Switching Systems - Routers and Optical Switching

Lecture notes
Switching Systems by Jorma Kekalainen
Switching Systems
Routers and optical
switching
Jorma Kekalainen
308
Switching Systems
Routers
309
Routers and optical switching
Page 1
Lecture notes
General of routers
Router is a network equipment, which
performs packet switching operations
operates at network layer of the OSI protocol reference
model
switches/routes variable length packets
routing decisions based on address information carried in
packets
Router is used to connect two or more networks that

may or may not be similar
Routers communicate with each other by means of
routing messages to
exchange routing information
resolve next hop addresses
maintain network topology to make routing decisions
310
First generation router architecture

Network layer protocols were constantly changing
=> adaptable solution was needed
=> a single and common purpose processor structure
was a reasonable one in which operating system in
central role
Low throughput (packets transferred twice through
the bus) did not scale well with increasing line speeds
311
Page 2
Lecture notes
Second generation router architecture

Each line card implemented a processor
=> distributed and parallel routing became available
Main processing unit took care of delivery of routing information
to line interface cards
Operating system still in central role
Cache memories were introduced to speed up routing decisions
(most recently used routing entries kept in cache)
Increased throughput, but shared bus still a bottleneck
Solution did not scale with increasing line speeds
312
Third generation router architecture

Shared bus replaced with more powerful switch fabrics (e.g.
multistage or crossbar)
Parallel processing units (based on general purpose processors)
Cache memories to enhance routing decision making
Operating system still played an important role
Communication between line interfaces no more a problem
QoS increases processing power requirement
Did not scale well enough with the most advanced line speeds
313
Page 3
Lecture notes
Router classification
Access routers
link homes and small business to ISPs (Internet Service Provider)
need to support a variety of access technologies, e.g. high-speed
modems, cable modems and xDSL
Enterprise/metropolitan routers
used as campus and office interconnects

QoS guarantees for local traffic
support of several network layer protocols (e.g. IP)
support of additional features, such as firewalls, security policies
and virtual LANs
Backbone/long haul routers

interconnect enterprise routers
huge number of packets per second => very-high-speed requirement
critical components for internetworking => reliability of utmost
concern
314
Major tasks of a router
C - Classify (classification, filtering and routing)

F - Forward (transfer of packets from input
interfaces to addressed output interfaces)
S - Scheduling (transmission of data packets based,
e.g. on priority)
315
Page 4
Lecture notes
Structure of Packet Switches

A packet switch has four components:
input ports,
output ports,
the routing processor (network processor), and
the switching fabric.
316
Main blocks of a packet switch
317
Page 5
Lecture notes
Input Ports
An input port performs the physical and data link functions of the
packet switch.
The bits are constructed from the received signal.
The packet is decapsulated from the frame.
Layer 1 termination of incoming physical links (e.g. SDH, Ethernet)

Layer 2 frame decapsulation to inter-operate with data-link protocols of
connected networks (e.g. AAL5/ATM/SDH and PPP/SDH)
Errors are detected and corrected.

The packet is now ready to be routed by the network layer.
Control packets, e.g. routing information packets are forwarded to
network processor to update routing table and network topology
In addition to a physical layer processor and a data link processor, the
input port has buffers (queues) to hold the packet before it is directed
to the switching fabric.
Some implementations distribute a copy of routing table and table
lookup to each input port, while some other implementations forward all
incoming packets to a centralized routing processor
318
ATM Adaptation Layer 5 (AAL5) is used to send variable-length packets up
to
65,535 octets in size across an Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) network
A schematic diagram of an input port
319
Page 6
Lecture notes
Output port
The output port performs the same functions
as the input port, but in the reverse order.
First the outgoing packets are queued, then
the packet is encapsulated in a frame (e.g.
AAL5/ATM/SDH, PPP/SDH and Ethernet),
and finally the physical layer functions are
applied to the frame to create the signal to
be sent on the line.
Layer 1 physical signal generation
320
ATM Adaptation Layer 5 (AAL5) is used to send variable-length packets up
to
65,535 octets in size across an Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) network
A schematic diagram of an output port
321
Page 7
Lecture notes
Routing Processor
The routing processor performs the functions of the
network layer.
The destination address is used to find the address
of the next hop and, at the same time, the output
port number from which the packet is sent out.
This activity is sometimes referred to as table lookup
because the routing processor searches the routing
table.
In some packet switches, this function of the routing
processor is being moved to the input ports to
facilitate and expedite the process.
322
Routing processor functionality

