widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. When there is a
potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the
dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate.
Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant
value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor
to the potential difference between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor,
hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early means of construction.
In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also
has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and
leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing
alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the
resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in electric power transmission systems
for stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for many other purposes.
13
Battery Charger
In a protection system it is necessary that control DC voltage shall remain always constant for as
much time as possible, so that system works without interruptions. The charger is a rectifier
which produces slightly higher voltage compared to the nominal cell voltage of a battery. The
main source is derived from the normally available AC source which is rectified by the charger.
Here the battery is combination of multiple cells connected ion series to get the nominal DC
tripping/control voltage required for the operation of relays and breakers and could be from 24V
to 220 V depending on loads and capacity requirements
14
Lightening arrestors
A lightning arrester is a device used on electrical power systems and telecommunications
systems to protect the insulation and conductors of the system from the damaging effects of
lightning. The typical lightning arrester has a high-voltage terminal and a ground terminal. When
a lightning surge (or switching surge, which is very similar) travels along the power line to the
arrester, the current from the surge is diverted through the arrestor, in most cases to earth.
In telegraphy and telephony, a lightning arrestor is placed where wires enter a structure,
preventing damage to electronic instruments within and ensuring the safety of individuals near
them. Smaller versions of lightning arresters, also called surge protectors, are devices that are
connected between each electrical conductor in power and communications systems and the
Earth. These prevent the flow of the normal power or signal currents to ground, but provide a
path over which high-voltage lightning current flows, bypassing the connected equipment. Their
purpose is to limit the rise in voltage when a communications or power line is struck by lightning
or is near to a lightning strike.
If protection fails or is absent, lightning that strikes the electrical system introduces thousands of
kilovolts that may damage the transmission lines, and can also cause severe damage to
transformers and other electrical or electronic devices. Lightning-produced extreme voltage
spikes in incoming power lines can damage electrical home appliances.
15
16
17
INTRODUCTION TO SCADA
The SCADA systems in use for Distribution systems like Water & Gas are existent for several
decades in USA and other developed countries; however the use of these systems for electric
distribution monitor & control is quite recent. In India also now we can see the number of
electric distribution projects some are already in the operation and other are in the
implementation phase. The SCADA technology has been matured enough now due to advances
that has taken place in semiconductor technologies & telemetric. In the document the discussion
is limited to Electric SCADA & Distribution Automation Systems. The early SCADA systems
were built on replicating the existing system remote controls, lamps, and analog indications at
the functional equivalent of pushbuttons, often placed on a mimic board for easy operator
interface. The SCADA masters simply replicated point for-point, control circuits connected to
the remote, or slave, unit. At the same time as SCADA systems were developing, a parallel
technology on remote teleprinting, or Teletype" was taking shape. The invention of the "modem"
(Modulator / Demodulator) allowed digital information to be sent over wire pairs which had been
engineered to only carry the electronic equivalent of human voice communication. The
introduction of digital electronics made it possible use of faster data streams to provide remote
indication and control of system parameters. The integration of Teletype technology and the
digital electronics gave birth to "Remote Terminal Units" (RTUs) which were built with solid
state electronics which could provide the remote indication and control of both discrete events
and analog voltage and current quantities of the electric power system. The development of
Microprocessors gave the required impetus to SCADA industry craving for increased
functionality & faster speeds. The 1970s and early 1980s saw the coming age of integrated
microprocessor-based devices which came to be known as "Intelligent Electronic Devices", or
IEDs. The IEDs are being used increasingly to convert data into engineering unit values in the
field and to participate in field-based local control algorithms. Many IEDs are being built with
programmable logic controller (PLC) capability and, communication.
PLCC Network
Wireless VHF sets
P&T.FWP telephones
Log sheets
BENEFITS OF SCADA
SCADA in distribution system & utilities is used for Distribution Automation, DMS, OMS i.e.
Distribution Management System and Outage Management respectively. These have been
implemented by a lot of distribution utilities across the world to achieve better monitoring and
control and to improve power quality, reliability & customer satisfaction.
19
Presently the distribution utilities across the world are either implementing or have implemented
distribution automation solutions for fulfilling one or more of these business objectives:
SCADA systems are globally accepted as a means of real-time monitoring and control of electric
power systems, particularly for generation, transmission and distribution systems. RTUs (Remote
Terminal Units) are used to collect analog and status telemetry data from field devices, as well as
communicate control commands to the field devices. Installed at a centralized location, such as
the utility control center, are front-end data acquisition equipment, SCADA software,
operator GUI (graphical user interface), engineering applications that act on the data, historian
software, and other components.
Recent trends in SCADA include providing increased situational awareness through improved
GUIs and presentation of data and information; intelligent alarm processing; the utilization of
thin clients and web-based clients; improved integration with other engineering and business
systems; and enhanced security features.
