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March 2012
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CONTENTS
March 2012 Volume 91 Number 3
AWS Web site www.aws.org
Features
32
32
43
Undertaking a Complex Underwater Repair

A cargo ship filled with iron ore suffered extensive damage
from a grounding, but was put back together again by an
underwater repair team
D. Phillips
40
FABTECH Comes to Canada

This popular all-inclusive fabricating and welding exhibition
opens up to a Canadian audience
43
Welded Aluminum on Ships An Overview

As shipbuilding techniques evolved, so did the use of
aluminum
G. A. Mirgain
48
Build Your Own Campfire Grill

This do-it-yourself project has everything you need to know to
get started
B. Pelky
51
New AWS Spec Details Flux Cored and Metal Cored

Electrodes
A new filler metal classification system addresses the new
generation of flux cored and metal cored electrodes
D. Crockett
The American Welder
93
91
How to Pick the Right-Sized Welding Cable

A formula is given to calculate a safe size welding cable,
depending on the current used and distance from the power
source
A. F. Manz
93
Welded Benches for Fun and Fund-Raising

Whimsical garden benches were designed and fabricated to
help raise funds for a project in Guatemala
H. Woodward
Departments
Editorial ............................4
Press Time News ..................6
News of the Industry ..............8
International Update ............12
Stainless Q&A ....................14
RWMA Q&A ......................20
Point of View ....................24
Product & Print Spotlight ......26
Conferences ......................60
Coming Events....................62
Certification Schedule ..........64
Society News ....................73
Tech Topics ......................74
Guide to AWS Services ........84
Personnel ........................88
American Welder
Learning Track ..................96
Fact Sheet......................100
Classifieds ......................106
Advertiser Index ................108
Welding Research Supplement

65-s
Continuous Cooling Transformation Behavior in the

CGHAZ of Naval Steels
Transformation diagrams were developed for the coarse-grain
heat-affected zone of HSLA-65, HSLA-100, and HY-100 steels
X. Yue et al.
74-s
Developing an Alternative Heat Indexing Equation

for FSW
A heat transfer model was developed to help predict the
correlation between weld tool geometry and process parameters
J. A. Querin and J. A. Schneider
81-s
Improving Supermartensitic Stainless Steel Weld

Metal Toughness
Experiments were conducted to achieve weld metal toughness
improvements through varying postweld heat treatments
S. Zappa et al.
89-s
Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296) is published

monthly by the American Welding Society for
$120.00 per year in the United States and possessions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50
per single issue for domestic AWS members and
$10.00 per single issue for nonmembers and
$14.00 single issue for international. American
Welding Society is located at 550 NW LeJeune Rd.,
Miami, FL 33126-5671; telephone (305) 443-9353.
Periodicals postage paid in Miami, Fla., and additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send address
changes to Welding Journal, 550 NW LeJeune Rd.,
Miami, FL 33126-5671. Canada Post: Publications
Mail Agreement #40612608 Canada Returns to be
sent to Bleuchip International, P.O. Box 25542,
London, ON N6C 6B2
Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of
articles for personal, archival, educational or
research purposes, and which are not for sale or
resale. Permission is granted to quote from articles, provided customary acknowledgment of
authors and sources is made. Starred (*) items
excluded from copyright.
Ultrasonic Wave Assisted GMAW

Metal transfer showed improvement with the application of an
auxiliary detaching force
Y. Y. Fan et al.
On the cover: A Hydrex senior diver/welder/technician welds a longitudinal

stiffener on the side of the Eleftheria K in October 2011 as part of a major repair
after the ship had grounded off the Suez Canal. (Photo copyright 2011, Hydrex.)
WELDING JOURNAL
EDITORIAL
Founded in 1919 to Advance the Science,
Technology and Application of Welding
Lets Celebrate Women in

Welding
Welding, brazing, and soldering are great careers for women. You and I know it, but
for most people, it is a well-kept secret. I want to change that perspective, and one way
we can do that is for all of us to celebrate women in welding.
While the image of welding is improving, the general public often thinks of welding
as a man wearing a helmet working in a rough and dirty environment. . . Boo, hiss!
As people are learning, the pay is very good, and there are many career opportunities
associated with welding, brazing, and soldering. These include welder, Certified Welding
Inspector, welding technician, welding engineer, and welding distributor. And those are
just a few of the many opportunities. Others include brazer, welding or brazing operator,
robotic or semiautomatic welding operator, brazing and soldering engineer, welding
salesperson, and welding or brazing artist. All are open to both men and women, and
more and more women are joining in. (Pun intended.)
There are many misconceptions women may have about welding. Following are just
a few.
1. All welding professionals work under a helmet (which makes for a bad hair day).
While a helmet is necessary for watching the arc, much needs to be done before and after
the arc is struck. Choice of materials and process, cleanliness and preparation of the
joint, design, testing, and qualification all require the working knowledge of the welding
or brazing professional, and much of that work is accomplished without a welding
helmet.
2. Welding is done in a rough and dirty place. These days, much welding and brazing
is performed under clean conditions, and many workplaces that were once very dirty
have now been cleaned up. Welding schools strive to ingrain in their students that it is
important to keep their workplace picked up and clean. It is easier to produce a clean,
quality weld if the environment in which it is made is the same. Its true, huge parts are
welded and welding may be done outdoors such as at construction sites; however, welding and brazing are also done on small parts in clean and precisely controlled environments.
3. Women dont like arcs and sparks. Maybe some dont, just as some men dont. But
others do. Arcs and sparks make for an exciting place to work. However, much of welding and brazing are done automatically or semiautomatically, which frequently allows the
operator to stand clear of the process. That type of welding still needs a person to set it
up and make sure the welding is done properly, but the operator can usually step away
and not be exposed to the arcs and sparks, particularly with processes that have flux covering the weld pool. Other examples are robotic welding operations, which for safety
sake require the operator to stay clear of the robots operation. If youre a welding engineer, you are designing, specifying, and overseeing the work, not making the arc and
sparks yourself. However, if you like arcs and sparks, there are plenty of opportunities
for that, too.
If you are a woman involved with any part of our profession, I would like to learn
about you and what you do. As I travel as your AWS president next year, I hope to spread
the word and celebrate women in welding, brazing, and soldering, and show that these
are open and viable fields for women. It will help to share stories of women in a variety
of joining careers and to have the statistics to show that womens presence in our industry is not an anomaly. If you would like me to share
your story, please e-mail a short description (my suggestion is 200 words or less) to ncole@aws.org or mail
it to Nancy Cole, American Welding Society, 550 NW
LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126. If possible, please also
send a photo of yourself, preferably taken at your
workplace.
With you, I look forward to celebrating women in
welding.
Nancy C. Cole
AWS Vice President
MARCH 2012
Officers
President William A. Rice Jr.
OKI Bering
Vice President Nancy C. Cole
NCC Engineering
Vice President Dean R. Wilson
Kimberly-Clark Global Safety
Vice President David J. Landon
Vermeer Mfg. Co.
Treasurer Robert G. Pali
J. P. Nissen Co.
Executive Director Ray W. Shook
American Welding Society
Directors
T. Anderson (At Large), ITW Global Welding Tech. Center
J. R. Bray (Dist. 18), Affiliated Machinery, Inc.
J. C. Bruskotter (Past President), Bruskotter Consulting Services
G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Fairbanks Inspection & Testing Services
T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1), Thermadyne Industries
D. A. Flood (Dist. 22), Tri Tool, Inc.
R. A. Harris (Dist. 10), Consultant
D. C. Howard (Dist. 7), Concurrent Technologies Corp.
J. Jones (Dist. 17), Thermadyne Industries
W. A. Komlos (Dist. 20), ArcTech, LLC
R. C. Lanier (Dist. 4), Pitt C.C.
T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory
J. Livesay (Dist. 8), Tennessee Technology Center
M. J. Lucas Jr. (At Large), Belcan Corp.
D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training
C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc.
D. L. McQuaid (At Large), DL McQuaid & Associates
J. L. Mendoza (Past President), Lone Star Welding
S. P. Moran (At Large), ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
K. A. Phy (Dist. 6), KA Phy Services, Inc.
W. R. Polanin (Dist. 13), Illinois Central College
R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College
D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Marinette Marine Corp.
N. Saminich (Dist. 21), Desert Rose H.S. and Career Center
N. S. Shannon (Dist. 19), Carlson Testing of Portland
T. A. Siewert (At Large), NIST (ret.)
H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), ACH Co.
M. R. Wiswesser (Dist. 3), Welder Training & Testing Institute
D. Wright (Dist. 16), Zephyr Products, Inc.
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PRESS TIME
NEWS
AWS Careers in Welding Trailer Makes Appearance at
Michigan Governors State Address
The AWS Careers in Welding Trailer, on
display in front of Michigans State Capitol on January 18, served as a nice complement to Governor Rick Snyders State of
the State address. The exhibit attracted
guests throughout the day with messages
about how young people who choose oftenlucrative welding careers can fill a crucial
gap in the economy.
We need to do a much better job with
connecting our workforce development efLegislators along with students toured the forts with our community colleges and ecoAWS Careers in Welding Trailer, shown here nomic development organizations, Snyder
against the backdrop of Michigans State said. He spent much of the day promoting
Capitol, during the day of Governor Rick Sny- the job-training and placement initiatives
he proposed in December.
ders State of the State address.
Not only do Michigan employers have
difficulty filling jobs today, but if we do not act, they will tomorrow as well, Snyder said
at the time. Engineers, nurses, welders, and a number of trades face significant staffing
challenges.
By the year 2019, welding will have an estimated shortfall of 240,000 skilled workers
in the United States. Michigan alone has an estimated demand of nearly 70,000 welding
professionals that is not met by the supply.
During the recent event, nearly 100 attendees from representatives and senators to
welding students toured the 53-ft, single-expandable trailer designed and built by MRA
Experiential Tours & Equipment, Madison Heights, Mich. Its 650-sq-ft of exhibit space
features VRTEX 360 virtual reality arc welding training stations by The Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, Ohio; interactive educational exhibits; a Day in the Life of a Welder
display; a life-size welder highlighting welding as a safe profession; a social media kiosk;
and welding scholarship details.
I was delighted to hear many of the legislators talk about skill training, and I hope
they incorporate those thoughts into educational funding, said Sam Gentry, executive
director, AWS Foundation. Also present at the address was Monica Pfarr, corporate director, workforce development, AWS.
Mobile App Introduced for IIWs 2012 Summit

For the first time, the International Institute of
Welding (IIW) Annual Assembly and International
Conference has gone mobile. At the summit, set
for July 814, 2012, in Denver, Colo., a smartphone
mobile app called IIW 2012 will give attendees a
convenient way to navigate the event.
The app provides participants with necessary
information, including speaker lists, floor plan
maps, and an interactive schedule. In addition, it
allows social media interaction with a live feed of
Tweets and a photo gallery where attendees can
A smartphone mobile app has been snap pictures and upload for all to see. The app
created for the International Institute is available for iPhone, Blackberry, and Google
of Weldings 65th Annual Assembly to Android phones. To download, visit
be held this year from July 8 to 14 in www.iiw2012.com/phone_app.html.
Denver, Colo.
The 2012 IIW Annual Assembly will be officially hosted by the IIW American Council, which
consists of the American Welding Society (AWS), the Edison Welding Institute, and the
Welding Research Council. The conference is in its 65th year, but it has only been held
in the United States three times, most recently in 1997.
AWS has organized a planning committee of American Council members and other
welding experts co-chaired by Damian Kotecki and Tom Mustaleski, both AWS past
presidents. Dr. Kotecki is IIW treasurer and AWS Executive Director Ray Shook currently serves as IIW vice president. For more information, visit www.iiw2012.com.
6
MARCH 2012
Publisher Andrew Cullison

Editorial
Editorial Director Andrew Cullison
Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen
Associate Editor Howard M. Woodward
Associate Editor Kristin Campbell
Peer Review Coordinator Melissa Gomez
Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
Design and Production
Managing Editor Zaida Chavez
Senior Production Coordinator Brenda Flores
Advertising
National Sales Director Rob Saltzstein
Advertising Sales Representative Lea Paneca
Senior Advertising Production Manager Frank Wilson
Subscriptions
Subscriptions Representative Sylvia Ferreira
sferreira@aws.org
550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126
(305) 443-9353 or (800) 443-9353
Publications, Expositions, Marketing Committee
D. L. Doench, Chair
Hobart Brothers Co.
S. Bartholomew, Vice Chair
ESAB Welding & Cutting Prod.
J. D. Weber, Secretary
T. Birky, Lincoln Electric Co.
D. Brown, Weiler Brush
J. Deckrow, Hypertherm
D. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg.
J. R. Franklin, Sellstrom Mfg. Co.
F. H. Kasnick, Praxair
D. Levin, Airgas
E. C. Lipphardt, Consultant
R. Madden, Hypertherm
D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash
J. Mueller, Thermadyne Industries
J. F. Saenger Jr., Consultant
S. Smith, Weld-Aid Products
N. C. Cole, Ex Off., NCC Engineering
J. N. DuPont, Ex Off., Lehigh University
L. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrup Grumman Ship Systems
S. P. Moran, Ex Off., ESAB Welding & Cutting Prod.
E. Norman, Ex Off., Southwest Area Career Center
R. G. Pali, Ex Off., J. P. Nissen Co.
R. Ranc, Ex Off., Superior Products
W. A. Rice, Ex Off., OKI Bering
R. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding Society
D. Wilson, Ex Off., Kimberly-Clark Global Safety
Copyright 2012 by American Welding Society in both printed and electronic formats. The Society is not responsible for any statement made or
opinion expressed herein. Data and information developed by the authors
of specific articles are for informational purposes only and are not intended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on the
part of potential users.
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NEWS OF THE
INDUSTRY
Maritime Advances Sail Strong

Northeast Wisconsin Technical College,
Marinette Marine to Train Shipbuilders
fourth of six new apprenticeship programs to be developed

through the $6 million Sectors Alliance for the Green Economy
project grant from the U.S. Department of Labor.
National Initiative Launched by Maritime

Industry Leaders
The Lighthouse Campaign, launched officially at the Shipbuilders Council of Americas fall meeting last year, recently sent
representatives to a meeting at the National Center for Construction Education and Research headquarters in Alachua, Fla.,
to finalize plans for developing a national Maritime Workforce
Development program and establishing the National Maritime
Education Council to provide program oversight.
The council will meet this month in Mobile, Ala., in conjunction with the Gulf States Shipbuilders Consortiums 2012 annual
meeting, where its interim board is expected to draft bylaws, form
committees, and formalize the groups structure.
Daigle Welding & Marine Chosen for

Constructing the NPA Osprey
Recently, Northeast Wisconsin Technical College (NWTC) and
Marinette Marine signed a two-year contract to provide shipbuilding skills and talent. The above welding image was taken at the Aluminum Center of Excellence (ACE) Marine in Green Bay, Wis.;
both ACE Marine and Marinette Marine are part of the Fincantieri
Marine Group. (Photo courtesy of CJ Janus/NWTC.)
Hundreds of current and future shipbuilders will be trained

in Marinette, Wis., thanks to a contract signed by Northeast Wisconsin Technical College (NWTC) and Marinette Marine Corp.
Through the two-year agreement, the college will provide
130,000 hours of training to Marinette Marines new hires and
incumbent workers. Focusing on shipfitters, welders, pipefitters,
and electricians, training will be provided at the NWTC Marinette
campus and the new North Coast Marine Manufacturing Center
along with Marinette Marine facilities. The college has hired a
training center coordinator and several instructors to work with
area marine and general manufacturing employers.
The signing signifies a forward step for the Wisconsin/Michigan regions growing shipbuilding industry. Changing workforce
demographics and skilled worker shortages in nearly all areas of
the industry prompted marine manufacturers to join together
with NWTC and two additional higher education institutions to
form the North Coast Marine Manufacturing Alliance.
Working with the alliances shipbuilding companies, the college created marine manufacturing training options beyond incumbent worker training, offering a marine construction technical diploma and marine engineering technology associate degree
programs. For more information, visit www.nwtc.edu/marine.
Also, in related news, NWTC and the Department of Workforce Developments Bureau of Apprenticeship Standards introduced a welder-fabricator apprenticeship program in Green Bay,
Wis. Structured for four years, it includes 7560 hours of on-thejob learning plus 440 hours of related instruction. This is the
8
MARCH 2012
A new 39-ft multitask vessel will be fabricated by Daigle Welding &

Marine for the Nanaimo Port Authority (NPA). Shown here is the
authority testing its new firefighting equipment on the NPA Eagle.
The Nanaimo Port Authority (NPA) selected Daigle Welding

& Marine Ltd., both of B.C., Canada, to design and build its new
EagleCraft 39-ft boat, the NPA Osprey. Designed by Steve Daigle
and his naval architect Felipe Garcia, the multitask vessel will
serve as a pilot/fire boat, patrol vessel, and water ambulance for
the Port of Nanaimo. It is expected to be in service this spring.
The NPA Osprey is the second vessel the authority has purchased in the past year from Daigle Welding & Marine. The NPA
Eagle, a 32-ft smaller version, recently had a 110-hp diesel fire
pump installed with monitors on the bow and stern.
Having two near-sister vessels will provide operational effi-
ciencies from a critical spares and training perspective, said Edward Dahlgren, NPA.
Navy Metalworking Center to Improve

Doors on Littoral Combat Ship
The Navy Metalworking Center started a Navy ManTech project that will employ design for manufacturing and assembly principles, lean manufacturing, and other solutions to reduce the
weight and cost of sliding doors on the Freedom Class Littoral
Combat Ship. These entrances are challenging to make, requiring several welds accomplished in a labor-intensive manner.
The project will evaluate the current door configuration and
manufacturing approach, plus recommend improvements. The
integrated project team will also evaluate and down-select proposals. Enhancements to be considered include using metallic
sandwich structures; automated or lower heat input welding; improved fixturing, part and process consolidation, and simplification; and modular assembly. After subscale testing, the teams
suggestions will be prototyped and demonstrated.
Brazil Acquires Three Ocean

Patrol Vessels
The Brazilian Navy signed a contract worth approximately
$209.5 million with BAE Systems, London, UK, for the supply
of three ocean patrol vessels and ancillary support services. The
contract also contains a manufacturing licence to enable additional vessels of the same class to be constructed in Brazil.
The three, 295-ft vessels, originally constructed for the government of Trinidad and Tobago, will provide the Brazilian Navy
with enhanced maritime capability in the near term, pending the
The vessels bought by the Brazilian Navy will provide enhanced

maritime capability in the near term. Displayed is the Port of Spain
on sea trials. (Copyright 2010 BAE Systems. All rights reserved.)
acquisition of future ships under its Prosuper program. The first
two ships will be delivered this year; the third will follow in early
2013.
The ocean patrol vessels are capable of speeds in excess of 25
knots and weigh 2200 tons fully loaded. With a 30-mm cannon
and two 25-mm guns, as well as a helicopter flight deck and inflatable boat, they will be useful for performing maritime security roles in Brazils territorial waters. They are designed to accommodate a 70-member crew, with extra accommodation for
50 embarked troops or passengers, and are effective for
search/rescue and disaster-relief operations.
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WELDING JOURNAL
Stevens Welding Shop Achieves Milestone
Owner Duane Stevens, who has been an AWS member for 27

years and serves as treasurer of the AWS Mid-Plains Section,
started the company when he was 19 years old. Today, he still operates as a one-man shop but hires an extra hand as required for
completing bigger projects. He assists the local farm and ranch
community by making machinery repairs, building feed bunks
and bale feeders, and fabricating panels for hog confinements.
His range of services include gas metal arc, shielded metal arc,
and gas tungsten arc welding; brazing; and plasma cutting. He
travels with portable equipment to work sites, too.
Theyre different all the time. Youre learning every day,
Stevens said of the jobs he receives. He added that it is satisfying
to know he helps people.
An event to commemorate the companys 40th anniversary,
held earlier this year at the community center across the street
from the welding shop, attracted 170 attendees. Among the individuals present from the AWS Mid-Plains Section were Chair
Dan Rucker and member Rex Cross. Also on hand was Duanes
welding instructor, Latham Mortensen, from Central Community College, Hastings, Neb.
FMA Forms Green Manufacturer Network
Latham Mortensen (left), a welding instructor at Central Community College, and Duane Stevens, owner of Stevens Welding Shop,
pose in front of a banner honoring the companys 40th anniversary.
Stevens Welding Shop, situated in the small town of Sumner,
Neb., is currently celebrating 40 years in business.
The Fabricators & Manufacturers Association, Intl (FMA),

Rockford, Ill., invites manufacturing executives to join its new
Green Manufacturer Network, an organization of individual
members working together to drive the transition toward environmentally friendly manufacturing. Members receive discounts
on conferences, workshops, and webinars; event announcements
and topical discussions; and access to sustainability resources.
Joining the network costs $150. Members will also be able to
share knowledge on sustainable manufacturing and promote
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Pendarvis Manufacturing Celebrates Its

30-Year Anniversary
ice for 30 years. Founded by Robert Bud Pendarvis and now

managed by his sons, Brian and Robert, the company has expanded its capabilities to meet the increased demand for custom
manufacturing services in the southern California area.
In the last 30 years, we have grown from a 2400-sq-ft building with two employees to more than 14,000-sq-ft of manufacturing space, with more than 20 shop employees and two engineers, said Brian Pendarvis.
The company offers turnkey precision machining, metal fabrication, welding, and assembly services, and manufactures parts
up to 10 tons. Pendarvis has also increased its base to serve various industries in the area, including aerospace, transportation,
instrumentation, research, defense, solar energy, architectural,
and specialty as well as sewage treatment equipment.
Caterpillar, Lincoln Partner with School to

Increase Students Interest in Skilled Trades
Pendarvis Manufacturing has been in operation for 30 years serving southern California. Pictured is a group shot taken in front of a
truck loaded with a large steel project.
Caterpillar, Peoria, Ill., and The Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, Ohio, partnered with Pulaski High School, Milwaukee, Wis.,
to increase the interest of young adults in skilled trades at manufacturing companies focusing on welding operations.
We wanted to drive interest for kids in skilled trades and
show them that this is a good occupation. We communicated,
This is a skill that can never be taken away from you once you
learn it, said Adam Schrank, weld/fabrication group manager.
Work started last year when John Losineki, now a retired industrial arts teacher at the school, approached Caterpillar to see
Pendarvis Manufacturing (www.pendarvismanufacturing.com),

Anaheim, Calif., an AWS Supporting Company, has been in serv-
continued on page 104
WELDING JOURNAL
11
INTERNATIONAL
UPDATE
Kennametal to Buy UK-Based Deloro
Stellite Group
Kennametal, Inc., Latrobe, Pa., recently announced it will buy
the Deloro Stellite Group from Duke Street Capital for approximately $366.9 million. It is the companys first acquisition in more
than two years.
Deloro Stellite is a global manufacturer of alloy-based critical wear solutions for extreme environments involving high temperature, corrosion, and abrasion. Based in the UK, the company employs approximately 1300 people at seven primary operating facilities around the world, including locations in the United
States, Canada, Germany, Italy, India, and China. The company
has approximately $292.7 million in annual sales.
The acquisition remains subject to customary regulatory approval and negotiated conditions for closing.
UK Manufacturer Adds Robots to Increase

Capacity and Ease Strain on Welders
Valen Fittings, a manufacturer of pipefittings in the United
Kingdom, recently installed two Fanuc robots to increase production capacity and to
remove the physical
strain manual plasma
arc cutting and welding
places on its workers.
The company manufacturers
butt-joint
weld fittings for the oil
and gas industry from a
wide of range of materials, none of which are
ferrous. Currently, 37
materials are used.
Sizes range from 8 to 48
Valen Fittings recently installed two robots in. in diameter. Some
at its facility. Automating the companys fittings require a
cutting and welding operations proved welder to weld continchallenging because of the many types of uously for up to 15 min.
We continuously aim
fittings the company makes, types of material used, range of thicknesses, and low to improve productivity
but because of the many
volume.
fittings, types of material, range of thicknesses, and low volume call off, we dont have
the luxury of being able to implement basic welding robot principles, said Len Sandford, Valen managing director. Our aim is always to adapt our existing manning skills so we can maintain the
quality and reduce operator strain.
The company worked with welding automation specialist Pentangle Engineering and first addressed the issue of accurately
plasma cutting part finished pressings. A Fanuc Robotics M-16
iB, inverted on a jib, is used to plasma cut edges and then cut a
weld preparation angle along the same edge. The second robot,
a 6-axis ARC Mate 120-iC positioned with a single-axis manipulator, is used to weld prepared sections.
Our overall productivity has improved since the installation
of the robots, Sandford concluded. They provide more consis-
12
MARCH 2012
tency, and the quality they deliver is faultless. From a project

point of view, we knew what we wanted to achieve we didnt
want a large team looking after each cell we wanted a simple,
one-man operation that allowed our existing skilled operators to
have a simpler, safer, cleaner, and less stressful way to work. And
we believe weve achieved that.
Mitsubishi Motors to Stop Building Cars in

Europe by 2013
Mitsubishi Motors Corp., Tokyo, Japan, recently announced
it will stop production of automobiles at its subsidiary European
production site Netherlands Car B.V. (NedCar) beginning in
2013. NedCar currently produces Colt and Outlander models designated for sales in the companys European market.
The move is believed to be the first withdrawal from Europe
by a major Japanese car maker. NedCar was established in 1991,
and has produced 1.1 million Mitsubishi vehicles since that time.
However, its output never reached its production capacity of
200,000 units a year. The production plant in Born, The Netherlands, will be sold. The plant employs 1500 workers.
Production and delivery of Mitsubishi models for Europe from
Japan and Thailand will continue.
Final Sections Joined in France for Brazils

First Scorpene Submarine
The 12 welders of
the French-Brazilian
team recently started
final operations at
the DCNS Groups
facility in Cherbourg,
France, for joining
the sections of the
first Scorpene submarine for Brazil. The
operation consists of
A DCNS worker monitors welding opera- welding the rings
tions for assembling the rings forming the forming the forward
forward part of the first submarine for part of the submarine. The resulting
Brazil.
assembly, around 6 m
in diameter, 24 m long, and weighing 200 tons, will subsequently
accommodate systems including the operations center, the torpedoes, and utilities such as water, gas, and electricity.
Throughout the first half of this year, the tanks and large structures will be added to the hull as well as the bridge fin, ballast
tanks, access trunk, and fresh-air induction cupola. The next assembly operation will take place in Brazil.
As part of the technology transfer, the Brazilian welders have
received three months of training so that they could obtain the required qualifications. The contract covers the design and construction of four conventional submarines with technology transfer. The
Cherbourg center is currently hosting 36 Brazilian trainees, bringing the number of trainees to 115 since the start of the contract.
The DCNS Group, headquartered in Paris, France, is contracted to assist with the design and construction of the nonnuclear part of the first Brazilian nuclear-powered submarine, and
support for the construction of a naval base and a shipyard. The
first of the four conventional submarines covered in the contract
is scheduled to enter active service in 2017.
STAINLESS
Q&A
BY DAMIAN J. KOTECKI
Q: We have a customer who wants us to

build a thin-wall (14-in.) vessel out of 316H
to be used in service at 1000F. Apparently
this is for a test that they expect will run for
five years. Of course theyre concerned with
welding consumables having 0.04 to 0.05%
carbon and ferrite less than 5 FN, and suggested we use 316Ti. To my knowledge,
transferring Ti can be an issue, and Im
wondering if 318 would be a good choice.
A: First of all, 316Ti is not a designation
for an AWS-classified filler metal as either
a bare wire in AWS A5.9/A5.9M nor as a
covered electrode in AWS A5.4/A5.4M. It
is also not a designation in the corresponding ISO 14343 or ISO 3581 standards, respectively. It may be a designation indicating addition of titanium to a 316 composition, but I do not know for sure to what
your customer is referring. You can find
Asian products identified as ER316Ti on
the Internet, but there is no connection to
AWS specifications.
On the other hand, 318 designates filler
metal that is similar to 316 except that it
has an addition of niobium (Nb). Niobium
is a stabilizing element, just like titanium.
Both alloy elements are used to prevent
Fig. 1 The iso-ferrite lines are labeled with the expected Ferrite Number,
while solidification modes are indicated by A as 100% austenite solidification
for compositions above the 0 FN line, AF as primary austenite solidification
for compositions below the 0 FN line to the first dashed line, FA as primary
ferrite solidifacation for compositions between the two dashed lines, and F as
100% ferrite solidification below the second dashed line.
14
MARCH 2012
Table 1 316H, 318, and 16-8-2 Composition Limits

AWS
Standard
A5.4
A5.9
Class
Chemical Composition, wt-% (Single value is a maximum.)

P
S
Si
Cr
Ni
Mo
Mn
E316H-XX
0.04 to
0.08
0.5 to
2.5
0.04
0.03
1.00
17.0 to
20.0
11.0 to
14.0
2.0 to
3.0
0.75
E318-XX
0.08
0.5 to
2.5
0.04
0.03
1.00
17.0 to
20.0
11.0 to
14.0
2.0 to
3.0
0.75
6x%C to
1.00
E16-8-2-XX
0.10
0.5 to
2.5
0.03
0.03
0.60
14.5 to
16.5
7.5 to
9.5
1.0 to
2.0
0.75
ER316H
0.04 to
0.08
1.0 to
2.5
0.03
0.03
0.30 to
0.65
18.0 to
20.0
11.0 to
14.0
2.0 to
3.0
0.75
ER318
0.08
1.0 to
2.5
0.03
0.03
0.30 to
0.65
18.0 to
20.0
11.0 to
14.0
2.0 to
3.0
0.75
8x%C to
1.0
ER16-8-2
0.10
1.0 to
2.0
0.03
0.03
0.30 to
0.65
14.5 to
16.5
7.5 to
9.5
1.0 to
2.0
0.75
chromium carbide precipitation, and

thereby prevent sensitization.
However, it is time for a reality check:
At 1000F (540C), the 316H base metal
will become completely sensitized regardless of the filler metal used. So there is no
point being concerned about sensitization
in the filler metal. Furthermore, sensitization is of no concern in high-temperature
service. Sensitization is an issue in ambient-temperature corrosion resistance, not
in high-temperature service.
I would not recommend 318 filler
metal with less than 5 FN because niobium
enhances susceptibility to solidification
cracking at low ferrite levels. 316H filler
metal would be more resistant to solidification cracking at low FN than would be
318 filler metal. But there is a still better
choice than 316H filler metal for service at
1000F, especially if you must have weld
metal below 5 FN. That better choice is
the largely overlooked 16-8-2 composition, and, though it may take a bit of looking to find a supplier, it is generally made
with less than 5 FN. The 16-8-2 composition is highly resistant to solidification
cracking at very low ferrite content. Table
1 compares the AWS composition limits
for 316H, 318, and 16-8-2 filler metals as
covered electrodes and as bare wires.
It is noteworthy that the 16-8-2 composition is considerably lower in alloy content
than the 316H and 318 compositions. This
is important for two reasons. The first is
that, beginning from the same ferrite level,
16-8-2 weld metal is much more resistant
to formation of sigma phase at elevated
temperatures like 1000F than is either
316H or 318 weld metal. With lesser sigma
formation, the creep behavior of 16-8-2
weld metal is improved. As noted by Marshall and Farrar (Ref. 1), these special
properties of 16-8-2 weld metal have resulted in the ASME Code allocating higher
stress-rupture factors to 16-8-2 weld metal
than to 308- and 316-type weld metals.
The second reason is that, as a result of
lower total alloy content, 16-8-2 weld

metal requires less ferrite in order to obtain primary ferrite solidification, which in
turn provides maximum resistance to solidification cracking. The WRC-1992 Diagram (Fig. 1) shows that the boundary
below which primary ferrite solidification
is obtained is tilted somewhat relative to
the iso-ferrite lines. So 16-8-2 weld metal,
with a chromium equivalent of about 17 or
a bit less, will solidify as primary ferrite
with even less than 1 FN, while 316H weld
metal, with a chromium equivalent of
above about 20, requires at least 3 FN to
solidify as primary ferrite.
Marshall and Farrar (Ref. 1) describe
16-8-2 as the overlooked or neglected
austenitic stainless steel weld metal. I
agree with that description. Weld metal of
16-8-2 type was studied rather extensively
during the 1960s through the 1980s when
power-generating plants were being extensively built in the United States see,
for example, Klueh and Edmonds (Ref. 2).
Today, because there has been so little
power-generating plant construction over
the last 20 years, there are not a lot of manufacturers of this filler metal composition,
but it remains available. I would suggest
Cu
Nb
that this is the best filler metal choice for

welding your 316H vessel.
References
1. Marshall, A. W., and Farrar, J. C. M.
2001. Lean austenitic Type 16.8.2 stainless
steel weld metal, Stainless Steel World 2001
Conference Proceedings, paper P0114, KCI
Publishing, Zutphen, The Netherlands.
2. Klueh, R. L., and Edmonds, D. P.
1986. Chemical composition effects on the
creep of Type 316 and 16-8-2 stainless steel
weld metal. Welding Journal 65(6): 156-s to
162-s.
DAMIAN J. KOTECKI is president,
Damian Kotecki Welding Consultants, Inc. He
is treasurer of the IIW and a member of the
A5D Subcommittee on Stainless Steel Filler
Metals, D1K Subcommittee on Stainless Steel
Structural Welding; and WRC Subcommittee
on Welding Stainless Steels and Nickel-Base
Alloys. He is a past chair of the A5 Committee
on Filler Metals and Allied Materials, and
served as AWS president (20052006). Send
questions to damian@ damiankotecki.com,
or Damian Kotecki, c/o Welding Journal Dept.,
550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126.
CHAMPION WELDING ALLOYS

Lake Linden, MI 49945
800.321.9353 906.296.9633 Fax: 906.296.9631

www.ChampionWelding.com
INFO@ChampionWelding.com
Please note that our phone and fax numbers have changed!
Champion Welding Alloys can supply you with the AWS A5.5 chromemoly electrodes and related welding consumables that you need.
We manufacture B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B8 and B9 electrodes. We also
manufacture the low carbon grades for select alloys. Call, visit our
website or email us for more information.
WELDING JOURNAL
15
Friends and Colleagues:
I want to encourage you to submit nomination packages for those individuals whom you feel
have a history of accomplishments and contributions to our profession consistent with the standards
set by the existing Fellows. In particular, I would make a special request that you look to the most
senior members of your Section or District in considering members for nomination. In many cases,
the colleagues and peers of these individuals who are the most familiar with their contributions, and
who would normally nominate the candidate, are no longer with us. I want to be sure that we take
the extra effort required to make sure that those truly worthy are not overlooked because no obvious
individual was available to start the nomination process.
For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at AWS
headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Fellow nomination form in this issue
of the Welding Journal. Please remember, we all benefit in the honoring of those who have made
major contributions to our chosen profession and livelihood. The deadline for submission is July 1,
2012. The Committee looks forward to receiving numerous Fellow nominations for 2013
consideration.
Sincerely,
Thomas M. Mustaleski
Chair, AWS Fellows Selection Committee
Fellow Description
DEFINITION AND HISTORY
The American Welding Society, in 1990, established the honor of Fellow of the Society to recognize members for
distinguished contributions to the field of welding science and technology, and for promoting and sustaining the professional
stature of the field. Election as a Fellow of the Society is based on the outstanding accomplishments and technical impact of the
individual. Such accomplishments will have advanced the science, technology and application of welding, as evidenced by:
Sustained service and performance in the advancement of welding science and technology
Publication of papers, articles and books which enhance knowledge of welding
Innovative development of welding technology
Society and chapter contributions
Professional recognition
RULES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Candidates shall have 10 years of membership in AWS

Candidates shall be nominated by any five members of the Society
Nominations shall be submitted on the official form available from AWS Headquarters
Nominations must be submitted to AWS Headquarters no later than July 1 of the year prior to that in
which the award is to be presented
Nominations will remain valid for three years
All information on nominees will be held in strict confidence
No more than two posthumous Fellows may be elected each year
NUMBER OF FELLOWS
Maximum of 10 Fellows selected each year.
AWS Fellow Application Guidelines

Nomination packages for AWS Fellow should clearly demonstrate the candidates outstanding contributions to the advancement of welding science and technology. In order for the Fellows Selection Committee to fairly assess the candidates qualifications, the nomination package must list and clearly describe the candidates specific technical accomplishments, how they contributed to the advancement of welding technology, and that these contributions were sustained. Essential in demonstrating the
candidates impact are the following (in approximate order of importance).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Description of significant technical advancements. This should be a brief summary of the candidates most
significant contributions to the advancement of welding science and technology.
Publications of books, papers, articles or other significant scholarly works that demonstrate the contributions cited
in (1). Where possible, papers and articles should be designated as to whether they were published in
peer-reviewed journals.
Inventions and patents.
Professional recognition including awards and honors from AWS and other professional societies.
Meaningful participation in technical committees. Indicate the number of years served on these committees and
any leadership roles (chair, vice-chair, subcommittee responsibilities, etc.).
Contributions to handbooks and standards.
Presentations made at technical conferences and section meetings.
Consultancy particularly as it impacts technology advancement.
Leadership at the technical society or corporate level, particularly as it impacts advancement of welding technology.
Participation on organizing committees for technical programming.
Advocacy support of the society and its technical advancement through institutional, political or other means.
Note: Application packages that do not support the candidate using the metrics listed above
will have a very low probability of success.
Supporting Letters
Letters of support from individuals knowledgeable of the candidate and his/her contributions are encouraged. These
letters should address the metrics listed above and provide personal insight into the contributions and stature of the
candidate. Letters of support that simply endorse the candidate will have little impact on the selection process.
Return completed Fellow nomination package to:
Wendy S. Reeve
Senior Manager
Award Programs and Administrative Support
550 N.W. LeJeune Road
Miami, FL 33126
Telephone: 800-443-9353, extension 293
SUBMISSION DEADLINE: July 1, 2012
CLASS OF 2013
(please type or print in black ink)
FELLOW NOMINATION FORM