Maintenance of routing table
Execution of routing
protocols
Maintenance of routing
topology
Performance of network
management
Wire-speed operation
obtained by implementing key
functions in hardware
Processing of packets
classification
order management
acceleration of lookup
queue management
QoS engine
323
Page 8
Lecture notes
Switching fabric
Main function is to route data packets from input ports (queue)
to addressed output ports (queue)
The speed with which this is done affects the size of the
input/output queue and the overall delay in packet delivery.
Depending on the switch fabric implementation, packets are
transported through the fabric either as variable length packets
or they are fragmented to fixed size data units
In either case, extra information is added in front of the
packets to direct them through the fabric
switching of whole packets is usually applied in low-speed routers
switching of fragments is normally used in high-speed routers
In the past, when a packet switch was actually a dedicated

computer, the memory of the computer was used as the
switching fabric.
The input port stored the packet in memory; the output port
retrieved the packet from memory.
Today, packet switches are specialized mechanisms that use a

variety of switching fabrics.
324
Switch fabrics
Crossbar switch
the simplest type of switching fabric
Banyan switch
A banyan switch is a multistage switch with
microswitches at each stage that route the
packets based on the output port represented as
a binary string.
For n inputs and n outputs, we have log2n stages
with n/2 microswitches at each stage.
The first stage routes the packet based on the
high-order bit of the binary string.
The second stage routes the packet based on the
second high-order bit, and so on.
325
Page 9
Lecture notes
A banyan switch
A banyan switch with eight inputs and eight outputs.

The number of stages is log2(8) = 3.
326
Example: Operation of banyan switch (1)

A packet has arrived at input
port 1 and must go to output
port 6 (110 in binary).
The first microswitch (A-2)
routes the packet based on
the first bit (1), the second
microswitch (B-4) routes the
packet based on the second
bit (1), and the third
microswitch (C-4) routes the
packet based on the third bit
(0).
A banyan switch with eight inputs and
eight outputs.
327
Page 10
Lecture notes
Example: Operation of banyan switch (2)

A packet has arrived at input
port 5 and must go to output
port 2 (010 in binary).
The first microswitch (A-2)
routes the packet based on
the first bit (0), the second
microswitch (B-2) routes the
packet based on the second
bit (1), and the third
microswitch (C-2) routes the
packet based on the third bit
(0).
A banyan switch with eight inputs and
eight outputs.
328
Examples of routing in a banyan switch
329
Page 11
Lecture notes
Batcher-Banyan Switch
The problem with the banyan switch is the possibility of internal
collision even when two packets are not heading for the same
output port.
This problem is solved by sorting the arriving packets based on
their destination port.
Sorting switch (Batcher switch) comes before the banyan switch
and sorts the incoming packets according to their final
destinations.
Another hardware module called a trap is added between the
Batcher switch and the banyan switch.
The trap module prevents duplicate packets (packets with the
same output destination) from passing to the banyan switch
simultaneously.
Only one packet for each destination is allowed at each tick; if
there is more than one, they wait for the next tick.
330
Batcher-Banyan switch
331
Page 12
Lecture notes
Differentiated Services
Differentiated Services or DiffServ is a computer
networking architecture that specifies a simple,
scalable mechanism for classifying, managing network
traffic and providing Quality of Service (QoS)
guarantees on modern IP networks.
DiffServ can be used to provide low-latency,
guaranteed service (GS) to critical network traffic
such as voice or video while providing simple besteffort traffic guarantees to non-critical services
such as web traffic or file transfers.
332
Support of differentiated services

Traditional routers are limited in terms of their
quality of service and differentiation features.
Advances in research and hardware capabilities have
provided mechanisms to overcome these limitations.
Following operations, possible today to carry out in
high speed, allow provisioning of differentiated
services:
Packet classification - distinguish packets and group them
according to their different requirements
Buffer management - determine how much buffer space
should be given to certain kinds of network traffic and which
packets should be discarded in case of congestion
Packet scheduling - decide that the packet servicing order
meets the bandwidth and delay requirements of different
types of traffic
333
Page 13
Lecture notes
Sharing of processing resources and

pipelining
Packet processing divided
into a number of consecutive
processes - each process has
a dedicated processing unit
(buffering, filtering, routing,
etc.)
Pipelined processes shared
by several interfaces to
increase number of line
interfaces - concentrator
schedules packets for
processes
QoS-based scheduler takes
care of packet transmission
from buffers to outbound
interfaces
334
Packet processing capacity