20
SCADA Adaptation
Remote Terminal Unit
The RTU or the Remote Terminal Unit is one of the components that comprise the SCADA
system. It gathers information that is present in the field or substation and sends it to the Master
Control Center (MCC). Similarly, it executes the command that come from the MCC. So, we can
say it is a two-way communication device that keeps updating the status of the field continually
and simultaneously executing the commands from the MCC.
RTU panels are divided into three parts one is RTU panel, 2nd is MFM panel and 3 rd is
marshalling panel. Housing a stack of racks with electronic cards is called the RTU Panel.
Housing of only the MFMS or Multifunction Meters, called the MFM panel. The marshalling
panel is a junction which provides the connections of field signals to RTU .
FIGURE: RTU
The SLI Card acts as an interface between the RTU and the IEDs (Intelligent Electronic Devices)
like protection relays, multifunction meters, digital RTCC and battery charger.
SLI continually reads data from the IEDs. These IEDs could either be Numerical Relays
mounted on the CR Panel or an MFM placed on the MFM panel of the RTU It is generally
placed in a slot of the Basic Rack. The SLI card has got a provision for communicating with the
IEDs. The SLI card has a serial MMI port for communicating with PC.
22
The ETH card controls the process events and communications with the Control Centers. It
continually reads the data from the Extension Racks, the SLI cards and sends it to the control
center.
SLI card also has an serial MMI port for communication with PC or Lap-Top for configuration
and diagnosis purpose.
The ETH and the SLI cards communicate with each other through a dedicated communication
channel present on the back plane of the Basic Rack.
EXTENSION RACKS:
The Extension rack is a place, where Input/output Modules are placed. The extension rack
communicates only with the ETH card of the Basic Rack.
In cases where there is more than one extension rack, each communication port of the extension
rack is looped with the one succeeding it.
The function of the Input Modules is to send the status of the equipment present in the grid
station to the MCC. Whereas the function of the output modules is to control the status of the
equipment from the MCC. Thus, we see that the flow of data, in the case of input modules, is
from RTU to MCC and from MCC to RTU in the case of Output modules.
The different I/O modules used are
DI cards
FIGURE: DI CARD
AI cards
23
FIGURE: AI CARD
DO cards
FIGURE: DO CARD
The DI cards have 16 channels, which can be used for connecting the status of field devices as an
indication to MCC. If one takes a look at the front face of the DI card, one can see 16 LEDs,
Each LED indicates ON/OFF status of the input connected to particular channel of the DI card.
The AI card on the other hand gives the analog value of the signal. It has 8 channels on which
eight signals can be configured. The input to a channel in the AI card is a 4-20ma dc current,
which is proportional to the range of the analog value.
The DO card is used to execute commands that are sent from the MCC. As soon as the DO card
gets a command from the MCC, it sends a pulse of 48v dc to the exciting terminals of the
24
contactor (CMR). As soon as the contactor gets this pulse it closes its contacts and the command
gets executed.
SCADA Applications
Following are the main application commonly used.
25
The NCA will be useful in determining the network topology for the following status of the
network.
Bus connectivity (Live/ dead status)
Feeder connectivity
Network connectivity representing S/S bus as node
26
27
together with the network model supplied by the topology function, in order to determine the
best estimate of the current network state.
The Load Flow Application (LFA) determines the operating status of the distribution system
including buses and nodes. The LFA shall take the following into consideration the following
information:
Real time data
Manual entered data
Estimated data
Power source injections Loops and parallels
Unbalanced & balanced loads
Manually replaced values
Temporary jumpers/ cut/ grounds
Electrical connectivity information from the real-time distribution network model
Transformer tap settings
Generator voltages, real and reactive generations.
Capacitor/reactor bank ON/OFF status value.
The LFA function can be executed at pre-defined events that affect the distribution system. Some
of the events the dispatcher may choose for triggers shall include:
Power system Topology Change i.e. Alteration in distribution system configuration.
Transformer Tap Position Change / Capacitive/reactor MVAR Change.
Feeder Over loadings.
Sudden change in feeder load beyond a set dead band
rather than producing then at generator points and transporting them over long distances. Any
power system always tries to optimize on the reactive power flow over their networks.
The coordination of voltages and reactive power flows control requires coordination of VOLT
and the VAR function. This function shall provide high-quality voltage profiles, minimal losses,
controlling reactive power flows, minimal reactive power demands from the supply network.
The following resources should be taken into account in any voltage and reactive power flow
control:
TAP Changer for voltage control
VAR control devices: switchable and fixed type capacitor banks.
29
Sectionalisers, Fault Passage Indicators etc. The operation & characteristics of these devices are
separately addressed in the SCADA section.
30
31