Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Topics Covered
Background
Increasing Material Demands
Crack Tip Opening Displacement CTOD
The CTOD Test Process
Sample Machining for the CTOD Test
Commonly Used Test Specimens
Testing Nomenclature for the CTOD Test
The Importance of the Pre-Fatigue Crack
Pre-Cracking
Fatiguing the Sample
Initiation and Propagation of a Fatigue Crack
Initiation and Growth of a Crack
Tracking Crack Length
Stress Distributions
Crack Front Examination
Fracture
Maintaining Constant Temperature
Stress Intensity Factor
Data Analysis
CTOD Failure Types
Pop-in Failures
Calculating CTOD Values
The Final Result
Background
Even the strongest and hardest-working materials on earth - pipes, drills, munitions, girders crack. A crack is the beginning of failure, but when and how dramatically will the failure occur?
metals, but every one, given the right set of circumstances, will crack.
We know more and demand more of materials than ever before. Rather than reacting to problems
as they occur, more and more industries are choosing to be proactive in failure prevention by
testing materials properties beyond the normal testing requirements. One such test that goes
beyond traditional material property analysis is the CTOD test, which is gaining popularity in the
oil and gas industry.
Pre-Cracking
On completion of machining of the specimen, an actual fatigue crack is induced at the base of the
starter notch. This crack must be of sufficient length to bypass any area of plastic deformation
that may have been occurred during the machining process. The crack length is typically based
on the size of the sample, the method of notch manufacture, the width of the notch, the shape of
the notch, and practical time restraints. The overall length from the surface of the sample to the
crack tip must fall within given parameters. Other factors that also must be considered include
the angle of the crack in respect to the specimen and the difference in length of the crack as seen
on the exposed surfaces. The operation is typically performed in air at room temperature.
(K) at the fatigue crack tip, and can be determined for a three-point bend by the following
formula:
[Where K is the stress intensity factor, F is the load, S the span, B the specimen thickness, W the
specimen width and a the crack length].
to start the fatigue operation with a high load and decrease it to the limits required as the
crack grows. Done carefully, this can save time in obtaining valid fatigue crack front, but it
should be noted that reducing the load by too great an amount can result in the crack
propagation slowing or even stopping. In this case, a given number of fatigue cycles would
be needed to initiate the crack again.
c. Constant K - During the fatiguing of a CTOD sample, S, W and B will remain constant. As
such, the relationship between the crack length, load and stress intensity can be utilized in the
growth of a fatigue crack. From the equation it can be seen that by keeping the change in
stress intensity constant, the load will drop proportionally as the crack length increases.
This method will result in an even load drop as the crack grows and will prevent the crack arrest
that can occur when method b is used.
It is possible to combine aspects of the three methods to further increase to efficiencies of the
crack propagation. By starting with a high K and reducing it as the crack extends, one can reduce
the time necessary to grow a crack while keeping within the specification requirements.
Stress Distributions
Variance in length across the fatigue crack front increases in materials in which an even stress
distribution is not present, i.e. in a weldment. In these cases, various operations may be necessary
to produce a linear crack front. Precompression of the sides of the sample and reverse bending
are two of the most common techniques employed.
ensure compliance to the specification, e.g. within length tolerances from the surface and
between sides, straightness and the absence of any obvious surface bifurcations.
Figure 5. Examination of fracture surfaces can provide information about the type of failure that
has taken place.
Fracture
The actual breaking of the specimen is performed under monotonic conditions, which means that
the sample is under increasing load until fracture, and at a static temperature.
Data Analysis
After the sample has been fractured, scientists perform various operations to determine the
CTOD type and value.
The fracture face must be examined in conjunction with the plot of the load vs. the crack mouth
opening. From this, the type of fracture can be determined.
Pop-in Failures
A 4th type of failure can occur which is known as a pop-in. In this situation, either a load drop, a
displacement increase, or both is observed, and the load then recovers to exceed the initial
condition. When a pop-in occurs, the material has partially fractured; however, the remaining
ligand is sufficient to withstand the increase in load. It is often possible to see the cause of the
pop-in on the fracture face. The validity of the pop-in is evaluated based on the changes in load
and/or displacement. If deemed valid, the final calculation of the CTOD value is based on the
load and displacement at the pop-in occurrence.
The length of the fatigue fracture and any tearing (in the case of a u type fracture only) should be
measured. The fatigue crack length is used in the CTOD calculation.
where is the CTOD, F is the load, S the span, B the specimen thickness, W the specimen width,
a the crack length, v the poisons ratio, Vp the plastic component corresponding to the load at the
critical event, z is the clip gage height and YS is the yield at test temperature.