Packet processing capacity of a router is given as the number of
forwarded packets/second and/or forwarded bits/second
Tasks affecting forwarding speed
link protocol processing delay (input and output)

address lookup time
switching of packets from input ports to outputs ports
queuing at output ports and possibly at input ports
Other tasks that may have an impact on forwarding speed

routing table management/updates
network and router management
In high capacity routers, routing table lookups are a major

problem
Queuing is the main component of routing latency
335
Page 14
Lecture notes
Speedup mechanisms for routing table

lookup
Caching
routing table entries of most lately arrived packets or entries most
frequently accessed are stored in cache memory
Pipelining
different phases of routing table lookup are executed by different
pipelined processing units
Distribution of lookup to interfaces or to several routing engines

Routing/network processor takes care of routing table updates and
distributes updated tables to separate interface/routing engines
In centralized routing solutions only packet headers are sent to

a routing processor
Implementation of lookup functionality in hardware (at the
expense of flexibility)
336
Switching Systems
Optical switching
337
Page 15
Lecture notes
Optical network -Why?

technology push
evolving bandwidth hungry applications
optical transport already in the trunk network
optical last mile (or the first mile) solutions still
relatively primitive
The information superhighway is a set of isolated

multilane highways with cow paths for entrance
338
Optical network
An optical network is defined to be a
telecommunications network
with transmission links that are optical fibers, and
with an architecture designed to utilize the unique features
of fibers
The term optical network (as used here)

does not necessarily imply a purely optical network,
but it does imply something more than a set of fibers
terminated by electronic devices
The glue that holds the purely optical network

together
consists of optical network nodes (ONN) connecting the
fibers within the network
network access stations (NAS) interfacing user terminals
and other non-optical end-systems to the optical network
339
Page 16
Lecture notes
Optical Network
ONN (Optical Network Node)
provides switching and routing functions to control
optical signal paths, configuring them to create
required connections
NAS (Network Access Station)

provides termination point for optical paths within
the optical network layer
Basic types of optical networks

transparent (purely optical) networks
hybrid optical network = layered optical network
340
Physical picture of the network
341
Page 17
Lecture notes
Optics vs. electronics

Optical domain
photonic technology is well suited to certain simple (linear)
signal-routing and switching functions
static photonic devices offer
optical power combining, splitting and filtering
wavelength multiplexing, demultiplexing and routing
channelization needed to make efficient use of the enormous

bandwidth of the fiber
by wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)
many signals operating on different wavelengths share each fiber
optics is fast but dumb

connectivity bottleneck
342
Optics vs. electronics

Electrical domain
electronics is needed to perform more complex (nonlinear)
functions
signal detection, regeneration and buffering
logic functions (e.g. reading and writing packet headers)
however, these complex functions limit the throughput

electronics also gives a possibility to include in-band control
information (e.g. in packet headers)
enabling a high degree of virtual connectivity
easier to control
electronics is slow but smart

electronic bottleneck
343
Page 18
Lecture notes
Optics and electronics

Hybrid approach:
a multi-wavelength purely optical network as a physical foundation
one or more logical networks (LN) superimposed on the physical
layer, each
designed to serve some subset of user requirements and
implemented as an electronically
an electronic switching equipment in the logical layer acts as a

middleman
taking the high-bandwidth transparent channels provided by the
physical layer and organizing them into an acceptable and cost-effective
form
Why hybrid approach?

purely optical wavelength selective switches offer huge aggregate
throughput of few connections
electronic packet switches offer large number of relatively low bit
rate virtual connections
hybrid approach exploits the unique capabilities of optical and
electronic switching while circumventing their limitations
344
Optical switches
Enables switching of a signal in optical format
Used in network routing nodes
Also for protection switching after network failure
345
Page 19
Lecture notes
Example
A 2x2 electro-optic directional coupler
switch.
Switching by varying coupling ratio using an
applied electric voltage.
346
Example
A 2x2 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems
(MEMS) switch
Magnified view of a 2D
MEMS mirror array
347
Page 20
Lecture notes
Optical switches
Switching fabrics with large dimensions may
be implemented by a network of smaller
switching elements
A 16x16 switch implemented by 56 2x2 switching elements in a Benes network arrangement

348
Optical Switches
Parameters of interest when selecting a switch
Insertion loss =optical power budget

Crosstalk isolation = crosstalk power penalties
Polarization dependent loss = optical power budget
Power requirements = powering costs
Switching time or speed = rapid reconfiguration
Size
Example specs:
1dB loss, 45 dB
crosstalk isolation
Example specs: >7 dB loss,

20 dB crosstalk isolation
349
Page 21
Lecture notes
Optical Add/Drop Multiplexers

Optical add/drop multiplexers (OADM) are used to retrieve or
insert wavelength channels at transit sites
Enable optical linear add/drop and ring topologies
350

OADM provide cost-effective means for handling the majority
pass-through traffic
Significant reduction in number of require transponders
351
Page 22
Lecture notes

Attributes considered in selection of a particular OADM
OADM size
Total wavelength number supported
Hitless (without taking down other channels) add/drop operation

Modular architecture
Enable pay as you grow OADM scaling with increasing traffic
(wavelength channels)
Optical physical layer impairments (losses, imperfect filtering etc.)