DATE_________________NAME OF CANDIDATE________________________________________________________________________
AWS MEMBER NO.___________________________YEARS OF AWS MEMBERSHIP____________________________________________
HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY_______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE________________________
PRESENT COMPANY/INSTITUTION AFFILIATION_______________________________________________________________________
TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________
BUSINESS ADDRESS________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE_________________________
ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, AS APPLICABLE:
INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________
MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________
DEGREES OR CERTIFICATES/YEAR____________________________________________________________________________________
LICENSED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER: YES_________NO__________ STATE______________________________________________
SIGNIFICANT WORK EXPERIENCE:
COMPANY/CITY/STATE_____________________________________________________________________________________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
SUMMARIZE MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THESE POSITIONS:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS, USE SEPARATE SHEET) INDICATING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BE
SELECTED AS AN AWS FELLOW ACCOMPANY NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAY BE INCORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.
SEE GUIDELINES ON REVERSE SIDE
SUBMITTED BY: PROPOSER_______________________________________________AWS Member No.___________________
Print Name___________________________________
The Proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. Signatures on this nominating form, or
supporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition to the Proposer. Signatures may be acquired
by photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the signatures are secured, the total package should
be submitted.
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________
Print Name___________________________________
Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________
Print Name___________________________________
Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
SUBMISSION DEADLINE July 1, 2012
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RWMA
Q&A
Q: What is the process used to determine
if a sheet metal spot welding schedule is
suitable for the application? We have been
utilizing the schedules the integrator recommended when we purchased the tooling,
but we want to improve them, if possible.
A: This question reminds us of the fact
that no matter how much research we do,
and despite all of the advances in the resistance welding industry (and there have
been many), at some point we have to actually get down to business and make a
weld. To accomplish this, we must undertake a good fundamental review of the
process coupled with a thorough knowledge of the standard we are evaluating the
welding against. Please note that the
newer adaptive weld controls may require
a different approach, but this is a subject
for another time.
Before we go any further, it is important to understand what a resistance spot
welding schedule is. Specifically, it is the
recipe used to create a weld and should
contain all of the required elements
needed to replicate the condition. These
most likely include weld force in units of
BY DONALD F. MAATZ JR.
pounds-force (lbf) or kilo-Newton (kN),

secondary weld current (either AC or DC)
expressed as kilo-Amps (kA), and weld
time in either milliseconds (ms) or cycles
(c), based on 50 or 60 Hertz (Hz) AC
power. The weld time callout should also
specify the pulsing and cool time methodologies, if required. Other elements potentially included as part of the schedule
are squeeze time, hold time, and in rare
instances, the need for a pre/post heat
treatment (quench and temper) or the
up/down sloping of current. Additionally,
the electrode geometry should be specified, including contact face diameter and
perhaps the material composition (or
class) of copper. Last, but most certainly
not least, the values for the above elements are typically unique for a specific
range of substrate thicknesses so it is common to see the schedule list them in a
table.
Resistance spot welding of sheet metal
is a mature process with a great deal of research and history associated with it. The
end result of much of this research was
creation of established and welldocumented welding schedules for vari-
ous sheet metal and electrode configurations, schedules that have been refined
over time. These spot welding schedules
are beneficial for equipment sizing and
serve as a starting point as the initial tooling launch and ramp-up process seeks to
establish a consistent weld. One of these
schedules (and there are many to choose
from) was most likely the source of the integrators recommendation (Refs. 1, 2).
But to help answer your question, it
would be wise for us to keep in mind that
any discussion regarding weld schedule
development cannot take place unless the
following items are understood:
The quality requirements are known
and rational for the application.
This is typically not an issue, especially
since so many industry-recognized standards and reference guides, such as AWS
D8.1, AWS C1.1, AWS D17.2, and the
RWMA Resistance Welding Manual, are
available. That being said, it is still possible to encounter a situation where rational
thought and good engineering seem to be
missing, so it pays to do your own homework.
The welding characteristics of the
material are known.
This item relates directly to which weld
schedule methodology should be employed for the application. An example of
the important characteristics that can
drive the need for a unique schedule includes substrate coating, strength, and
gauge. Additional items to consider are
the number of faying surfaces to be joined
and the ratio of the gauges being
assembled.
The tooling, including the electrodes,
is capable of supporting the needed force,
current, and time, and at the desired rate.
This item should almost be selfevident, but, just as with the quality requirements, it pays to do your homework.
A lack of oversight in this area may result
in the unfortunate discovery that an excellent weld may be achieved at 1400 lbf, but
the weld gun is only capable of 1000 lbf.
The Weld Lobe
One way to express the robustness of
a particular resistance spot welding application is to determine its lobe Fig. 1. A
weld lobe is a means of graphically expressing the numerous combinations of
weld current and weld time that produce
satisfactory welds for a specific set of conditions (weld force, electrode cap configuration, metal stackup, etc.). The lobe
(sometimes called a window) is created by
plotting the values of weld current vs. weld
20
MARCH 2012
time that correspond to a particular measurable characteristic, most typically weld

size. The left boundary of the lobe curve
displays the combinations of weld current
and weld time that produce a weld that
meets the minimum acceptable quality requirements. The combinations of weld
current and weld time to the left of the
curve may still produce welds, but they
will generally be of a less-than-desired
quality as measured against a particular
characteristic. The right boundary of the
lobe displays the combinations of weld
current and time that correspond to substrate expulsion or flashing. However,
welds produced with parameters to the
right of this curve may still meet engineering intent. The distance between these two
boundaries at a given weld time is referred
to as the current range. A wide current
range is one indication of process robustness. As such, the stackup in question
would be tolerant of changes in the manufacturing process and welding equipment resulting from normal process variation and equipment degradation. Conversely, a narrow current range is indicative of a process that is far less tolerant of
typical manufacturing process variations.
Such processes are most likely fussy and
seem to demand much more than their
fair share of attention.
There are many other characteristics
and factors related to evaluating and utilizing a lobe. A few examples are highlighted below:
The lobe is actually a single slice of
a three-dimensional object. For example,
if the third weld schedule variable of weld
force is taken into account, it would be
possible to construct a graphical representation of the lobe in three dimensions.
For practical reasons, this is not typically
needed (although it has been done) as adjustments to the appropriate weld force
contribute little to a change in overall heat
input when compared to alterations of
weld time, and especially, weld current.
The shape of the lobe can reveal if
the stackup responds to changes in weld
time. The lobe in Fig. 1 is similar to a parallelogram. As such, it almost does not
matter which of the tested weld times is
selected as the final schedule. But what
does it mean if the lobe is wider at the top
and narrower at the bottom, much like an
ice-cream cone? It may indicate that the
lower weld times may not be able to produce an acceptable weld before the onset
of expulsion and that operating at those
levels would be, at best, ill advised.
A narrow overall width to the lobe
may indicate that other factors need to be
evaluated and modified so that the
process window can be opened. As the
lobe only captures changes to current and
time, other aspects of the welding process
such as electrode geometry and weld time
Fig. 1 A resistance spot weld lobe.

methodology (single vs. poly pulse, etc.)
are common candidates for review and alteration before another attempt to determine the weld window.
As a rough rule of thumb, the minimum desired weld range, dependent on
material and process, is 1015% of the operating current to achieve a satisfactory
weld. The weld time should be as low as
practical to achieve the desired range but

not so low as to contribute to process instability. Additionally, the operating current should be slightly less than the midpoint of the range, again dependent on
material and process. This takes advantage of the repeatability typically associated with producing acceptable welds at
the lower end of the range and minimizes
WELDING JOURNAL
21
the potential for spurious expulsion associated with higher current values.
As your question alludes to the fact the
process is presently producing welds of
acceptable quality, how does the concept
of a weld lobe apply to your situation? The
answer to that question would be to determine where your process actually is in
the lobe. This is not something that should
be undertaken lightly, but, with care, you
might be able to open the window under
which acceptable welds can be produced
and potentially discover how close to the
edge of the lobe you actually are. A possible methodology would be to make small
weld schedule changes of either weld time
or weld current to a part that is going to
be subjected to an off-line destructive
evaluation. These small changes, if made
at approximately the same time in the
electrode life cycle, would be the source
of the values used to construct your lobe.
Once the welds are evaluated and compared to your particular measurable characteristic, the actual process window can
be constructed. As previously mentioned,
caution should be exercised as you make
your changes. However, if you keep a few
guidelines in mind, the process should go
smoothly.
Any final schedule changes will need
validation throughout the entire electrode life cycle.
Make weld time changes in no more

than 5% increments, if possible.
Maintain the same weld time methodology with all changes.
Make changes to the value of secondary weld current of no more than 2%,
if possible.
Do not change weld force unless you
have reason to believe it is too low, then
reestablish the proper weld time and/or
weld current.
My suggestion is not to attempt to map
the entire lobe, but rather to get a feel for
the effect of different changes on your
process. If you are able to determine that
you have a robust process, it will give you
a degree of confidence in the product
you are producing. On the other hand,
if you discover your process is not as robust as desired, you can begin a deeper
evaluation into how to improve it. So,
just as you need and expect your car to
start each morning, you need and expect
your tooling to be capable of producing
a quality weld. A robust weld schedule
is an excellent first step.
Acknowledgment
I would like to thank Tom Morrissett, former AWS D8 chairman, for his
invaluable perspective on weld lobe
development.
22
MARCH 2012
References
1. Resistance Welding Manual, revised
4th Edition. 2003. Miami, Fla.: American
Welding Society.
2. AWS C1.1:2000 (R2006), AWS
C1.1:2000, Recommended Practices for Resistance Welding. Miami, Fla.: American
Welding Society.
DONALD F. MAATZ JR. is a laboratory

manager, RoMan Engineering Services. He
is chair of the AWS Detroit Section, serves
on the D8 and D8D Automotive Welding
committees, is vice chairman of the Certified Resistance Welding Technician working group and of the RWMA Technical
committee. He is a graduate of The Ohio
State University with a BS in Welding Engineering. This article would not have been
possible were it not for the assistance from
members of the RoMan team. Send your
comments/questions to Don at dmaatz@ro
maneng.com, or to Don Maatz, c/o Welding Journal, 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami,
FL 33126.
TECHNOLOGY FOR THE WELDERS WORLD.
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POINT OF
VIEW
BY DENNIS CROCKETT
The Case for AWS Specifications

For many years, the American Welding Society (AWS) has issued specifications for the classification of welding filler
metals and allied materials. As stated in
each specification, AWS American National Standards are developed through a
consensus standards development process
that brings together volunteers representing various viewpoints and interests to
achieve consensus. The issuance and
maintenance of these documents is the responsibility of the AWS A5 Committee on
Filler Metals and Allied Materials and its
22 working subcommittees.
In recent years, the American Welding
Society has worked in cooperation with
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to develop international ISO standards. Some ISO specifications are very close to the corresponding AWS specifications. For example, the
newly issued AWS A5.32M/A5.32:2011
(ISO 14175:2008 MOD), Welding Consumables Gases and Mixtures for Fusion
Welding and Allied Processes, is a modified
adoption of the ISO 14175 specification.
Now one might conclude that the logical
end game of all this effort should be the
development of a set of international ISO
standards that eventually would supplant
the AWS standards completely. It may be
logical but would it be smart? This writer
thinks not and would make the following
case for AWS specifications:
1. AWS A5 subcommittees can work
to expedite provisions for new electrode
types, emerging technologies, enhanced
weld deposit compositions, updated qualification requirements, etc., to better address the needs of U.S. manufacturers and
markets. Examples would be the D op-
tional, supplemental designator (to indicate conformance to seismic requirements) and the Q optional, supplemental designator (to indicate conformance
to U.S. military requirements) that were
incorporated into the AWS A5.20 flux
cored specification. More recently, the
AWS A5M subcommittee finalized a new
specification, AWS A5.36/A5.36M, Specification for Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel
Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding and
Metal Cored Electrodes for Gas Metal Arc
Welding, in which provisions were made
for electrode types intended for use with
modified waveforms. See page 51 of this
issue of Welding Journal for more information on this specification.
It is not realistic to expect that the priorities of an international code body will
always align with issues related to U.S.
markets or that any action will be taken.
In addition, the structure and membership of an international code body virtually precludes the fast tracking of document revisions.
2. AWS subcommittees have the ability to take a leading role in eliminating obsolete, unnecessary, and expensive test requirements. The AWS A5M subcommittee did this when it eliminated the fillet
weld test as a classification requirement
for flux cored electrodes in the new AWS
A5.36/A5.36M specification.
The AWS subcommittees can also add
or modify testing requirements to their
documents to ensure that the test procedures are consistent with the welding procedures the manufacturer recommends.
This was done when the AWS A5M subcommittee added procedure controls in
AWS A5.20/A5.20M for the hydrogen
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MARCH 2012
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testing of flux cored electrodes based

upon the manufacturers published procedure ranges. The AWS A5B submerged
arc subcommittee also took the initiative
when it added a two-run welding classification procedure for submerged arc welding. This was done to better reflect the
mechanical property results that can be
expected on limited-pass applications
such as the two-run technique used in the
manufacture of line pipe.
3. Manufacturers using AWS-classified
products are familiar with the AWS classifications and have them written into
their Welding Procedure Specifications
and Procedure Qualification Records. We
could expect serious objections from endusers over the cost involved in converting
from AWS to ISO-only classified products. The AWS A5M subcommittee faced
this same type of issue when developing
the new AWS A5.36/A5.36M document.
There was tremendous resistance to completely replace the fixed classification system and designations (specified in AWS
A5.18/A5.18M, A5.20/A5.20M, A5.28/
A5.28M, and A5.29/A5.29M) with a new
open classification system having new designations. For that reason, a number of
widely used and accepted electrode types
were grandfathered into the AWS
A5.36/A5.36M specification with their existing classification designations and classification requirements.
4. Welding consumables classified to
AWS specifications may also be classified
to ISO specifications, if required. One
does not necessarily preclude the other.
5. The work done by the AWS A5 Committee and subcommittees has value beyond the specifications they generate.
AWS committee work provides a forum
for manufacturers (who in many cases are
direct competitors), end-users and interested parties to work together to the benefit of their industry. The younger members gain valuable experience through
their participation and interaction. The
older members provide years of experience, insight, and a historical perspective.
All of this serves our industry and our
markets.
DENNIS CROCKETT (denniscrockett@att.net) is chair, AWS A5M Subcommittee on Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel
Welding.
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Welding Carriage Useful for

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UltraCore HD-C, a mild-steel gas

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and is formulated to weld over light rust,
26
MARCH 2012
The Wel Twin portable welding carriage, tested in shipyards worldwide, carries two torches. The heavy-duty machine
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The unit is magnetically attached from
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welds. The company can provide information on running multiple carriages at once
to provide a flexible panel line as well.
Koike Aronson/Ransome, Inc.
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Oxygen Indicator Includes

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For a closer look, visit
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The model also incorporates a heavy-duty
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WELDING JOURNAL
27
Cyclone Spark Arrester

Installs with Duct Clamps
The SparkShield is a compact, in-line

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ensures almost 100% efficiency in the removal of sparks and other potential hazards that may cause a fire. The product
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the lifespan of filter cartridges. Inspection
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make looking inside the ductwork possible to check whether cleaning is necessary. Two duct clamps make it easy to install, dismantle, service, and maintain.
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28
MARCH 2012
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Wireless Crane Scale

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trial lifting magnets and how to use them

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The Alliance/CAS Caston II crane

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standard hand-held wireless remote control, on/off, zero and tare functions, and
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Orbital Weld Heads Utilize

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The Model 860 fusion welds tube from
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autogenous orbital weld heads that utilize
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in. of straight length is required, tungsten
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Magnatech LLC
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Dual Torch Hard Surfacing

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WELDING JOURNAL
29
Digital System Measures

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Joulebox 2, a portable, digital system,

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WELDING JOURNAL
31
Fig. 1
The Eleftheria K
at sea.
BY DAVID PHILLIPS
(dphillips@hydrex.us) is with
Group Communications,
Hydrex, Clearwater, Fla.
Undertaking a Complex
Underwater Repair
A damaged freighter needed repairs to
stop a leak, prevent buckling, and keep
cracks from spreading so the ship could
sail to where she could unload
he Eleftheria K (Fig. 1), a Capesizeclass bulk carrier, ran aground at the

mouth of the Suez Canal in July
2011. European Navigation, Inc., Piraeus,
Greece, operates the ship, which was built
in Japan in 1985. The Eleftheria K is 297
m long overall, 50 m in the beam, 214,263
metric tons DWT (dry weight), with a
26.7-m depth, 19.8-m draught, and a displacement of 240,311 tons.
The Damage
When she ran aground, the Eleftheria
K had on board a full cargo of iron ore
concentrate, totaling 212,297.75 metric
tons, which had been loaded at the ports
of Odessa and Yushny in the Ukraine for
discharging at Rizhao and Qingdao,
China. The starboard bilge strake was
grounded at the level of double-bottom
32
MARCH 2012
ballast tanks (DBBTs) 1, 2, and 3. The

damage was extensive, covering about 85
m along the hull. The grounding caused
severe indentation of the bilge strake,
opening seven holes and cracks along the
damaged area resulting in the flooding of
ballast tanks 1, 2, and 3 Fig. 2.
A local diving company in Egypt carried out temporary repairs using doubler
plates and putty from the outside and cement boxes on the inside Fig. 3. The
ship then resumed its voyage to China.
However, one week after sailing from
Suez, the ballast tanks flooded again and
a vertical crack developed on the starboard vertical side shell plating, on the aft
part of the area damaged by the grounding and just forward of the bulkhead between DBBTs 2 and 3, and cargo holds 3
and 4 Fig. 4.
The approximately 1300-mm-long
crack had an average uneven gap of

100200 mm. Had it propagated upward,
the crack would have caused cargo holds
3 and 4 to flood, which could have been
catastrophic for the vessel and her cargo.

The most difficult part of the underwater repairs was covering this crack/fracture for it to become watertight while at
the same time maintaining local and longitudinal strength to a level higher than
the minimum required by the rules.
Underwater repairs and reinforcements had to be carried out at a depth of
approximately 19 m with the ballast tank
flooded, meaning equal pressure from inside and outside. Repair procedures and
welding quality had to be at maximum in
order to hold firm while deballasting the
ballast tank so the shell plate could cope
with the resulting hydrostatic pressure
from the outside. To effect these repairs,
the ship had to be diverted to an anchorage at Fujairah, United Arab Emirates.
Inspection
S. Georgiou, technical manager of European Navigation, Inc., called in Hydrex,
an international underwater repair and
maintenance company based in Antwerp,
Belgium. The Hydrex inspection revealed
a new vertical crack directly on the bulkhead between ballast tanks 2 and 3.
Georgiou said he decided to call in Hydrex for the repairs because due to the
extent and the severity of the damage, the
job was considered very difficult; therefore, we decided a specialized company
such as Hydrex, with a successful record,
well organized, safety oriented, and experienced in underwater welding jobs,
should be arranged. Furthermore, any
other option to discharge her cargo ashore
and/or transfer the cargo to another ship
was impossible due to the ships size, her
deep draft, quantity of cargo on board, no
availability of suitable port/berth facilities
for a vessel of that size in the area, and no
availability of shore floating cranes.
Toon Joos, an experienced senior
diver/welder/technician with Hydrex, flew
to Dubai to conduct a detailed inspection
at Fujairah 20 miles off the coast. His report and some of the photos from that inspection follow.
Fig. 3 (Top) The buckled hull and the previous attempt at repairs.
Fig. 4 (Bottom) Close-up showing the severity of the long, vertical
crack discovered in the hull.
Fig. 2 The ship at anchor near

Fujairah, UAE. The ship has a severe
list to starboard due to the leaks and
flooding of the ballast tanks.
WELDING JOURNAL
33
Fig. 5 Sketches of the damage and

repair proposal: A Transverse view
of the side shell vertical fracture; B
repair proposal for the vertical fracture.
Fig. 6 Exterior view of the side shell

repair proposal for the vertical fracture.
34
MARCH 2012
Fig. 7 Sketches of the sequence

(left to right) for fitting the repair.
The damage starts approximately on

frame number 315 and runs all the way to
frame number 227, a total length of approximately 100 m with a height on the
vertical side of approximately 6 m and a
width under the flat bottom of approximately 3 m. All the plating is pushed inside heavily with several cracks that have
been repaired by other diving companies
by means of doublers and epoxy putty. Unfortunately, there are still leaks. We cant
determine the locations due to the previous repairs and because the tanks (numbers 1, 2, and 3) are flooded. Between
tanks 2 and 3, I can see there is a crack
1300 10 mm just in front of the bulkhead. There is a repair done by (local company), but the shell plating is pushed inside due to the water pressure when the
tank was pumped out.
Planning the Repair

Part of Jooss report was a proposal for
repair of the damage. The idea was to
make sufficient repairs for the vessel to

sail to China to unload her freight. Then
she could be drydocked and permanent
repairs made. The main problem was to
sufficiently reinforce the 1.3-m vertical
crack to prevent the torsion of the ship
while under way from expanding it and
breaking the ship, and to make the hull
watertight so that the ballast tanks could
be pumped out. The first step of the proposal was to involve a naval architect so
that the various drawings and calculations
could be done and approved.
The Naval Architect

Hydrex had recently worked successfully with Michalis Chourdakis of C. N.
Zachopolous & Associates Ltd., marine
surveyors and consultant engineers, Piraeus, Greece. The company recommended his services to Georgiou, who was
in charge of the repair operation for European Navigation. Chourdakis is also a
technical consultant with Tsavliris Salvage
Co., one of the worlds leading salvors. In

this case, no salvage operation was required so Tsavliris was not involved, but
Chourdakis explained that his work with
Tsavliris has given him a great deal of experience with major repairs of this nature.
Chourdakis and his colleague, P. Koutsourakis, a surveyor and specialist in 3D
drawings and presentations, studied the
results of the Hydrex inspection and the
proposed repairs and worked out the engineering details. They came up with a
new description of the damage, a plan for
repairs, calculated the various strengths
and thicknesses required, and produced
a set of drawings.
Grounding Damage
Following is the new damage description and temporary repairs proposal.
The damage description is based on information received from the Hydrex diver
on board at Fujairah on May 9, 2011.
The report stated in part: On the side
WELDING JOURNAL
35
Fig. 8 (Top) Construction of the initial

frame on the deck of the freighter.
Fig. 9 (Bottom left) The distorted
shape of the hull was carefully measured
in relation to the frame, with
measurements taken every 5 cm, so the
plates that would become the structure of
the box could be accurately cut to fit.
Fig. 10 (Bottom right) The plates were
lowered down the side of the ship so they
could be fitted accurately to the damaged
hull before being welded into a watertight
box on deck.
shell plate starboard side and in the area

of the double-bottom ballast tank No. 2
starboard found a vertical crack of approximate dimensions 1300 10 mm located between frames No. 228 and 229 and
on the first plate after the bilge plate. Double-bottom ballast tank No. 2 starboard is
flooded Fig. 5.
Repairs Proposal
The purpose of the repairs was to accomplish the following:
Stop the crack (avoid propagation).
Reinforce the damaged area.
Reinstate water tightness of doublebottom ballast tank No. 2.
Reinstate the continuity of the doublebottom side longitudinals.
Reinforce the cracked side shell plate
to avoid movement.
Following is the repair plan:
To stop the crack and avoid propaga36
MARCH 2012
tion, drill adequate crack-arrest holes

on the shell plate at both ends of the
crack Fig. 6.
To reinforce the damaged area, fit four
angle bars and weld them externally on
the shell plate in line with the existing
double-bottom tanks side longitudinals
covering two web frame spaces.
Extend the stiffening longitudinally
from frame 225 to frame 231.
Fit same-size angle bars and weld them
vertically and in line with frames 228 and
229. These would be extended one side
longitudinal up and down from the
cracks ends Fig. 6.
Form the web of the angle bars to exactly fit the hulls actual shape.
Three-dimensional fitting sketches
show how the repair was planned to go
forward Fig. 7.
Hydrex confirmed that the plan could
be executed, and European Navigation
accepted the proposals.
All calculations for the local and longitudinal strength of the vessel were submitted and approved by the vessels classification society, Nippon Kaiji Kyokai
(Class NK), and H&M Underwriters surveyors. While the work was being conducted, a Class NK surveyor was on site
to verify the repairs were carried out according to the approved drawings.
Chourdakis noted that for the job to
be successful, high-quality welding and
precise premeasurements were required.
Making the Repairs

Hydrex flew two experienced divers/
technicians, Cedric Wyckmans and Philip
Martens, from Antwerp to Dubai to make
preparations for the job, including securing a suitable workboat and other necessary equipment. A week later, Joos flew
in with a team of four additional divers/
welders/technicians. Work began and con-
Fig. 11 (Left) The 300 60 cm box

fabricated on deck prior to being lowered
into the water and welded to the hull.
Fig. 12 (Right) Close-up showing the
box in position over the crack.
tinued intensively, day and night, for the

next 5 weeks.
The first step was to take measurements for the frame that would be fabricated and then welded in place over the
large vertical crack. The frame would form
the structure of the cofferdam that would
be used to make the crack watertight and
would also be used as a frame of reference
so that accurate measurements could then
be made and plates cut and welded in
place. Hydrex welders working with subcontractors on the deck of the Eleftheria
K constructed the frame Fig. 8.
With the frame in place, measurements
could then be taken so that the sides of
the cofferdam could be cut to the shape
of the badly buckled hull and then fitted
Fig. 9. Joos explained, A good fitting
makes it much easier to weld. Under the
water, a gap of 1 cm is a lot harder to weld
than a gap of 3 mm. If you go over 1 or 1.2
cm, then you have to build up. So about 1
cm is the limit. Some welders can handle
a 1 cm gap. A good fit makes it much easier. If you have a zero gap, it saves hours
and hours of welding time. With the ship
out of service until the repairs could be
completed, the old adage, time is
money, took on a whole new meaning.
The plates were cut on deck, then lowered and tacked to the hull so they could
be adjusted to ensure a close fit before
Fig. 13 Strip welding the longitudinal

stiffeners in place on the shell plate.
being welded to the box Fig. 10.

After the plates were fitted, the 300
60 cm box was constructed on deck Fig.
11. This was done because surface welding is somewhat faster than underwater
welding.
The finished box was then lowered into
the water and welded to the frame and the
hull, inside and out, three passes throughout Fig. 12.
Once the box was in place, the stiffeners were ready to be welded onto the hull
extending fore and aft from the cracked
hull area. The stiffeners were fabricated
on deck, then lowered into position and
tack welded in place. They were then strip
welded with a 15-cm strip every 15 cm, top
and bottom of the stiffeners Fig. 13.
The next step was to close the coffer-
dam by welding a plate on top of the box

that had already been welded to the hull
and the frame. When the cofferdam was
sealed, the crack was no longer open to
the sea Fig. 14.
Joos recalled the problems encountered when ballast tanks 1, 2, and 3 were
deballasted Fig. 15. When we started
pumping, unfortunately some cracks
broke. Nobody knew what was inside
how many longitudinals were still attached
on the inside so we put additional stiffeners and then tried to pump again.
Again, we had a few minor cracks. Because the depth of the vessel was 24 meters on the bottom, there was a huge
amount of pressure forcing inward. The
full structure needed to resist the pressure. We had a few cracks again so we de-
Fig. 14 Closing the cofferdam

over the crack.
cided to stop and put in some additional

stiffeners in more layers to get more
strength on the welds. The third time we
started deballasting everything went okay.
There was no further leak.
Georgiou added, Furthermore, during the course of repairs due to failure
of the reinforcements the original repair plan had to be reviewed twice and
extra stiffeners had to be fitted. This
proved the degree of difficulty of the job,
according to Georgiou.
Finally, just 27 days after work began,
the repair was finished with all stiffeners
and brackets in place and welded. Epoxy
38
MARCH 2012
was applied to prevent the welds from

rusting Fig. 16.
Another team worked on the inside
after the crack was made watertight and
the ballast tanks could be pumped out. It
was with this repair fully completed with
classification society approval that the
ship was able to sail.
External welding totaled approximately 500 m, an incredible amount of
welding for the given timeframe, particularly when one considers that most of it
was underwater and at considerable
depth. Shielded metal arc welding was
used throughout. Two welding machines
worked constantly, and there was a third

on standby as a backup. The equipment
is basically the same as is used above water
except that a different electrode, suitable
for underwater use, is employed.
The underwater external repair was
carried out by seven Hydrex welders working in shifts. The diving routine consisted
of two hours under the water followed by
a 21-min decompression stop at 3 m and
then a 4-h interval before diving again in
the afternoon, following the same routine.
The divers dove once or twice daily following the same routine, with two divers
in the water at the same time. All the
Fig. 15 A Additional reinforcement was added

to the repairs to ensure the welds would hold up
when the ballast tanks were emptied; B a closeup of the reinforcement.
divers used nitrox, a 40% oxygen/60% nitrogen mixture.

At the beginning, the divers worked at
a depth of 20 to 21 m. When the ballast
tanks were emptied and the ship came up
straight, recovering from its list, they were
working at 17 m.
Georgiou, who chose the repair company and the naval architects, was very
satisfied with the work and the results.
We had very good cooperation during
the entire period of repairs, he said of
the teamwork between European Navigation, the naval architect, and Hydrex. The
repair was successful, allowing the vessel
to sail to China; therefore, the quality of
the job was good. The job completed in
about 27 days, which was very close to
quoted time (24 days), but it should be
considered that additional reinforcement
had to be carried out, therefore the speed
was also satisfactory.
ship is 27 years old, she has several years

of service life ahead.
The vessel arrived at its port of destination for discharging doing good speed
despite encountering heavy weather and
without any damage to the repairs carried
out or any other damage, Chourdakis
said.
Georgiou said, Upon completion of
underwater repairs, some additional repairs/reinforcements carried out inside
the ballast tanks (according to the request
of naval architect) and the vessel was inspected by Class. Everything was found
okay and she resumed her voyage to China
to discharge her cargo. The ship arrived
in China after about 30 days voyage, without any problem or water ingress in the
ballast tanks during the voyage, and discharged/delivered all her cargo safely, at
the ports of Rizhao and Qingdao. The
provisional repairs carried out by Hydrex
at Khorfakkan anchorage enabled the vessel to perform the voyage to her destination safely.
The repairs to the Eleftheria K can be
considered a major accomplishment in the
field of underwater ship repair and a testimony to the skill and teamwork of the
ship operator, the naval architect, and the
divers/technicians who carried it off successfully.
Conclusion
The purpose of this repair to the Eleftheria K was to stop the leak, prevent buckling, and stop the cracks from spreading
so the ship could sail to where she could
discharge her full load and then go to drydock for permanent hull repair. The repair was warranted because although the
Fig. 16 The finished repair. The
welds were protected with epoxy to
prevent corrosion.
WELDING JOURNAL
39
FABTECH
Comes to
Canada
Discover innovative products and solutions

from leading suppliers, and exchange ideas
and find answers from industry experts at
the inaugural FABTECH Canada
A view of the Toronto skyline showing the landmark CN Tower. (Photo courtesy of Tourism Toronto.)
The land of maple leaves will host the

inaugural FABTECH Canada exhibition
March 2022 at the Toronto Congress
Centre. The center is located in the heart
of Canadas engineering and technology
region, and will be Canadas only exclusive
welding, fabricating, and metalforming
event. Sponsors of the event are the
American Welding Society, Society of
Manufacturing Engineers, and Fabricators & Manufacturers Association.
Following are just some of the reasons
why the show partners decided to establish FABTECH Canada and locate it in
Ontario.
Canada has an estimated 1.5 million
manufacturing professionals in industries ranging from automotive and energy to transportation and construction.
Canada has a large export industry.
Eighty percent of Ontarios exports are
to the United States.
Canada is the third largest exporter of
automotive products after Japan and
the United States, accounting for 16.7%
of North America vehicle production.
There are 11,160 fabrication companies
in Canada.
Welding represents about 75,000 jobs at
the technician and welding operator
40
MARCH 2012
level in Canada.
Forty-five percent of all construction
materials fabricated in Canada are
made out of metal; capital construction
indicates more than $100 billion of economic activity.
When you attend FABTECH Canada,
youll be able to see tools and technologies
from hundreds of companies at one time
and at one place; meet experts and your
professional peers; and get the opportunity
to attend expert-led educational sessions.
General Information
Location
Toronto Congress Centre
650 Dixon Rd., Toronto
Show Dates and Times

Tuesday, March 20, 10 a.m. to 6 p.m.
Wednesday, March 21, 10 a.m. to 6 p.m.
Thursday, March 22, 10 a.m. to 4 p.m.
Registration
Complimentary advanced registration
is available until Monday, March 19. Reg-
istration after March 19 is $30 (tax included).

Visitors must register to receive a show
badge to attend the event. For more information on registration, conferences,
and accommodations, go to www.fabtechcanada.com.
Featured Technologies
Following are just some of the technologies that youll see first-hand on the
show floor or that will be covered in the
conference sessions:
Arc Welding
Assembly
Bending and Forming
Brazing and Soldering
Coil Processing
Finishing
Fastening and Joining
Forging
Gases and Gas Equipment
Hydroforming
Inspection and Testing
Joining
Lasers
Lubrication
Material Handling
Maintenance and Repair

Metal Suppliers
Press Brakes
Plate & Structural Fabricating
Punching
Resistance Welding
Roll Forming
Robotics
Safety and Environmental
Software
Saws
Stamping
Stud Welding
Tool and Die
Tube and Pipe
Thermal Spraying
Tooling
Welding Consumables
Welding Machinery
Conferences
Prices range from $175 member/$200
nonmember for one session to $555 member/$645 nonmember for the full conference (four to five sessions). Nonmembers
who sign up for three or more conference
sessions receive a full one-year membership to the sponsoring organization of
their choice.
The Toronto harbourfront. Toronto and the province of Ontario form the center of Canadas
engineering and technology region. (Photo courtesy of Tourism Toronto.)
Conference at a Glance
Wednesday, March 21
10:15 AM 12:15 PM
Thursday, March 22
10:15 AM 12:15 PM
Fundamentals of Laser Welding
Essential Tips for Welding

Aluminum
The Future of the Welding

Industrys Workforce
Refill Friction Stir Spot Welding

Aluminum Filler Alloy Selections
Aluminum Welding Machine Selection
Green Stud Welding Saves Energy and Labor

Costs
Utilizing Technology to Address the Need for
a Manufacturing Workforce
Tuesday, March 20
Hot Wire Laser Cladding for

Life Cycle Cost Reduction
Comparative Cutting:
Advancements in Cutting
Laser Cutting Considerations for FirstTime
Buyers
Avancements in Plasma Cutting Process Op
timization Resulting from CuttoCut Cycle
Time Reduction
1:15 PM 3:15 PM
Preventing WeldAssociated
Cracking in NickelBased Alloys
Lasers: General to Advanced Laser
Cutting Considerations
Laser Processing Technology Today
NIR Laser Cutting Dynamics with High Beam
Quality
Fiber vs. CO2 Cutting
Tube & Pipe: Forming and

Fabricating Tube & Pipe
Tube and Pipe Mill Set Up
Laser Tube Cutting
1:15 PM 3:15 PM
10:15 AM 12:15 PM
Brake & Punch: Fabricating Sheet

Metal
Press Brakes
Press Brake Tooling
Press Brake Troubleshooting
HighPower Laser Applications in

Industry
Roll Forming: General to Advanced
Roll Forming Concepts
Advanced Roll Forming of Steel Framing
Components
Moden Lubricants for Roll Form Processes
WELDING JOURNAL
41
BY GIRARD A. MIRGAIN
(jmirgain@esab.com) is global product line
manager, Aluminum, ESAB AB, Rolla, Mo.
A Joint High-Speed Vessel

being launched at the Austal
yard in Mobile, Ala.
Welded Aluminum
on Ships
An Overview
The story of the use of welded aluminum

on ships is ever evolving
he news, in January, about cruise
ship Costa Concordia suffering a
long portside gash then tipping
aground off the coast of Italy reminded
the author of his 1976 line voyage from
Sydney, through the Panama Canal, to
Southampton aboard the SS America
Fig. 1. She was a typical ocean liner of the
time with riveted steel keel, frame, and
plates. Launched in 1939, America was
built using construction methods not substantially different from those used for the
Titanic some 30 years earlier (Table 1).
The Use of Aluminum in

Shipbuilding
The story of welded aluminum on ships
begins with the design and construction
of the SS United States Figs. 2, 3. Conceived and designed by Fredric and
William Gibbs as a 1000-ft express superliner, taking advantage of the technologies that had been rapidly evolving up to
and through WWII, SS United States was

an avant garde vessel. In addition to meeting all the criteria to become a competitive commercial ocean liner, she had to
be designed and built to rigid U.S. Navy
standards in order to qualify for substantial U.S. government capital subsidies as
an emergency auxiliary troop transporter.
Among the additional criteria set out for
this, she needed to be the following:
Fireproof. She would contain no wood
except butcher block and the pianos.
Aluminum was used extensively to replace most wooden items including
furniture.
Convertible within 48 hours into a transporter for 15,000 troops.
A Panamax vessel (just narrow
enough to transit the Panama Canal)
with a 10,000 nautical mile cruising
range at high speeds, and on a single
bunker of fuel.
Robust in combat, capable of enduring
a single bomb or torpedo hit and still be
able to move out of harms way. She
Fig. 1 The SS America in Papeete,

French Polynesia, in 1976.
WELDING JOURNAL
43
Table 1 Comparison of Three Ships

Vessel Name
LOA (ft)
Knots
Passengers
Shipyard
Commissioned/Flag
Owner
Hull/Superstructure
SS America
SS United States
636
990
22.5
3238
2440(a)
1930
Newport News USA

Newport News USA
1940/USA
1952/USA
All Riveted Steel

Welded Steel/Welded Alum.
MV Costa Concordia
925
2123
4300
Fincantieri Sestri Ponente
2006/Italy
United States Lines

United States Lines
Carnival Corp.(b)
Welded Steel/Welded Alum.
(a) Passenger numbers for SS America included large numbers of third-class steerage berths.
(b) London and Miami; traded on New York and London stock exchanges.
would be extensively compartmentalized and have two separate and independent engine rooms.
In describing the United States, her designer, William Francis Gibbs, said, You
cant set her on fire, you cant sink her,
and you cant catch her.
In an effort to conceal design secrets,
her keel was laid at Newport News Shipyard directly on the floor of a graving dock
so as not to be easily visible from a distance. As soon as the watertight hull construction was completed, the dry dock was
flooded to further conceal her commercial secrets. Her construction required
1500 miles of welds.
The United States had, for the first
time, 2000 tons of welded aluminum in
her superstructure; however, the superstructure was not all aluminum. The fore
and aft framing and some of the plating
were aluminum. This material all came
Fig. 2 (Left) A 1952 Alcoa magazine

ad for the SS United States (from
Alcoa/AlcoTec photo archives).
Fig. 3 (Right) The 55-ft welded
aluminum funnel of the SS United
States in 1952 (from Alcoa/AlcoTec
photo archives).
Fig. 4 (Bottom) The Aircomatic #1,
1948, the first manual GMAW wire
feeder. It was designed specifically for
welding aluminum. (From ESAB NA
photo archives, compliments of
Bob Bitzky.)
44
MARCH 2012
from Alcoa, which was developing filler

metals to weld such material. It is believed
the filler metal used for this project was
Alcoa XC56S, the great grandfather of AlcoTec Almigweld 5356.
The Heliarc process (gas tungsten
arc welding) had been developed during
WWII and was becoming commercially
available at the end of the war. It was skill
intensive, however, and slow. An entirely
new welding process was conceived and
developed to weld this comparatively massive aluminum SS United States superstructure. This process utilized inert gas
shielding as with Heliarc but instead of
a tungsten electrode, it used a continuously fed welding wire as the process electrode. The first commercial name for this
process was Aircomatic in 1948 Fig.
4. Later, of course, it became known as
metal inert gas welding (MIG), and now
is known as gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) since it is far more extensively

used now with active gas for welding, most
commonly, steel.
Technology is said to be autocatalytic.
It is interesting to recall that the particular convergence of technologies called up
for the SS United States project was also a
catalyst for development of the manually
operated, gas shielded continuous electric arc wire welding machines that dominate the world welding industry today.
The SS United States dominated its
realm for the remainder of the transAtlantic ocean liner era until the air travel
industry displaced the line voyage market.
Unfortunately, this early foray into
GMAW of aluminum ship superstructures
was not continued after SS United States
was launched. It was fully ten years later,
in 1962, before another ocean liner, the
SS France, was built that incorporated an
aluminum superstructure (1600 tons).
This gap is understandable since new concepts then needed to be developed in peripheral supporting industries and technologies:
Industrial gas companies needed to
retool and develop appropriate shielding gases along with handling, distribution, and control methods to support the
changing welding industry. In fact, industrial gas companies, with the most to gain,
assumed a lead in developing ever-better
welding equipment and some materials
to capture the GMAW business.
In conjunction with a newly reconstituted Aluminum Association, a new,
nationally agreed upon four-digit aluminum alloy numbering system was developed. This numbering system is now
used nearly worldwide (Russia being a notable exception).
New application-appropriate aluminum base materials needed to be developed along with companion alloys to
weld them. With a growing number of
base metal combinations, research
needed to be done for filler metals appropriate to many base metal combinations.
Aluminum welding wire showed
marked improvements in quality and consistency in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
In 1965, four years after the SS France
was commissioned, the author crewed on
Coast Guard Cutter Westwind, while in
Bethelehem Steel Shipyard, Baltimore,
Md., as she was fitted with an all-welded
telescoping aluminum flight hangar for
helicopters Fig. 5. It was in 1967, 15
years after SS United States was placed in
service, before the U.S. Coast Guard
commissioned its first Hamilton class cutter incorporating an all-welded aluminum superstructure.
Activity in Australia
Fig. 5 (Above) In 1965, the U.S.

Coast Guard Cutter Westwind was fitted
with a new aluminum helicopter hangar.
Fig. 6 (Left) Incat owner Robert Clifford poses with the Hales Trophy in
1990.
Fig. 7 (Bottom) The Incat yard utilizes
a uniform technique for all its aluminum
welding operations.
After U.S. Coast Guard military service and university studies, the author
moved in 1974 to Australia where he spent
the best part of 25 years in the welding industry. This article continues from that
geographical perspective.
The Blue Riband and the

Need for Speed
From Ambrose Light, N.Y., to Bishop
Rock, UK, was the measure for the ship
which shall, for the time being, have
crossed the Atlantic ocean at the highest
average speed. For 38 years, from 1952
until 1990, the Hales Trophy and the right
to fly the Blue Riband, belonged to the
SS United States. The concept was that the
aluminum superstructure reduced her
displacement and increased her resistance-to-power ratio and, therefore, her
speed. In June 1990, her record was finally beaten by an aluminum catamaran
WELDING JOURNAL
45
Fig. 8 (Below top) Incat mills

corner radii to avoid large-sized
fillet welds.
Fig. 9 (Right) An example of
tapering the thicker element of
dissimilar thickness butt joints and
use of a run-on tab.
Fig. 10 (Below bottom) A
Panamax-width ships transom
under construction.
ferry boat built in Hobart, Tasmania

Fig. 6. Since then, three vessels in succession, each built by Incat in Tasmania, have
taken this trophy. Average crossing speed
for the SS United States was 34.5 knots.
The current record average speed for the
latest Incat vessel is 41.3 knots.
A shipping accident in 1975 was Incats
genesis. Hobart, Tasmania, was cut in half
when a freighter took out a bridge pier
and section over the Durwent River.
Robert Clifford, whose initial responding
concept was better than his timing, began
work building a ferry to replace the missing river crossing. The ferry was not completed before the bridge was repaired.
This situation precipitated an alternative
46
MARCH 2012
concept: to build and sell catamaran ferry

boats to the world market. Hence, the
name International Catamaran, which
was subsequently shortened to Incat.
Some Incat Yard Concepts

Hiring carpenters and training them to
weld aluminum. It was reasoned that, at
least initially, in a relatively small city
located on a remote timber industry island, it would be easier to find and train
carpenters, who could already measure,
mark, and cut, to weld aluminum than
to find and retrain steel welders. An upside of this decision is that it was easier
to effect a uniform welding technique
and methodology throughout the yard.

Holding welding operators to be accountable as their own first-quality managers. The cost to remove and repair a
weld is far greater than correctly welding the first time.
Use of a single filler metal for all yard
aluminum welding applications reduces
inventory and shelf life, and eliminates
risk of an incorrect filler metal being
applied.
Demand standard welding preparation,
including aggressive cleaning to bright
bare metal.
Training and enforcing a uniform welding technique Fig. 7.
Using only equipment that can deliver
such welding technique.
Avoiding large-dimension fillet welds
whenever possible. Instead milling corner radii adjacent to double-V butt joint
welds Fig. 8.
Using run-on and run-off tabs in critical applications Fig. 9.
Tapering the thicker element of dissimilar thickness butt joints.
Develop and focus on a best-in-class design for the market and the real and intended capabilities of the yard, then
build only that design vessel.
Build vessels on spec. The risks were
high, mostly related to finance and inventory, but the potential gain was great.
Continuity of workforce and reduction
of skills and training costs.
Direct application of lessons learned for
continuous improvement.
Saving the one-time higher cost to build
the first vessel in a series.
Reduce time from order receipt to delivery and payment.
Reduce lost orders due to lead time.
Justification to build single-vessel
design-specific equipment and even
buildings.
Building a wide (Panamax beam) 1000ft-long assembly building (Fig. 10)
through which standard-width vessels
can progress as they are being assembled (stern first to sea) with shop floor
troughs for each hull that is flooded for
float-out launches Fig. 11.
Incat is currently building an LNG-powered vessel for service between Argentina
and Brazil Fig. 12. In this market, LNG
fuel is competitive with diesel, but the risks
are much lower for a spill in a situation such
as Costa Concordia finds itself.
The World Aluminum

Shipbuilding Market
Costa Concordia is a cruise ship owned
and operated by Costa Cruises, Italy,
which is in turn owned by Carnival Corp.,
which operates some 80 cruise ships
owned by the following companies:
Carnival Cruise Lines
Fig. 11 (Left) The companys 1000-ft-long

assembly building showing two vessels
under construction.
Fig. 12 (Right) The LNG-powered vessel Incat
under construction. The vessel will be in service
between Argentina and Brazil.
Holland America Line

Princess Cruises (owner of Sapphire
Princess Fig. 13)
Seabourn
Aida Cruises
Costa Cruises
Ibero Cruises
P&O Cruises (UK)
P&O Cruises (Australia).
The business concept of the Miamiand London-based owner is to build and
operate cruise ships with aluminum superstructures capable of carrying large

numbers of passengers on a holiday experience not very far and not very fast. These
ships are not made in the United States
nor even registered in the U.S.A., but the
concept that drives the business is to serve
a relatively affluent first-world market
such as the United States and Europe.
They are not made in U.S.A. but made
in the world.
The world cruise industry is an example to us that if the United States is to be

prominent in the world market, it must
produce made in the U.S.A. products
such as the great welded aluminum vessels being built at Austal, in Mobile, Ala.
(see lead photo). We need also to apply
our best efforts to ensure that a significant amount of the world market in shipbuilding and welding technology continues to be conceived in the U.S.A.
Fig. 13 The Sapphire Princess

is a sister ship to the MV Costa
Concordia, which recently ran
aground and capsized off the
coast of Italy.
WELDING JOURNAL
47
Build Your Own

Campfire Grill
By following 11 easy-tounderstand steps, you can

soon be barbecuing with a
unique, homemade grill
BY BOB PELKY
is a manufacturing/maintenance
technician with Miller Electric Mfg. Co.
(www.millerwelds.com), Appleton, Wis.
ne of the best ways for home shop enthusiasts and do-ityourselfers to hone their skills is to build projects that
are of interest to them. Some build tools and equipment
for their shop, while others build gadgets and accessories for
recreational vehicles. This article focuses on a project you can
do for fun in your home shop build your own campfire grill.
Most of the tripod-style campfire grills you find on the market today are cumbersome and unstable. This grill plan easily disassembles to allow for efficient use of space when traveling, and
the grill grate is adjustable to just the right height for the heat
level you need. Easy-to-build accessory holders and handles complete the package.
To build your own grill, use the following directions. In addition, to serve as a visual aide, the drawing plans can be downloaded at Millerwelds.com/interests/projects/campfire-grill-stand/.
Materials Needed
Here is a list of the materials you will need to build your campfire grill. Much of this can be found at your local steel supply
store.
(3) 3-ft-long, 134-in. square tubes
(1) 334-ft-long, 134-in. square tube
(4) 8-in.-long, 134-in. square tubes
(1) 1-ft-long, 134-in. square tube
(4) 6-in.-long, 112-in. square tubes
(1) 8-in.-long, 112-in. square tube
(2) 1914-in.-long, 18- 1- 1-in. angle irons
48
MARCH 2012
(2) 2114-in.-long, 18- 1- 1-in. angle irons

(2) 10-in.-long, 14- 1-in. flat irons
(2) 8-in.-long, -in. rods
(3) 3-in.-long, 18-in. rods
(6) 516- 1-in. bolts
(6) matching nuts
(4) matching washers
(2) 1012- 19-in. replacement gas grill grates
(2) 6-in.-long, 112-in. wood dowels
Tools Required
For this project, gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is recommended. You will need a GMAW machine in the 140-A range
a light-duty unit you will find in many home shops. It is also recommended that you follow all proper safety measures by wearing an autodarkening or other type of helmet, a welding jacket,
and welding gloves. Make sure to wear safety glasses at all times
as well.
Additional tools you will need are as follows:
C-clamps
Horizontal band saw (or cutoff wheel in your grinding tool
or hand-held band saw)
412-in. grinding tool
Drill or drill press
516 drill bits
-in. wrench
Hammer
Ruler.
Construction Steps
Building the Base
Step 1: On one piece of 36-in., 1-in. tubing, drill two 516-in.
holes starting 1 in. from each end, spaced 1 in. apart, and weld
in 516-in. nuts. On the same side as the holes, weld 112-in. square
tubing to the center of the tube.
Step 2: Weld the remaining two pieces of the 1-in. square
tubing to the ends of the two pieces of 134-in. square tubing.
Step 3: Piece together completed sides to finish the base.
Building the Upright Frame

Step 4: Drill two 516-in. holes in one end of the 134- 45-in. tubing. Weld the 516-in. nuts into holes. Clamp the 45-in. piece to the
bench to prevent warping when welding. Measuring 12 in. up
from the bottom, weld each 8- 1-in. square tube to the base,
spaced 4 in. apart.
Step 5: Assemble to the base and firmly snug all bolts.
Building the Grill Grate Frame

Step 6: Saw the corners of the angles to 45 deg.
Step 7: Weld the square frame together. Weld 1-in. square
to the center of the 21-in. side.
Step 8: Weld the - 1-in. flat onto the angle along the sides
of the 112-in. square for strength.
Step 9: Weld on two 516-in. washers to each side 3 in. apart
to attach the handles.
Building the Accessory Holder

Step 10: Drill two 516-in. holes in the 1-in. square tubing 2
in. apart for the handles. Weld 1-in. square to the opposite ends
of the holes. Bend three pieces of 18-in. square rod to form hooks
and weld to the side for cooking utensils.
Building the Grill Grate Handles

Step 11: Drill a -in. hole in the center of each dowel end.
Pound the rods into place to create handles.
At this stage, you have built the entire structure. You can now
brush all exposed welds smooth and paint as desired. The grill
grates can be found at most hardware or home warehouse-style
stores.
You are now ready to take the grill with you on your next
camping trip, or simply set it up in your backyard for your next
barbecue.
STEP 1
STEP 2
STEP 3
STEP 4
continued on next page
WELDING JOURNAL
49
STEP 5
STEP 6
STEP 7
STEP 8
STEP 9
STEP 10
STEP 11
STEP 11
50
MARCH 2012
New AWS Spec Details Flux Cored and

Metal Cored Electrodes
BY DENNIS CROCKETT
A new document introduces an open classification system to address

new electrode types and alternate weld deposit requirements
Flux cored electrodes used for flux cored arc welding (FCAW)
can be either gas shielded or self-shielded (no external shielding
required). These tubular electrodes typically contain a fill mixture having nonmetallic components comprising 5 to 15% of the
total electrode weight. Carbon steel flux cored electrodes for
FCAW are currently classified under AWS A5.20/A5.20M, Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding.
Low-alloy steel flux cored electrodes are classified under AWS
A5.29/A5.29M, Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes for
Flux Cored Arc Welding.
Metal cored electrodes used for gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) are always gas shielded. Like flux cored electrodes,
metal cored electrodes are composite tubular electrodes with a
fill mixture containing both metallic and nonmetallic components. However, the fill mixture in metal cored electrodes contains a relatively small amount of nonmetallic components, usually less than 2% of the total electrode weight. Carbon steel metal
cored electrodes are currently classified under AWS
A5.18/A5.18M, Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes and Rods
for Gas Shielded Arc Welding. Low-alloy metal cored electrodes
are classified under AWS A5.28/A5.28M, Specification for LowAlloy Steel Electrodes and Rods for Gas Shielded Arc Welding.
It is important to note that these four specifications utilize
classification systems developed years ago. These are fixed classification systems with defined requirements for weld metal tensile strength, Charpy V-notch toughness, condition of heat treatment, etc. While still useful for the majority of applications, they
do not adequately provide for the classification of electrodes designed for enhanced weld metal properties, for use with other
commonly used shielding gases, for alternate conditions of heat
treatment, or for use with advanced power sources.
New AWS A5.36/A5.36M Specification

To address the issues noted above, the AWS A5 Committee on
Filler Metals and Allied Materials has authorized the issuance of a
new specification. This new document, developed by the AWS A5M
Subcommittee, will be issued as AWS A5.36/A5.36M, Specification
for Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Flux Cored Electrodes for Flux Cored
Arc Welding and Metal Cored Electrodes for Gas Metal Arc Welding.
Listed below are the major features of this document:
Provides for the classification of both the carbon steel flux

cored electrodes and low-alloy steel flux cored electrodes previously classified under AWS A5.20/A5.20M and AWS
A5.29/A5.29M, respectively
Transfers to this document for classification the carbon steel
metal cored electrodes and low-alloy steel metal cored electrodes previously classified under AWS A5.18/A5.18M and
AWS A5.28/A5.28M, respectively
DENNIS CROCKETT (denniscrockett@att.net) is chair, AWS A5M Subcommittee on Carbon and LowAlloy Steel Electrodes for Flux
Cored Arc Welding and Metal Cored Electrodes for Gas Metal Arc Welding.
WELDING JOURNAL
51
Table 1 Electrode Classications Utilizing the Fixed Classication System

Classication
E7XT1C(a)
Shielding Gas
Electrode Type
(Previously Classied Under)
E7XT1M
E7XT5C
E7XT5M
E7XT6
E7XT8
E7XT9C
E7XT9M
E7XT12C
E7XT12M
E70T4
E7XT7
CO2
7585 Ar/bal CO2
CO2
7585 Ar/bal CO2
None (self shielded)
CO2
7585 Ar/bal CO2
CO2
7585 Ar/bal CO2
E70C6M
7585 Ar/bal CO2
Introduces an open classification system to address new electrode types and

alternate weld deposit requirements.
This classification system is similar to
the system already used in AWS specifications for the classification of submerged arc flux and electrode combinations. The flux cored and metal cored
electrodes covered by the A5.36 specification utilize a classification system(s)
based upon U.S. Customary Units.
Electrodes covered by the A5.36M
specification utilize a system(s) based
upon the International System of Units
(SI). For the purpose of discussion, specific examples are given only in U.S.
Customary Units.
Fixed Classification System

The fixed classification system has
been carried over or grandfathered into
this specification from AWS A5.20/
A5.20M (carbon steel flux cored electrodes) or from AWS A5.18/A5.18M (carbon steel metal cored electrodes) for the
classification of those electrodes which,
with the specific mechanical properties
specified for them in A5.20/A5.20M or
A5.18/A5.18M, have gained wide acceptance for single-pass and multiple-pass applications. These electrodes represent the
majority of the market. The classifications
of these electrodes for which the fixed
classification system has been retained are
given in Table 1.
52
MARCH 2012
X4 is the shielding gas designator (refer

to Table 5 in AWS A5.36/A5.36M)
X5 designates the condition of heat
treatment (A for as welded, P for
postweld heat treated)
Flux Cored
(AWS A5.20)
X6 is the impact designator (refer to

Table 3 in AWS A5.36/A5.36M)
X7 is the deposit composition designator(refer to Table 6 in AWS A5.36/
A5.36M)
Metal Cored
(AWS A5.18)
(a) The X indicates the position of welding capability. A 0 is used to indicate at and horizontal
only. A 1 is used to indicate allposition capability.
Retains the fixed classification system

for those carbon steel flux cored and
metal cored electrodes for which there
is wide acceptance with their existing
classification requirements
TX3 is the electrode usability designator (refer to Table 4 in AWS A5.36/

A5.36M)
Open Classification System

The flux cored and metal cored electrodes classified utilizing the open classification system are classified based upon
the following:
1. The mechanical properties of the
weld metal. (The A5.36 document offers
the choice of eight different strength levels and eleven options for Charpy V-notch
impact strength.)
2. The positions of welding for which
the electrode is suitable.
3. Certain usability characteristics of
the electrode, including the presence or
absence of a shielding gas. (Three new
electrode types, based upon usability, are
introduced in A5.36.)
4. The nominal composition of the
shielding gas, if any. (The list of classification shielding gases, as defined in AWS
A5.32/A5.32M, has been expanded in
A5.36.)
The condition of postweld heat treatment (PWHT), if any.
5. Chemical composition of the weld
metal.
The classification designation system
for flux cored and metal cored carbon and
low-alloy steel electrodes under AWS
A5.36/A5.36M follows.
EX1X2TX3 X4X5X6 X7 where,
E designates an electrode
X1 is the tensile strength designator
(refer to Table 2 in AWS A5.36/
A5.36M)
X2 is the position designator (0 for
flat and horizontal, 1 for all position)
The provision is made in the A5.36/

A5./36M specification for three different,
optional supplemental designators that
can be added to the end of the classification designation. It is important to note
that these do not constitute part of the
classification designation but are optional
designators that can be added to indicate
conformance to supplemental requirements. These optional designators are the
diffusible hydrogen designator (HX) and
the D or Q designators. The D and Q designators are used to indicate that the weld
metal will meet supplemental mechanical
property requirements when deposited
under special welding procedures as specified for seismic applications (D designator) or for military applications (Q designator).
The following are examples utilizing
the open classification system in AWS
A5.36.
E71T1-C1A2-CS1-H4. The complete
classification designation for this electrode is E71T1-C1A2-CS1. It refers to an
all-position, flux cored electrode that,
when used with C1 (CO2) shielding gas
and welded under the conditions prescribed in this specification, will produce
weld metal in the as-welded condition having a tensile strength of 7095 ksi and
Charpy V-notch impact strength of at least
20 ft-lbf at 20F. The weld deposit will
meet the CS1 carbon steel composition
requirements. The H4 is not part of the
electrode classification designation but is
an optional, supplemental designator indicating the weld metal will have a maximum average diffusible hydrogen of 4
mL/100 g of deposited weld metal when
tested under the conditions of the AWS
A5.36 specification.
E80T5-M21P6-Ni2. This is a complete classification designation for a flat
and horizontal flux cored electrode that,
when used with M21 shielding gas (see
Table 5 of AWS A5.36) under the conditions prescribed in the AWS A5.36 specification, will produce weld metal in the
postweld heat-treated condition having a
tensile strength of 80100 ksi and Charpy

V-notch impact strength of at least 20 ftlbf at 60F. The weld deposit composition conforms to the Ni2 composition requirements (see Table 6 of AWS A5.36).
E71T8-A4-Ni1. This is a complete classification designation for a self-shielded (no
shielding gas designator appears), all-position flux cored electrode. It refers to an electrode that will produce weld metal that,
when tested under the conditions prescribed in the AWS A5.36 specification, will
have a tensile strength of 7095 ksi and
Charpy V-notch impact strength of at least
20 ft-lbf at 40F in the as-welded condition. The weld deposit composition conforms to the Ni1 composition requirements
for self-shielded electrodes.
E90T15-M22A2-D2. This is a complete classification designation for a flat and
horizontal metal cored electrode. It refers
to a metal cored electrode that, when used
with M22 shielding gas (see Table 5 of AWS
A5.36) under the conditions prescribed in
this specification, will produce weld metal
in the as-welded condition with a tensile
strength of 90110 ksi and Charpy V-notch
impact strength of at least 20 ft-lbf at 20F.
The weld deposit composition conforms to
the D2 composition requirements (see
Table 6 of AWS A5.36).
E80T15S-M20. This is a complete
classification designation for a single-pass

(only) metal cored electrode. Under the
welding and testing conditions prescribed
in the AWS A5.36 specification, this metal
cored electrode, when used with M20
shielding gas (see Table 5 of AWS A5.36)
will produce weld metal having a minimum tensile strength of 80 ksi.
Dual Classification
Considerations
Electrodes classified under one classification shall not be classified under any
other classification in this specification
with the exception of the following:
1. The electrodes classified utilizing the
fixed classification system under A5.36 (as
shown in Table 1) may also be classified
utilizing the open classification system.
2. Electrodes may be classified using
different shielding gases.
3. Electrodes may be classified both in
the as-welded and in the postweld heat
treated (PWHT) conditions.
4. Electrodes may be classified under
A5.36 using U.S. Customary Units, or
under A5.36M using the International
System of Units (SI), or both. Standard
dimensions based on either system may
be used for sizing of electrodes or pack-
aging, or both, under the A5.36 and

A5.36M specifications. Electrodes classified under either A5.36 or A5.36M must
meet all requirements for classification
under that unit system.
It is recognized that the documentation required by manufacturers, end users,
and code bodies to transition from the
classification of flux cored and metal
cored electrodes from their previous classifications under AWS A5.20/A5.20M,
AWS A5.29/A5.29M, AWS A5.18/
A5.18M, or AWS A5.28/A2.28M, as applicable, to their new classification designations under AWS A5.36/A5.36M requires a provision for a transition period.
Therefore, flux cored electrodes may be
classified under AWS A5.20/A5.20M (or
AWS A5.29/A5.29M, as applicable),
under AWS A5.36/A5.36M, or under
both. Metal cored electrodes may be classified under AWS A5.18/A5.18M (or AWS
A5.28/A5.28M, as applicable), under
AWS A5.36/A5.36M, or under both. Manufacturers, at their option, may list both
electrode classifications on the labels and
packaging. The provision for dual classification provided in the specification
expires at the end of year 2015. At that
time classification to AWS A5.36/A5.36M
is required.
WELDING JOURNAL
53
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and Definitions
Alphabetical glossary of over 1,400 standard terms and
definitions for welding, brazing, soldering, resistance
welding, etc., as well as hybrid processes. Each term has
one clearly applicable definition, accurately reflecting
the terms use in the joining world. Includes figures to
illustrate the use of terms. For completeness, nonstandard terms are also included. Contains a Master Chart of
Welding and Allied Processes, and the Joining Method
Chart. 160 pages, 62 figures, 5 tables (2010).
A3.0
$164/$123
B1.10M/B1.10:2009, Guide for the

Nondestructive Examination of Welds
Addresses which examination method visual, liquid
penetrant, magnetic particle, radiographic, ultrasonic,
electromagnetic (eddy current), or leak testing best
detects various types of discontinuities. Note: Does not
address acceptance criteria. 64 pages, 30 figures, 4
tables, (2009), fourth edition.
B1.10
$104/$78
B1.11:2000, Guide for the Visual

Examination of Welds
Provides guidance on visual examination of welds,
including sections on prerequisites, fundamentals, surface conditions, and equipment. Sketches and color photographs illustrate common weld discontinuities. 48
pages, 3 annexes, 48 figures, (2000).
B1.11
$104/$78
B2.1/B2.1M:2009, Specification for

Welding Procedure and Performance
Qualification
Covers all fusion welding processes and an exhaustive
array of materials used in metal fabrication. Specifies
requirements for the qualification of welding procedures,
and for performance qualification of welders and welding operators for manual, semiautomatic, mechanized,
and automatic welding. 298 pages, 43 figures, 25
tables, 5 forms (2009).
B2.1
$240/$180
B4.0:2007, Standard Methods for

Mechanical Testing of Welds
Describes the most common mechanical test methods
applicable to welds and welded joints. Each test method
gives details concerning specimen preparation, test
parameters, testing procedures, and suggested report
forms. Acceptance criteria are not included. Three new

weldability tests (WIC, trough, and GBOP) and resistance
weld tests have been included in this new edition. (Note:
Joint tests for brazements are covered in AWS
C3.2M/C3.2.) U.S. Customary Units. 152 pages, 97
figures, (2007).
B4.0
$104/$78
432130/./-4,1C1.1M/C1.1:2012,
Recommended Practices for Resistance
Welding
Covers spot, seam, projection, flash, and upset welding,
as well as weld bonding for uncoated and coated carbon
and low-alloy steels, aluminum alloys, stainless steels,
nickel, nickel-base alloys, cobalt-base alloys, copper and
alloys, and titanium and alloys. Details equipment and
setup, welding variables, joint preparation, cleaning,
welding schedules and parameters, weld quality testing,
safety, and health. Approx. 116 pages, (2012).
C1.1
CALL FOR PRICE
+*)(',(&%&$1#"! ""1!!"1
"1"12"$1+$11"
!""
Covers common applications of the process, including
drilling and transformation hardening. Describes
equipment and procedures. Practical information,
including figures and tables, should prove useful in
determining capabilities in the processing of various
materials. 142 pages, 85 figures, 8 tables, (2010).
C7.2
$100/$75
0%)(0%)(',(&&$1
!12"1+ "
Covers welding requirements for any type of structure
made from aluminum structural alloys, except
aluminum pressure vessels and fluid-carrying pipelines.
Includes sections on design of welded connections,
procedure and performance qualification, fabrication,
inspection, stud welding, and strengthening and repair
of existing structures. A commentary offers guidance on
interpreting and applying the code. 226 pages, 59
figures, 24 tables, (2008).
D1.2
$200/$150
D9.1M/D9.1:2006,
Sheet Metal Welding Code
Covers arc and braze welding requirements for nonstructural sheet metal fabrications using commonly welded
metals available in sheet form up to and including 3
gauge, or 6.4 mm (0.250 in.). Applications of the code
include heating, ventilating, and air conditioning systems, food processing equipment, architectural sheet
metal, and other nonstructural sheet metal applications.
Sections include procedure and performance qualification, workmanship, and inspection. Nonmandatory
annexes provide useful information on materials and
processes. Not applicable when negative or positive pressure exceeds 30 kPa (5 psi). 70 pages, 29 figures, 10
tables, (2006).
D9.1
$72/$54
D14.1/D14.1M:2005, Specification for

Welding of Industrial and Mill Cranes and
Other Material Handling Equipment
Specifies requirements for welding of all principal structural weldments and all primary welds used to manufacture cranes for industrial, mill, powerhouse, and nuclear
facilities. Also applies to other overhead material-handling machinery and equipment that support and transport loads within the design rating, vertically or
horizontally, during normal operations. Additionally,
when agreed upon between the owner and manufacturer,
it may apply to loading caused by abnormal operations
or environmental events, such as seismic loading. All
provisions apply equally to strengthening and repairing
of existing overhead cranes and material handling
equipment. Contains figures and tables with prequalified
joint details, allowable stress ranges, stress categories,
and nondestructive examination techniques. Does not
apply to construction or crawler cranes or welding of
rails. 150 pages, 60 figures, 21 tables (2005).
D14.1
$104/$78
D17.1:2010, Specification for Fusion

Welding for Aerospace Applications
Specifies general welding requirements for welding aircraft and space hardware. Includes fusion welding of
aluminum-based, nickel-based, iron-based, cobaltbased, magnesium-based, and titanium-based alloys
using arc and high energy beam welding processes.
Includes sections on design of welded connections, personnel and procedure qualification, fabrication, inspection, repair of existing structures and nonflight hardware
acceptance. Additional requirements cover repair welding
of existing hardware. 98 pages, 7 annexes, commentary, 33 figures, 18 tables, (2011).
D17.1
$160/$120
WI:2000, Welding Inspection Handbook

This invaluable training reference helps inspectors, engineers, and welders evaluate the difference between discontinuities and rejectable defects. 254 pages 18
chapters, index, 108 figures, 16 tables, 61/2" x 9",
(2000), third edition.
WI
$76/$57
WIT-T:2008, Welding Inspection Technology

For at-home study, this official reference textbook for the
three-day AWS core seminar for CWI exam preparation is
readable, informative, and comprehensive. 329 pages,
10 chapters, 379 figures and photographs, (2008).
WIT-T
$272/$204
Brazing Handbook
A comprehensive, organized survey of the basics of brazing, processes, and applications. Addresses the fundamentals of brazing, brazement design, brazing filler
metals and fluxes, safety and health, and many other
topics. Includes new chapters on induction brazing and
diamond brazing. A must-have for all brazers, brazing
engineers, and students. 740 pages, 36 chapters, 3
appendices, 308 figures, 116 reference tables, fifth
edition, (2007).
BRH
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$136/$102
CONFERENCES
Automated Welding Conference
March 6, 7
Orlando, Fla.
Talks will be given on a variety of topics, including tandem arc
welding, hybrid welding, several hot wire processes, and the new
SAT process from Sweden, as well as presentations on the latest
in networking, laser beam welding, welding of aluminum, robotic
inspection, and friction stir welding. Speakers will also discuss
U.S. Army challenges, such as GMAW of titanium and the welding of ballistic steels.
FABTECH Canada
March 2022
Toronto, Canada
With the growing success of FABTECH, North Americas
largest metal forming, fabricating, welding, and finishing event,
comes the launch of FABTECH Canada, located in the heart of
Canadas engineering and technology region. This is the only exclusive fabricating, welding, and metal forming event in Canada.
International Electron Beam

Welding Conference
March 2630
Aachen, Germany
The second International Electron Beam Welding Conference (IEBW) will bring together scientists, engineers, and technical personnel from around the globe involved in the research,
development, and application of electron beam welding
processes. IEBW is organized by the American Welding Society, German Welding Society, and International Institute of
Welding.
5th International Brazing &

Soldering Conference
April 2225
Las Vegas, Nev.
Join hundreds of other professionals, scientists, and engineers
from around the globe involved in the research, development,
and application of brazing and soldering. The four-day conference will provide one of the most comprehensive technical programs available to the brazing and soldering community, as well
as valuable networking, preconference educational programs,
and exhibits where attendees can find out more about the latest
trends, products, processes, and techniques available in the brazing and soldering industry.
The Energy Boom:

Get on the Bandwagon
June 12, 13
San Diego, Calif.
The demands for new and improved welding technology from
the expanding energy markets are starting to pay off in the development of superior hybrid welding processes, new filler metals, and a host of cladding procedures. These technologies are
showing up in nuclear power plants, in coal-fired utilities, and
especially in new 1700-mile-long pipelines designed to bring oil
and natural gas to American markets. On the agenda are talks
on Lincoln Electrics new laser hot wire cladding process and the
ICE process from ESAB in Sweden that is intended for windpower fabrication. Other topics will include the successes of the
new P87 filler metal, the variety of applications for explosion
welding, and, from Edison Welding Institute, a close look at the
less-expensive plasma/GMA hybrid welding process.
15th Annual Aluminum

Welding Conference
September 18, 19
Seattle, Wash.
A panel of distinguished aluminum industry experts will
survey the state of the art in aluminum welding technology and
practice.
The 15th Aluminum Welding Conference will also provide
several opportunities to network informally with speakers and
other participants, as well as an exhibition showcasing products
and services of interest to the aluminum welding industry.
Aluminum lends itself to a wide variety of industrial applications because of its light weight, high strength-to-weight ratio,
corrosion resistance, and other attributes. However, because its
chemical and physical properties are different from those of steel,
welding of aluminum requires special processes, techniques, and
expertise.
FABTECH 2012
November 1214
Las Vegas, Nev.
North Americas largest metal forming, fabricating, welding,
and finishing event heads to the Las Vegas Convention Center.
If your job requires you to look for new ways to work smarter,
operate leaner, and boost productivity, then you and your team
need to attend FABTECH. Make plans now to attend your industrys main event and youll find the products, resources, and
ideas to strengthen your business and achieve your manufacturing goals.
For more information, please contact the AWS Conferences and Seminars Business Unit at (800) 443-9353, ext. 264, or e-mail
zoliva@aws.org. You can also visit the Conference Department Web site at www.aws.org/conferences for upcoming conferences and
registration information.
60
MARCH 2012
COMING
EVENTS
NOTE: A DIAMOND ( ) DENOTES AN AWS-SPONSORED EVENT.
Automated Welding Conf. March 6, 7. Orlando, Fla. Topics include laser, tandem arc, and hybrid welding; several hot wire
processes; the new SAT process; networking; welding aluminum;
robotic inspection; and friction stir welding. Sponsored by the
American Welding Society. www.aws.org/conferences.
FABTECH Canada 2012. March 2022. Toronto Congress Centre, Toronto, Ont., Canada. Sponsored by the American Welding
Society, Society of Manufacturing Engineers, and Fabricators &
Manufacturers Association, Intl. A one-stop venue for welding,
lasers, fabricating, metalforming, and other technologies tailored
to the needs of Canadian manufacturing industries. Visit
www.fabtechcanada.com; show updates will be posted on Twitter
and LinkedIn.
2nd Intl Electron Beam Welding Conf. March 2630. Aachen,

Germany. Cosponsored by AWS, the German Welding Society,
and Intl Institute of Welding. www.aws.org/conferences.
Tube 2012, Intl Tube and Pipe Trade Fair. March 2630. The Fairgrounds, Dsseldorf, Germany. To exhibit in the North American
Pavilion, contact Messe Dsseldorf North America, (312) 7815180; FAX (312) 781-5188; www.mdna.com.
WESTEC 2012. March 2729, Los Angeles Convention Center,
Los Angeles, Calif. Sponsored by the Society of Manufacturing
Engineers. www.westeconline.com.
Japan Intl Welding Show 2012. April 1114. Intex Osaka, Osaka,
Japan. Sponsored by The Japan Welding Engineering Society and

Sanpo Publications, Inc. Visit www.weldingshow.jp/english/.
NASCC, North American Steel Construction Conf. April 1820.
Gaylord
Texan
Convention
Center,
Dallas,
Tex.
www.aisc.org/nascc.
5th Intl Brazing and Soldering Conf. April 2225. Red Rock
Casino Resort Spa, Las Vegas, Nev. A joint activity of the American Welding Society and ASM International, it will bring together scientists and engineers from around the world who are involved in the research, development, and application of brazing
and soldering. www.asminternational.org/IBSC.
GAWDA Spring Management Conf. April 28May 1. Baltimore
Marriott Waterfront, Baltimore, Md. Gases and Welding Distributors Assn. www.gawda.org/spring-management-conferences-2012.
Offshore Technology Conf. April 30May 3. Reliant Park, Houston, Tex. www.otc.org/2012.
AWS Weldmex. May 24. Mexico City, Mexico. Sponsored by the

American Welding Society, the event will focus on welding and
cutting products, including thermal spray, metal finishing, and
safety equipment. The show co-locates with Metalform Mexico
and FABTECH Mexico. www.weldmex.com.
Manufacturing 4 the Future. May 810, Connecticut Convention
Center, Hartford, Conn. Sponsored by the Society of Manufacturing Engineers. www.mfg4event.com.
TECHNICAL TRAINING
Th Hobart Institute
The
In
off Welding Technology
offers
fe our comprehensiv
nsive Technical Training
courses through the year
ar! Upcoming start-dates:
Prep fo
for AWS Certifi
fied Welding
W
Supervisor Exam
Apr 30 : Nov 12
Prep fo
for AWS Welding Inspect
Ins
or/Educator
/E
Exam
Welder training and qualification coupons
Apr 9 : May 14 : Jun 18 : Jul 23 : Sep 10 : Oct 22
Visual Inspection
Ins
Sep 5 : Nov 19
Destructive test equipment

Full testing services
Welding fo
for the Non Welder
Apr 2 : Jun 4 : Aug 27 : Sep 24
Arc Welding Inspect

nspection & Quality Control
May 7 : Jun 11 : Jul
Ju 16 : Oct 8 : Nov 26
Welding Inst
Instructor
t
Course
Course
Ju 9
Jul
Liquid Penetrant & Magnetic Particle Inspection

Mar 26 : Apr 23 : Aug 13 : Nov 5
1-800-332-9448
or visit us at www.weldi
ding.org
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for more inf
nformation.
2012 Hobart Institute of Welding
Technology, Troy, OH
Stt. of Ohio Reg. No. 70-12-0064HT
62
MARCH 2012
9th Intl Laser Technology Congress AKL 12. May 911. Aachen,
Germany. www.lasercongress.org/en/index.html.
Montreal Manufacturing Technology Show. May 1416, Place
Bonaventure, Montreal, QC, Canada. Sponsored by the Society
of Manufacturing Engineers. www.mmts.ca.
Intl Tube and Pipe Trade Fair and Aluminum/Non-Ferrous Trade
Fair. May 2831. ZAO Expocenter, Moscow, Russia. Organized
by Messe Dsseldorf Moscow and Metal-Expo. Contact Messe
Dsseldorf North America, (312) 781-5180, www.mdna.com.
SME Annual Conf. June 35, Cleveland Marriott Downtown
Hotel, Cleveland, Ohio. Sponsored by the Society of Manufacturing Engineers. www.sme.org/conference.
17th Beijing-Essen Welding and Cutting Fair. June 47. New
China Intl Exhibition Centre, Beijing, China. www.cmes.org/
essen/en/index.htm.
North American Manufacturing Research Conf. (NAMRC). June
48, University of Notre Dame, South Bend, Ind. Sponsored by
the Society of Manufacturing Engineers. www.sme.org/namrc.
Global Petroleum Show. June 1214. Stampede Park, Calgary,
Alb., Canada. http://globalpetroleumshow.com.
The Energy Boom: Get on the Bandwagon. June 12, 13, San
Diego, Calif. Sponsored by the American Welding Society.
www.aws.org/conferences.
Optimizing Operations through Continuous Improvement Conf.
June 2628. Loews Vanderbilt Hotel, Nashville, Tenn. Sponsored by
Tube & Pipe Assn., Intl; UK-based Intl Tube Assn.; and Fabricators
& Manufacturers Assn., Intl; www.pipetubeconf.com/nashville.
Educational Opportunities
Machinery Vibrations, Introduction. March 2023, Indianapolis,
Ind. Fee $1025. Vibration Institute, www.vibinst.org.
Canadian Welding Bureau Courses. Welding inspection courses
and preparation courses for Canadian General Standards Board
and Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission certifications. The
CWB Group. www.cwbgroup.org.
Art Using Welding Technology Classes and Workshops. Miami,
Fla. With artist and sculptor Sandra Garcia-Pardo. Meet the
artist at www.theartlink.org; (786) 547-8681.
ASM Intl Courses. Numerous classes on welding, corrosion, failure analysis, metallography, heat treating, etc., presented in
Materials Park, Ohio, online, webinars, on-site, videos, and
DVDs; www.asminternational.org, search for courses.
Automotive Body in White Training for Skilled Trades and
Engineers. Orion, Mich. A five-day course covers operations,
troubleshooting, error recovery programs, and safety procedures
for automotive lines and integrated cells. Applied Mfg.
Technologies; (248) 409-2000; www.appliedmfg.com.
Basic and Advanced Welding Courses. Cleveland, Ohio. The
Lincoln Electric Co.; www.lincolnelectric.com.
Basics of Nonferrous Surface Preparation. Online course, six
hours includes exam. Offered on the 15th of every month by The
Society for Protective Coatings. Register at www.sspc.org/training.
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors Training Courses and
Seminars. Columbus, Ohio; www.nationalboard.org; (614) 8888320.
WELDING JOURNAL
63
CERTIFICATION
SCHEDULE
AWS Certification Schedule
Certification Seminars, Code Clinics, and Examinations
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)
SEMINAR DATES
LOCATION
Indianapolis, IN
Mar. 1116
Portland, OR
Mar. 1116
Phoenix, AZ
Mar. 1116
Boston, MA
Mar. 1823
Anchorage, AK
Mar. 1823
Chicago, IL
Mar. 1823
Mobile, AL
Exam only
Rochester, NY
Exam only
York, PA
Exam only
Miami, FL
Mar. 2530
Miami, FL
Exam only
Knoxville, TN
Exam only
Dallas, TX
Apr. 1520
St. Louis, MO
Exam only
Springfield, MO
Apr. 1520
Portland, ME
Apr. 1520
Las Vegas, NV
Apr. 1520
San Francisco, CA
Apr. 29May 4
Nashville, TN
Apr. 29May 4
Jacksonville, FL
Apr. 29May 4
Waco, TX
Exam only
Baltimore, MD
May 611
Detroit, MI
May 611
Albuquerque, NM
May 611
Corpus Christi, TX
May 611
Miami, FL
May 611
Miami, FL
Exam only
Long Beach, CA
Exam only
Spokane, WA
June 38
Oklahoma City, OK
June 38
Birmingham, AL
June 38
Hartford, CT
June 1015
Pittsburgh, PA
June 1015
Beaumont, TX
June 1015
Miami, FL
Exam only
Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)

EXAM DATE
Mar. 17
Mar. 17
Mar. 17
Mar. 24
Mar. 24
Mar. 24
Mar. 24
Mar. 24
Mar. 24
Mar. 31
Apr. 12
Apr. 14
Apr. 21
Apr. 21
Apr. 21
Apr. 21
Apr. 21
May 5
May 5
May 5
May 5
May 12
May 12
May 12
May 12
May 12
May 19
May 26
June 9
June 9
June 9
June 16
June 16
June 16
Aug. 18
9Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI

For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education requirements without taking the exam. The exam can be taken at any site
listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
SEMINAR DATES
EXAM DATE
LOCATION
Dallas, TX
Mar. 1217
No exam
Miami, FL
Apr. 1621
No exam
Sacramento, CA
Apr. 30May 5
No exam
Pittsburgh, PA
June 49
No exam
San Diego, CA
July 914
No exam
Miami, FL
July 1621
No exam
Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)
SEMINAR DATES
LOCATION
New Orleans, LA
Apr. 1620
Minneapolis, MN
July 1620
CWS exams are also given at all CWI exam sites.
EXAM DATE
Apr. 21
July 21
LOCATION
Houston, TX
Las Vegas, NV
Miami, FL
Dallas, TX
SEMINAR DATES
Apr. 1620
May 711
June 48
July 1620
EXAM DATE
Apr. 21
May 12
June 9
July 21
The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can

exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.
Certified Welding Sales Representative (CWSR)
CWSR exams will be given at CWI exam sites.
Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code
Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
WEEKS OF, FOLLOWED BY LOCATION AND PHONE NUMBER
May 11, Aug. 10, Nov. 9 at
ABB, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI; (248) 3918421
May 21, Aug. 20, Dec. 3 at
Genesis-Systems Group, Davenport, IA; (563) 445-5688
Mar. 2, Oct. 22, Oct. 26 at
Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-8542
Apr. 23, July 9, Oct. 15 at
OTC Daihen, Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800
Mar. 12, May 7, July 9, Sept. 10, Nov. 5 at
Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7736
On request at
MATC, Milwaukee, WI; (414) 297-6996
Certified Welding Engineer (CWEng) and Senior Certified Welding
Inspector (SCWI)
Exams can be taken at any site listed under Certified Welding
Inspector. No preparatory seminar is offered.
Advanced Visual Inspection Workshop
SEMINAR DATES
LOCATION
Miami, FL
May 17, 18
Miami, FL
Aug. 16, 17
EXAM DATE
May 19
Aug. 18
International CWI Courses and Exams Schedules

Please visit www.aws.org/certification/inter_contact.html.
IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the
seminar/exam or exam. Applications received after that time will be assessed a $250 Fast Track fee. Please verify application deadline dates by visiting our website www.aws.org/certification/docs/schedules.html. Verify your event dates with the Certification Dept.
to confirm your course status before making travel plans. For information on AWS seminars and certification programs, visit
www.aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars. Apply early to avoid paying
the $250 Fast Track fee.
64
MARCH 2012
SAVE
SAVE THE DATE!
DATE!
FABTECH Returns to
Las Vegas in 2012!