Is it dependent on number of add/dropped channels?
How many OADMs cascadable before 3R transponders are needed?
Reconfigurability
Add/drop configuration changed by remote software control
Flexible networking planning and provisioning of connections
Cost
Power consumption, cost per wavelength
352

Fixed OADM architectures
Permanently adds or drops particular wavelength
channels
Operator needs to plan ahead (e.g. have spare
add/drop ports) and deploy appropriate equipment
Types of fixed OADM architectures

Parallel or serial
Individual channel or wavelength band add/drop
353
Page 23
Lecture notes

Serial fixed OADMs
354

Reconfigurable OADM (ROADM)
architectures
Desired wavelengths to added or dropped selected
on the fly (dynamically)
Increased flexibility for operator in settingup/breaking connections
355
Page 24
Lecture notes

Reconfigurable OADM (ROADM)
architectures
356
Optical Cross-Connects
Optical cross-connects (OXC)
Direct a wavelength channel at an input fiber port
to one of the two or more output fiber ports
Add or drop wavelength channels locally
An example OXC with 2 input and 2 output fibers implemented using two 2x2
switches (left) or one 4x4 switch. Each fiber carries 2 wavelength channels
357
Page 25
Lecture notes
The example OXC scaled to handle 4 wavelength channels on each fiber port
358
The example OXC now scaled to handle 3 wavelength channels on each fiber
359
port and an extra input/output fiber po
Page 26
Lecture notes
OXCs enable mesh topologies and optical ring
interconnection
360
Could use all-optical or electrical switch fabrics

Electrical switching and transponders (OEOs)
Mature technology
Possible monitoring and 3R regeneration
Limited switching capacity becomes too complex and costly for switching of
100 Gbit/s
Dependent on bit rate
Large footprint and power consumption
361
Page 27
Lecture notes
All-optical switching
Bit rate independent = switches optical channels
More scalable in capacity e.g. switching 2.5 - 100 Gbit/s for same
cost/port
Smaller footprint and power consumption
New technology, no digital monitoring, only 1R regeneration (optical
amplification)
362
Page 28

Switching Systems - Routers and Optical Switching

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Lecture notes

Switching Systems by Jorma Kekalainen

Routers and optical switching

Switching Systems by Jorma Kekalainen

Router is used to connect two or more networks that

First generation router architecture

Routers and optical switching

Switching Systems by Jorma Kekalainen

Second generation router architecture

Third generation router architecture

Routers and optical switching

Switching Systems by Jorma Kekalainen

used as campus and office interconnects

Backbone/long haul routers

Major tasks of a router

C - Classify (classification, filtering and routing)

Routers and optical switching

Switching Systems by Jorma Kekalainen

Structure of Packet Switches

Main blocks of a packet switch

Routers and optical switching

Switching Systems by Jorma Kekalainen

The packet is decapsulated from the frame.

Layer 1 termination of incoming physical links (e.g. SDH, Ethernet)

Errors are detected and corrected.

A schematic diagram of an input port

Routers and optical switching

Switching Systems by Jorma Kekalainen

A schematic diagram of an output port

Routers and optical switching

Switching Systems by Jorma Kekalainen

Routing processor functionality

Routers and optical switching

Switching Systems by Jorma Kekalainen

In the past, when a packet switch was actually a dedicated

Today, packet switches are specialized mechanisms that use a

Routers and optical switching

Switching Systems by Jorma Kekalainen

A banyan switch with eight inputs and eight outputs.

Example: Operation of banyan switch (1)

Routers and optical switching

Switching Systems by Jorma Kekalainen

Example: Operation of banyan switch (2)

Examples of routing in a banyan switch

Routers and optical switching

Switching Systems by Jorma Kekalainen

Routers and optical switching

Switching Systems by Jorma Kekalainen

Support of differentiated services

Routers and optical switching

Switching Systems by Jorma Kekalainen

Sharing of processing resources and

Packet processing capacity

link protocol processing delay (input and output)

Other tasks that may have an impact on forwarding speed

In high capacity routers, routing table lookups are a major

Routers and optical switching

Switching Systems by Jorma Kekalainen

Speedup mechanisms for routing table

Distribution of lookup to interfaces or to several routing engines

In centralized routing solutions only packet headers are sent to

Routers and optical switching

Switching Systems by Jorma Kekalainen

Optical network -Why?