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Friends and Colleagues:
The American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize individual
members for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced the image and
impact of the welding industry. Election as a Counselor shall be based on an individuals career of
outstanding accomplishment.
To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership in the
welding industry by one or more of the following:
Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to the welding
industry. The individuals organization shall have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, as
evidenced by support of participation of its employees in industry activities.
Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to training and
vocational education in the welding industry. The individuals organization shall have shown an
ongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employee in
industry activities.
For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at AWS
headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Counselor nomination form in this
issue of the Welding Journal. The deadline for submission is July 1, 2012. The committee looks
forward to receiving these nominations for 2013 consideration.
Sincerely,
Alfred F. Fleury
Chair, Counselor Selection Committee
BLIND PERF
Nomination of AWS Counselor

I.
HISTORY AND BACKGROUND

In 1999, the American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize individual members for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced the
image and impact of the welding industry. Election as a Counselor shall be based on an
individuals career of outstanding accomplishment.
To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership in
the welding industry by one or more of the following:
Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to the
welding industry. (The individuals organization shall have shown an ongoing
commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employees
in industry activities such as AWS, IIW, WRC, SkillsUSA, NEMA, NSRP SP7 or other
similar groups.)
Leadership of or within an organization that has made substantial contribution to training
and vocational education in the welding industry. (The individuals organization shall
have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of partici
pation of its employees in industry activities such as AWS, IIW, WRC, SkillsUSA, NEMA,
NSRP SP7 or other similar groups.)
II. RULES
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
Candidates for Counselor shall have at least 10 years of membership in AWS.

Each candidate for Counselor shall be nominated by at least five members of
the Society.
Nominations shall be submitted on the official form available from AWS
headquarters.
Nominations must be submitted to AWS headquarters no later than July 1
of the year prior to that in which the award is to be presented.
Nominations shall remain valid for three years.
All information on nominees will be held in strict confidence.
Candidates who have been elected as Fellows of AWS shall not be eligible for
election as Counselors. Candidates may not be nominated for both of these awards
at the same time.
III. NUMBER OF COUNSELORS TO BE SELECTED

Maximum of 10 Counselors selected each year.
Return completed Counselor nomination package to:
Wendy S. Reeve
Senior Manager
Award Programs and Administrative Support
550 N.W. LeJeune Road
Miami, FL 33126
Telephone: 800-443-9353, extension 293
SUBMISSION DEADLINE: July 1, 2012
CLASS OF 2013
(please type or print in black ink)
COUNSELOR NOMINATION FORM

DATE_________________NAME OF CANDIDATE________________________________________________________________________
AWS MEMBER NO.___________________________YEARS OF AWS MEMBERSHIP____________________________________________
HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY_______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE________________________
PRESENT COMPANY/INSTITUTION AFFILIATION_______________________________________________________________________
TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________
BUSINESS ADDRESS________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE_________________________
ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, AS APPLICABLE:
INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________
MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________
DEGREES OR CERTIFICATES/YEAR____________________________________________________________________________________
LICENSED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER: YES_________NO__________ STATE______________________________________________
SIGNIFICANT WORK EXPERIENCE:
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
SUMMARIZE MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THESE POSITIONS:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS, USE SEPARATE SHEET) INDICATING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BE
SELECTED AS AN AWS COUNSELOR ACCOMPANY THE NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAY
BE INCORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.
**MOST IMPORTANT**
The Counselor Selection Committee criteria are strongly based on and extracted from the categories identified below. All information and support material provided by the candidates Counselor Proposer, Nominating Members and peers are considered.
SUBMITTED BY:
PROPOSER_______________________________________________
AWS Member No.___________________
The proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. The proposer is encouraged to include a
detailed biography of the candidate and letters of recommendation from individuals describing the specific accomplishments of the candidate. Signatures on this nominating form, or supporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition
to the proposer. Signatures may be acquired by photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the signatures are secured, the total package should be submitted.
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________

AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
SUBMISSION DEADLINE JULY 1, 2012
Register today.
the world of brazing and soldering.

ASM International and the American
Welding Society again team to
organize this four-day technical
event. Recognized by industry
professionals as the worlds premier
event for the brazing and soldering
community, IBSC brings together
scientists and engineers from around
the world who are involved in the
research, development, and
application of brazing and soldering.
Hear renown speakers like
Dr. Steven Liu and Eric Slezak
Connect with colleagues during
professional seminars on Sunday
Bond with industry leaders,
customers and friends at
Monday evenings welcome
reception and Tuesday nights
poolside Viva Las Vegas social
Exposition and Sponsorship

The IBSC Exposition provides
exhibitors with a forum to showcase
the latest trends, products,
processes and techniques in the
industry. Traditional and custom
exposition and sponsorship
opportunities are available. Secure
your exhibit space today!
Visit www.asminternational.org/ibsc
for the latest conference information
and registration.
Be part of the future of brazing

and soldering technology.
Plan to attend IBSC 2012.
Register today.
Visit www.asminternational.org/ibsc for the latest conference information and registration.
SOCIETYNEWS
BY HOWARD M. WOODWARD
woodward@aws.org
2011 Extraordinary Welding Award Presented

John Mendoza, AWS 2011 president,
named the U.S. Navys USS Freedom LCS
1 to receive the 2011 AWS Extraordinary
Welding Award. It is the first Littoral Combat Ship (LCS) of the U.S. Navy to feature
deckhouse and superstructure panels fabricated from aluminum extrusions that
were friction stir welded.
The friction stir welded aluminum
deckhouse is very flat, which, combined
with an angular design, makes it difficult
for radar systems to spot.
Many creative people contributed to
move the USS Freedom from concept to
reality. Cited were John DeLoach, manager, welding, and Maria Posada, technology lead of friction stir welding technologies within the Welding, Processing and
NDE Branch NAVSEA, Naval Surface
Warfare Center. Also honored were officials from Friction Stir Link, Inc.: John F.
Hinrichs, VP technology; Christopher
Smith, VP engineering and operations;
Scott Gillis, design engineer; and Dan
Rawson, a design and manufacturing engineer. Other major contributors who
could not attend the event were AWS District 12 Director Dan Roland and Bruce
Halverson, from Marinette Marine Fincantieri, and Westin Allen, Friction Stir
Link, Inc.
The AWS Extraordinary Welding
Award is presented for technical design
for outstanding development in welded
fabrication recognizing welding excellence
in construction, fabrication, and manufacturing, and to designate those welded
structures whose purpose has historical importance or an influence on history.
Built by Marinette Marine, Marinette,
Wis., the USS Freedom LCS 1 keel was laid
June 2, 2005, and it was commissioned
Nov. 8, 2008. Its home port is San Diego,
Calif.
The Freedoms propulsion system uses
two diesel power plants and two RollsRoyce MT30 gas turbines with steerable
water jet propulsion. Its overall length is
378 ft, beam is 57.4 ft, with a draft of 12.8
ft, and weighs about 3000 metric tons. The
John DeLoach (left) and Maria Posada,

from the Naval Surface Warfare Center, accept the Extraordinary Welding Award from
John Mendoza, AWS 2011 president.
Sharing in the presentation are (from left)

John Hinrichs, Christopher Smith, Scott
Gillis, and Dan Rawson who worked on
making the LCS 1 a reality. Not shown are
major contributors Bruce Halverson and
AWS District 12 Director Dan Roland from
Marinette Marine Fincantieri, and Westin
Allen from Friction Stir Link, Inc.
The Fast, Focused, Fearless USS Freedom LCS 1 uses innovative materials and joining
methods to make it stronger, lighter weight, and difficult to spot on radar.
light aluminum deckhouse and superstructure panels help it to move faster than
40 knots. Its crew ranges from 15 to 50
core members, up to 75 with aviation detachments. The ships seal proclaims its
bragging rights, Fast, Focused, Fearless.
WELDING JOURNAL
73
Tech Topics
Standards Approved by ANSI
A5.36/A5.36M:2012, Specification for
Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Flux Cored
Welding. Approved 12/20/11.
G2.5/G2.5M:2012, Guide for the Fusion
Welding of Zirconium and Zirconium Alloys. Approved 1/17/12.
A5.22/A5.22M:2012, Specification for
Stainless Steel Flux Cored and Metal Cored
Welding Electrodes and Rods. Approved
1/17/12.
Two New Standards Projects

Development work has begun on a revision of A5.24 and a new standard, D14.9.
Affected individuals are invited to contribute to this work. Contact the staff representative shown for complete information. Participation on AWS Technical
Committees and Subcommittees is open
to all persons.
A5.24/A5.24M:20XX, Specification for
Zirconium and Zirconium-Alloy Welding
Electrodes and Rods. This specification
prescribes the requirements for classification of zirconium and zirconium alloy
electrodes and rods for GTA, GMA, and
PA welding. The compositions specified
for each classification represent the latest
state of the art. Additional requirements
are included for testing procedures, manufacture, sizes, lengths, and packaging. A
guide is appended to the specification as
a source of information concerning the
classification system employed and the intended use of the zirconium alloy filler
metal. Stakeholders: Welding industry. A.
Diaz, ext. 304.
D14.9/D14.9M:20XX, Specification for
the Welding of Hydraulic Cylinders. This
specification establishes definitions and
provides hydraulic industry-specific details as they relate to base materials, consumables, weld joint design, welding
process controls, workmanship and quality requirements, inspection, repair, and
modification. Stakeholders: hydraulic
cylinders industry. M. Rubin, ext. 215.
Standards for Public Review

B2.4:20XX, Specification for Welding
Procedure and Performance Qualification
for Thermoplastics. $25. 3/19/12.
B5.16:20XX, Specification for the Qualification of Welding Engineers. $25. 3/19/12.
D9.1M/D9.1:20XX, Sheet Metal Welding Code. $42. 3/19/12.
D14.4/D14.4M:20XX, Specification for
the Design of Welded Joints in Machinery
and Equipment. $69. 3/12/12.
AWS was approved as an accredited
standards-preparing organization by the
American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) in 1979. AWS rules, as approved
by ANSI, require that all standards be
open to public review for comment during the approval process. The above revised standards were submitted for public
review with the review expiration dates
shown. To order draft copies, contact Rosalinda ONeill, roneill@aws.org, (305) 4439353, ext. 451.
Technical Committee Meetings

All AWS technical committee meetings are open to the public. To attend a
meeting, call the staff secretary, (305) 4439353, at the extension shown.
March 1316, D1 Committee on Structural Welding. San Diego, Calif. M. Rubin,
ext. 215.
March 20, 21. A5 Committee on Filler
Metals and Allied Materials. Orlando,
Fla. R. Gupta, ext. 301.
March 21, A5T Subcommittee on Filler

Metal Procurement Guidelines. Orlando,
Fla. R. Gupta, ext. 301.
March 22, A5A Subcommittee on Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes and
Rods for Shielded Metal Arc and Oxyfuel
Gas Welding. Orlando, Fla. R. Gupta, ext.
301.
April 1719, D14 Committee on Machinery and Equipment. Miami, Fla. M.
Rubin, ext. 215.
April 1719, D14B Subcommittee on
General Design and Practices. Miami, Fla.
M. Rubin, ext. 215.
April 1719, D14C Subcommittee on
Earthmoving and Construction Equipment. Miami, Fla. M. Rubin, ext. 215.
April 1719, D14E Subcommittee on
Welding of Presses and Industrial and Mill
Cranes. Miami, Fla. M. Rubin, ext. 215.
April 1719, D14G Subcommittee on
Welding of Rotating Equipment. Miami,
Fla. M. Rubin, ext. 215.
April 1719, D14I Subcommittee on
Hydraulic Cylinders. Miami, Fla. M.
Rubin, ext. 215.
April 24, B2E Subcommittee on Soldering Qualification. Las Vegas, Nev. A.
Diaz, ext. 304.
April 24, B2D Subcommittee on Standard Welding Procedure Specification.
Las Vegas, Nev. A. Diaz, ext. 304.
April 25, B2C Subcommittee on Materials. Las Vegas, Nev. A. Diaz, ext. 304.
April 25, B2B Subcommittee on Welding Qualifications. Las Vegas, Nev. A.
Diaz, ext. 304.
April 26, B2 Committee on Procedure
and Performance Qualification. Las
Vegas, Nev. A. Diaz, ext. 304.
April 25, 26, C3 Committee and Subcommittees on Brazing and Soldering.
Las Vegas, Nev. S. Borrero, ext. 311.
Opportunities to Contribute to AWS Welding Standards and Codes

Robotic and Automatic Welding
The D16 Committee on Robotic and
Automatic Welding seeks general interest
and educators to help revise: D16.1M/
D16.1, Specification for Robotic Arc Welding Safety; D16.2M/D16.2, Guide for Components of Robotic and Automatic Arc
Welding Installations; D16.4M/D16.4,
Specification for the Qualification of Robotic Arc Welding Personnel. Brian McGrath, bmcgrath@aws.org; ext. 311.
Soldering; Joining Nickel Alloys
The B2E Subcommittee on Soldering
Qualifications; G2C Subcommittee on
Nickel Alloys to review B2.3/B2.3M, Specification for Soldering Procedures and Performance Qualification. Contact Steve
Hedrick, steveh@aws.org; ext. 305.
74
MARCH 2012
Local Heat Treating of Pipe Work

The D10P Subcommittee for Local
Heat Treating of Pipe to revise D10.10,
Recommended Practices for Local Heating
of Welds in Piping and Tubing. Contact B.
McGrath, bmcgrath@aws.org; ext. 311.
Magnesium Alloy Filler Metals
A5L Subcommittee on Magnesium
Alloy Filler Metals to assist in the updating of AWS A5.19-92 (R2006), Specification for Magnesium Alloy Welding Electrodes and Rods. Contact Rakesh Gupta,
gupta@aws.org, ext. 301.
Soldering; Joining Nickel Alloys
The B2E Subcommittee on Soldering
Qualifications; G2C Subcommittee on
Nickel Alloys to review B2.3/B2.3M,
Specification for Soldering Procedures and
Performance Qualification. Alex Diaz,

adiaz@aws.org; ext. 304.
Thermal Spray
C2 Committee on Thermal Spraying
to update C2.16, Guide for Thermal Spray
Operator Qualification; C2.21, Specification for Thermal Spray Equipment Acceptance Inspection; and C2.25, Specification
for Thermal Spray Feedstock Solid and
Composite Wire and Ceramic Rods.
Surfacing Industrial Mill Rolls
D14H Subcommittee on Surfacing and
Reconditioning of Industrial Mill Rolls
to revise AWS D14.7, Recommended Practices for Surfacing and Reconditioning of
Industrial Mill Rolls. Contact Matt Rubin,
mrubin@aws.org, ext. 215.
New AWS Supporters

Sustaining Members
Abtrex Industries, Inc.
59640 Market St.
South Bend, IN 46614
Representative: Keith Byars
www.abtrex.com
Abtrex Industries fabricates carbon,
stainless steel, and plastic tanks for the
steel and chemical-processing industries.
It manufactures pipe weldments and classifying equipment for the power-generation and mining industries. Since 1969, its
specialty has been making abrasion- and
corrosion-resistant linings and coatings,
using rubber, PVC, FPP, and technical thin
films.
Fish & Associates, Inc.
3148 Deming Way, Ste. 160
Middleton, WI 53562
Representative: Philip E. Fish
www.fishassoc.com
Founded in 2001, Fish & Associates
provides quality assurance programs, design and detailing consultation, structural
and special inspection services, nondestructive testing, project management,
owners representation and related services for both public and private sector
clients in the building, transportation, and
infrastructure areas. The company is a certified small business enterprise that is authorized for professional engineering practice by the Wisconsin Department of Registration and Licensing.
Hayes Mechanical
5959 S. Harlem Ave.
Chicago, IL 60638
Representative: Jamie D. Walker
www.hayesmechanical.com
Hayes Mechanical, founded in 1918, is
a pioneer in the boiler, construction, and
repair industry. It is a union contractor
holding five ASME Code and the NBIC
R stamp(s). Through a steady wellplanned growth program, the company has
become a leading, full-service contractor
offering boiler, piping, sheet metal, plumbing, and HVAC services.
Supporting Companies
Control Total de Calidad
C. Fuente De Diana No. 165
Col. Metropolitana, 2da. Seccion
Nezahualcoyotl, 57740, Mexico
AWS Member Counts

February 1, 2012
Grades
Sustaining ......................................522
Supporting .....................................303
Educational ...................................585
Affiliate..........................................476
Welding Distributor........................55
Total Corporate ..........................1,941
Individual .................................58,335
Student + Transitional ...............11,575
Total Members .........................69,910
Distefano Technology & Mfg. Co.

3838 S. 108 St.
Omaha, NE 68144
Affiliate Companies
John Beever Australia Pty. Ltd.
78 Berkshire Rd., North Sunshine
Victoria 3020, Australia
Matrix Service, Inc.
5100 E. Skelly Dr. 700
Tulsa, OK 74135
Multicare Safety & Industrial
Inspections LLC
PB 121089
Al Ghusais Dubai, UAE
District Director Awards
Pacific Stair Corp.

8690 Stair Way NE
Salem, OR 97305
District 8 Director Joe Livesay has

nominated the following members for
this award.
Smiths Welding and Fabrication

1631 N. 4th Ave.
Altoona, PA 16601
Greater Huntsville Section

Frank Miller, Randy Hammond,
and Jim Higdon.
Service Machine
PO Box 2083, 12421 Maple St.
Ashland, VA 23005
Nashville Section
Charles Fredericks, Tim Singleton,
and Greg Ralphs.
Welding Distributors
Northeast Mississippi Section

Tavares Irions, George Smith, and
Ricky Collier.
Educational Institutions
Indiana County Technology Center
441 Hamill Rd.
Indiana, PA 15701
The District Director Award provides a means for District directors to

recognize individuals who have contributed their time and effort to benefit the affairs of their local Sections
and/or District.
Kankakee Community College

100 College Dr.
Kankakee, IL 60901
LoneStar College System CyFair
9191 Barker Cypress Rd.
Cypress, TX 77433
Nominate Your Candidate for the M.I.T. Prof. Masubuchi Award

November 5, 2012, is the deadline for
submitting nominations for the 2013 Prof.
Koichi Masubuchi Award.
This award is presented each year to
one person, 40 years old or younger, who
has made significant contributions to the
advancement of materials joining through
research and development.

Nominations should include a description of the candidates experience, list of
publications, honors, and awards, and at
least three letters of recommendation
from fellow researchers.
This award is sponsored by the Dept.
of Ocean Engineering at Massachusetts

Institute of Technology (M.I.T.), this
award includes a $5000 honorarium.
E-mail your nomination package to Todd
A. Palmer, assistant professor, The Pennsylvania State University, tap103@psu.edu.
WELDING JOURNAL
75
Member-Get-A-Member Campaign
Listed below are the members participating in the 20112012 AWS MemberGet-A-Member Campaign. Standings are
as of January 20. For campaign rules and
a prize list, see page 85 of this Welding
Journal. For complete campaign rules,
visit www.aws.org/mgm. Call the AWS
Membership Department at (800) 4439353, ext. 480, with any questions about
your member-proposer status.
Winners Circle
Listed are the sponsors of 20 or more Individual Members per year, since June 1,
1999. The superscript denotes the number
of years the member has earned Winners
Circle status.
E. Ezell, Mobile8
J. Compton, San Fernando Valley7
J. Merzthal, Peru2
G. Taylor, Pascagoula2
L. Taylor, Pascagoula2
B. Chin, Auburn1
S. Esders, Detroit1
M. Haggard, Inland Empire1
M. Karagoulis, Detroit1
S. McGill, NE Tennessee1
B. Mikeska, Houston1
W. Shreve, Fox Valley1
T. Weaver, Johnstown/Altoona1
G. Woomer, Johnstown/Altoona1
R. Wray, Nebraska1
Presidents Club
Sponsored 38 new members
M. Pelegrino, Chicago 10
E. Ezell, Mobile 7
J. Walker, Blackhawk 6
T. Palmer, Atlanta 5
G. Bish, Atlanta 3
B. Goerg, Fox Valley 3
D. Hale, East Texas 3

J. Miller, Oklahoma City 3
G. Mulee, South Carolina 3
P. Phelps, Western Carolina 3
D. Wright, Kansas City 3
Presidents Honor Roll
Sponsored 2 new members
T. Baber, San Fernando Valley
T. Baldwin, Atlanta
D. Biddle, Milwaukee
M. Boggs, Stark Central
O. Burrion, S. Florida
G. Fehrman, Philadelphia
J. Gordy, Houston
G. Holl, Lexington
G. Jacobson, Cumberland Valley
J. Mueller, Ozark
G. Sanford, Houston
H. Suthar, Charlotte
T. White, Pittsburgh
C. Whitesell, Tulsa
Student Sponsors
M. Pelegrino, Chicago 90
G. Bish, Atlanta 50
R. Belluzzi, New York 34
M. Box, Mobile 34
R. Hammond, Birmingham 32
A. Alvarez, Houston 27
D. Berger, New Orleans 27
D. Saunders, Lakeshore 27
M. Anderson, Indiana 24
H. Hughes, Mahoning Valley 24
S. Siviski, Maine 24
W. England, W. Michigan 23
M. Boggs, Stark Central 22
G. Gammill, NE Mississippi 21
R. Huston, Olympic 20
J. Fox, NW Ohio 19
T. Palmer, Atlanta 18
A. Baughman, Stark Central 17
J. Bruskotter, New Orleans 17
J. Ciaramitaro, N. Central Florida 17
W. Davis, Syracuse 17
J. Dawson, Pittsburgh 17
C. Donnell, NW Ohio 17
R. Evans, Siouxland 17
R. Wahrman, Triangle 17
N. Baughman, Stark Central 16
R. Jones, Houston 16
S. Miner, San Francisco 16
E. Norman, Ozark 16
R. Richwine, Indiana 6
S. Robeson, Cumberland Valley 15
J. Daugherty, Louisville 14
D. Pickering, Central Arkansas 4
C. Daily, Puget Sound 12
R. Hutchinson, Long Bch/Or. Cty 11
J. Johnson, Madison-Beloit 11
D. Schnalzer, Lehigh Valley 11
E. Ramsey, Johnstown-Altoona 10
R. Simpson, Charlotte 10
C. Kipp, Lehigh Valley 9
B. Wenzel, Sacramento 9
J. McCarty, St. Louis 7
J. Boyer, Lancaster 6
R. Ledford Jr., Birmingham 6
S. Poe, Central Michigan 6
J. Ginther, Pittsburgh 5
J. McCarty, St. Louis 7
T. Moore, New Orleans 5
W. Wilson, New Orleans 5
J. Crocker, N. Texas 4
C. Hobson, Olympic Section 4
A. Reis, Pittsburgh 4
H. Rendon, Rio Grande Valley 4
B. Amos, Mobile 3
S. Colton, Arizona 3
P. Deslatte, New Orleans 3
Honorary Meritorious Awards

The deadline for nominating candidates for these awards is December 31 prior to the year of the awards presentations. Send candidate materials to Wendy Sue Reeve, wreeve@aws.org; 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126.
William Irrgang
Memorial Award
This award is given to the individual
who has done the most over the past five
years to enhance the Societys goal of advancing the science and technology of
welding. It includes a $2500 honorarium
and a certificate.
International Meritorious
Certificate Award
This honor recognizes recipients significant contributions to the welding industry for service to the international
76
MARCH 2012
welding community in the broadest terms.

The award consists of a certificate and a
one-year AWS membership.
National Meritorious
Certificate Award
This award recognizes the recipients
counsel, loyalty, and dedication to AWS
affairs, assistance in promoting cordial relations with industry and other organizations, and for contributions of time and
effort on behalf of the Society.
George E. Willis Award
This award is given to an individual
who promoted the advancement of welding internationally by fostering cooperative participation in technology transfer,
standards rationalization, and promotion
of industrial goodwill. It includes a $2500
honorarium.
Honorary Membership Award
This award acknowledges eminence
in the welding profession, or one who is
credited with exceptional accomplishments in the development of the welding
art. Honorary Members have full rights
of membership.
SECTIONNEWS
Shown at the Long Island Section program are (from left) speaker Joe Kane, Tom Gartland, District 2 Director Harland Thompson, Chair
Brian Cassidy, Alex Duschere, Jesse Provler, Ken Messimer, and Pat Nugent.
District 1
Thomas Ferri, director

(508) 527-1884
thomas_ferri@thermadyne.com
District 2
Harland W. Thompson, director

(631) 546-2903
harland.w.thompson@us.ul.com
LONG ISLAND
JANUARY 12
Speaker: Joe Kane
Topic: Discussion of structural and pipe
welds from the World Trade Center and
other edifices
Activity: The program was held in Wantagh, N.Y.
PHILADELPHIA
JANUARY 11
Speaker: Jeff Wiswesser
Affiliation: Welders Training and Testing
Institute
Topic: AWS prequalified procedures, qualifying a procedure and the documents involved, qualifying a welder, and how to
apply the various welding standards.
Activity: The program was held at Villaris
Restaurant in Sicklerville, N.J.
Shown are (from left) District 2 Director Harland Thompson, speaker Jeff Wiswesser, and
Philadelphia Section Chair Mike Chomin.
YORK-CENTRAL PA.
JANUARY 5
Speaker: Pat Belsole, district sales manager
Affiliation: Hypertherm, Inc.
Topic: What Hypertherms HPR systems
can do for you
District 4
Roy C. Lanier, director
(252) 321-4285
rlanier@email.pittcc.edu
TIDEWATER
District 3
Michael Wiswesser, director

(610) 820-9551
mike@welderinstitute.com
OCTOBER 7
Activity: The Section held its annual Larry
OBryan Memorial Golf Tournament at
Sleepy Hole Golf Course in Suffolk, Va.,
for 84 participants.
York-Central Pennsylvania Section Chair

Jim Henry (left) is shown with speaker Pat
Belsole.
WELDING JOURNAL
77
Florida West Coast members are shown at the January program.

OCTOBER 13
Activity: The Tidewater Section members
toured the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility in Newport News, Va.
The facility conducts basic atomic research
at the quark level. The tour escorts were
Michelle Lechman, Will Oren, Debbie Magaldi, Ryan Brodenstein, Mark Wiseman,
Bill Hunewill, and Bill Clemens.
NOVEMBER 10
Speaker: J. P. Christein, structural engineer
Affiliation: Newport News Shipbuilding
Topic: Common errors in applying ANSI/
AWS A2.4 welding symbols
Activity: This Tidewater Section event was
held at Kelleys Tavern in Hampton, Va.
District 5
Carl Matricardi, director
(770) 979-6344
cmatricardi@aol.com
Tidewater Section members are shown during their tour of the Thomas Jefferson National
Accelerator Facility on October 13.
FLORIDA WEST COAST

JANUARY 11
Speaker: Jake Doty, quality inspector
Affiliation: GMF Industries, Inc.
Topic: Bridge fabrication projects
Activity: The program was held at Frontier
Steakhouse in Tampa, Fla. Chair Damen
Johnson announced the annual Shrimp-ARoo event will be held at a new location.
For tickets, contact Johnson at this address:
Mark Your Calendar: May 5
Annual Shrimp-A-Roo
Yuengling Brewery
11111 N. 30th St., Tampa, Fla.
Contact Chair Damen Johnson
cmedamen@msn.com
SOUTH CAROLINA
Shown at the Florida West Coast Section

program are Chair Damen Johnson (left)
and speaker Jake Doty.
78
MARCH 2012
South Carolina Section Chair Gale Mole

discussed welder and procedure certifications at the November program.
NOVEMBER 16
Speaker: Chair Gale Mole, NDT manager
Affiliation: Soil Consultants, Inc.
Topic: Discussion of WPS, PQR, and
welder certifications
Activity: The program was held at Soil Consultants, Inc., in North Charleston, S.C.
District 6
Kenneth Phy, director
(315) 218-5297
KAPhyInc@gmail.com
District 7
Don Howard, director
(814) 269-2895
howard@ctc.com
DAYTON
OCTOBER 11
Activity: The Section members met with
the welding students at Miami Valley Career Technology Center in Clayton, Ohio.
The students served as the instructors
demonstrating GMA and SMA welding
and automated plasma arc cutting techniques. The attendees had a hands-on opportunity to work with the equipment.
NOVEMBER 8
Activity: The Dayton Section members visited the Miami County Fairgrounds in Troy,
Ohio, to attend the annual Southern Ohio
Forge and Anvil Society (SOFA) demonstrations. The event included some handson activity for the attendees. Leading the
program were Steve Roth, a Dayton Section member and a SOFA blacksmith, and
Gary Ward, SOFA president.
DECEMBER 13
Speaker: Steve Whitney
Affiliation: Yaskawa America, Inc., Motoman Robotics, Division
Topic: Sensor technology for adaptive robotic welding
Activity: Following the talk, the members
toured the new Motoman Robotics facility
in Miamisburg, Ohio.
District 8
Joe Livesay, director
(931) 484-7502, ext. 143
joe.livesay@ttcc.edu
District 9
George Fairbanks Jr., director

(225) 473-6362
fits@bellsouth.net
Shown at the Dayton Section Nov. 8 program are blacksmiths Steve Roth (left) and
Gary Ward.
At the Dayton Section Oct. 11 event, the

Miami Valley Career Technology Center students demonstrated various fabrication
techniques.
Shown at the New Orleans Section program

are (from left) Bruce Hallila, Paul Newton,
and Chair Aldo Duron.
Detroit Section speaker David Harwood
(left) is shown with Tom Sparschu.
in Section activities. The presenters were
Matthew Blackwell, a student at New Orleans Pipe Trades; and Catherine Chifici,
studying at South Central Louisiana Technical College. Paul Newton was recognized
for taking first place in the Sections welding competition, instructor level. Inspection Specialists contributed rod ovens as
door prizes. The event was held at and
catered by Caf Hope, in Marrero, La.
District 10
Travis Moore (left) and New Orleans Section Chair Aldo Duron (center) are shown
with speaker Rodney Dufour.
Richard A. Harris, director

(440) 338-5921
richaharris@windstream.net
District 11
Robert P. Wilcox, director
(734) 721-8272
rmwilcox@wowway.com
NEW ORLEANS
DETROIT
JANUARY 17
Speaker: Rodney Dufour
Affiliation: Inspection Specialists, Inc.
Topic: Inspection trends in the welding industry
Activity: Two students presented talks on
why students should become more involved
JANUARY 12
Speaker: David Harwood, director nuclear
development
Affiliation: DTE Energy
Topic: Michigans electric energy outlook
Activity: Gold Member certificates were
presented to J. E. Black Jr., Richard Haver,
Student speakers at the New Orleans Section program are Catherine Chifici and
Matthew Blackwell.
WELDING JOURNAL
79
Some of the Detroit Section old timers are (from left) Phil Temple, John McKenzie, Gordon Ebsch, Don Maatz, Dennis Willette, Charles
Beach, and Paul DAngelo.
Greg Siepert, Kansas Section vice chair, is shown holding the banner with the attendees at the students night event in October.
R. Heinz, Gerald Hoffmeyer, Martin
Keasal Jr., G. Ragsdale, and Amos Winsand for 50 years of service to the Society.
Life Member certificates were presented
to Charles Beach, Rollin Bondar, Paul
DAngelo, Gordon Ebsch, John McKenzie,
Robert Shaw Jr., Clyde Slade, and Robert
Wilcox for 35 years of service. Silver Member certificates were presented to William
Daavettila, Kevin Ede, Ronald Grobbel,
Tony Morris, Marvin Owens, Thomas
Srigley, Russell Wilcox Jr., and Julian
Williams for 25 years of membership.
District 12
Daniel J. Roland, director

(715) 735-9341, ext. 6421
daniel.roland@us.fincantieri.com
District 13
W. Richard Polanin, director

(309) 694-5404
rpolanin@icc.edu
District 14
NORTHWEST OHIO
Hutchinson C. C. student Courtney Cauble

demonstrates cutting at the Kansas Section
event.
80
MARCH 2012
Mark Your Calendar: April 5, 69 p.m.

16th Annual Lincoln
Motorsports Welding Program
Owens Community College
Toledo, Ohio
Contact Chair Dick West
rawtreeman1@aol.com
Robert L. Richwine, director

(765) 378-5378
bobrichwine@aol.com
District 15
David Lynnes, director
(701) 365-0606
dave@learntoweld.com
Southeast Nebraska Section members are shown during their tour of the Kawasaki Motors facilities in January.
District 16
Dennis Wright, director
(913) 782-0635
awscwi1@comcast.net
KANSAS
OCTOBER 13
Speaker: Jack Minser, district manager
Affiliation; Thermadyne Industries
Topic: Plasma and oxyacetylene cutting
processes and future applications
Activity: This student night event was held
at Hutchinson Community College in
Hutchinson, Kan. Following the talk,
Minser performed various cutting operations using both oxyacetylene and plasma
arc technologies.
John Mendoza (far left), AWS 2011 president, is shown at the El Paso holiday event.
SOUTHEAST NEBRASKA
JANUARY 17
Activity: Sixty-four Section members
toured the Kawasaki Rail Car, Inc., facility in Lincoln, Neb., to study its methods
for producing commuter rail cars.
District 17
J. Jones, director
(940) 368-3130
jjones@thermadyne.com
Jose Pep Gomez (center) is shown with

John Bray (left), District 18 director, and
John Mendoza, AWS 2011 president, at the
El Paso Section program.
NORTH TEXAS
JANUARY 17
Speaker: Brad Plank
Affiliation: Unified Services of Texas
Topic: Failure analysis
Activity: The event was held
Humperdincks in Arlington, Tex.
David Twitty (left) and Mike Jordan received

awards at the El Paso Section event.
at
District 18
John Bray, director

(281) 997-7273
sales@affiliatedmachinery.com
EL PASO
DECEMBER 6
Speaker: John Mendoza, AWS 2011 president
Affiliation: Lone Star Welding
Topic: A history of AWS CWI certification
Activity: On the last trip of his presidency,
John Mendoza and District 18 Director
John Bray presented Mike Jordan the Sec-
Welding contestants from Industrial High School, Vanderbilt, Tex., pose with instructor, Ardy
Tiner (third from right), at the Houston Section-sponsored competition.
tion Meritorious Award; Jose Pep Gomez
the Section Educator and District Director Awards; and David Twitty the District
and Section Dalton E. Hamilton Memorial CWI of the Year Awards. This holiday
party event was held at Great American
Land & Cattle Co. BBQ and Steakhouse
in El Paso, Tex.
HOUSTON
OCTOBER 14
Activity: Section members and District 18
Director John Bray served as judges at the
Gulf Coast Welding Expo and Contest held
at Wharton County Jr. College for 71 contestants. Awards were presented for each
of seven skill levels.
WELDING JOURNAL
81
Some of the attendees at the Rio Grande Valley Section program are shown at the students night event.
Puget Sound Section past chairs posed at the January 5 program are (from left) front row Jerry Hope, Sid Capouilliez, Shawn McDaniel,
and Steve Pollard; back row Charles Daily, Mike Weaver, Chris Sundberg, Ken Johnson, Jay Dwight, Frank Drumm, and Frank Gatto.
District 19
Neil Shannon, director
(503) 201-5142
neilshnn@msn.com
PUGET SOUND
NOVEMBER 19
Activity: The Section held its first Robotics Welding Workshop at Everett Community College in Everett, Wash.
A Newport High School student cuts steel at

the Puget Sound Robotics Welding Workshop under the watchful eye of instructor
Robert White.
RIO GRANDE VALLEY

NOVEMBER 9
Speaker: John Bray, District 18 director
Affiliation: Affiliated Machinery, president
Topic: What AWS membership can mean
to you
Activity: Students from San Benito High
School and the South Texas Community
Tech Campus and their parents attended
this event. The program was held at South
Texas College in McAllen, Tex.
82
MARCH 2012
JANUARY 5
Speaker: Mike Virgilio, NDE structural
steel manager
Affiliation: Mayes Testing Engineers, Inc.
Topic: Using AWS D1.8 Structural Steel
Seismic Supplement in the field
Activity: This Puget Sound Section honored its past chairs. Attending were Jerry
Hope, Sid Capouilliez, Shawn McDaniel,
Steve Pollard, Charles Daily, Mike Weaver,
Chris Sundberg, Ken Johnson, Jay Dwight,
Frank Drumm, and Frank Gatto.
District 20
William A. Komlos, director

(801) 560-2353
bkoz@arctechllc.com
COLORADO
JANUARY 12
Speaker: Adam Chavez, training coordinator
Affiliation: Pipefitters Local 208
Topic: Apprenticeship training program
Activity: Following the talk, the members
toured the Pipefitters Local 208 facility in
Denver, Colo. Eric Ortega demonstrated
his orbital welding technique. The Local
seeks applicants for its apprentice program. Learn more at www.pipe208.com.
IDAHO/MONTANA
DECEMBER 9
Activity: The Section members attended
the Eastern Idaho Engineering Councils
annual Christmas social at Shiloh Inn in
Idaho Falls, Idaho. The event attracts
members from various engineering societies, including ANS, ASCE, ASME,
AlChE, IEEE, INCOSE, IAS, AWIN, ISA,
ISPE, and ACS.
District 21
Nanette Samanich, director

(702) 429-5017
nan07@aol.com
Shown at the Idaho/Montana Section event

are (from left) Ofilia Tremblay, Jason Wright,
Dave Koelsch, and Rae Nims.
Shown at the Puget Sound Sections Robotics Welding Workshop are Everett Community
College Student Chapter members, from left, (front row) Josh Woods, Jason Spiecher, Eric
Arnold, Nick Heiner, and Shawn Hiner; (middle row) Steve Pollard, Nina Smith, Eric
Daniels, and Stewart Matthews; (back row) John Burton, Bob Jones, Chris Sansbry, Jason
Heard, Robert White, and Jerry Hop.
Shown during the Colorado Section tour are

Chair John Steele, speaker Adam Chavez,
and pipe welder Eric Ortega.
Shown at the Los Angeles-Inland Empire Section meeting are (from left) Tim Serviss; Chair
George Rolla; Mariana Ludmer; Robert Doiron; Kenneth Reid; Gene Lawson, a past AWS
president; Che Chancy; and Nanette Samanich, District 21 director.
Chris Chwala is shown with Liisa Pine, San

Francisco Section co-chair.
Affiliation: Lone Star Welding

Topic: The importance of welder certification here and abroad
Activity: Gene Lawson, treasurer and a past
AWS president, attended the program.
DECEMBER 29
Activity: The Los Angeles/Inland Empire
Section board members met to discuss Section activities for the coming year.
District 22
Dale Flood, director
(916) 288-6100, ext. 172
d.flood@tritool.com
Liisa Pine, San Francisco Section co-chair,

presents a speaker gift to Mark Bell.
LOS ANGELES/
INLAND EMPIRE
SEPTEMBER 14
Speaker: John Mendoza, AWS president
2011
SAN FRANCISCO
JANUARY 4
Speaker: Mark Bell
Affiliation: Bell Metallurgy
Topic: Welding on in-service pipelines
Activity: The program, held at Spengers
Restaurant in Berkeley, Calif., attracted 34
members. Member Chris Chwala, president of Ryco Steel Products, Inc., donated
$1000 to the Section. Elizabeth Moore has
Shown at the Los Angeles/Inland Empire

Section program are (from left) Vice Chair
Robert Doiron, AWS 2011 President John
Mendoza, and Gene Lawson, a past AWS
president.
resigned as Section chair. Liisa Pine and

Sharon Jones will serve as co-chairs for the
remainder of Moores term.
WELDING JOURNAL
83
Guide to AWS Services

550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126; (800/305) 443-9353; FAX (305) 443-7559; www.aws.org
Staff extensions are shown in parentheses.
AWS PRESIDENT
INTERNATIONAL SALES
William A. Rice
brice@oki-bering.com
1411 Connell Rd.
Charleston, WV 25314
Managing Director, Global Exposition Sales

Joe Krall..jkrall@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(297)
ADMINISTRATION
Executive Director
Ray W. Shook.. rshook@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(210)
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Jeff Weber.. jweber@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(246)
Corporate Director, International Sales

Jeff P. Kamentz..jkamentz@aws.org . . . . . . .(233)
Oversees international business activities involving certification, publication, and membership.
PUBLICATION SERVICES
Department Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275)
Managing Director
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Chief Financial Officer

Gesana Villegas.. gvillegas@aws.org . . . . . .(252)
Welding Journal
Publisher
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Executive Assistant for Board Services

Gricelda Manalich.. gricelda@aws.org . . . . .(294)
Editor
Mary Ruth Johnsen.. mjohnsen@aws.org . .(238)
Administrative Services
National Sales Director

Rob Saltzstein.. salty@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(243)
Managing Director
Jim Lankford.. jiml@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(214)
IT Network Director
Armando Campana..acampana@aws.org . .(296)
Society and Section News Editor

Howard Woodward..woodward@aws.org . .(244)
TECHNICAL SERVICES
Managing Director
Andrew R. Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . .(466)
International Standards Activities, American Council of the International Institute of Welding (IIW)
Director, National Standards Activities
Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . .(299)
Manager, Safety and Health
Stephen P. Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org . . . . . .(305)
Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining of Plastics and Composites, Welding Iron Castings, Welding
in Sanitary Applications, Personnel and Facilities
Qualification
Senior Manager, Technical Publications
Rosalinda ONeill.. roneill@aws.org . . . . . . .(451)
AWS publishes about 200 documents widely used
throughout the welding industry.
Senior Staff Engineer
Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(301)
Filler Metals and Allied Materials, International Filler
Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment, Arc Welding and
Cutting Processes
Director
Hidail Nuez..hidail@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(287)
Welding Handbook
Editor
Annette OBrien.. aobrien@aws.org . . . . . . .(303)
Staff Engineers/Standards Program Managers

Efram Abrams.. eabrams@aws.org . . . . . . . .(307)
Thermal Spray, Automotive Resistance Welding, Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting
Director of IT Operations
Natalia Swain..nswain@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(245)
MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS
Human Resources
Director
Ross Hancock.. rhancock@aws.org . . . . . . .(226)
Stephen Borrero.. sborrero@aws.org . . . . . .(334)

Brazing and Soldering, Brazing Filler Metals and
Fluxes, Brazing Handbook, Soldering Handbook,
Railroad Welding, Definitions and Symbols
Director, Compensation and Benefits

Luisa Hernandez.. luisa@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(266)
Director, Human Resources
Dora A. Shade.. dshade@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(235)
International Institute of Welding
Public Relations Manager

Cindy Weihl..cweihl@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(416)
Webmaster
Jose Salgado..jsalgado@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(456)
Senior Coordinator
Sissibeth Lopez . . sissi@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(319)
Liaison services with other national and international
societies and standards organizations.
Section Web Editor

Henry Chinea...hchinea@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(452)
GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES

Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Hugh K. Webster . . . . . . . . .hwebster@wc-b.com

Webster, Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C.,
(202) 785-9500; FAX (202) 835-0243. Monitors federal issues of importance to the industry.
CONVENTION and EXPOSITIONS

Director, Convention and Meeting Services
Selvis Morales.....smorales@aws.org . . . . . .(239)
ITSA International Thermal

Spray Association
Senior Manager and Editor
Kathy Dusa.kathydusa@thermalspray.org . . .(232)
RWMA Resistance Welding

Manufacturing Alliance
Manager
Susan Hopkins.. susan@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(295)
WEMCO Welding Equipment

Manufacturers Committee
Manager
Natalie Tapley.. tapley@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(444)
Brazing and Soldering

Manufacturers Committee
GAWDA Gases and Welding

Distributors Association
Executive Director
John Ospina.. jospina@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(462)
Operations Manager
Natasha Alexis.. nalexis@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(401)
84
MARCH 2012
MEMBER SERVICES
Director
Rhenda A. Kenny... rhenda@aws.org . . . . . .(260)
Serves as a liaison between Section members and AWS
headquarters.
CERTIFICATION SERVICES
Managing Director
John L. Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(472)
Oversees all certification activities including all international certification programs.
Director, Certification Operations
Terry Perez..tperez@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(470)
Oversees application processing, renewals, and exam
scoring.
Director, Certification Programs
Linda Henderson..lindah@aws.org . . . . . . .(298)
Oversees the development of new certification programs, as well as AWS-Accredited Test Facilities, and
AWS Certified Welding Fabricators.
EDUCATION SERVICES
Director, Operations
Martica Ventura.. mventura@aws.org . . . . . .(224)
Director, Education Development
David Hernandez.. dhernandez@aws.org . . .(219)
AWS AWARDS, FELLOWS, COUNSELORS

Senior Manager
Wendy S. Reeve.. wreeve@aws.org . . . . . . . .(293)
Coordinates AWS awards, Fellow and Counselor
nominees.
Alex Diaz.. adiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(304)

Welding Qualification, Sheet Metal Welding, Aircraft
and Aerospace, Joining of Metals and Alloys
Brian McGrath . bmcgrath@aws.org . . . . . . .(311)
Methods of Inspection, Mechanical Testing of Welds,
Welding in Marine Construction, Piping and Tubing,
Friction Welding, Robotics Welding, High-Energy
Beam Welding
Matthew Rubin.....mrubin@aws.org . . . . . . .(215)
Structural Welding, Machinery and Equipment
Notes: Official interpretations of AWS standards may
be obtained only by sending a request in writing to Andrew R. Davis, managing director, Technical Services,
adavis@aws.org.
Oral opinions on AWS standards may be rendered, however, oral opinions do not constitute official or unofficial opinions or interpretations of AWS.
In addition, oral opinions are informal and should
not be used as a substitute for an official interpretation.
AWS FOUNDATION, INC.

www.aws.org/w/a/foundation
General Information
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212, vpinsky@aws.org
Chairman, Board of Trustees
Gerald D. Uttrachi
Executive Director, Foundation
Sam Gentry.. sgentry@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (331)
Corporate Director, Workforce Development

Monica Pfarr.. mpfarr@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (461)
The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit corporation established to provide support for the educational and scientific endeavors of the American Welding Society.
Promote the Foundations work with your financial support. Call for (800) 443-9353information.
SPECIAL OFFER FOR NEW AWS INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS TWO YEARS FOR $135 (a $25 savings)
PLUS... Get a popular welding publication for only $35 ($192 value)
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(Pay Only $35... up to a $192 value)
4 Easy Ways to Join or Renew:
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( Call the Membership Department at (800) 443-9353, ext. 480
2 Fax this completed form to (305) 443-5647
: Join or renew on our website <www.aws.org/membership>
NOTE: Only New Individual Members are eligible for this

selection. Be sure to add $35 to your total payment.
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Jeffersons Welding Encyclopedia (CD-ROM only)

Design & Planning Manual for Cost-Effective Welding
Welding Metallurgy
Welding Handbook (9th Ed., Vol. 4)
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publication. International hard copy Welding Journal option: applies only to International AWS Welder Members
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Ferrous metals
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High energy beam processes
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Safety and health
Bending and shearing
Roll forming
Stamping and punching
Aerospace
Automotive
Machinery
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Piping and tubing
Pressure vessels and tanks
Sheet metal
Structures
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PERSONNEL
OKI Bering Taps COO
OKI Bering, Cincinnati, Ohio, a wholesaler of welding, safety, and industrial supplies, has promoted
Roch Monahan to
chief operating officer. Monahan has assumed the duties of
Byron
Crampton
who retired at the end
of 2011. Monahan,
who has an extensive
background in the
welding industry, will
Roch Monahan continue to hold his
previous position of
vice president of sales.
of Panasonic Factory Solutions Co. of

America, based in Rolling Meadows, Ill.
Pandit, who succeeds Gebhardt in the
post, previously served as director of solutions within the same company.
Two ESAB VPs Appointed

Colfax Corp., Fulton, Md., a supplier of
gas- and fluid-handling and fabrication
technology, has named Kenneth D.
Konopa vice president of marketing for
ESAB and Vincent Northfield vice president of global manufacturing for ESAB.
Konopa previously served as president of
Danaher Corp.s Fluke Industrial and
Ormco divisions. Northfield most recently
was executive vice president of global operations for Teleflex Medical.
Two Presidents Named at

Panasonic Corp.
Airgas Names Executives
Panasonic Corp. of North America, Secaucus, N.J., has named Tom Gebhardt
president of Panasonic Automotive Systems Co. of America, based in Peachtree
City, Ga.; and M. Faisal Pandit president
Airgas, Inc., Radnor, Pa., has named R.

Jay Worley vice president strategic pricing. J. Barrett Strzelec, director of investor
relations for Airgas, Inc., will assume leadership of the investor relations function.
Worley, with the company since 1993, pre-
viously served as vice president communications and investor relations since 2008.
President Named at
LA-CO Industries
LA-CO Industries,
Inc./Markal
Co., Elk Grove Village, Ill., has appointed George Bowman president, succeeding John Hardin
who has retired. Prior
to joining the company, Bowman was
George Bowman president of Enerpac
at Actuant Corp. and
worked at General Electric Industrial Systems for 11 years in various sales and engineering leadership positions.
Noble Gas Appoints Sales

Director
Noble Gas Solutions, Albany, N.Y.,
has appointed Patrick
ODonnell director of
sales. ODonnell previously worked six
years for General
Electric Co.
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Kaman Industrial Technologies Corp.,

Bloomfield, Conn., has appointed Kyle
Ahlfinger area vice president of its Minarik division; and Gary Yingling director
and general manager, shops and services.
Previously, Ahlfinger was corporate vice
president and chief marketing officer at
Flowserve Corp. Prior to joining the company, Yingling worked for Stanadyne
Corp. as director, global accounts, and at
Molex, Inc., as director and general manager of its industrial communications and
software business. Kaman is a supplier of
automation, material-handling, motioncontrol, bearings, mechanical power
transmissions, and other industrial parts.
MARCH 2012
The Robotic Industries Assn. (RIA),

Ann Arbor, Mich., has named Catherine
Morris chair of the board. She becomes
the 20th chair since the RIA was founded

in 1974, and is the first woman to serve in
the position. Morris is senior account
manager for ATI Industrial Automation.
American Torch Tip Hires

Account Executive
engineers and technologists for the advancement of manufacturing education.
Wolf Robotics Names

Manager for Brazil
American Torch Tip, Bradenton, Fla.,

has appointed Tony Ragle regional account executive for Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Ragle brings more
than 35 years of experience in semiautomatic and robotic welding applications.
Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, Colo., has

hired Marcio Mininel as regional manager for all of Brazil, based in Piracicaba.
Mininel has more than a decade of experience in programming and robotic welding implementation. He most recently
worked as a process engineer for Caterpillar Brazil.
ARC Specialties Hires Asst.

Project Manager
Obituary
Hoang Nguyen
ARC Specialties,
Inc., Houston, Tex., a
manufacturer of automated and robotic
welding systems, has
hired Hoang Nguyen
as assistant project
manager. Nguyen has
interned with Hitachi
GST, Applied Materials, and Neptec Optical Solutions.
Sancap Abrasives Names

Account Executive
Sancap Abrasives, Alliance, Ohio, has
appointed James Moran regional sales
manager to work with its national sales
representatives and distribution network.
Moran brings 30 years of industrial and
distribution expertise to the post.
SME Names President and

Education Board Execs
The Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME), Dearborn, Mich., has
elected LaRoux K. Gillespie president for
2012. Gillespie is a metal finishing consultant and a retired Kansas City Honeywell quality leader. The SME Education
Foundation has named its 2012 board of
directors representing business, industry,
and academia. Appointed were Glen H.
Pearson, president; Brian A. Ruestow,
vice president and secretary; Peter F.
Mackie, treasurer and chair of finance;
and Edward M. Swallow, assistant treasurer and vice chair of finance. Pearson was
with Eastman Kodak Co. (ret.); Ruestow
is with F. W. Roberts Mfg. Co., Inc.;
Mackie is with Wells Fargo Advisors LLC;
and Swallow is with Northrop Grumman
Information Systems. The mission of the
foundation is to inspire, support, and prepare the next generation of manufacturing
William Bill H. Kielhorn

William Bill Kielhorn, 80, died Jan.
6 at his home in Longview, Tex. Recently
named an AWS Fellow, he is remembered
as the LeTourneau University professor
who never missed teaching a class for 45
years. He presented his final class using a
laptop from a
hospital bed.
Kielhorn was
born in Oxford,
Wis., then lived
in Chicago and
North Carolina
before enlisting
in the U.S. Air
Force in 1951
for four years.
In 1956, he enrolled in LeTourneau TechWilliam Bill Kielhorn nical Institute
where he graduated with a degree in welding engineering in 1959. He received his masters degree from the University of Wisconsin,
Madison. Kielhorn served as a welding engineer at Worthington Pump in Harrison,
N.J., from 1959 to 1966 then returned to
LeTourneau College to teach in the welding department. He served the American
Welding Society in many capacities with
the East Texas Section and as District 17
director for eight years. He was a past
member of the AWS Technical Activities
and National Scholarship Committees,
and chapter chair for Aluminum Welding
in the Welding Handbook, 8th edition, Vol.
3, and the Survey of Welding Processes
chapter of the 9th edition, Vol. 1. Kielhorn
is survived by his wife, Betty; two daughters; and five grandchildren. The family
requests donations be made to the
William H. Kielhorn Scholarship Fund at
LeTourneau University, PO Box 7001,
Longview, TX 75607; or made online at
www.letu.edu.
WELDING JOURNAL
89
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264.
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AWS
WS recertification when you attend the conference.
Hosted by:
THE AMERICAN WELDER

How to Pick the
Right-Sized Welding
Cable
Here are a formula and tables that will help you to choose
a safe-sized cable every time
BY AUGUST F. MANZ
What size welding cable do you need to be safe when you are using
XX amperes and are about YY feet from the power supply?
Most welders know that the use of the wrong cable size can lead to cable overheating, insulation failure, electric shock, and even fires. The wrong size can even affect the
welding condition.
Picking a Safe Cable Size

To answer the question above, you need to know the welding current and the distance
from the power supply. The safe American Wire Gauge (AWG) size is based on a 4-V
cable loss, due to the welding current flowing through the cable resistance. (Note: Years
ago, it was agreed that a 4-V cable loss, due to welding current, would be acceptable. A
4-V drop does not have too much effect on the arc system or the system efficiency.)
Table 1 shows that at 250 A and 150 ft from the power supply, the correct size is a 4/0
AWG cable, which is the same as the #0000 AWG in Table 2.
Another Method
You can also pick a safe cable size by using the formula below, and Table 2, for copper cables. First, calculate the safe circular mil size needed. Circular mil (CM) is an engineering measure of the cable cross-section area.
CM = 10.37 A (total cable length, ft)/4 V
Now, use the calculated CM value and the AWG sizes in Table 2 to select a cable (the
10.37 value is only good for copper cables). Always pick an AWG cable size with a CM
Table 1 Recommended Sizes of Copper Welding Leads
Amps
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
550
600
AUGUST F. MANZ is a Fellow of the

American Welding Society.
2
2
2
2
1
1/0
1/0
2/0
3/0
3/0
75
2
2
1
1/0
2/0
3/0
3/0
4/0
4/0
100
2
1
1/0
2/0
3/0
4/0
4/0
Distance in Feet from Welding Machine

125
150 175 200 225 250 300
2
1/0
2/0
3/0
4/0
1
2/0
3/0
4/0
1/0
3/0
4/0
1/0
3/0
4/0
2/0
4/0
2/0
4/0
3/0
350
400
4/0
4/0
*Based on direct current and 4-V drop. Double the distance for total length.
WELDING JOURNAL
91
THE AMERICAN WELDER

Table 2 Wire Table, Standard Annealed Copper American Wire Gauge
Gauge
No.
Dia. in
Mils at 20C
0000
000
00
0
1
2
3
4
460.0
409.6
364.8
324.9
289.3
257.6
229.4
204.3
Cross Section 20C

Circular
Square
Mils
Inch
211,600
167,800
133,100
105,500
83,690
66,370
52,640
41,740
value larger than the calculated value. Do

not pick an AWG size smaller than #2
because of needed mechanical strength.
The following is an example CM calculation:
To determine the safe AWG size cable
needed for 250 A and a total cable length
of 300 ft [150 ft 2 (from the power supply to the arc and return)], you use the
following formula:
CM = 10.37 (250)(300)/4 = 194,438 cm
0.1662
0.1318
0.1045
0.08289
0.06573
0.05213
0.04134
0.03278
Pounds
1000 ft
0C
(32F)
Ohms per 1000 ft

20C
(68F)
50C
(122F)
640.5
507.9
402.8
319.5
253.3
200.9
159.3
126.4
0.04516
0.05695
0.07181
0.09055
0.1142
0.1440
0.1816
0.2289
0.04901
0.06180
0.07793
0.09827
0.1239
0.1563
0.1970
0.2485
0.05479
0.06909
0.08712
0.1099
0.1385
0.1747
0.2203
0.2778
In Table 2, the next larger CM is 211,600

cm, for #0000 AWG cable. This is the
same 4/0 size you found in Table 1.
The actual voltage drop in the cable
can be calculated as follows: From Table
2, for #0000 AWG, at 20C (the estimated room temperature) there are 0.04901
ohms per 1000 ft. Using Ohms Law as
follows:
Volts = (ohms) (amperes)
= (0.04901 ohms/1000 ft)(300
ft)(250 A)
= 3.68 V
The calculated 3.68-V loss is smaller

than the acceptable 4-V loss agreed upon,
and is okay. Calculations like this were
used to generate the data in Table 1.
The Bottom Line

With the tables and information in this
article, you can choose a safe cable size
every time.
March
arch 20-22, 2012
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THE AMERICAN WELDER

WELDING PROJECT
Welded Benches for Fun
and Fund-Raising
BY HOWARD WOODWARD
The whimsical garden bench featuring a black cat theme (Fig. 1) was
built by Rufino Caniz, a Guatemalan, as a welding project during his
studies as a visiting professor at Illinois Central College.
Caniz studied welding under Eric Ockerhausen, Peoria Section treasurer and advisor to
the Sections Student Chapter, who used the funds raised from selling these benches to
help finance a pet project of his based in Guatemala.
Ockerhausen explained that he and Caniz would spend 13 days in Guatemala building a cost-effective system he designed to dry coffee beans using solar energy and materials found locally. The project, if successful, would benefit the local economy.
As for designing the benches, Ockerhausen explained, You dont really need measurements because each type of bench should be different. I chose a cat but another student did a rhino, because that was his animal of choice.
For this project, the bill of materials included six, four-ft-long boards 1 in. by 6 in.; 24
carriage bolts; four sections of angle iron 4 ft long; plus eight pieces of angle iron cut to
fit (12 ft total). The cats dimensions are roughly 28 in. long, by 18 in. high, with a 17-in.-
HOWARD WOODWARD
(woodward@aws.org) is associate editor
of the Welding Journal.
Fig. 1 Attention-getting bench designs are easy to make and limited only by the welders
imagination. This cat motif was inspired by a small cast-iron feline. Its outline was enlarged
by projecting its shadow onto a piece of paper using an ordinary flashlight. The shadow was
traced then transferred to sturdier material to make the pattern for cutting the steel cats.
WELDING JOURNAL
93
THE AMERICAN WELDER

WELDING PROJECT
Fig. 2 Rear view of the bench showing

the angle iron supports and carriage bolts.
Fig. 3 Ockerhausen sprays black paint on his soda-can-based solar

heating system to enhance its efficiency. The heater is part of a coffee bean
drying system he designed and recently installed in Guatemala.
long tail. The whiskers are silicone held

on with a dab of silicone caulk.
Ockerhausen stated, The best way
to design a bench is to just sit on a bench.
If it is comfortable, measure it and make
yours similar to that one. Most of the
bench seats are about 17 to 18 in. off the
ground, and they can be straight or at just
a slight tilt. The back rest is always at a little angle for comfort.
The first steps are to decide on an animal design, how big to make it, and how
to transfer that design into a piece of steel
heavy enough to support a persons
weight.
We used 38-in. steel, Ockerhausen
said, and since we did not have a big
sheet of it, we welded a couple of pieces
together to make a piece large enough to
work with. We just cut the metal, welded
it together, then ground it smooth. That
can keep your cost down.
As you can see, on the backside of the
bench we used angle irons to support the
seat and the back rest Fig. 2. Since we
used redwood salvaged from an old wooden pallet, we had to add the extra metal
supports to make the bench strong enough
to hold a person. If you use 2 4 treated
lumber, the wood bolted to the bench
pieces should be strong enough to support
94
MARCH 2012
the bench and the people sitting on it.

Note that a metal plate is welded
between the cats feet to distribute the
weight and keep the bench stable on soft
ground. Anything that spreads out the
weight, Ockerhausen said, will work
just fine. On other benches, we used 3-in.diameter metal circles to spread the
weight.
For the (animal) design you can use
anything you like. Be creative and have
fun with it. If you can draw, you can just
trace out the full-sized design.
For the cat bench, I used a small cast
iron cat as the model. I mounted large
pieces of white paper on a wall, then used
a flashlight to cast a shadow of the model
onto the paper. Once the shadow size was
as big as I thought it needed to be, I
traced the shadow onto the paper. Then,
I cut that design out and copied it onto a
heavier material to use as the pattern for
making future cats from steel.
Ockerhausen noted, you do have to be
a little creative to turn a design into
something practical. That is the fun part.
If it does not work out just right the first
time, grind off the weld and make the
adjustments. That is a good thing about
welding.
Caniz and Ockerhausen left for
Guatemala in early January to start their

project. They built a solar-powered coffee
bean drying system constructed from
empty soda cans (Fig. 3), a passive solar
water heater, and a wall constructed from
plastic soda bottles filled with sand for the
insulating bricks. They used solar light
tubes under the tin roof to provide light
during the day.
Ockerhausen noted this is a continuing project that needs additional support.
He seeks donations to help fund a wasteoil burner for drying coffee and to develop a more efficient method to pump lake
water uphill. Also, they are seeking a
donor to provide an engine-driven generator to provide electricity during power
outages.
Ockerhausens broad plan is to eventually develop a market in his area for the
Guatemalan coffee. Illinois Central
College is hopeful this project may provide a study-abroad program offering students an opportunity to travel to this area
of Guatemala to learn while working on
creative projects.
His mind still toying with new ideas for
benches, Ockerhausen mused, I was just
thinking of a giraffe design, or maybe for
Florida I could try to build a sailfish
bench.
THE AMERICAN WELDER

LEARNING TRACK
Pipe Fitters Local Offers Comprehensive
Training Options
BY HOWARD WOODWARD
(woodward@aws.org) is associate editor
of the Welding Journal.
Front row, from left, are Pipe Fitters 597

welding instructors Mike Galfano, Peter
Larou, Rich Lopez, Bill Enright, Marc
Randulich, Dave Hintz, Mike Pelegrino,
Rick Hobson, Glen Burch, and Tyler
Johnson. Not pictured is instructor
Mark Duewerth. Standing are the
Tuesdays class of 1st-, 2nd-, and 4thyear building trades apprentices, who
total about 90 welders each day.
Students at Pipe Fitters 597 benefit from experienced instructors, many with
CWI credentials, small class sizes, and well-equipped training facilities
Welding instructor Mike Pelegrino is

pleased with the success of the welder apprentice classes at Pipe Fitters Training
Center Local Union 597 in Mokena, Ill., a
village just southwest of Chicago.
96
MARCH 2012
The Training Facility

The training facility, opened in May
2005, is big and the number of training
staff is impressive. The 198,000-sq-ft facil-
itys welding lab features 116 welding

booths, two computer rooms with 20
workstations in each, two coupon-cutting
machines using oxyfuel cuts and machine
bevels, an overhead crane, a lecture hall
THE AMERICAN WELDER

LEARNING TRACK
fitted with wireless laptops, advanced
audio/visual capabilities, and seating for
250.
The Training Schedules
Training work is performed both indoors and outdoors to simulate actual onthe-job working conditions. At one time,
there may be as many as 800 apprentices
studying pipe fitter courses. The classes
are also offered five nights a week, from 5
to 8 p.m., to accommodate apprentices
and journeypersons.
The Welding Staff
Pelegrino said, We have approximately 30 part-time welding instructors
during the evening classes. They work in
the field for contractors during the day,
then come here to teach for another three
hours.
The daytime teaching staff are all pipe
fitters who continue to receive extensive
training on a yearly basis to update their
skills.
The daytime staff (see lead photo) includes Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)
and Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
Mike Pelegrino, an apprentice welding instructor for SMAW, GTAW, GMAW,
FCAW; Mike Galfano, apprentice basic
pipe fitting, OSHA regulations, and rigging instructor; CWI Peter Larou, downhill pipe welding instructor; Rich Lopez,
Journeyperson welding instructor for
SMAW, GTAW, GMAW, and FCAW; CWI
and CWE Bill Enright, apprentice drafting, history and heritage, and CWI prep
instructor for Journeypersons; CWI Marc
Randulich, apprentice welding instructor
for SMAW, GTAW, GMAW, FCAW; CWI
and CWE Dave Hintz, welding coordinator and certification apprentices and Journeymen; CWI Rick Hobson, apprentice
welding instructor for SMAW, GTAW,
GMAW, FCAW; CWI Glen Burch, hybrid
welding instructor; CWI Tyler Johnson,
downhill pipe welding instructor; and
Mark Duewerth, apprentice math and layout instructor.
A big feature, Pelegrino said, is
while welding class sizes vary, in most
cases there is a 14:1 student-instructor
ratio, giving each student adequate personal instruction. He is particularly
pleased that four of his second-year welding students participated in the 2011
FABTECH Professional Welding Contest
in Chicago and earned the first-, fourth-,
fifth-, and twelfth-place honors.
CWI Mike Pelegrino inspects a students weld
Attendance Requirements
Unlike most welding training facilities,
the Pipe Fitters apprentice program is essentially a scholarship, with zero cost to
the apprentice. The fees are funded by the
membership of the Local Union. However, students must continually demonstrate learning skills and the ability to pass
the stringent ASME Section IX code requirements or they may be dropped from
further studies.
Our welding course is set up or bro-
ken down into years, Pelegrino said.

For example, the first-year (six
months) apprentices learn horizontal Tjoint multipass welding of 38-in. equal leg
(2F), per visual requirements of ASME
Section IX, and vertical T-joint multipass
welding of 38-in. equal leg (3F), per visual
requirements of ASME Section IX. The
second six (6) months provides training on
welding 6-in. Schedule 80 pipe in the 1G
position, per visual requirements of
ASME Section IX and requires passing of
radiographic inspection.
Apprentices practice on welding large-diameter pipe.
WELDING JOURNAL
97
THE AMERICAN WELDER

LEARNING TRACK
process follows the same progression with
each position being taught. Once the apprentice tests again on carbon-steel pipe
in the 6G position on 2-in. Schedule 80
(the UA 15), then they will move onto
using stainless steel filler metals. The procedure continues for each type of different
filler metals and then an X-ray test for
qualifying them.
The fourth-year apprentices study advanced SMA, GTA, and GMA/FCA welding processes.
The facility also offers apprentice
training in the building trades including an
industrial rigging certification course.
Visit the Unions Web site, or call or
write for more information.
Apprentices test their skills cutting large-diameter pipe outdoors to simulate real-life
working conditions.
Once the apprentice passes the required tests set forth by Local 597, Pelegrino said, they may proceed to the
GTAW process. Please note that the apprentice can proceed at a faster pace and
have his requirements met prior to his or

her indenture dates.
The GTAW process, introduced in the
third year, is taught on 4- and also 2-in.
pipe with variations as needed. This
Pipe Fitters Training Center

Local Union 597
10850 W. 187th St.
Mokena, IL 60448
Phone: (708) 326-9240
FAX: (708) 326-9241
E-mail: training@pftf597.org
www.pftf597.org
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MARCH 2012
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or call 800-443-9353, ext. 264
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Earn PDHs toward your A
AWS
WS recertification when you attend the conference.
THE AMERICAN WELDER

FACT SHEET
SMAW Electrode Orientation
Fig. 1 Orientation of the electrode.

In shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW), the orientation of the electrode in relation to the workpiece and the
weld groove controls the direction and lo-
cation of the arc and is an important factor in weld quality. Improper positioning
of the electrode can result in slag entrapment, porosity, and weld undercut.
Proper orientation in the joint depends

on the type and size of electrode, welding
position, and joint geometry. A skilled
welder automatically evaluates these factors when deciding the orientation to be
used for a specific joint. The positioning
of the electrode relative to the joint and
the workpiece is described by the travel
angle and work angle.
The term travel angle denotes the
angle (less than 90 deg) between the electrode axis and a line perpendicular to the
weld axis, in a plane determined by the
electrode axis and weld axis. The term
work angle denotes the angle (less than 90
deg) between a line perpendicular to the
major workpiece surface and a plane determined by the electrode axis and the
weld axis.
When the electrode is pointed in the
direction of welding, the technique is
termed forehand welding. The travel
angle is then known as the push angle.
When the electrode is pointed in the opposite direction to that of welding, the
technique is termed backhand welding.
The travel angle in backhand welding is
called the drag angle. These angles are
shown in Fig. 1.
Correct placement of the electrode
helps to achieve control of the weld pool, attain the desired penetration, and ensure
complete fusion to the base plate. Typical
electrode orientation and welding technique for groove and fillet welds for use on
carbon steel with carbon steel electrodes
are listed in Table 1. These values may be
different for other electrodes and materials.
A large travel angle may cause a convex, poorly shaped bead with inadequate
penetration, whereas a small travel angle
may cause slag entrapment. A large work
angle can cause undercutting, while a
small work angle can result in incomplete
fusion.
Table 1 Typical Shielded Metal Arc Electrode Positioning and Welding Techniques for Carbon Steel Electrodes
Joint Type
Welding Position
Work Angle (deg)
Travel Angle (deg)
Welding Techniques
Groove
Groove
Groove
Groove
Fillet
Fillet
Fillet
Flat
Horizontal
Uphill
Overhead
Horizontal
Uphill
Overhead
90
80100
90
90
45
3555
3045
510(a)
510
510
510
510(a)
510
510
Backhand
Backhand
Forehand
Backhand
Backhand
Forehand
Backhand
(a) Travel angle may be 10 to 30 deg for electrodes with heavy iron powder coverings.
100 MARCH 2012
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NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY

continued from page 11
The hope of the program established at Pulaski High School,

assisted with training services and supplies from Caterpillar and
Lincoln, is to decrease the skills gap many businesses experience.
if the company would assist with its current welding program.

Dale Gilbertson, a weld training supervisor, coordinated the effort with school administrators.
Caterpillar representatives then spent the summer working
with administrators to identify needs, provided students with a
manufacturing process introduction, and guided facility tours at
its South Milwaukee campus. The company also assisted developing curriculum to the schools welding instructors and put them
through the Caterpillar 101 welding course. In addition, employees Willy Love and Jose Ramirez provide on-site instruction, visiting the classroom once a week, and will continue to do so until
the end of each semester.
Along with Lincoln Electric, the company supplied welding
consumables, personal protective equipment, and steel to support the weld program. Currently, 40 participants are enrolled.
Industry Notes
First Coast Technical College has established an evening welding program on Mondays, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays. Located
in Palatkas Industrial BargePort facility, Florida, the colleges
classroom/lab features 35 stations. Classes are set to begin
March 19 and several prerequisites apply, so early application
is encouraged. For more details, e-mail angie.lord@fctc.edu.
MassDevelopment issued a $4 million tax-exempt bond, purchased by TD Bank, on behalf of Bomco, Inc., Gloucester,
Mass., a producer of sheet metal fabrications for jet engines
and turbines. Proceeds will be used for equipment and to build
an 18,000-sq-ft manufacturing facility on its current property.
Praxair Distribution, Inc., Danbury, Conn., executed an agreement to acquire Texas Welders Supply Co., the largest independent gas and welding products distributor in the greater
Houston area with 130 employees.
Spoon River College, Illinois, is bringing back its welding program in the spring 2012 semester. The six-credit welding operator certificate is comprised of three courses engineering
graphics, introduction to welding, and gas metal arc welding.
104 MARCH 2012
MICOR Industries, Inc., Decatur, Ala., obtained its qualifications and certifications to weld per ASME Section IX, on
6AL-4V (Grade 5) titanium.
Stork Materials Technology, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, a
materials and product qualification testing provider, officially
changed its name to Element Materials Technology.
The R&D team at Solar Atmospheres developed a new hot
zone design concept to reduce vacuum furnace power losses.
To test the design, it is rebuilding a mid-size production vacuum furnace hot zone in its headquarters, Souderton, Pa.
Blackland Group added to its aerospace component manufacturing platform, Kessington Holdings, LP, acquiring Prikos &
Becker Tool Co., Skokie, Ill., a specializer in intricate assemblies requiring metal fabrications.
Werts Welding & Tank Service, Inc., opened a new branch in
Billings, Mont., to serve its western and northwestern user base
by reducing tank trailer parts and equipment delivery times.
The umbrella trade association for the Robotic Industries Association, AIA, and the Motion Control Association changed
its name from the Automation Technologies Council to the Association for Advancing Automation (A3).
Northwest Pipe Co. plans to expand its Saginaw, Tex., manufacturing facility to serve the areas needs of anticipated large
water projects, including a mill expansion that will increase the
diameter and thickness ranges of spiral welded steel pipe.
Holston Gases, Knoxville, Tenn., completed acquiring Cumberland Welding Supply Co., Somerset, Ky. Operations will
now be consolidated with Holstons operation in Somerset.
Red-D-Arc Welderentals has partnered with Key Plant Automation Ltd., Liverpool, UK, to be its exclusive global distributor of Key Plant weld-positioning/automation products.
Noble Gas Solutions, Albany, N.Y., donated $5000 to the Rensselaer Boys & Girls Club. In a recent Times Union article, it
was noted the club is in dire straits, and shuttering its doors
would put more than 120 children out on the street every day.
Call for Papers

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on the Joining of Materials
May 58, 2013, Helsingr, Denmark
Papers are sought on all aspects of developments in
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Topics of most interest include recent developments
in welding, soldering, and brazing. Advances in materials, metallurgy, and weldability. Mathematical modeling
and simulation. Process monitoring, sensors, and control. Structural integrity and inspection. Applications
with relevance to industry needs, automotive, oil, gas,
and power generation. Weld quality structural properties, and environmental considerations. Education,
training, and qualification and certification of welding
personnel. Each paper will be peer reviewed for technical accuracy.
The deadline for submitting the title and a short
abstract is Nov. 2, 2012; notification regarding author
guidelines for the preparation of the full paper will be
sent by Dec. 31, 2012; the deadline for receipt of the full
paper is Feb. 27, 2013.
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Osama Al-Erhayem at jom_aws@post10.tele.dk.
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WELDING JOURNAL 107
ADVERTISER
INDEX
Abicor Binzel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
www.binzel-abicor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 542-4867
Harris Products Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

www.harrisproductsgroup.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 733-4043
Arcos Industries, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IBC

www.arcos.us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 233-8460
Hobart Inst. of Welding Tech. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62

www.welding.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 332-9448
Atlas Welding Accessories, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89

www.atlaswelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 962-9353
Hodgson Custom Rolling, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

www.hcrsteel.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 263-2547
AWS Education Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69, 90, 99

www.aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353
Hypertherm, Inc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

www.hypertherm.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 643-0030
AWS Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

www.aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353
Lincoln Electric Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OBC

www.lincolnelectric.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(216) 481-8100
AWS Membership Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70, 95, 105

www.aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353
Midalloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
www.midalloy.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 776-3300
AWS Technical Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55-58

www.aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353
Montreal Manufacturing Technology Show . . . . . . . . . . . . .100-s

www.mmts.ca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 322-7333
BLUCO Modular Fixturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

www.Bluco.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 535-0135
NASCC The Steel Conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101

www.aisc.org/nascc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(312) 670-2400
BUG-O Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

www.bugo.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 245-3186
National Bronze & Metals, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

www.nbmmetals.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(713) 869-9600
Camfil Farr Air Polution Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

www.camfilfarrapc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 479-6801
OTC Daihen, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

www.daihen-usa.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 682-7626
Carell Corp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

www.carellcorp.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(251) 937-0948
Pferd, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

www.pferdusa.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 342-0915
Champion Welding Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

www.ChampionWelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 321-9353
Red-D-Arc Weldrentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

www.reddarc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(866) 733-3272
Commercial Diving Academy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

www.commercialdivingacademy.com . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 974-2232
Revco Industries, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

www.bsxgear.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 527-3826
Cor-Met . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
www.cor-met.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 848-2719
Robovent Products Group, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

www.robovent.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 762-68368
Diamond Ground Products, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

www.diamondground.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(805) 498-3837
Select Arc, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IFC

www.select-arc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(937) 295-5215
Diamond X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
www.diamondxtools.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 447-4248
Sumner Manufacturing Co., Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

www.sumner.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 999-6910
Divers Academy International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

www.diversacademy.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 238-3483
Thermal Arc/Thermadyne Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

www.thermalarc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(866) 279-2628
Electron Beam Technologies, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63

www.electronbeam.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(815) 935-2211
Triangle Engineering, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62

www.trieng.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(781) 878-1500
FABTECH 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

www.fabtechexpo.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 297
Weld Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

www.WeldEngineering.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(508) 842-2224
FABTECH Canada 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92

www.fabtechcanada.com . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 322-7333, ext. 220
Weld Hugger, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88

www.weldhugger.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(877) 935-3447
Fischer Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

www.fischerengr.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(937) 754-1750
WELDMEX 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87

www.awsweldmex.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 297
Fronius Perfect Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

www.fronius-usa.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(810) 220-4414
WESTEC 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98

www.westeconline.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 733-4763
Gedik Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

www.gedikwelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .+90 216 378 50 00
Greiner Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
www.greinerindustries.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 782-2110
Gullco International, Inc. - U.S.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
www.gullco.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(440) 439-8333
108 MARCH 2012
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Visit the AWS Interactive Ad Index: www.aws.org/ad-index
SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, MARCH 2012

Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council
Continuous Cooling Transformation

Behavior in the CGHAZ of Naval Steels
Continuous cooling transformation diagrams have been constructed for the
coarse-grain heat-affected zone of HSLA-65, HSLA-100, and HY-100 steels
ABSTRACT
Continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagrams were developed for the simulated coarse-grain heat-affected zone (CGHAZ) of HSLA-65, HSLA-100, and HY100 naval steels. Samples were heated to a peak temperature of 1300C in the Gleeble
and then cooled over a range of cooling rates representative of actual practice. The
Ms, Mf, AC3, and AC1 temperatures were determined using dilatometric analysis for
construction of the CCT diagrams. Grain coarsening was observed in the simulated
CGHAZ for all three steels and was most pronounced in HY-100. Dissolution of precipitates (carbides) in the austenite at the high simulation temperature was responsible for excessive austenite grain coarsening, with HSLA-65 exhibiting the smallest prior
austenite grain size. Depending on the cooling rate, martensite, bainite, ferrite, and
pearlite can form in the CGHAZ microstructure for HSLA-65. For HSLA-100 and
HY-100, only martensite and bainite were observed over the range of cooling rates
that were simulated. It can be concluded that HY-100 has the highest hardenability
while HSLA-65 has the lowest from the constructed CCT diagrams. Using these diagrams, it is possible to identify cooling rates that can avoid the formation of high hardness martensite in CGHAZ in order to ensure resistance to hydrogen-induced cracking.
This is particularly a concern for HY-100 because of its higher carbon content and
hardenability relative to HSLA-65 and HSLA-100, and thereby has the potential for
forming much higher hardness martensite in the CGHAZ.
Introduction
Because of their good combination of
high strength and low-temperature toughness, high-strength low-alloy steels
(HSLA) are widely used in naval shipbuilding and will continue to be the principal structural materials in the future.
HSLA steels have very low-carbon content
(usually less than 0.1 wt-%) and less than
5 wt-% total alloying additions, including
Mo, Nb, Ti, V, Mn, Cu, Cr, Ni, and others.
Based on low-carbon content and a finegrained microstructure, HSLA steels have
better, or at least comparable, weldability
(resistance to hydrogen-induced cracking)
compared to mild steels but have a much
higher strength and toughness (Refs. 1, 2).
The thermomechanical-controlled processing (TMCP) technique is utilized to
X. YUE (yuexinosu@gmail.com),, J. C. LIPPOLD, B. T. ALEXANDROV, and S. S. BABU
are with the Welding Engineering Program, The
Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.
strengthen these steels through the development of very fine grain size in the range
of 5 to 10 m (Refs. 3, 4). In addition,
these steels contain various carbides, nitrides, and/or carbonitrides that are finely
dispersed in the microstructure. These
precipitates act to impede the dislocation
motion and thereby provide a secondary
hardening effect (Refs. 5, 6).
From a weldability standpoint, one advantage of HSLA steels over older generation naval steels is that preheat can be either
entirely avoided, or only low-temperature
preheat is required. However, welding does
KEYWORDS
Continuous Cooling
Transformation
Microstructure
CGHAZ
HSLA-65
HSLA-100
HY-100
alter the carefully designed microstructure

of HSLA steels as a result of heat-affected
zone (HAZ) thermal cycles that exceed the
transformation temperature (Refs. 79).
The microconstituents commonly observed
in the weld metal and HAZ of HSLA steels
were summarized by Liu (Ref. 10). It has
been reported that precipitates could either
coarsen or dissolve in the steel matrix during
the heating cycle, which can lead to excessive austenite grain growth in the HAZ due
to the absence of the pinning effect of precipitates on austenite grain boundaries
(Refs. 11, 12). The coarse grain size decreases the nucleation sites for high-temperature transformation products such as
ferrite and pearlite, tending to suppress
their formation. If the cooling rate is sufficiently high, martensite will form in the
HAZ, which can potentially make the HAZ
susceptible to hydrogen-induced cracking
(Refs. 1315). This is particularly a problem
in the coarse grain heat-affected zone
(CGHAZ), where grain growth is most pronounced at peak temperatures above
1200C. An understanding of the continuous cooling transformation behavior of the
CGHAZ of HSLA steel weldments and the
construction of corresponding CCT diagrams is necessary in order to optimize
welding parameters to avoid the formation
of deleterious microstructures such as hard
martensite (Ref. 16). For the purpose of
comparison, a CCT diagram for the
CGHAZ of HY-100 has also been constructed.
This paper describes the continuous
cooling transformation behavior of the
CGHAZ of HSLA-65, HSLA-100, and
HY-100 steels. The microstructure resulting from austenite decomposition at
different cooling rates is characterized,
and corresponding CCT diagrams are
constructed.
Experimental Procedure
The chemical compositions of the
HSLA-65, HSLA-100, and HY-100 steels
WELDING JOURNAL 67-s
WELDING RESEARCH
BY X. YUE, J. C. LIPPOLD, B. T. ALEXANDROV, AND S. S. BABU
20 m
20 m
WELDING RESEARCH
20 m
Fig. 1 Optical micrographs of the three naval steels. A HSLA-65; B

HSLA-100; C HY-100. 2% Nital etch.
used in this investigation are provided in

Table 1. The base metal microstructures of
the three steels are shown in Fig. 1AC. It
can be seen that the HSLA-65 microstructure consists of fine equiaxed ferrite grains
with a grain size in the range of 46 m.
HSLA-100 exhibits a quenched and tempered martensite and/or bainite mi-
Fig. 2 Determination of AC3, AC1, Ms , and Mf (at maximum cooling

rate) from dilatation curve.
crostructure. The precipitates in HSLA-65

and HSLA-100 consist of carbides and/or
carbonitrides containing Nb or V, and additional carbides precipitating during the
tempering process and/or the -copper
phase for HSLA-100 (Refs. 2, 4, 6, 16, 17).
Similar to HSLA-100, the HY-100 steel
microstructure is also quenched and tem-
Table 1 Chemical Compositions of Naval Steels

Element (wt-%)
C
Mn
Si
P
S
Cu
Ni
Cr
Mo
V
Nb
Ti
68-s
HSLA-65
0.074
1.35
0.24
0.011
0.006
0.25
0.34
0.14
0.06
0.058
0.018
0.012
MARCH 2012, VOL. 88
HSLA-100
0.051
0.90
0.25
0.008
0.002
1.17
1.58
0.60
0.37
<0.01
0.017
<0.01
HY-100
0.18
0.28
0.21
0.008
0.002
0.15
2.32
1.37
0.26
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
pered martensite with carbides that form

during tempering.
Samples for CGHAZ simulation using
the Gleeble 3800 were machined from
the three steel plates. The samples were
6.5 mm in diameter by 100 mm long. A
Type K control thermocouple was welded
at the midsection of the test sample. A
dilatometer was used for measuring the diametric dilation change of these samples.
All testing was done in a partial vacuum of
approximately 103 torr. The samples were
heated to a peak temperature of 1300C
(simulating the CGHAZ temperature) at
a linear rate of 200C/s and held at peak
temperature for one second. A peak temperature of 1300C was selected because it
is representative of the CGHAZ in all
three steels and avoids the possibility of
sample melting at higher peak temperatures. For the cooling portion, twelve cooling rates were employed for each steel to
simulate a wide range of welding conditions representative of actual practice. The
different cooling rates were obtained by
selecting copper or stainless steel jaw sets,
and adjusting the free span (spacing between jaws). The cooling rate is defined by
Fig. 3 Vickers hardness profile as a function of t8/5 for three naval steels. A HSLA-65; B HSLA-100; C HY-100.
20 m
20 m
20 m
20 m
20 m
20 m
Fig. 4 Optical micrographs of CGHAZ of HSLA-65 at different cooling rates. A t8/5 = 5.2 s; B t8/5 = 8.3 s; C t8/5 = 21.1 s; D t8/5 = 41.8 s; E
t8/5 = 57.2 s; F t8/5 = 84.2 s; 2% Nital etch.
the value t8/5, which is the cooling time

from 800 to 500C. In this investigation,
the t8/5 was in the range of a few seconds
to around 100 s, as shown in Table 2. The
CCT diagrams are thereby constructed
using the dilatometry data obtained at different t8/5 values. The method has been
specified in the paper by Eldis (Ref. 18).
Metallographic analysis was conducted
on samples taken at the midsection (hot
zone) of the dilatometry specimens close
to the location where the thermocouple
was attached. Samples were polished and
etched with 2% nital and examined using
both optical and scanning electron microscopy. For TEM analysis, thin slices
were cut using a low-speed diamond saw,
and then they were mechanically ground
to a thickness of about 80 m. The 3-mmdiameter discs were punched and electrolytically thinned using a twin jet polisher in a solution of 33% nitric acid and
67% methanol at 10C. The TEM foils
were evaluated in a Philips CM200 TEM
operated at 200 kV.
The prior austenite grain size was

measured in accordance with ASTM E
112-96. Vickers hardness measurements
were conducted on the as-polished samples using a 1-kg load, in accordance with
ASTM E 384-10.
Results and Discussion

Prior austenite grain size plays an important role in the continuous cooling
transformation behavior of HSLA and HY
steels. Excessive austenite grain coarsen-
Table 2 t8/5 and Corresponding Average Cooling Rates for Three Naval Steels
HSLA-65
HSLA-100
HY-100
t8/5
(s)
Avg Cooling
Rate (C/s)
t8/5
(s)
Avg Cooling
Rate (C/s)
t8/5
(s)
Avg Cooling
Rate (C/s)
3.0
3.5
5.2
8.3
10.5
21.1
27.2
36.4
41.8
57.2
75.6
84.2
100
85.7
57.7
36.1
28.6
14.2
11.0
8.2
7.2
5.2
4.0
3.6
2.4
3.6
8.2
13.4
15.5
17.7
37.8
41.4
51.4
60.9
86.8
106.3
125
83.3
36.6
22.4
19.4
16.9
7.9
7.2
5.8
4.9
3.5
2.8
3.6
4.3
5.7
10.6
14.1
19.1
21.2
43.5
66.4
74.1
106.6
113.4
83.3
69.8
52.6
28.3
21.3
15.7
14.2
6.9
4.5
4.0
2.8
2.6
WELDING RESEARCH
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 5 SEM and TEM micrographs for simulated CGHAZ of HSLA-65. A t8/5 = 3 s; B t8/5 = 21.1 s; C t8/5 = 84.2 s; D HSLA-65 base metal
microstructure; E t8/5 = 84.2 s (bright-field TEM); F HSLA-65 base metal microstructure (bright-field TEM).
ing in the CGHAZ during welding is generally detrimental to HAZ mechanical

properties. For the purpose of comparison
of the austenite grain coarsening tendency
of the three steels, the prior austenite
grain size was measured at the maximum
cooling rate for each test steel, in which
circumstance the austenite coarsening
during cooling before the start of transformation was most restricted and an accurate comparison among steels was
70-s
MARCH 2012, VOL.91
ensured. The ASTM grain size number

(and average grain diameter) for the simulated CGHAZ of HSLA-65, HSLA-100,
and HY-100 were determined to be 7.5 (27
m), 5.8 (50 m), and 4.5 (75 m), respectively. All the steels exhibited an essentially equiaxed grain structure.
The AC1 and AC3 temperatures on
heating were determined by identifying
the deviation points from the dilation
curve, as shown in Fig. 2. Since the heating
process was identical for all twelve simulated thermal cycles, the average value of
AC1 and AC3 and the standard deviation
are calculated and provided in Table 3.
The Vickers hardness values as a function of t8/5 for the three steels are shown in
Fig. 3AC. Generally speaking, for all three
steels, at the minimum t8/5 (or highest cooling rate), the Vickers hardness of simulated
CGHAZ reaches the maximum value based
on the carbon content of the steel. At a t8/5
of 3.6 s, HY-100 exhibits the highest hardness at approximately 450 HV, while HSLA65 and HSLA-100 are in the range from 350
to 360 HV. With increasing t8/5 (slower cooling rate), the Vickers hardness value decreases as a result of different types of
austenite decomposition products at different cooling rates. The formation of predominantly martensite at high cooling rates
leads to higher hardness, relative to bainite
and ferrite which form at lower cooling
rates. The Vickers hardness results can then
be used in combination with metallographic
analysis to determine the austenite decomposition products.
20 m
20 m
Microstructure Characterization of
HSLA-65
20 m
20 m
20 m
20 m
Fig. 6 Optical micrographs of CGHAZ of HSLA-100 at different cooling rates. A t8/5 = 2.4 s; B
t8/5 = 8.2 s; C t8/5 = 37.8 s; D t8/5 = 60.9 s; E t8/5 = 86.8 s; F t8/5 = 106.3 s. 2% Nital etch.
temperature, but based on the absence of

any apparent austenite in the microstructure, it is surmised that martensite is the
predominant transformation product.
By increasing t8/5 to 5.2 s, ferrite and
needle-like bainite appear in the transformation microstructure as shown in Fig.
4A. It is generally agreed that bainitic microstructures can be divided into upper
and lower bainite, the main difference between them is that for the lower bainite,
the carbides precipitate preferentially

within bainite laths, while for upper bainite, carbides precipitate along the bainite
lath boundaries (Ref. 19). However, it
should be noted that upper and lower bainite are not differentiated in the present
study; both of them are generally categorized as bainite, which exhibits a needlelike lath morphology, as shown at higher
magnification in the SEM in Fig. 5B.
It is shown in Fig. 4B and C that at t8/5
Table 3 Important Parameters Determined for Naval Steels
HSLA-65
HSLA-100
HY-100
Prior Austenite
Grain Size
(m)a
AC1
(C)
AC3
(C)
Msb
(C)
Mf b
(C)
CGHAZb
Max
Hardness
(HV) b
Base
Metal
Hardness
(HV)
273.8
503.6
755.8
7706.4
7654.8
7656.0
8655.2
8506.7
8204.3
486
466
406
282
278
221
360
353
454
201
284
283
CEc
0.43
0.62
0.75
(a) PAGS for peak temperature of 1300C with hold time of 1 s.

(b) Ms, Mf, CGHAZ Max hardness determined at minimum t8/5 (3.0, 2.4, 3.6 s for HSLA-65, HSLA-100, and HY-100, respectively).
(c) CEIIW = C +(Mn+Si)/6+(Cr+Mo+V)/5+(Ni+Cu)/15.
WELDING RESEARCH
Optical micrographs of the simulated

CGHAZ of HSLA-65 at different cooling
rates are shown in Fig. 4AF. In combination with SEM and TEM micrographs (as
shown in Fig. 5AF) and Vickers hardness
results (Fig. 3A), austenite decomposition
products at different cooling rates can be
determined. Note that not all the optical,
SEM or TEM microstructures at all the
cooling rates are presented here, only
some typical ones are used to illustrate
variation in the transformation products as
a function of cooling rate.
At the minimum t8/5 of 3 s, martensite
forms in the CGHAZ, as shown in the SEM
micrograph in Fig. 5A. This is a typical lath
martensite microstructure, in which prior
austenite grain boundaries and lath martensite packet boundaries are discernable. The
possibility of formation of other phases,
other than low-carbon lath martensite, can
be excluded since the transformation microstructure exhibits a hardness of 360 HV,
while at the same time the carbon content
is only 0.074 wt-%. The combined effect of
fast cooling rate and coarsening of prior
austenite grains promotes the formation of
martensite instead of ferrite and pearlite,
which form based on a diffusion-controlled
transformation mechanism. The martensite
start (Ms) and finish temperature (Mf) were
determined to be 486 and 282C, respectively. It should be noted that the transformation is not necessarily complete at the Mf
Fig. 7 SEM micrographs for simulated CGHAZ of HSLA-100. A t8/5 = 2.4 s; B t8/5 = 60.9 s.
WELDING RESEARCH
of 8.3 and 21.1 s, a small amount of ferrite

forms along the prior austenite grain
boundaries. Long needle-like bainite
grows throughout the prior austenite grain
resulting in an aspect ratio greater than
10:1. The dark-etching phase observed between bainite should be martensite. When
t8/5 is 41.8 s, as shown in Fig. 4D, the microstructure is still a mixture of ferrite, bainite, and martensite. However, the
fraction of ferrite increases while martensite decreases in comparison with Fig. 4B,
C. This is the reason why the hardness
continues to decrease as t8/5 increases.
When t8/5 is 57.2 and 84.2 s, as shown in
Fig. 4E, F, small dark pearlite islands form
adjacent to the equiaxed ferrite grains. Because the equiaxed ferrite constitutes the
majority of the transformation microstructure, the Vickers hardness values are 230
and 228 HV for these cooling times, which
are only slightly higher than the base material hardness of 201 HV. The ferritic microstructure with much lower hardness and
smaller grain size is less susceptible to hydrogen-induced cracking compared with the
martensitic microstructure forming at fast
cooling rates (Ref. 20).
The transformation microstructure at
the minimum cooling rate is further investigated as shown in Fig. 5C. The ferrite
grain boundaries can be clearly observed,
and no obvious precipitates appear along
the grain boundaries or within the ferrite
grains. However, in the base metal microstructure shown in the SEM micrograph in Fig. 5D, various precipitates can
be clearly identified along the ferrite grain
boundaries as well as much smaller precipitates within the grains. Two bright-field
TEM images at higher magnification are
also provided as shown in Fig. 5E, F. It can
be seen in Fig. 5F that clusters of precipitates exist in the HSLA-65 base metal before thermal cycle simulation, but they
disappear after the thermal cycle as shown
in Fig. 5E. It is therefore concluded that
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MARCH 2012, VOL.91
the precipitates in HSLA-65 dissolve during the high-temperature exposure (Tpeak

= 1300C) of the CGHAZ thermal cycle,
and even at the minimum cooling rate, significant reprecipitation during cooling still
does not occur. This explains why the prior
austenite grain size increases fivefold relative to the base metal grain size. As the
precipitates dissolve on heating to high
temperature, no grain boundary pinning is
possible and austenite grain coarsening
occurs. Although the carefully designed
HSLA-65 base metal microstructure of
fine grain size and dispersed precipitates
is absent in the CGHAZ, a transformation
microstructure developed at minimum
cooling rates can produce lower hardness
levels approaching that of the base metal.
Microstructure Characterization of
HSLA-100
Optical micrographs of the simulated

CGHAZ of HSLA-100 at different cooling rates are shown in Fig. 6AF. At the
minimum t8/5 of 2.4 s, a peak Vickers hardness value of 353 HV is achieved. In combination with the microstructure shown in
Fig. 6A, it can be concluded that the highcooling rate transformation product is
martensite. Because HSLA-100 has a lowcarbon content (0.051 wt-%), the martensite formed should be low-carbon lath
martensite, whose morphology can be observed in Fig. 7A. By increasing t8/5 to 8.2
s, light-colored bainite appears in the microstructure, which nucleates from the
prior austenite grain boundaries and
grows into the grain interior. Some of the
needle-like bainite has a large aspect ratio
and can grow across the entire prior
austenite grain as was seen in HSLA-65.
The dark-etching phase between the bainite laths is martensite.
By increasing t8/5 up to 106.3 s, as
shown in Fig. 6CF, no obvious ferrite or
pearlite can be observed (as also shown in
Fig. 7B), and the microstructure is still a

mixture of bainite and martensite. With
decreasing cooling rate, the fraction of
bainite increases and martensite decreases. The microstructure change results
in a gradual decrease in the Vickers hardness as the cooling rate decreases as shown
in Fig. 3B; that is, if the fraction of bainite
in the microstructure increases, then the
hardness decreases. At the minimum cooling rate, bainite dominates the microstructure as shown in Fig. 6F, and the
minimum hardness value of 270 HV is obtained, which is less than the hardness (284
HV) of the tempered martensite base
metal microstructure.
Microstructure Characterization of HY-100
The optical micrographs of the simulated CGHAZ of HY-100 at different

cooling rates are shown in Fig. 8. As shown
in Fig. 8 AC, the microstructure clearly
exhibits a martensitic morphology. While
in Fig. 8D, light-colored bainite appears,
and with increasing t8/5, the fraction of bainite increases and martensite decreases as
shown in Fig. 8E, F. This can be confirmed
by the Vickers hardness data in Fig. 3C.
The maximum hardness value of 454 HV
is achieved at the minimum t8/5 of 3.6 s. In
the t8/5 range from 3.6 to 21.2 s, a hardness
plateau appears indicating that transformation to martensite is complete at these
cooling rates. At higher cooling times, the
hardness abruptly drops as bainite begins
to replace martensite in the microstructure, as shown in Fig. 8D for t8/5 of 43.5 s.
Comparison of the Three Steels
For all three steels, complete transformation to martensite occurs in the simulated CGHAZ at the minimum t8/5 of ~3 s.
The Ms and Mf temperatures have been determined at this cooling time as previously
shown in Table 3. Based on the experimen-
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 8 Optical micrographs of CGHAZ of HY-100 at different cooling rates. A t8/5= 3.6 s; B t8/5 = 10.6 s; C t8/5 = 21.2 s; D t8/5 = 43.5 s; E t8/5
= 74.1 s; F t8/5 = 113.4 s. 2% Nital etch.
tal results, CCT diagrams for the CGHAZ

of HSLA-65, HSLA-100, and HY-100 have
been constructed as shown in Fig. 9.
It is generally agreed that the composition and processing route determine the
microstructure and properties of steel. For
HSLA-65 and HSLA-100, the very fine
base metal microstructure is achieved by
the utilization of the thermomechanicalcontrolled processing (TMCP) technique.
The basic principle of TMCP is to refine
and/or deform the austenite grains in a

carefully controlled rolling process,
whereby austenite recrystallization and
grain growth are inhibited by stable precipitates such as Nb-rich carbides and/or
carbonitrides that remain undissolved at
the rolling temperature. The refined
austenite then transforms to the desired
microstructure with very fine grain size.
This well-developed base metal microstructure is completely destroyed in the
CGHAZ by transformation to austenite

and complete dissolution of the carbides
(Fig. 5 CF). Therefore, the pinning effect
of precipitates on austenite grain boundaries is absent (Refs. 21, 22) and results in
prior austenite grain size of 27 and 50 m
for HSLA-65 and HSLA-100, respectively.
For HY-100, which is a quenched and
tempered steel with no grain boundary
pinning precipitates involved, even coarser
prior austenite grains (75 m) are ob-
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 9 CCT diagrams for the CGHAZ of HSLA-65, HSLA-100, and HY100. A HSLA-65; B HSLA-100; C HY-100.
served in the simulated CGHAZ microstructure. The coarse prior austenite

grains provide fewer nucleation sites for
ferrite on the grain boundaries compared
with fine grains and, therefore, tend to
more readily promote the formation of
martensite.
In comparison to HSLA-65 and HSLA100, the CGHAZ of HY-100 has much
coarser prior austenite grain size and
higher hardness (~450 HV). The difference in martensite hardness among these
steels (Table 3) is directly attributable to
the difference in carbon content. As for
the Ms temperature, HY-100 exhibits the
lowest and HSLA-65 the highest, as a direct influence of the level of alloying additions and the related carbon equivalent
values (Table 3).
From the CCT diagrams for the simulated CGHAZ microstructure, transformation products including ferrite, pearlite,
bainite, and martensite can form in
HSLA-65 while only bainite and martensite form in HSLA-100 and HY-100. The
difference in carbon equivalent is also reflected in the three CCT diagrams. The
74-s
MARCH 2012, VOL.91
Fig. 10 Zone classification of steels for HIC cracking susceptibility according to AWS D1.1/D1.1M:2010 (Ref. 23).
approximate critical t8/5 to form martensite is 3.5 s, 3.6 s, and 21.2 s for HSLA-65,
HSLA-100, and HY-100, respectively. Although the carbon content of the three
steels is relatively low and lath martensite
is the predominant CGHAZ microstructural constituent at these cooling rates, it is
generally advisable to avoid the formation
of full martensite microstructures with
high hardness in CGHAZ in order to insure HIC resistance.
The widely accepted AWS D1.1 standard (Ref. 23) is referred here in order to
show the different requirements for preheat and interpass temperatures when
welding these steels as to insure resistance
to hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC). As
shown in Fig. 10, HSLA-65 and HSLA-100
are classified in Zone I due to their low
carbon content and carbon equivalent,
which means that HIC is unlikely when
welding the two steels, but may occur with
high hydrogen levels or high restraint.
HY-100 is classified in Zone III, which
means that the hydrogen control method
should be used to determine preheat. In
this analysis, one assumes the situation of
welding the three naval steels in real practice with a hydrogen level of H2 (medium
hydrogen, 510 mL/100 g) and medium restraint as encountered in fillet or groove
joints, and the thickness of all the three
steel plates to be welded is the same at
12.7 mm (0.5 in.). This combination of H2
hydrogen content and medium restraint
level is representative of many commonly
encountered situations. Based on the
AWS D1.1 standard, the preheat and interpass temperature of 145C should be
used when welding HY-100 as to insure
HIC resistance. While for HSLA-65 and
HSLA-100, preheat can be avoided at the
same situation (if welding at ambient temperature of 20C).
Note that when welding these steels in
actual shipyard conditions, all the factors,
such as welding consumables and welding
process used, must be taken into account
when determining the preheat and interpass temperatures. In practice, the Navy
recommends no preheat or interpass temperature control for HSLA-65, although
some preheat may be used in some situations to remove moisture. For HSLA-100,
Conclusions
1. The prior austenite grain size of the
simulated CGHAZ (1300C peak temperature) of HSLA-65, HSLA-100, and HY100 was determined to be 27, 50, and 75
m, respectively.
2. The Ms temperatures of HSLA-65,
HSLA-100, and HY-100 were determined
to be 486, 466, and 406C, respectively.
3. The austenite decomposition products are strongly dependent on the cooling
time (t8/5). For HSLA-65, at high cooling
rates (t8/5<3.5 s), martensite forms in the
CGHAZ microstructure. At intermediate
cooling rates (5.2 s <t8/5 <41.8 s), the
CGHAZ microstructure is a mixture of
ferrite, bainite, and martensite. At slow
cooling rates (57.2 s <t8/5), equiaxed ferrite constitute the majority of CGHAZ microstructure of HSLA-65.
4. Only martensite and bainite are observed in CGHAZ of HSLA-100 and HY100. Bainite begins to form when t8/5 >8.2 s
for HSLA-100 and t8/5 >43.5 s for HY-100.
5. The peak martensite hardness value

obtained in the simulated CGHAZ of HY100 (454 HV) is much higher than that of
HSLA-65 (360 HV) and HSLA-100 (353
HV), which is primarily a function of the
higher carbon content in HY-100 (0.18 wt%) relative to HSLA-65 (0.074 wt-%) and
HSLA-100 (0.051 wt-%).
6. Based on the CCT diagrams developed for these steels, the hardenability of
HY-100 is the highest while HSLA-65 is
the lowest.
7. More stringent welding conditions
(higher preheat temperature) should be
applied when welding HY-100 in comparison with welding HSLA-100 and HSLA65. This is because of higher carbon
content and alloy addition in HY-100, possible formation of higher hardness
martensite, and larger prior austenite
grain size in the CGHAZ of HY-100.
8. In actual practice, where high-hydrogen and high-restraint levels are encountered and resistance to HIC is the
primary concern, beside the application of
preheat, the actual t8/5 is recommended to
be greater than the critical value to avoid
martensite formation. For HSLA-65, it is
advisable to obtain an equiaxed ferrite microstructure forming at slow cooling rates.
While for HSLA-100 and HY-100, it is advisable to control the cooling rate to decrease the fraction of martensite in the
microstructure and thus decrease the
CGHAZ hardness.
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge
the financial support of the Office of
Naval
Research,
Award
No.
N000140811000. The grant officers are Dr.
Julie Christodoulou and Dr. William
Mullins. The authors also would like to
thank Johnnie DeLoach, Matthew Sinfield, and Jeffrey Farren with the Naval
Surface Warfare Center Carderock Division, West Bethesda, Md., for providing
the steels used in this study and for valuable discussions regarding the weldability
of these steels.
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Physical Metallurgy of Welding. p. 145, Oxford,
UK, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd.
22. Shome, M., Sarma, D. S., Gupta, O. P.,
and Mohanty, O. N. 2003. Precipitate dissolution and grain growth in the heat-affected zone
of HSLA-100 steel. ISIJ International 43(9):
14311437.
23. AWS D1.1/D1.1M:2010. Structural Welding Code Steel. American Welding Society,
Miami, Fl.
WELDING RESEARCH
a preheat of 15C (60F) and a maximum

interpass of 149C (300F) is recommended, while for HY-100 a minimum
preheat of 52C (125F) and maximum interpass of 149C (300F) is commonly
used. These recommendations are for
plate thicknesses less than 25.4 mm (1-in.).
Thicker sections would require higher preheat temperatures because of the higher
restrain levels. Note that the preheat requirement for HY-100, based on AWS
D1.1, is conservative requiring a much
higher minimum preheat than what is actually used in practice.
Based on the results presented here, in
actual practice where resistance to HIC is
the primary concern, welding parameters
can be selected such that the effective t8/5
for each steel is greater than its critical
value in order to avoid full martensite formation. However, it should be noted that
formation of ferrite and/or bainite in
CGHAZ may lead to a strength decrease.
Therefore, there is a trade-off between
HIC resistance and weld HAZ strength.
This is particularly important for HY-100,
which has the highest hardenability and
achieves the highest hardness in CGHAZ.
More stringent welding conditions (higher
preheat temperatures) should be applied
when welding HY-100 in comparison with
welding HSLA-100 and HSLA-65, because of the higher carbon and alloy content in HY-100, and the likely formation
of martensite with higher hardness (~ 450
HV) over a wide range of cooling rates, as
well as larger prior austenite grain size in
the CGHAZ of HY-100. Based on the
more stringent needs regarding preheat,
the advantage of the HSLA series steels
over the HY series has been clearly
demonstrated.
Developing an Alternative Heat Indexing

Equation for FSW
An alternative heat indexing equation is proposed that considers the
heat generation terms and thermal dissipation
BY J. A. QUERIN AND J. A. SCHNEIDER
ABSTRACT
WELDING RESEARCH
In friction stir welding (FSW), a nonconsumable, rotating weld tool is used to impart large shear deformations under a simultaneous compressive stress state to produce a solid-state weld joint between the former faying surfaces. The process results
in a refinement of the microstructure in the stir zone (SZ) in response to the heat and
plastic deformation. The peak temperature in the weldment is balanced between generation via frictional and deformational heating, and thermal dissipation. Heat index
equations published in the literature do not consider the effect of thermal dissipation.
The thermal dissipation is dependent on the travel velocity, weld tool geometry, and
thermal properties of the workpiece and process tooling that includes the tool, spindle, and backing anvil. Maintaining a constant temperature is important in ensuring
the production of high-quality welds over a range of weld schedules. This study proposes an alternative heat indexing (AHI) equation that considers not only the heat generation terms but also the thermal dissipation to ensure a constant peak temperature
when modifying or extrapolating weld schedules.
Introduction
Friction stir welding (FSW) consists of
the following three process parameters:
plunge depth/force, travel velocity, and
spindle speed. Dependencies between the
process parameters and response variables, including plunge force, plow force,
weld torque, and temperature, have been
reported (Refs. 19). Although temperature cannot be directly controlled, the resulting forces and torque are strongly affected by the short- and long-range weld
zone temperatures. For a constant spindle
speed, the torque would be expected to increase as the travel velocity is increased
because the long-range weld zone temperature is decreased.
Several studies have shown a correlation between the increased travel velocity
and increased plow force (Refs. 1, 3, 8),
suggesting the tool is encountering material with higher flow stresses due to
shorter times at elevated temperatures.
Increases in peak temperature measureJ. A. QUERIN (joseph.a.querin@boeing.com)
is a welding, materials, and processes engineer,
Boeing Defense, Space & Security, Huntsville,
Ala. J. A. SCHNEIDER is a professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mississippi
State University, Mississippi State, Miss.
76-s
MARCH 2012, VOL. 91
ments have also been correlated with increased travel velocity (Ref. 9), presumably for the same reason. While increased
spindle speeds have the largest reported
effect on the FSW tool temperature (Refs.
1, 6), it has no reported effect on the plow
force (Ref. 3).
Although various studies (Refs. 19)
have targeted the relationships between
process parameters and weld tool geometry with response variables, little success
has been achieved toward predicting or
extrapolating process parameters, especially on the basis of temperature. A heat
index relationship, the pseudo heat index
(PHI) reported in the literature (Ref. 10),
attempts to correlate the heat input during FSW with weld process parameters.
However, as Equation 1 (Ref. 10) shows,
KEYWORDS
Friction Stir Welding (FSW)
Stir Zone (SZ)
Heat Indexing Equation
Thermal Dissipation
Alternative Heat Indexing
Heat Generation
it only considers the process parameters of

() for spindle speed and (V) for travel velocity. Without including the power generated during the weld, the weld tool geometry, and the thermal properties of the
FSW tooling, the PHI relationship cannot
accurately predict or be used to extrapolate FSW process parameters based on
temperature.
PHI =
2
V 10000
(1)
Improving the accuracy of FSW model

predictions and process scalability requires incorporating the influence from
both the process parameters and tooling.
As such, this study considers the development of a one-dimensional heat transfer
model that includes the geometry of the
weld tool, the thermal properties of the
workpiece and tooling, and the process parameters. This model is then used as the
basis for development of an alternative
heat indexing equation for FSW.
In the present study, two FSW tools,
whose dimensions are summarized in
Table 1, were used to produce friction stir
welded panels. A cylindrical pin was used
on both tools, one with a smooth surface
and the other with a threaded surface.
Both FSW tools used a smooth, 7-deg concave shoulder and all of the friction stir
welds were made using a 2.5-deg tilt angle.
Bead-on-plate (BOP) friction stir
welds were made along the rolling direction and center width of 150 mm wide
610 mm long 6.4 mm thick AA2219-T87
plates. The horizontal weld tool (HWT) at
the National Aeronautics and Space Administrations Marshall Space Flight Center (NASA-MSFC) was used to produce
the friction stir welds. During the weld,
continuous recordings were made of the zaxis (plunge) force, x-axis (plow) force,
weld torque, spindle speed, travel velocity,
and x-axis position. The weld torque was
Fig. 1 Schematic representation of a transverse view of the heat source

and sinks associated with FSW. Note the heat flow paths are represented by
the arrows.
One-Dimensional Heat Transfer

Model
Table 1 Dimensions of the Weld Tools
Shoulder Diameter
Pin Diameter
Pin Length
Threaded
Pin (mm)
15.5
8.9
4.3
19.1
7.9
4.3
In this study, the temperature (T)

refers to the shear surface temperature,
and the temperature (T0) refers to a fixed
ambient temperature at a distance from
the source. For a cylindrical pin, the heat
source is approximated as a cylinder, as
shown in Fig. 3. In the development of this
model, it is assumed that the heat source
represents the shear surface and the shear
surface is isothermal.
The heat loss terms for the model are
derived from Fouriers Law in one dimension, which is expressed in Equation 2
(Ref. 12). In the expression (Qn) is the rate
of heat transfer, (k) is the thermal conductivity of the material, (A) is the area
through which heat flows, and dT/dn is the
temperature gradient with respect to distance in the direction normal to A.
Q = kA
n
Figure 1 shows a schematic of the heat

source and sinks considered in the development of an alternative heat indexing equation. The model consists of a power generation term that incorporates the geometry
of the FSW tool and process parameters,
heat loss terms for conduction within the
weldment and through the backing anvil
and spindle, and convection required to
continuously heat newly incorporated material within the stir zone (SZ). The convective heat loss is dependent on the cross-sectional area of the surface defining the SZ
and travel velocity. The surface that denotes
the separation of the SZ from the base material (BM) is referred to as the shear surface as illustrated in Fig. 2.
Smooth
Pin (mm)
dT
dn
(2)
Power Generation
The rate at which work is performed is

termed power. In FSW, power is required
to rotate the weld tool in the workpiece
and traverse along the weld joint. Power
for a rotating object is calculated by multiplying the torque and the angular velocity, while the power for traversing longitudinally along the weld joint is calculated by
multiplying the force acting in that direction by the velocity in that direction. Reported total weld power calculations for
welds that did not contain defects con-
Fig. 3 Two-dimensional representation of the

idealized heat source for the cylindrical pin weld
tools.
cluded that the contributions from the

tool rotating were in excess of 98% (Ref.
13). Therefore, in this study, the weld
power was approximated off of the weld
torque and spindle speed.
An assumption of the steady-state operation of the FSW process is made in
which the contact conditions between
the workpiece and FSW tool are assumed to be sticking. This is based on experimental evidence that the FSW
tool/workpiece contact conditions are
dominated by the sticking contact condition (Ref. 14). The weld torque (M) can
be calculated analytically by Equation 3.
Other researchers have used similar expressions to calculate the weld torque
and power (Refs. 1416). In Equation 3,
() is the flow stress of the material along
the shear surface and (r) is the distance
from the tool center to the shear surface.
The radius (r) is a function of its placement along the z-axis. If the boundary of
the shear surface is not known, i.e. radius
as a function of the z-axis, then the FSW
tool profile can be used for an approximation. This torque multiplied by the
spindle speed gives an analytical expression for calculating the weld power. For
a cylindrical pin FSW tool where the
shear surface is estimated as that of the
WELDING RESEARCH
measured with a load cell connected to the

spindle with a known arm length, thus
recording the actual moment that occurs
about the spindle as a result of the reaction between the FSW tool and workpiece.
To evaluate the accuracy of the PHI relationship and consider the interaction of
process parameters and tooling, initial
process parameters were based on published values for FSW 6.4-mm-thick plates
of AA2219-T87 (Refs. 8, 11). Table 2 summarizes the test matrix used in this study,
which was designed using a constant PHI
to consider the range of validity (Ref. 10).
From reported studies (Refs. 8, 11), a PHI
of 0.09 has been correlated with defectfree friction stir welds in AA2219-T87 over
a range of travel velocities from 76 to 203
mm/min. For PHIs greater than 0.12, the
friction stir welds were reported to show
void-type defects. In this study, the travel
velocity was calculated for a given spindle
speed using a PHI of 0.09. The spindle
speed and z-axis force were selected based
on initial baseline friction stir welds to determine processing parameters to produce
defect-free welds. Differences in z-axis
force are attributed to differences in the
shoulder diameter.
Fig. 2 Schematic representation of a cylindrical pin FSW tool and the

shear surface separating the stir zone (SZ) from the rest of the weld.
Fig. 4 Longitudinal exit hole macrographs. A Smooth pin FSW tool at 0.023 mm/rev; B smooth pin FSW tool at 0.34 mm/rev; C threaded pin FSW
tool at 0.23 mm/rev; and D threaded pin FSW tool at 0.34 mm/rev.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 5 Weld power vs. welding velocity using different advances per revolution calculated for the smooth pin FSW tool.
FSW tool profile, Equation 3 is multiplied by the spindle speed and solved
yielding Equation 4, an expression for
the weld power (Qg). In Equation 4, (Rs)
is the radius of the tool shoulder, (R) is
the radius of the pin, (H) is the length of
the pin, () is the spindle speed, and ()
is the flow stress of the material along the
shear surface.
dr
dz
M = (2 r 2 ) 1 +
dz
(3)
R
3 1 s
Q = 2 R
g
3 R

Fig. 6 Specific weld energy vs. welding velocity using different advances
per revolution calculated for the smooth pin FSW tool.
+H
(4)
Heat Loss Terms
(R0). The expression for this heat loss is

given in Equation 5 where (k w) is the
thermal conductivity of the workpiece
and (T) is the shear surface temperature.
Qw =
As illustrated in Fig. 1, the heat losses

assumed include conduction losses to the
workpiece, anvil, and spindle, in addition
to a convective heat loss to the workpiece.
Each is briefly described in this section.
For a cylindrical heat source, the conductive losses to the workpiece (Qw) are
approximated as a radial flow of heat
from the cylindrical heat source at radius
(R) to a fixed temperature (T0) at radius
(T T0 )2 kw H
R
ln 0
R
(5)
Conduction losses to the anvil (Qa) are

approximated as a spherically radial flow
of heat from under the bottom of the pin
into a thick block of material as given by
Equation 6. The radius of the bottom of
the pin (Ra) is assumed equal to (R) for the
cylindrical source. In Equation 6, (ka) is
the thermal conductivity of the anvil.
Table 2 Test Matrix for FSW AA2219-T87

Spindle Speed
(rev/min)
200
300
400
500
78-s
MARCH 2012, VOL. 91
Travel Velocity
(mm/min)
46
102
180
282
Forge Force (kN)

Smooth
Threaded Surface
Surface Pin
5/16-24 UNF Pin
17.8
17.8
17.8
17.8
24.5
24.5
24.5
24.5
Weld Pitch
(mm/rev)
Tilt Angle
(deg)
0.23
0.34
0.45
0.56
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
Fig. 8 Model results vs. experimental observations for the weld torque required while using the smooth surface FSW tool.
Fig. 9 Model results vs. experimental observations for the weld power required while using the threaded surface FSW tool.
Fig. 10 Model results vs. experimental observations for the weld torque
required while using the threaded surface FSW tool.
Q = 2 R k (T T )
a
a a
(6)
The conduction loss to the spindle (Qs)

is approximated as a linear flow of heat in
a rod. Heat travels from the shear surface
temperature (T) at the shoulder through a
length of rod (Lsp) to a fixed ambient temperature (T0). The expression for the heat
loss to the spindle is given in Equation 7.
Where (ksp) and (Rsp) refer to the effective
spindle thermal conductivity and radius,
respectively.
Q =
s
k R
sp
sp
(T T )
0
(7)
sp
As the tool advances during the weld,

cooler material enters the front of the weld
while hotter material is deposited in the
wake of the weld. This gives rise to convective heat loss. The convective heat loss is dependent on the power required to heat
material passing through the cross section
of the shear surface from ambient to that of
the shear surface. As with the case of power
generation, the cross section of the pin pro-
file may be substituted to make an approximation if the shear surface profile is not
known. The expression for the convective
heat loss (Qv) considering a cylindrical profile is given in Equation 8. Where (2RH) describes the cross-sectional area, (V) refers to
the travel velocity, and (c) refers to the volumetric heat capacity of the workpiece material.
Q = 2RHV c (T T )
v
(8)
Theoretical Estimation of the Peak

Temperature
It is assumed that FSW is a steady-state

process, there is no storage of energy, and
the shear surface is isothermal. Additionally, it is assumed all of the mechanical
power is converted into thermal energy,
and efficiency factors for the loss terms are
neglected. With the present assumptions,
the conservation of energy is given by
Equation 9.
Table 3 Percent Difference Between the Model and Experimental Weld Power and Weld
Torque
Weld Pitch
(mm/rev)
0.23
0.34
0.45
0.56
Smooth Surface
FSW Tool
Power
Torque
Difference
Difference
(%)
(%)
0.1
1.3
10.9
18.4
0.1
1.3
10.9
18.4
Threaded Surface
FSW Tool
Power
Torque
Difference Difference
(%)
(%)
7.3
1.5
9.1
21.9
7.3
1.4
9.1
21.9
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 7 Model results vs. experimental observations for the weld power obtained while using the smooth surface FSW tool.
Fig. 11 Smooth surface FSW tool. A 0.23 mm/rev; B 0.34 mm/rev; C 0.45 mm/rev; and D 0.56 mm/rev, showing a loss of shoulder contact at the
higher weld pitches.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 12 Threaded surface FSW tool. A 0.23 mm/rev; B 0.34 mm/rev; C 0.45 mm/rev; and D 0.56 mm/rev, showing a loss of shoulder contact at
the higher weld pitches.
Q =Q +Q +Q +Q
g
(9)
In addition to the relationships between

the processing parameters and heat loss
terms, the shear stress as a function of
temperature needs to be defined. A linear
approximation, Equation 10, is used that
captures thermal softening with increasing
temperature with a lower bound of zero
flow stress at the melting temperature. In
Equation 10, (m) is the change in shear
stress with respect to temperature in the
near melting regime, (Tm) is the melting
temperature of the workpiece, and (T) is
the shear surface temperature.
= m (T T )
(10)
Figure 4 shows macrographs of the longitudinal exit hole verifying significant

shoulder contact was maintained at conditions of 0.23 and 0.34 mm/rev. Thus, the
value of (m) was found from the torque
values measured at these conditions. Since
it was assumed that there was no loss of
shoulder contact and sticking contact conditions were experienced for these welds,
80-s
MARCH 2012, VOL. 91
any reduction in the shear surface was

deemed negligible.
After applying the energy balance of
Equation 9 and the relationship outlined
in Equation 10, a theoretical expression
for the shear surface temperature can be
found. Equation 11 is the expression for
the shear surface temperature using the
cylindrical source expressions.
2 k H
w
+ 2 Rk
a
0
ln
k R 2
sp
sp
+
+ 2RHV c
sp
T +
m
R H
3 1 s
+
2m R
3 R
R
T
0
T = ________________________________
2 k H
w
+ 2 Rk
a

R0
ln
2
ksp R sp
+ 2RHV c
+
+1
L
sp
___________________________
1 R H
2 m R 3 s +

3 R
R

(11)
Discussion and Results

Based on the development of a onedimensional heat transfer model, the
shear surface temperature can be theoretically calculated based on the process pa-
% Diff =
Value
model
Value
experiment
Value
+ Value
model
experiment
(12)
To evaluate the changes in accuracy of

model predictions between the lower and
higher values of weld pitch, macrographs
were made of all longitudinal views of the
Table 4 Percent Difference Between the Calculated and Experimental Weld Power and Weld
Torque When the Shoulder Radius Is Reduced to the Pin Radius at 0.45 and 0.56 mm/rev
Weld Pitch
(mm/rev)
0.23
0.34
0.45
0.56
Smooth Surface
FSW Tool
Power
Torque
Difference
Difference
(%)
(%)
0.1
1.3
1.8
10.6
exit hole as shown in Figs. 11 and 12. At

the higher weld pitches of 0.45 and 0.56
mm/rev, a loss of shoulder contact with the
workpiece is observed for both the smooth
and threaded surface FSW tools. If the
FSW tool experiences a loss of shoulder
contact, then the shearing surface decreases and less power is required to rotate the FSW tool. Repeating the model
calculations and using a reduced effective
shoulder radius equal to the pin radius results in better agreement at the higher
weld pitches as summarized in Table 4.
Alternative Heat Index

While the PHI has been used to conceptualize the heat input in a FSW, this
study demonstrates its inaccuracy at maintaining a constant heat input over a range
of process parameters. The constant PHI
value used in this study to guide the selection of a range of processing parameters
resulted in differences observed in the
weld power. This is understandable as the
PHI does not capture the effects of different weld tools, nor does it consider interactions with the backing anvil and spindle.
To resolve this discrepancy, an AHI is
proposed. Starting from the energy balance
given in Equation 9, the appropriate expressions for the cylindrical FSW tool and
associated heat losses are applied, and an
AHI equation is formed. The utility of this
equation is in its ability to predict the complementary process parameter, when one of
them is varied, to maintain a constant temperature in the shear surface. It also provides the opportunity to predict process parameters to maintain a similar temperature
when changing FSW tooling, e.g., anvil,
spindle, etc. The expression for the AHI
equation using the cylindrical terms is given
in Equation 13, where (TT0) is the temperature rise in the shear surface, and () is
the flow stress of the material in the shear
surface. When determining process parameter changes while maintaining a constant
temperature rise, the shear flow shear stress
() will be constant. When using the expression for an AHI the temperature rise divided by the shear flow stress becomes a
constant value, that is the AHI.
Threaded Surface
FSW Tool
Power
Torque
Difference Difference
(%)
(%)
0.1
1.3
1.8
10.6
7.3
1.5
6.4
8.5
AHI =
7.3
1.4
6.5
8.6
(T T0 )
=A
B + C + D + EV
where,
R
1
A = 2 R 3 s
3 R

B=
H
+
2 kw H
R
ln 0
R
C = 2 Rka
D=
ksp Rsp 2
Lsp
E = 2RH c
(13)
Equation 13 can be further simplified

to isolate the process parameters of spindle speed () and travel velocity (V). In
doing so, the expression ends up with two
terms, one of which largely encompasses
attributes of the FSW tool related to
power generation. The other term largely
encompasses the attributes related to the
heat loss terms. This equivalent expression is shown in Equation 14.
AHI =
(T T )
0
=A
B +V
(14)
where,
3
R 2 1 Rs H
+
A=
R
H c 3 R
p
R 2
k
k
k
sp
sp
a +
w
B=
+
2
c
2L RH
R
HR
sp
p
2
0
sp
R sp R ln
Conclusions
The initial process parameters were selected based on a constant PHI expression
WELDING RESEARCH
rameters, geometry of the FSW tool, and

thermal properties of the workpiece and
tooling. Utilizing the geometry of the
smooth surface FSW tool described in
Table 1 and workpiece material properties
for AA2219-T87, the shear surface temperature is calculated using Equation 11
for a range of travel velocities at different
weld pitches.
Because direct measurements of the
shear surface temperature were not obtained during this study, only the weld
power can be compared. Thus, from the
calculated temperature, the weld power
can be determined from Equation 4 with t
he corresponding specific energy obtained
by dividing the weld power by the travel
velocity.
Figures 5 and 6 show the weld power vs.
the travel velocity and the specific weld energy vs. the travel velocity, respectively, for
different weld pitches. In Fig. 5, as the
travel velocity is increased, the weld power
also increases. These results can be explained by a conceptual heat model (Ref.
9) in which increased travel velocity brings
material with a higher flow stress into the
shear surface, thereby increasing the weld
torque and, hence, power. These results
and trends are in agreement with other
published trends (Ref. 17).
Figures 7 and 8 compare the weld
power and weld torque, respectively, for
the calculated vs. experimental values
using the smooth surface FSW tool. Similarly, Figs. 9 and 10 are the same type of
graphs for the threaded surface FSW tool.
At the lower weld pitches, there is good
agreement. The one-dimensional heat
transfer model predicts increasing weld
power with increasing weld pitch. Since
the weld pitch is based on the ratio of
travel velocity to spindle speed, this correlates with increased travel velocity. Other
studies have shown a similar correlation
between increases in travel velocity and increases in weld power (Ref. 17). The
torque calculations predict a decrease
with increased spindle speed, regardless of
travel velocity, similar to other published
results (Ref. 9, 18).
The percent differences between the
model and experimental weld power and
weld torque are shown in Table 3. Equation 12 was used to calculate the percent
difference with good agreement exhibited
at the lower weld pitches.
WELDING RESEARCH
taken from FSW literature (Ref. 10).

However, for each corresponding tool
used in this study, variations were seen in
the process parameter window that resulted in defect-free welds and in their
weld properties. Using a one-dimensional
heat transfer model, a method is proposed
for calculating process parameters that
takes into account the specific tool design.
Certain assumptions were made in
the formulation of the model that impact
the model behavior and need to be taken
into consideration when using the theory
to explain the process of FSW. The
model is based on the sticking condition
and the presence of a constant shear surface area. If a significant loss of shear
surface area occurs, there will inevitably
be a deviation from the model calculations and experimental observations.
Thus, this model can be reversely applied
to determine if there is a loss of shear
area, which might indicate slipping and
warrant inspection of the weld.
This theory is used to determine the
shear surface temperature. If upper and
lower bounds for this temperature are
chosen, the model could conceivably be
used to determine the processing parameters that will produce shear surface temperatures in that region. However, in the
present form, the model cannot predict
the required temperature. That will be dependent on the metallurgical properties of
the material being welded.
In a simplified form, the model can be
used to develop an alternative heat indexing equation. This equation should allow
for more accurate scaling of process parameters as it takes into consideration the
effects of the FSW tool geometry and
other tooling. In the simplified forms, the
equations can be used to determine the
corresponding process parameter, () or
(V), when one is changed to maintain a
constant shear surface temperature.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to extend their
sincerest gratitude to the National Aeronautics and Space Administrations Marshall Space Flight Center and the EM30
welding group for their assistance and use
of their friction stir welding equipment.
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on friction stir weld energies and resultant FSW
joint properties. Proc. 130th TMS Annual Meeting Friction Stir Welding & Processing Symposia.
Eds. K. V. Jata et al., pp. 1523. TMS.
9. Colligan, K. J. 2007. Relationships between process variables related to heat generation in friction stir welding of aluminum. Proc.
136th TMS Annual Meeting Friction Stir Welding
& Processing IV Symposia. Eds. R. S. Mishra et
al., pp. 3954. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10. Kandukuri, S. et. al. 2007. Development
of design curves for tensile strength and fatigue
characteristics of 7075-T73 aluminum FSW butt
joints. Proc. 136th TMS Annual Meeting Friction

Stir Welding & Processing IV Symposia. Eds. R. S.
Mishra et al., pp. 2938. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
11. Schneider, J. A. 2006. Toward understanding the material flow path variations in friction stir weld (FSW) processes. NASA-MSFC
Cooperative Agreement NNM04AA14A.
Huntsville, Ala., NASA-MSFC.
12. Incropera, F. P., and Dewitt, D. P. 2002.
Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer. p. 53,
New York, N.Y.: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13. Querin, J. A. 2010. Deconvoluting the
link between weld tool geometry and process
parameters. PhD dissertation. Mississippi
State, Miss., Mississippi State University.
14. Schmidt, H., Hattel, J., and Wert, J. 2004.
An analytical model for the heat generation in
friction stir welding. Modelling and Simulation in
Materials Science and Engineering 12: 143157.
15. Nunes, A. C. 2001. Wiping metal transfer in friction stir welding. Proc. 130th TMS Annual Meeting Automotive Alloys and Joining Aluminum Symposia. Eds. S. K. Das, J. G.
Kaufman, and T. J. Lienert, pp. 235248. TMS.
16. Nunes, A. C. 2006. Metal flow in friction
stir welding. Proc. Materials Science and Technology 2006 Conference Friction Stir Welding II
Symposia. pp. 107118. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
17. Mishra, R., and Mahoney, M. 2007. Friction Stir Welding and Processing. p. 60, Materials
Park, Ohio: ASM Intl.
18. Colligan, K. J., and Mishra, R. S. 2008.
A conceptual model for the process variablesrelated to heat generation in friction stir
welding of aluminum. Scripta Materialia 58:
327331.
AWS Debuts Careers in Welding Trailer

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The 53-ft, single expandable trailer designed and built by MRA
experiential tours and equipment covers 650-sq-ft of exhibit space.
It is expected the trailer will be on the road for 1824 weeks in
2012. To learn more and view its schedule, visit www.explorewelding.com.
Improving Supermartensitic Stainless Steel

Weld Metal Toughness
Eliminating ferrite, maximizing austenite, and softening martensite through PWHT
markedly improved toughness with respect to the as-welded condition
ABSTRACT
Welding of supermartensitic stainless steel plays a crucial role in fabricated components, influencing their toughness, weldability, and resistance to sulphide stress
cracking. Postweld heat treatment adjusts the final properties of the weldments, bearing on microstructural evolution. The objective of this work was to maximize all-weldmetal toughness by microstructural modifications achieved by means of postweld heat
treatments (PWHTs). Two all-weld-metal test coupons were prepared according to
standard ANSI/AWS A5.22-95, using a 1.2-mm-diameter tubular metal-cored wire
under Ar-5%He and Ar-18%CO2 gas shielding mixtures in the flat position, with a
nominal heat input of 1.6 kJ mm-1. Single tempering, solution annealing, solution annealing plus single tempering, and solution annealing plus double tempering treatments were carried out at different times and temperatures. All-weld-metal chemical
composition analysis, metallurgical characterization, hardness and tensile property
measurements, and Charpy V tests were carried out. It was found that eliminating ferrite, maximizing austenite, and softening martensite through PWHT, improved toughness up to almost three times with respect to the as-welded condition, for both shielding gases used. When welding under Ar-18%CO2 shielding gas, the following was
detected: a) higher all-weld-metal contents of C, O, and N and slightly lower contents
of Mn, Si, Cr, Ni, Mo, Cu; this fact produced slightly lower ferrite and austenite contents in the as-welded condition and b) lower toughness and ductility, and higher
strength and hardness, regarding the samples welded under Ar-5%He mixture.
Introduction
Supermartensitic stainless steels
(SMSS) have been developed in the last
years as attractive technical alternatives to
high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels
mainly in applications related to the oil
and gas industry (Refs. 1, 2). Welding of
these materials plays a crucial role in fabricated components, influencing their
toughness, weldability, and resistance to
S. ZAPPA (zappasebastian@hotmail.com) is
with Research Secretariat, Faculty of Engineering,
University of Lomas de Zamora, Buenos Aires,
Argentina. H. G. SVOBODA is with Materials
and Structures Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering, Intecin, University of Buenos Aires, CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina. N. M. RAMINI
DE RISSONE is with Deytema, Regional Faculty
of San Nicols, National Technological University, San Nicols, Argentina. E. S. SURIAN is
with Research Secretariat, Faculty of Engineering,
University of Lomas de Zamora, Buenos Aires,
and Deytema, Regional Faculty of San Nicols,
National Technological University, San Nicols,
Argentina. L. A. DE VEDIA is with Institute
Sabato National University of San Martn
Atomic Energy Commission, San Martn, Buenos
Aires, Argentina.
sulfide stress cracking. Supermartensitic

stainless steels were developed based on
classic martensitic stainless steels
(1114% Cr), reducing C content to enhance weldability and corrosion resistance
and adding Ni to promote a free-ferrite
structure and Mo (Refs. 3, 4), which also
improves corrosion resistance (Refs. 5, 6).
Depending on chemical composition
and welding procedure, the microstructure
of SMSS deposits obtained in the aswelded condition is mainly composed of
martensite with variable fractions of
austenite (up to 30%) and ferrite (up to
10%), with different morphologies (Ref. 7).
Postweld heat treatment (PWHT) is
KEYWORDS
Supermartensitic Stainless Steel
Welding Procedure
Postweld Heat Treatment
Toughness
usually necessary to adjust weldment

properties, based on microstructural evolution. In the as-welded condition, it is
common to obtain high hardness and low
toughness, due to the presence of untempered martensite (Refs. 6, 8). In practice,
PWHTs used involve single or double tempering treatments, promoting martensite
tempering and formation of retained
austenite, which results in lower hardness
and higher toughness values (Refs. 4, 9).
Nevertheless, these PWHTs are a considerable cost and time-consuming step in
pipe welding, then in new SMSS, chemical
composition has been modified to avoid
PWHT or to minimize it to shorter times,
less than half an hour (Ref. 10).
For welding these materials, the gas
metal arc welding (GMAW) process using
SMSS metal cored wires has been recognized as a suitable technological option,
and its use has recently been improved
(Ref. 4). This type of consumable presents
several advantages such as low slag generation and high deposition rate (Ref. 11).
Shielding gases employed for welding this
type of material usually are inert mixes
(Ar-He) or Ar-rich mixtures (Ar-CO2, ArCO2-O2) with a very low amount of active
gases (less than 5%) (Ref. 12). The type of
shielding gas can affect the chemical composition of the weld metal, principally O,
N, and C contents (Ref. 13).
There have been many efforts to develop tougher SMSS deposits. Control of
chemical composition, particularly reducing C, O, N, and S contents or addition of
Ni, has proved to be successful (Ref. 10).
Besides, it is well known that the content
of low toughness phases like untempered
martensite or ferrite affects the final value
of toughness, as well as an increased fraction of retained austenite improves it (Ref.
3). The role of precipitation reactions is
not yet completely understood.
Different PWHTs lead to microstructural modifications producing different
combinations of phases present in SMSS
weld deposits (tempered and untempered
martensite, austenite, carbides, etc.), with
each microstructural pattern affecting
toughness in a specific way.
WELDING RESEARCH
BY S. ZAPPA, H. G. SVOBODA, N. M. RAMINI DE RISSONE, E. S. SURIAN, AND L. A. DE VEDIA
Fig. 3 Macrography of AHaw sample.
Fig. 1 Transverse cross section for chemical analysis, microstructural characterization, and microhardness determination. (Dimensions in mm.)
WELDING RESEARCH
To analyze the effect

of shielding gas, transverse cross sections for
chemical analysis were
extracted from each
coupon. AWM chemical compositions were
determined by means
of spectrometric measurements except C, N,
O, and S contents that
were analyzed via
LECO.
Fig. 2 Tension test and Charpy V location.
The objective of this work was to systematically study the effect of different microstructural patterns of all-weld-metal
(AWM) SMSS on toughness in order to
improve this property. Additionally, the
effect of interstitial elements content on
toughness was evaluated, giving consideration to the shielding gas used.
Welding
Two AWM test coupons were welded according to standard ANSI/AWS A5.22-95
(Ref. 14) using a metal cored tubular wire
of 1.2 mm diameter, obtaining a SMSS weld
deposit using the GMAW process with two
different shielding gases. The welding parameters are presented in Table 1.
The welding position was flat; preheating and interpass temperatures were 100C.
The shielding gas flow rate was 18 L/min
and the stickout 20 mm. A power source
with pulsed arc of 120 Hz was employed.
Both welded coupons were evaluated by radiographic testing according to ANSI B31.3
standard (Ref. 15).
Chemical Composition
Postweld Heat Treatments
To induce different microstructural

conditions, samples of each coupon were
submitted to the different heat treatments
shown in Table 2 with the corresponding
sample identification.
As shown in Table 2, different PWHTs
consisting of a) single tempering (650); b)
solution annealing (1000); c) solution annealing plus single tempering (1000 + 650);
and d) solution annealing plus double tempering (1000 + 650 + 600) were conducted
maintaining as reference the as-welded condition. The PWHT parameters were selected according to previous information
(Refs. 3, 8, 16) with the purpose of softening the martensite matrix, minimizing the
ferrite content, and maximizing the austenite content, in order to improve AWM
toughness. The overall objective was to
allow the analysis and understanding of the
influence of each phase present.
Single and double tempering treatments soften martensite (Ref. 17) and
modify the austenite content, depending
on treatment temperature and time (Refs.
Table 1 Welding Parameters

Identification
Shielding Gas
Tension
(V)
Current
(A)
Welding Speed
(mm s-1)
Heat Input
(kJ mm-1)
AH
AC
Ar-5%He
Ar-18%CO2
29
30
298
301
5.0
5.5
1.73
1.64
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MARCH 2012, VOL. 91
8, 18). Solution annealing between 950

and 1050C allows the dissolution of both
ferrite and austenite (Ref. 18).
Microstructural Characterization
Microstructural characterization was

done using light (LM), scanning electron
(SEM) microscopy, and X-ray diffraction
(XRD). Ferrite contents were measured
following standard ASTM E562-99 (Ref.
19) by quantitative metallography and
austenite contents by means of the direct
peak comparison method, based on XRD
patterns (Ref. 20). Dilatometric analysis
has been made for AHaw and ACaw samples, to achieve a better understanding of
phase transformations that take place during PWHT. Transformation temperatures
AC1, AC3, and MS were determined with a
heating/cooling rate of 10C/min.
Mechanical Properties
Vickers 1 kg microhardness (HV1)

measurements as well as Charpy V-notch
(CVN) tests (Ref. 21) at 20C were carried
out for all conditions analyzed. Microhardness values were the average of at
least five measurements. Charpy V-notch
values were the average of at least three
tested specimens. Transverse AWM tensile specimens (Ref. 22) were obtained for
all conditions. All measurements were
conducted in the central zone, in correspondence with the location of the notch
of Charpy V specimens. Figures 1 and 2
present dimensions and locations of samples for different tests (Refs. 21, 22).
Results and Discussion

Chemical Composition
Table 3 shows the AWM chemical composition results. The values are expressed
in weight percent (wt-%), except for N and
O, which are in parts per million (ppm).
Samples welded under Ar-CO2 shielding showed higher contents of C, N, and O,
as well as lower contents of Mn, Si, Cr, Ni,
Mo, and Cu, than those welded under ArHe mixture.
Variations observed in the metallic element contents were related to oxidation

processes in the arc due to a higher oxidation potential of the shielding gas (Ref. 23).
Higher contents of interstitial elements
could be related to higher partial pressures
of O and C in the arc atmosphere due to decomposition of CO2 (Ref. 24).
To obtain good mechanical properties,
these steels must have very low C content
(0.010%) and high values of Ni (6.5%) and
Mo (2.5%) (Ref. 25), together with very
low levels of detrimental elements like N,
O, and S (Refs. 7, 26), because they
strongly affect hardness and toughness
(Refs. 3, 26).
The variations observed in chemical
composition could affect properties of the
weld deposits. As mentioned before, C
content in coupon AC (0.022%) was
higher than the nominal value of 0.010%
(Refs. 26, 27) reported by the consumable
manufacturer; this could have led to
higher hardness and lower toughness values compared to coupon AH. Coupon AC
presented unexpected significantly higher
O and N contents with respect to coupon
AH. It has been reported that O values
higher than 300 ppm, as well as a high N
content, produce a strong detrimental effect on toughness (Refs. 5, 7).
It was expected that mechanical properties, metallurgical aspects, and transfor-
Fig. 5 LM microstructures of samples welded under Ar-He shielding: A AH650; B AH1000; C

AH1000 + 650; D AH1000 + 650 + 600.
mation temperatures could also be affected by the observed Cr, Ni, Mo, Mn,
and Cu variations. For these steels, retained austenite contents between 2 and
30% have been reported (Refs. 5, 7, 8). Ni,

Cu, and Mn are known as austenite stabilizers; therefore, a higher content of these
elements could increase retained austen-
Table 3 AWM Chemical Composition

Element
AH
AC
C
Mn
Si
Cr
Ni
Mo
Cu
V
Nb
S
P
O (ppm)
N (ppm)
0.012
1.76
0.44
12.1
6.27
2.69
0.49
0.09
0.01
0.013
0.015
390
50
0.022
1.61
0.40
11.9
5.98
2.57
0.43
0.09
0.01
0.014
0.015
610
260
Table 2 Identification of Samples and PWHT Parameters

Identification
AHaw
AH650
AH1000
AH1000 + 650
AH1000 + 650 + 600
ACaw
AC650
AC1000
AC1000 + 650
AC1000 + 650 + 600
PWHT Temperatures
(C)
Time
(min)
None
650
1000
1000 + 650
1000 + 650 + 600
None
650
1000
1000+650
1000 + 650 + 600
None
15
60
60 + 15
60 + 15 + 15
None
15
60
60 + 15
60 + 15 + 15
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 4 LM columnar zone microstructure of the following samples: A AHaw; B ACaw.
Table 4 Ferrite and Austenite Contents

Sample
Ferrite (%) Austenite (%)
AHaw
AH650
AH1000
AH1000 + 650
AH1000 + 650 + 600
ACaw
AC650
AC1000
AC1000 + 650
AC1000 + 650 + 600
10
10
0
0
0
6
6
0
0
0
20
15
0
12
21
18
7
0
18
19
Table 5 Cr and Ni Equivalents
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 6 LM microstructures of samples welded under Ar-CO2: A AC650; B AC1000; C AC1000

+ 650; D AC1000 + 650 + 600.
ite percentages (Refs. 3, 8). Furthermore,

Cr and Mo stabilize ferrite and a higher
content of this phase is produced if these
elements are increased (Refs. 3, 8).
Microstructural Characterization
Radiographic testing was evaluated

with ANSI B31.3 (Ref. 15) resulting in a
low level of defects. Figure 3 shows the
AWM macrostructure obtained for sample AHaw.
Figure 4 shows the columnar zone microstructures for the AHaw and ACaw
samples. In both cases, martensite with
low fractions of ferrite was detected, as
was reported previously (Refs. 1, 3, 7, 8,
12). There was no observable effect of
shielding gas on the microstructure.
Two types of ferrite could be identified
based on their location and morphology.
Most common was ferrite with morphology similar to that of the ferrite found in
duplex stainless steel weld metals. The
presence of this ferrite is a consequence of
incomplete ferrite-to-austenite transformation in weld metals solidifying as ferrite
and was most common for more highly alloyed weld metals (Ref. 7). Another ferrite
morphology, similar to that seen in
austenitic stainless steel weld metals, was
found in the weld metals highest in Ni solidifying as a mixture of ferrite and austenite (Ref. 7). This ferrite was located in the
last solidifying interdendritic regions.
Figures 5 and 6 show microstructures
for different PWHT conditions of
coupons welded under Ar-He and ArCO2, respectively.
86-s
MARCH 2012, VOL. 91
There were no observable differences

between the LM microstructures of both
coupons for the different PWHTs. For
AH650 and AC650 the microstructure did
not change, showing a slight darkening associated with a precipitation phenomena.
Solution annealing produced ferrite solubilization, and the microstructures that resulted were completely martensitic. Solution annealing followed by single and
double tempering produced a severe darkening in the microstructure associated
with carbide precipitation.
As mentioned previously, retained
austenite is reported for these steels in the
as-welded condition (Ref. 7). This phase
was not observable by means of the microscopy techniques used in this work (Refs.
7, 8), but was detectable using the XRD
technique. The XRD patterns obtained for
different PWHT conditions, showing the
martensite/ferrite and austenite peaks, are
presented in Figs. 7, 8.
It can be seen for both as-welded samples that there was a fraction of retained
austenite that diminished with the single
tempering treatment and vanished after
solution annealing. The single and double
tempering treatments after solution annealing increased the retained austenite
content, as was to be expected (Ref. 28).
Table 4 shows the results of ferrite and
austenite content quantification for the
analyzed conditions. Coupon AHaw
showed higher contents of both ferrite and
austenite than coupon ACaw.
To relate the as-welded samples ferrite
and austenite contents to the chemical
composition, the expressions of Cr and Ni
Condition
Cr eq
Ni eq
AHaw
ACaw
25.5
24.6
29.8
29.5
Table 6 Transformation Temperatures

Condition
AC1
(C)
AC3
(C)
Ms
(C)
AHaw
ACaw
580
640
640
710
130
125
equivalents developed by Karlsson et al.

(Refs. 29, 30) for SMSS were employed in
this work. Table 5 shows the results of Cr
and Ni equivalents for both welding conditions. There were no significant variations in the calculated values. However,
microstructure showed martensite and
ferrite for the ACaw condition and
martensite, ferrite and austenite for the
AHaw condition, related to a higher Cr
equivalent in this last sample Fig. 9.
This fact could explain the slightly higher
austenite and ferrite contents measured
for condition AHaw as compared to
ACaw.
It was previously reported that ferrite
deteriorates toughness and austenite improves this property (Ref. 31). Indeed,
toughness is improved by a low-carbon
soft martensite (Ref. 31). In this sense,
PWHT, which minimizes ferrite, maximizes austenite, and softens martensite,
could provide the best results (Ref. 31).
Martensite tempering is produced during PWHT of these steels. In general, this
allows martensite softening, associated
with incoherent carbide precipitation, to
reach the maximum softening with the
precipitation of M23C6 carbides at temperatures over 500C (Ref. 32). In Ni-free
alloys, PWHTs are performed at temperatures over 700C to obtain a high reaction
rate and maximum softening. Nevertheless, the presence of Ni reduces the critical temperature (AC1). This temperature
depends on chemical composition and
heating rate, but with high Ni content it
Fig. 8 XRD patterns for samples welded under Ar-He protection, with different PWHTs.
Fig. 9 AHaw and ACaw sample locations in Karlsson et al. (Ref. 7) constitution diagram for SMSS (M: martensite; A: austenite; F: ferrite).
Fig. 10 Relationship between microhardness and tensile and yield strengths.
could be as low as 500550C (Ref. 32). At

this temperature, the carbides formation
kinetics is very slow and under these conditions, it is normal that PWHT produces
austenite for alloys 13Cr-4Ni (Ref. 32)
with a different chemical composition
from that of the austenite retained during
welding (Refs. 32, 33). Austenite formed
during PWHT will be rich in Ni, C, and
Mn. The degree of enrichment will determine the stability of the austenite formed.
If the PWHT is performed at temperatures slightly over AC1, enriched austenite
will be stable at ambient temperature. If
the PWHT temperature is sufficiently
higher than AC1, the austenite formed will
transform to untempered martensite during cooling (Ref. 32).
In Table 6, results of transformation
temperature (AC1, AC3, and MS) determinations for each coupon, using a heating
rate of 10C/min, can be seen. Critical
temperatures (AC1 and AC3) of the specimen ACaw were higher than those of specimen AHaw. It is known that these temperatures are heavily controlled by the
chemical composition, then the changes
observed could be explained in terms of
the higher alloy content of coupon AHaw

that produced a decrease in the transformation temperatures (Ref. 7).
In both cases, single tempering slightly
reduced the austenite content, through partial transformation of austenite to martensite. Lippold and Alexandrov (Ref. 17)
showed that variations of 20 to 300C/min
in heating rate produced an increase in AC1

of more than 100C. A tempering heat rate
of 300C/min was used in this work. Therefore, an increased AC1 could be expected
when tempering at 650C, resulting in a subcritical temperature treatment. In this condition, a decrease in austenite content could
be achieved.
Table 7 Tensile Test Results

Sample
AHaw
AH650
AH1000
AH1000+650
AH1000+650+600
ACaw
AC650
AC1000
AC1000 + 650
AC1000 + 650 + 600
UTS(a)
(MPa)
0.2(b)
(MPa)
(c)
(%)
H(d)
(HV1)
1048
941
986
954
941
1107
990
1008
982
963
838
790
770
698
712
885
821
756
745
707
15.7
17.0
20.0
27.5
29.4
12.5
13.0
16.8
17.3
18.8
324
322
318
305
293
348
338
338
313
304
(a) UTS: ultimate tensile strength

(b) 0.2: yield strength
(c) : elongation
(d) H: hardness
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 7 XRD patterns for samples welded under Ar-CO2 protection, with different PWHTs.
Fig. 12 Absorbed energy at 20C (J) vs. Vickers microhardness (HV1).
Fig. 11 Relationship between elongation and hardness.
WELDING RESEARCH
Solution annealing treatment was effective to dissolve both ferrite and retained austenite; it also produced a decrease in segregation with the matrix
enrichment of the elements before being
segregated (Ref. 33). The mentioned enrichment of the matrix could have generated a diminution of the AC1 with what the
first tempering temperature after SA
could have been inside the intercritical
temperature zone. This fact could justify
the apparition of retained austenite. Finally, the posterior treatment at 600C
(samples AH1000 + 650 + 600 and
AC1000 + 650 + 600) generated a microstructure composed of tempered
martensite and a higher proportion of
austenite, without ferrite.
The mechanism by which the austenite
content was enhanced with a double tempering could be explained by means of the
thermal instabilities of austenite particles
during cooling of the first tempering, according to a previous report (Ref. 3). Stability of austenite is associated with both
chemical and structural factors related to a
high dislocation density in the substructure.
In the first tempering at 650C (after SA),
the austenite content formed during heating was increased and partially transformed
to fresh martensite during cooling. At this

temperature, thermal activation could have
been enough to promote recovery mechanisms that allowed annihilation of dislocations, reducing the dislocation density into
the austenite particles, transforming them
into martensite during cooling from 650C.
After SA + 650 treatments, the microstructure was composed by tempering martensite, fresh martensite, and retained austenite. During the second tempering at 600C
(SA + 650 + 600), new austenite preferentially nucleated at the higher interfacial area
recently created, and therefore, a higher
amount of austenite particles were formed.
It is assumed that this austenite was formed
by a shear mechanism and had a high dislocation density, which did not suffer alterations at this temperature. Indeed, untempered martensite was tempered, resulting in
a soft martensite matrix with uniform distributed austenite particles (Ref. 34).
Mechanical Properties
Table 7 presents hardness and tensile
test results of all samples. These values were
consistent with those reported previously
for these types of materials (Refs. 8, 27).
Higher values of hardness were detected for
Table 8 Vickers Hardness and Absorbed Energy in Charpy V Impact Test

Sample
H(a)
(Hv1)
AE 20C(b)
(J)
AHaw
AH650
AH1000
AH1000 + 650
AH1000 + 650+ 600
ACaw
AC650
AC1000
AC1000 + 650
AH1000 + 650 + 600
324
322
318
305
293
348
338
338
313
304
33
55
59
75
83
24
50
32
67
75
(a) H: Vickers hardness

(b) E: absorbed energy in Charpy V-notch impact test at 20C
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MARCH 2012, VOL. 91
samples welded with CO2 in the shielding

gas. This effect could be related to higher
contents of C and N in this sample, which
produced a hardness increase (Ref. 3). With
regard to PWHT, softening was observed in
heat-treated samples. This could be related
to the tempering of martensite and, in the
case of sample AH, to a higher amount of
austenite (Refs. 3, 35, 36). Yield and tensile
strengths were slightly higher for the specimens welded under Ar-CO2, probably associated with their higher carbon content. Figure 10 shows an approximately linear
relationship between both yield and tensile
strength values and hardness determinations.
Ductility was lower for specimen AC
compared to sample AH. This fact could be
related to the AC samples higher values of
C, N, and O, which limit ductility. Postweld
heat treatment produced a reduction in
strength values with a marginal improvement in ductility, as expected (Refs. 8, 18).
Figure 11 presents the relationship between
elongation and hardness, which showed
that an increment in hardness produced a
decrease in ductility. For the same hardness
values, ductility in the AH samples was
higher than in the AC ones. This could be
related to the higher content of interstitial
elements in these samples.
Table 8 presents the results obtained
from Charpy V impact tests. Higher toughness was associated with lower hardness, as
expected (Ref. 37). Shielding gas used during welding affected SMSS AWM toughness. With the Ar-CO2 mixture, values of
absorbed energy were lower for all the conditions studied. This fact could be associated with the higher contents of C, N, and
O of samples welded under Ar-CO2, as
mentioned previously (Refs. 26, 38).
All the PWHTs improved toughness in
both cases. Single tempering without SA
enhanced the absorbed energy, almost duplicating the obtained values for both conditions, although the austenite fraction
was reduced and there were no changes in
ferrite content. This indicates that
Fig. 13 A Fracture surface of sample AC650; B typical dimples in the fracture surface of sample AC1000 + 650 + 600.
seen, this one from the AC650 sample.

This typical dimple appearance showed a
ductile-dimple fracture associated with a
high microvoid density. This may be attributed to the existence of a large number
of internal interfaces due to both nonmetallic inclusions and austenite and/or
transformed austenite particles, which
may act as void nucleation sites, according
to previous reports for similar materials
(Ref. 28). Figure 13B shows typical dimples with austenite and/or transformed
austenite small particles (Ref. 28).
Conclusions
Eliminating ferrite, maximizing
austenite, and softening martensite in
SMSS weld metal improved toughness up
to almost three times with respect to the
AW condition, for both shielding gases
used. The mechanisms that explained this
toughness improvement were discussed.
When Ar-18%CO2 shielding gas was
employed instead of Ar-5%He shielding
gas, higher contents of C, O, and N and
slightly lower contents of Mn, Si, Cr, Ni,
Mo, and Cu were detected. This variation
in chemical composition produced slightly
lower ferrite and austenite contents in the
as-welded condition. Lower toughness
and ductility, and higher strength and
hardness were obtained when this shielding gas mixture was employed.
Further studies are necessary to associate the heating rate during the PWHT,
the critical temperatures of transformation, and PWHT temperatures with the
stability of austenite.
The present work contributes to the
better comprehension of the mechanisms
involved in the toughness control of SMSS
deposits, considering the effects of microstructure and some aspects of the welding procedure.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to express their gratitude to ESAB-Sweden for the donation of
the consumable and for LECO chemical
analysis; Conarco-ESAB-Argentina for
performing chemical analysis; Air Liquide
Argentina for donating gases for welding;
Latin American Welding Foundation, Argentina, for facilities for welding and mechanical testing; Scanning Electron Microscopy Laboratory of INTI-Mecnica,
Argentina, for facilities for SEM analysis;
and APUEMFI, Argentina and ANPCyT,
Argentina, for financial support.
References
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2. Farrar, J. C., and Marshall, A. W. 1998.
Supermartensitic stainless steel overview
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WELDING RESEARCH
martensite softening was the controlling

factor in this case.
Solution annealing also improved
toughness for both conditions. This fact
could show the effect of ferrite on this
property. Some degree of martensite softening could also have occurred. For
coupons welded under the Ar-He mixture,
this effect was more important, consistent
with the higher content of ferrite in the
AW condition.
With single and double tempering after
solution annealing, toughness was improved again; in this case 250 and 310%
regarding the AHaw and the ACaw conditions, respectively. This could be associated with the softening of martensite, the
absence of ferrite, and the finely dispersed
austenite particles formed during these
treatments (Ref. 39). These fine austenite
precipitates promoted ductile fracture,
enhancing the plastic work for fracture
(Ref. 18). It was also reported (Ref. 39)
that during fracture propagation in the
Charpy V test, a mechanical transformation of austenite particles by localized
transformation-induced plasticity mechanisms is generated, increasing the absorbed energy. Figure 12 presents the absorbed energy in Charpy V test vs. Vickers
hardness. For both conditions, AH and
AC, it was observed that as hardness increased, toughness decreased. However, a
displacement of the AC curve to the right
was observed. This effect could be related
to the AC samples higher O content,
which produced a decrease in toughness
according to what was previously reported
for this type of material (Refs. 5, 30).
Regarding the fracture mode, it is
worth mentioning that all specimens
tested at room temperature displayed
100% of fibrous fracture with typical dimples and without cleavage. Figure 13A is
representative of the fracture surfaces
WELDING RESEARCH
sone, M., Surian, E., and de Vedia, L. 2007. Effect of post weld heat treament on the properties of a supermartensitic stainless steel deposited with tubular metal-cored wire.
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M. 1998. Effect of postweld heat treatment on
the microstructure and mechanical behavior of
13Cr-4NiMoL and 13Cr-6NiMoL weld metals.
The 18th ASM Heat Treating Society Conference
and Exposition. Chicago, Ill.
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E., and Van der Eijk, C. 2004. Microstructureproperty relationships in HAZ of new 13% Cr
martensitic stainless steel. Welding Journal
83(5): 160167.
11. Lyttle, K. 1996. Metal cored wires:
Where do they fit in your future? Welding Journal 74(10): 3538.
12. Karlsson, L., Rigdal, S., Van den Broek,
J., Goldschmitz, M., and Pedersen, R. 2002.
Welding of supermartensitic stainless steels.
Recent developments and application experience. Svetsaren No 2:1522.
13. Zappa, S., Svoboda, H., Ramini de Rissone, M., Surian, E., and de Vedia, L. 2006. Effect of shielding gas on the supermartensitic
stainless steel all weld metal properties.
CONAMET/SAM 2006. Santiago de Chile,
Chile.
14. ANSI/AWS A5.22-95, Specification for
Stainless Steel Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc
Welding and Stainless Steel Flux Cored Rods for
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding. 1995. Miami, Fla.:
American Welding Society.
15. ANSI B31.3-96, Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping. 1996. New York, N.Y.:
American National Standards Institute.
16. Bilmes, P. D., Llorente, C., Desimoni, J.,
and Mercader, R. 1997. Microstructure and
properties of soft martensitic stainles steel weld
metals. 2do Congresso Internacional de Tecnologa
Metalrgica e de Materiais. So Paulo, Brazil.
17. Lippold, J., and Alexandrov, B. 2004.
Phase transformation during welding and postweld heat treatment of a 12Cr-6.5Ni-2.5Mo su-
permartensitic stainless steel. Stainless Steel

World 2004. Houston, Tex.
18. Bilmes, P. D., Llorente, C., Desimone, J.,
Mercader, R., and Solari, M. 1998. Microstructure and properties of 13% Cr - 4% NiMo
martensitic stainless steel FCAW weld metals..
II Encuentro de Ingeniera de Materiales. La
Habana, Cuba.
19. ASTM E562-99, Standard Test Method
for Determining Volume Fraction by Systematic
Manual Point Count. 1999. West Conshohocken, Pa.: ASTM International.
20. Cullity, B. D., and Stock, S. R. 2001. Elements of X-Ray Diffraction. New Jersey, Prentice-Hall. 3rd Edition.
21. ASTM E23-05, Standard Test Methods
for Notched Bar Impact Testing of Metallic Materials. 2005. West Conshohocken, Pa.: ASTM International.
22. ASTM E8-04, Standard Test Methods for
Tension Testing of Metallic Materials. 2004. West
Conshohocken, Pa.: ASTM International.
23. Vaidya, V. 2002. Shielding gas mixtures
for semiautomatic welds. Welding Journal 81(9):
4348.
24. Stembacka, N., and Persson, K. A. 1989.
Shielding gases for gas metal arc welding. Welding Journal 68(11): 4147.
25. Gough, P. C., Farrar, J. C. M., and
Zhang, Z. 1999. Welding consumables for supermartensitic stainless steels. Supermartensitic
Stainless Steel 99. Brussels, Belgium.
26. Karlsson, L., Rigdal, S., Dhooge, A.,
Deleu, E., Goldschmitz, M., and Van den
Broek, J. 2001. Mechanical properties and ageing response of supermartensitic weld metals.
Stainless Steel Word 2001. The Hague, The
Netherlands.
27. Technical Sheet OK Tubrod. 2004. 15-55
ESAB.
28. Bilmes, P. D., Solari, M., and Llorente,
C. L. 2001. Characteristics and effect of austenite resulting from tempering of 13Cr-NiMo
martensitic steel weld metals. Materials Characterization 46: 285296.
29. Karlsson, L., Rigdal, S., Dyberg, P., Van
den Broek, J., and Goldschmitz, M. 2002. Submerged arc welding of supermartensitic stainless steel: Good as welded toughness realistic or not? Supermartensitic 2002. Houston, Tex.
30. Karlsson, L., Rigdal, S., Bruins, W., and
Goldschmitz, M. 1999. Efficient welding of supermartensitic stainless steels with matching
composition consumables. Stainless Steel Word
1999. The Hague, The Netherlands.
31. Bilmes, P. D., Llorente, C. L., and Ipia, J.
P. 2000. Toughness and microstructure of
13Cr4NiMo high strength steel welds. Journal of
Materials Engineering and Performance 9(6): 119.
32. Gooch, T. G., Woollin, P., and Haynes, A.
G. 1999. Welding metallurgy of low carbon 13%
chromium martensitic steels. Supermartensitic
Stainless Steel. Brussels, Belgium.
33. Folkhard, H. 1988. Welding Metallurgy of
Stainless Steels. Springer-Verlag Wien, New York.
34. Bilmes, P. D., Llorente, C. L., and Solari,
M. 2000. Role of the retained austenite on the
mechanical properties of 13Cr-4NiMo weld
metals. The 20th ASM Heat Treating Society. St.
Louis, Mo.
35. Bilmes, P. D., Llorente, C., Saire
Huamn, L., Gassa, L. M., and Gervasi, C. A.
2006. Microstructure and pitting corrosion of
13CrNiMo weld metals. Corrosion Science 48:
32613270.
36. Marshall, A. W., and Farrar, J. C. M.
2001. Welding of ferritic and martensitic
1114% Cr steels. Welding in the World 2001
Vol. 45 (5/6): 3255.
37. Ramirez, J. E. 2007. Weldability evaluation of supermartensitic stainless steels. Welding Journal 86(5): 125-s to 134-s.
38. Bonnefois, B., Coudreuse, L., Toussaint,
P., and Dufrane, J. J. 2002. Development in
GMAW of new martensitic stainless steels. Supermartensitic 2002. Houston, Tex.
39. Bilmes, P. D., Llorente, C., and Solari,
M. 1999. Effect of post weld heat treatment on
13%Cr4NiMo steel FCAW deposit. X Congreso Argentino de Soldadura VI Congreso
Iberoamericano de Soldadura. Buenos Aires,
Argentina.
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90-s
MARCH 2012, VOL. 91
Ultrasonic Wave Assisted GMAW

A novel method adds ultrasonic wave to provide an additional force
to detach the droplet
ABSTRACT
A novel modification to conventional gas metal arc welding (GMAW) was developed by applying ultrasonic wave to the welding process, referred to as UGMAW. One of the effects was ultrasonic radiation force. The principle of the
proposed method is to apply the ultrasonic radiation force to droplets as an extra
detaching force. To prove the feasibility of this idea, comparative experiments were
conducted to uncover the basic characteristics of the metal transfer process. It was
found that droplets in conventional GMAW were approximately spherical, while
deformation of the droplets was observed in U-GMAW. More specifically, the
droplet was elongated and its size was reduced. As a result, the metal transfer frequency increased in all experimental conditions. Analytical results show that an additional force was brought into the metal transfer process. The additional force was
ultrasonic radiation force and its value was on the order of 103 N.
Introduction
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is one
of the most widely used industrial welding
methods, preferred for its high productivity. A continuous and consumable wire
electrode is fed through a welding gun,
making it well suited to semiautomatic or
automatic welding applications. The wire
electrode plays the roles of heat source
and liquid filler metal. The manner in
which the liquid metal transfers from the
electrode to the weld pool is referred to as
metal transfer mode. It is the most important feature of GMAW and plays a significant role in determining the welding
process stability and weld quality (Ref. 1).
There are three basic metal transfer
modes: short-circuiting, globular, and spray
(Ref. 2). These metal transfer modes show
different arc stabilities, weld formation,
spatter levels, and so on. Shortcircuiting transfer encompasses the lowest
range of welding currents and voltages. The
arc length is relatively short, and the droplet
cannot transfer until it touches the weld
pool. The small, fast-freezing weld pool produced by the short-circuiting transfer and its
associated low heat input are suitable for
joining thin materials. When the welding
currents and voltages are slightly higher
Y. Y. FAN, C. L. YANG, S. B. LIN
(sblin@hit.edu.cn), C. L. FAN, and W. G. LIU
are with the State Key Laboratory of Advanced
Welding and Joining, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China.
than that used in short-circuiting transfer,

globular transfer can be achieved. The drop
size is greater than the diameter of the welding wire, and the detachment is mainly controlled by gravity. When the welding current
further increases to a higher level that is
above a critical value called the transition
current, transfer occurs in the form of relatively small drops that are transferred at
the rate of hundreds per second. This transfer mode is spray transfer.
The spray transfer mode can be further
classified into drop spray and streaming
spray, based on the droplet size. The diameter of the drop is equal or slightly larger
than the welding wire in drop spray, while it
is much smaller in streaming spray (Ref. 3).
Both spray transfer modes are stable. However, in the streaming spray, small drops at
a relatively high speed have a strong impact
on the weld pool. The resultant weld formation is finger-shaped penetration, which
is associated with poor mechanical properties (Ref. 4). The drop spray is generally
characterized by uniform drop size, regular
detachment, directional droplet transfer,
and insignificant spatter, so it is a preferred
KEYWORDS
Gas Metal Arc Welding
Metal Transfer
Ultrasonic Wave
Ultrasonic Radiation Force
process (Ref. 5). However, the current

range for drop spray transfer is relatively
narrow less than 10 A (Ref. 6). Small
variables of the welding condition can bring
a normal current variation larger than the
narrow current range, so it is hard to maintain the drop spray process. On the other
hand, globular transfer is associated with instable arc, spatter, and unacceptable weld
appearance. This is mainly brought by the
large drop size and low transfer frequency.
Suppose that an auxiliary force can be applied on the droplet, the drop size will be
minimized and the metal transfer frequency
will be increased. As a result, the globular
transfer will be a more stable and continuous process, similar to the drop spray
process.
In an effort to solve the above problem,
application of an auxiliary force on the
droplet has been achieved in a number of
ways. The pulsed GMAW method uses
pulsed current. A peak current higher
than the transition current is used to produce a powerful electromagnetic force to
detach the droplet (Refs. 79). The peak
current value and duration time can be
modulated to control the electromagnetic
force. The average current for spray transfer decreases, but the transition current is
unchanged. A reliable feedback signal is
necessary to control the peak current and
duration time because of the narrow range
of transition current (Refs. 1012). By
monitoring excited droplet oscillation, the
downward momentum of the droplet has
been employed to enhance droplet detachment in the pulsed GMAW process.
The peak current can be lower than the
transition current, and accidental detachment is prevented (Ref. 13). Then the oscillation process of the droplet is improved
by modified current waveforms. The metal
transfer rate is further improved, and the
control system is simplified (Ref. 14). The
double-electrode GMAW (DE-GMAW)
process adds a gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) torch to the GMAW system, and
the bypass arc produces an extra electromagnetic force to detach the droplet (Ref.
15). Then the DE-GMAW has been further modified into dual-bypass GMAW by
adding two bypass tungsten electrodes
(Ref. 16). As a result, two extra electroWELDING JOURNAL 91-s
WELDING RESEARCH
BY Y. Y. FAN, C. L. YANG, S. B. LIN, C. L. FAN, AND W. G. LIU
Fig. 1 Acoustic radiation force distribution.
Fig. 2 Water drops without ultrasonic wave (left) and with ultrasonic wave
(right).
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig .3 Schematic of U-GMAW.
magnetic forces are produced. Recently, a

new process has been developed at the
University of Kentucky by adding a laser
beam to the droplet (Ref. 17). The laser
recoil pressure produces an auxiliary force
to detach the droplet. The metal transfer
mode changes from short circuiting to
spray after the laser is applied. It provides
a new way to decouple the detaching force
from the current.
Question: Can another kind of force
with little relation to

the current and heat
be found as a supplement to the detaching
force?
On the other hand,
the ultrasonic wave is a
kind of mechanical vibration with a frequency equal or above
20 kHz. It has the advantages of excellent
directivity and highenergy density, leading
to several interesting
ultrasonic effects. One
of the effects is ultrasonic radiation force.
It is the result of
acoustic
radiation
pressure acting on the
obstacle in an acoustic
field. The ultrasonic
wave has been introduced into the arc
welding
process.
When the ultrasonic
wave was directly applied onto the workpiece, it proved to be effective in grain refinement (Refs. 18, 19). When it was applied
on the welding arc in gas tungsten arc welding, arc constriction was observed and the
weld penetration depth increased (Ref. 20).
For now, applications of the ultrasonic wave
in the welding process are mainly devoted
to improve the weld quality, but the fact of
arc constriction indicates that the ultrasonic
wave can propagate and form an acoustic
radiation field in the arc welding environment. It satisfies the basic preconditions for
the acoustic radiation force.
In this paper, the authors propose the
idea of applying the ultrasonic radiation
force to detach the droplets. The ultrasonic
wave is introduced into the GMAW process,
which is referred to 25 ultrasonic wave assisted GMAW (U-GMAW). The objective
of this study is to prove the concept and feasibility of the U-GMAW method. However,
further optimization and research are necessary for the drop detachment control
process and industrial applications.
Theoretical Foundation and

Principle
In a stationary acoustic field, the
acoustic radiation force acting on a sphere
can be expressed as (Ref. 21)
( ) sin (2 kz )
5
F = A 2 kR
0
s
6
Where p0 is the density of medium, A is

the velocity potential of the incident wave,
k is the wave number, Rs is the radius of
sphere, and z is the vertical distance between the sphere and the reflector.
From Equation 1, it can be seen that
the acoustic radiation force is a static field.
The value and direction of the force are
not changed over time, but they vary with
the vertical distance from the sphere to the
reflector in the acoustic field. The distri-
Table 1 Experimental Parameters

Experimental
Number
Wire Feed Speed

(m/min)
Welding Voltage in
Conventional GMAW (V)
Welding Voltage in
Ultrasonic-Assisted GMAW (V)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
6.5
27
27
27
27
27
27
28
28
31
31
32
32
32
33
33
33
92-s
MARCH 2012, VOL. 91
(1)
Fig. 5 Photographing method of the metal transfer process.
bution cycle is half-wavelength in the

medium. The force distribution is shown
in Fig. 1. It can be seen that half of the
acoustic field is filled with downward
force. The principle of the U-GMAW
method is meant to use the downward
force as a supplement to the metal detachment. To better understand this
process, a preliminary experiment was
taken to evaluate the effect of the force.
The detachment of the water drops was
similar to the metal transfer process. A
water tube with a diameter of 1.5 mm was
selected to conduct the simulation experiment. The end of the tube was placed in
the area of the downward force, as the
zone A shown in Fig. 1. The ultrasonic
frequency was 20 kHz. The vibration amplitude of the ultrasonic radiator was 30
m, and the distance between the radiator
and the workpiece was 17 mm.
The water drop transfer process was
recorded by a CCD camera at 150 frames
per second. The images of the water drop
prior to the detachment are shown in Fig. 2.
The left one is of the conventional process
while the right one is with the application of
ultrasonic wave. It can be seen that the size
of the water drop is much smaller after the
ultrasonic wave is applied. The drop trans-
Fig. 6 Metal transfer in conventional GMAW in Experiment 3. The interval between each image is 32 ms.
fer cycle time was only 110 of the conventional process. Also, the shape of the water
drop was apparently different. It was elon-
gated in the axial direction of the water

tube, and a longer neck was observed between the water drop and the tube. The difWELDING JOURNAL 93-s
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 4 Experimental setup.
WELDING RESEARCH
amplified by the ultrasonic horn. The ultrasonic wave radiates out from the ultrasonic
radiator. With the reflection by the workpiece, an acoustic radiation field forms between the ultrasonic radiator and
workpiece. Meanwhile, the welding wire is
fed through the axial hole of the ultrasonic
vibration system, and there is no ultrasonic
vibration acting on the wire. The welding
process is carried out in the acoustic field.
In this way, the ultrasonic wave works on the
welding arc and droplet.
Experimental Setup and

Conditions
Fig. 7 Metal transfer in U-GMAW in Experiment 3. The interval between each image is 13 ms.
ferences of the water drop detachments

could be explained by the ultrasonic radiation force. In the acoustic field, the ultrasonic radiation force acted on the surface of
the water drop. The liquid drop started to
deform, and it elongated in the direction of
the radiation force. When the water drop
grew in size with time, the gravity of the
drop and the radiation force on the drop increased with the size of the drop. The water
drop was detached when the sum of the
gravity and radiation force exceeded the
surface tension. The water drop transfer
process is the same as the droplet transfer
process to some degree. The preliminary experimental results were consistent with the
principle of the proposed method, and it
94-s
MARCH 2012,, VOL. 91
may help explain the phenomena in the

welding process. It should be mentioned
that the complicated arc welding environment would affect the mode of the acoustic
field, as well as the distribution of acoustic
radiation force, but the nature of the force
should not be changed.
The schematic of the U-GMAW is
shown in Fig. 3. The system is made up of
an ultrasonic power source, a welding power
source, and a hybrid welding gun. The main
body of the welding gun is based on the ultrasonic vibration system, which can be further divided into the ultrasonic transducer
and ultrasonic horn. The ultrasonic transducer transforms electric energy into ultrasonic vibration, and then the vibration is
Experimental Setup
The experimental setup is shown in

Fig. 4. The welding gun was fixed, and the
workpiece moved at a constant speed. The
angle between the axis of the welding gun
and the workpiece was 90 deg.
A laser backlighted shadowgraphic
method (Ref. 22) was used to monitor the
metal transfer process, as shown in Fig. 5.
In this method, a laser beam of 808 nm
wavelength was used to provide back light.
The light blocked by the welding wire and
droplet would not reach the camera when
traveling through the welding space. A
band-pass filter centered at 808 nm wavelength was installed in front of the camera
so that most of the laser light would be
transmitted and most of the arc light
would be excluded. As a result, the shadow
of the welding wire and droplet could be

imaged by the high-speed camera at a rate
of 3000 frames per second.
Ultrasonic Parameters
There were three main ultrasonic parameters in the experiment. The ultrasonic
frequency and the vibration amplitude are
mainly concerned with the state of the incident wave, while the distance between
the radiator and the workpiece decides the
mode of the acoustic field. The ultrasonic
frequency and the maximum amplitude
are determined by the ultrasonic equipment. In this study, the ultrasonic frequency was 20 kHz. The power of the
ultrasonic equipment was 110 W, and the
corresponding vibration amplitude was 30
m. The distance between the radiator
and the workpiece was 30 mm, which
maintained a strong acoustic field on the
one hand, and eliminated the undesirable
impacts of the GMAW process, like high
temperature and spatter, on the other
hand. However, the efficiency of the ultrasonic wave is not a primary concern in
the preliminary study and the use of a
more advanced ultrasonic power source
and larger vibration amplitude should not
change the effectiveness of the experimental results.
Welding Conditions
The welding parameters used as variables in this study were wire feed speed and
welding voltage, as shown in Table 1. Since
the droplet size and the droplet transfer frequency are mainly determined by the welding current, the wire feed speed was varied
continuously with the U-GMAW and com-
Fig. 8 Droplets under different wire feed speeds in conventional GMAW experiments(m/min). A
3; B 3.5; C 4; D 4.5; E 5; F 5.5; G 6; H 6.5(m/min).
parative conventional GMAW processes.

The welding voltages in U-GMAW experiments were higher than those in conventional GMAW experiments. In the
preliminary research, it was found that the
arc length decreased after the ultrasonic
wave was applied on (Ref. 23). So the welding voltages of U-GMAW were set higher
to get arcs long enough to maintain stable
globular transfer processes. A constant voltage (CV) power supply was used during experiments, and the welding process was
performed under direct current electrode
positive (DCEP) conditions. The welding
wire was ER70S-6 of 1.2 mm diameter, and
the workpiece was mild steel. Pure argon
was used as shielding gas at a flow rate of 25
L/min. The contact tube to workpiece distance (CTWD) was 24 mm, and the distance between the nozzle and the workpiece
was 11 mm. Experiments were performed
as bead-on-plate at a welding speed of 300
mm/min.
Experimental Results and

Analysis
Metal Transfer Process
Comparative experiments have been

performed using the parameters shown in
Table 1. Figure 6 illustrates an image sequence of a complete metal transfer cycle
in conventional GMAW under experimental condition No. 3, where the wire
feed speed is 4 m/min. The first image
shows the end of the last transfer cycle, at
the moment prior to the droplet detachment, and the last image shows the droplet
prior to detachment in current transfer
cycle. The metal transfer process was obviously in globular transfer mode. As can
be seen, all droplets during the transfer
cycle were approximately spherical. The
droplet size grew gradually, and the diameters of the droplets prior to detachment
were about three times the diameter of the
WELDING RESEARCH
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 9 Droplets under different wire feed speeds in U-GMAW experiments (m/min.) A 3; B 3.5;
C 4 ; D 4.5 ; E 5; F 5.5; G 6; H 6.5m/min.
welding wire, as shown in Fig. 6A and H.

As a result, the metal transfer cycle lasted
a long time 226 ms. The average metal
transfer frequency of conventional
GMAW in Experiment 3 was about 4 Hz.
The average welding current and voltage
were 150 A and 26.7 V. The welding current was much lower than the transition
current, so the metal transfer process observed was consistent with the expected
metal transfer mode.
A metal transfer cycle for U-GMAW
under experimental condition No. 3 is
shown in Fig. 7. It should be mentioned
that all the images of the welding process
96-s
MARCH 2012, VOL. 91
were recorded under the same photographing condition. A noticeable effect of

the ultrasonic wave on the welding process
was the change of arc. Although the welding voltage was higher, the arc length was
obviously shorter than that of the conventional GMAW. The compressed arc was
brighter and part of the arc shape could be
recognized in Fig. 7, while the arc of conventional GMAW was not bright enough
to be seen in Fig. 6. With the assistance of
the arc, the relative position of the droplet
and the workpiece could be recognized in
Fig. 7. Although the arc and the workpiece
could not be seen in the conventional
GMAW process, the spatial relationship

between the droplet and the workpiece in
Fig. 6 was the same as Fig. 7. The height of
droplet in the conventional GMAW
process could be measured by the distance
between the droplet and the welding nozzle. Meanwhile, the metal transfer process
was also different from that of the conventional GMAW. The most characteristic
feature is the deformation of the droplet.
At first, the droplet size was small, and the
droplet shape was approximately spherical. When the droplet diameter exceeded
the wire diameter, the droplet started to
deform. It was elongated in the axial direction of the welding wire while the diameter of the droplet no longer increased,
as shown as differences between Fig. 7D
and E. The deforming process lasted to
the end of the transfer cycle. The resultant
droplet shape was approximately ellipsoidal, as demonstrated in Fig. 7H. The
length of the droplet in the axial direction
of the welding wire was about two times
the diameter of the droplet. Also, the neck
between the welding wire and the droplet
was longer than that of the conventional
GMAW, compared between Fig. 6H and
Fig. 7H. Although the droplet size could
not be measured directly due to deformation, the droplet size in U-GMAW was apparently smaller than that in conventional
GMAW. Since the wire feed speeds were
constant in both two processes, the decrease of the droplet size would result in a
decrease of metal transfer time and an in-
crease of metal transfer frequency. In this

experiment condition, the cycle time was
reduced from 226 to 92 ms while the metal
transfer frequency increased from about 4
to about 10 Hz. The average welding current and voltage were 154 A and 31.7 V.
The welding current was slightly higher
than that of conventional GMAW, but
such little difference was insufficient to
cause a difference in the metal transfer
process.
The above metal transfer processes
have shown that the U-GMAW method is
consistent with the proposed principle to
some degree. Although metal transfer was
still in the globular transfer mode, the details of the process were improved and a
more continuous droplet transfer process
was achieved.
A series of comparative results under
different wire feed speeds were the result
of the experimental conditions shown in
Table. 1. The shapes of droplets prior to
detachment in conventional GMAW and
U-GMAW experiments are shown in Figs.
8 and 9, respectively. As can be seen, the
droplet size decreased as the wire feed
speed grew, because of the increasing
welding current. This was observed in both
conventional GMAW and U-GMAW.
However, the differences are obvious. In
the conventional GMAW process, all
droplets were approximately spherical. In
the U-GMAW process, droplets with deformation were always observed. All
droplets were elongated in the axial direction of the welding wire and detached as
ellipsoids. Also, the droplet sizes were apparently smaller than those of conventional GMAW under the same wire feed
speed. At the wire feed speed of 6.5
m/min, the metal transfer mode changed
into streaming spray transfer while the
conventional GMAW process was still in
globular transfer mode, as shown in Figs.
8H and 9H. Further experiment of the
Fig. 11 Forces acting on the droplet.
conventional GMAW
process was conducted, and streaming
transfer mode was
achieved at a higher
wire feed speed of 7
m/min. No transition
phenomenon was observed. It also proved
that the transition
current range was too
narrow to get a stable
drop spray transfer
process when shielding with pure argon.
The transition current
in U-GMAW process
was about 210 A,
while it was about 220
A in conventional
Fig. 12 Comparison of predicted and measured droplet gravity.
GMAW process.
The metal transfer
frequencies during
the
experimental
processes were meascreased from 14 to 52 Hz at the wire feed
ured, and average frequencies for each
speed of 6 m/min. Such a high-frequency
welding condition were calculated. Figure
metal transfer process was similar to the
10 shows the differences for metal transdrop spray transfer mode. Even at a
fer frequency between conventional
lower wire feed speed of 5 m/min, the UGMAW and U-GMAW. It should be
GMAW method could have a metal
mentioned that the conditions of streamtransfer frequency above 20 Hz, which
ing spray transfer mode were not concan maintain a relatively stable and contained in Fig. 10, since its metal transfer
tinuous welding process.
frequency was too high (above 200 Hz).
It was proved that the U-GMAW
If the range of the Y axis was enlarged by
method could improve the metal transfer
such a high frequency, it would be hard
characteristics with a higher metal transto distinguish the details of the differfer frequency, in comparison with the
ences of metal transfer frequency in globconventional GMAW. As a result, the
ular transfer. It can be found that the
welding process was more stable and conmetal transfer frequency increased with
tinuous, which was consistent with the exthe wire feed speed in both processes.
pected result of the proposed idea. The
However, the increasing trend of Upreliminary explanation for changes in
GMAW was faster than that of convenmetal transfer frequency could be attribtional GMAW. At the wire feed speed of
uted to the changes in droplet sizes, but
3 m/min, the metal transfer frequency
another question was raised: What had
changed from 2 to 3 Hz, while it inled to the differences in droplet sizes?
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 10 Metal transfer frequency.
is the surface tension coefficient.

The balance of static forces is given by
Analysis of Ultrasonic Effect
The metal transfer process is the result

of forces acting on the droplet. A droplet
detaches when the total detaching forces
exceed the total retaining forces. There
are two complementary theories for studying the metal transfer mechanism (Refs.
24, 25). One is the static force balance theory; the other is the pinch instability theory. The former is appropriate for globular
transfer mode at relatively low currents,
while the latter is more suitable for spray
transfer mode at high currents. In this
paper, the static force balance theory was
chosen to explain the differences in
droplet size.
In conventional GMAW, four different
forces are usually considered: gravity
force, electromagnetic force, and plasma
drag force are detaching forces, while surface tension force is a retaining force. The
gravity force can be expressed as
WELDING RESEARCH
4
F = R 3 g
g
d d
3
(2)
Where Rd is the droplet radius, d is the

density of the droplet, and g is the gravitational constant.
The electromagnetic force can be expressed as
em
I2
0
4
R sin
1
1
1n d

r
4 1 cos
2
2
+
1n
2
1+ cos
1 cos
(3)
Where is the magnetic permittivity, I

is the welding current, r is the welding wire
radius, and is the half-angle subtended
by the arc root at the center of the droplet.
The plasma drag force can be expressed as
2
f f
F =C A
d
D p
2
(4)
Where CD is the drag coefficient, Ap is the

projected area on the plane perpendicular
to the fluid flow, f is the fluid density, f
is the velocity of the gas.
The surface tension force acting as retaining force is given as
(5)
Fs = 2r
Where r is the welding wire radius, and
98-s
MARCH 2012, VOL. 91
Fg + Fem + Fd = Fs
(6)
The droplet would not be detached until the

detaching forces exceed the retaining force.
From Equations 26, the gravity force can
be calculated, and the droplet size can be
predicted. Figure 11 shows the resulting
forces required to detach the droplet. As
can be seen, the surface tension force (Fs)
and the plasma drag force (Fp) are almost
constant. As the welding current increases,
the electromagnetic force increases. The
gravity force decreases as a result.
In order to tell the differences between
the conventional GMAW and U-GMAW,
the experimental results of droplet gravity
were compared with the predicted gravity
force, given in Fig. 12. In conventional
GMAW, the droplet sizes can be directly
measured in images of metal transfer
process and then the droplet gravity forces
can be calculated. However, the droplets
in U-GMAW were deformed and could
not be measured directly. The equivalent
droplet size was calculated by dividing the
melting rate of the electrode by the average metal transfer frequency, and then the
equivalent gravity force was calculated
using Equation 2.
As seen in Fig. 12, the theoretical results
agree well with the experimental results obtained in the conventional GMAW process.
It proves that the static force balance theory
is suitable for globular transfer mode. For
the U-GMAW process, there were great differences between the experimental results
and the predicted results. Because the application of the ultrasonic wave could not
change the variables in the equations of
forces, it could be concluded that an additional force was brought in the metal transfer process by the ultrasonic wave.
Furthermore, the difference in gravity
forces between two processes can be considered as the value of the additional force,
as shown in Fig. 12. In this case, the additional force was on the order of 103 N,
which can provide a force about 15 of the surface tension force with a welding wire diameter of 1.2 mm.
The nature of the additional force was
further discussed. On the one hand, the
water drop transfer process provided evidence. The water drop was elongated in
the axial direction of the water tube, and
the water drop size was decreased in the
acoustic radiation force field. Similar phenomena were observed in the metal transfer process. On the other hand, the
changing tendency of the additional force
shown in Fig. 12 is consistent with the theoretical result of the acoustic radiation
force. As the welding current increased,
the droplet size decreased, which meant
that the surface area being acted on by the
acoustic pressure was decreased. As

shown in Equation 1, the decreased radius
of sphere (Rs) would result in a decrease
of the value of the acoustic radiation force.
Hence, it can be concluded that the nature
of the additional force should be acoustic
radiation force. This result was in accord
with the idea of the proposed method. The
ultrasonic radiation force could be used as
a supplement to the detaching force in
metal transfer process.
Conclusions and Future Work

1) An experimental system has been established and the feasibility of the UGMAW method was experimentally
demonstrated.
2) Deformation of the droplet was observed during the metal transfer process.
The droplet was elongated in the axial direction of the welding wire, and the
droplet size was decreased in comparison
with the conventional GMAW.
3) The metal transfer frequency was increased compared with the conventional
GMAW process. At a wire feed speed of 6
m/min, the U-GMAW process could maintain a metal transfer frequency of 52 Hz,
while it was 14 Hz in the conventional
GMAW process.
4) The ultrasonic radiation force was
brought into the metal transfer process as
a supplement to the detaching force. The
value of the force was on the order of 103
N.
The experimental results were consistent with the principle of the proposed
method. However, the decrease in the
transition current in U-GMAW was less
than the other control methods such as active oscillation and laser enhanced
GMAW. Also, there are some theoretical
questions that need further research, such
as the changes of acoustic field in the complicated welding environment, and so on.
In the future work, the effect of the ultrasonic parameters on the characteristics
of globular transfer will be evaluated, and
the ultrasonic effect on the weld quality
will be studied, especially on the microstructure and weld grain size. The ultimate goal of this method is to control the
metal transfer process by applying pulsed
ultrasonic wave to conventional GMAW
or applying constant ultrasonic wave to
pulsed GMAW.
References
1. OBrien, R. L., ed. 1991. Welding Handbook. 8th ed., Vol. 2: American Welding Society, Miami, Fla.
2. Lancaster, J. F. 1984. The Physics of Welding. Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K.
3. Iordachescu, D., and Quintino, L. 2008.
Steps toward a new classification of metal transfer in gas metal arc welding. Journal of Materials
Processing Technology 202(13): 391397.
12. Johnson, J. A., Carlson, N. M., Smartt,

H. B., and Clark, D. E. 1991. Process control of
GMAW: sensing of metal transfer mode. Welding Journal 70(4): 91-s to 99-s.
13. Zhang, Y. M., Liguo., E, and Kovacevic,
R. 1998. Active metal transfer control by monitoring excited droplet oscillation. Welding Journal 77(9): 388-s to 395-s.
14. Zhang, Y. M., and Li, P. J. 2001. Modified active control of metal transfer and pulsed
GMAW of titanium. Welding Journal 80(2): 54s to 61-s.
15. Li, K. H., Chen, J. S., and Zhang, Y. M.
2007. Double-electrode GMAW process and
control. Welding Journal 86(8): 231-s to 237-s.
16. Shi, Y., Liu, X., Zhang, Y., and Johnson,
M. 2008. Analysis of metal transfer and correlated influences in dual-pass GMAW of aluminum. Welding Journal 87(9): 229-s to 236-s.
17. Huang, Y., and Zhang, Y. M. 2010.
Laser-enhanced GMAW. Welding Journal 89(9):
181-s to 188-s.
18. Cui, Y., Xu, C. L., and Han, Q. 2006. Effect of ultrasonic vibration on unmixed zone
formation. Scripta Materialia 55(11): 975978.
19. Dai, W. L. 2003. Effects of high-intensity
ultrasonic-wave emission on the weldability of
aluminum alloy 7075-T6. Materials Letters 57:

24472454.
20. Sun, Q. J., Lin, S. B., Yang, C. L., and
Zhao, G. Q. 2009. Penetration increase of AISI
304 using ultrasonic assisted tungsten inert gas
welding. Science and Technology of Welding and
Joining 14(8): 765767.
21. King, L. V. 1934. On the acoustic radiation pressure on spheres. Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical
and Physical 147(11): 212240.
22. Allemand, C. D., Schoeder, R., Ries, D.
E., and Eager, T. W. 1985. A method of filming
metal transfer in welding arcs. Welding Journal
64(1): 4547.
23. Fan, Y. Y., Fan, C. L., Yang, C. L., Liu,
W. G., and Lin, S. B. 2010. Development and
preliminary study on the ultrasonic assisted
GMAW method. China Welding 19(4): 15.
24. Kim, Y. S., and Eager, T. W. 1993. Analysis of metal transfer process in gas metal arc
welding. Welding Journal 72(6): 269-s to 278-s.
25. Rhee, S., and Kannatey-Asibu, E. 1991.
Analysis of arc pressure effect on metal transfer
in gas-metal arc welding. Journal of Applied
Physics 70(9): 50685075.
CAN WE TALK?
The Welding Journal staff encourages an exchange of ideas with you, our readers. If youd like to ask a question, share an idea or voice an opinion, you can call, write, e-mail or fax. Staff e-mail addresses are listed below,
along with a guide to help you interact with the right person.
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Andrew Cullison
cullison@aws.org, Extension 249
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mjohnsen@aws.org, Extension 238
Feature Articles
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bflores@aws.org, Extension 330
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mgomez@aws.org, Extension 475
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woodward@aws.org, Extension 244
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WELDING RESEARCH
4. Essers, W. G., and Walter, R. 1981. Heat

transfer and penetration mechanisms with
GMA and plasma-GMA welding. Welding Journal 60(2): 37-s to 42-s.
5. Ueguri, S., Hara, K., and Komura, H.
1985. Study of metal transfer in pulsed GMA
welding. Welding Journal 64(8): 242-s to 250-s.
6. Lesnewich, A. 1958. Control of melting
rate and metal transfer. Welding Journal 37(9):
418-s to 425-s.
7. Essers, W. G., and Van Gompel, M. R. M.
1984. Arc control with pulsed GMA welding.
Welding Journal 63(6): 26-s to 32-s.
8. Kim, Y. S., and Eager, T. W. 1993. Metal
transfer in pulsed current gas metal arc welding. Welding Journal 72(7): 279-s to 287-s.
9. Allum, C. J. 1985. Welding technology
data: pulsed MIG welding. Welding and Metal
Fabrication 53(1): 2430.
10. Wang, Q. L., and Li, P. J. 1997. Arc light
sensing of droplet transfer and its analysis in
pulsed GMAW process. Welding Journal 76(11):
458-s to 469-s.
11. Adam, G., and Siewert, T. A. 1990. Sensing of GMAW droplet transfer modes using ER
100s-1 electrode. Welding Journal 69(3): 103-s to
108-s.
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