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cannot assign case, which is in keeping with the fact that it does not assign a theta role to an
external argument. So the copula BE behaves like an unaccusative verb.
Burzios generalization (i) a verb which lacks an external argument fails to assign Accusative
case
(ii)a verb which fails to assign Accusative case fails to theta-mark an
external
argument
Mary is quiet.
IP
Spec
I
I0
VP
-s
V0
BE
SC/AP
NP
N
N0
Mary
A
A0
quiet
The NP generated in the [Spec, SC] position will move to [Spec,IP] in order to be assigned case.
Another possible position would be [Spec, VP] which is empty because BU does not have an
external argument, so no theta role can be assigned in that position, but it is not a position in
which case can be assigned.
Conclusion
The copula Be is a raising verb taking a small clause as its complement, it lacks an
external argument, fails to assign case to its complement, does not assign a theta role.
Therfore it is an unaccusative verb which selects a small clause, the subject of the sclause
being generated in the [Spec, SC] position out of which it raises to be assigned case.
The copula BE is semantically light, which has been taken as a possible explanation for
the fact that it shares a number of properties with the auxiliaries.
It behaves like auxiliary verbs it undergoes movement to I0; it moves to C0 in question
formation; it is directly negated by not/nt, it can be stressed by emphatic affirmations, it
occurs in tags and codas
COPULA-LIKE VERBS
Fall, stand, make, sit, loom, remain, hold, run, get, lie, grow, go, turn, pass, seem, come,
etc
9. MAKE - If you work hard, you will make a good lawyer.(DP)
She will make a wonderful actress.(DP)
FALL The scheme fell flat.(AP)
He fell victim to her cruel remarks.(NP)
I
I0
T
-ed
VP
V
V0
Fall
SC/AP
DP
The scheme
A
A0
Flat
Nevertheless, there are a number of differences between the copula and the copula-like verbs.
They preserve part of their lexical meaning (durative stay, remain, inchoative
become, get)
They impose certain selectional restrictions on the small clause (see the examples above)
They do not combine with the full range of small clauses as BE
They do not raise, do not invert in question formation, need do-support, are not negated
by not/nt, need do-support, do not appear in tags and codas.
10. They turned Muslim.
*Turned they Muslim? (Did they turn Muslim?)
*They turned not Muslim. (They didnt turn Muslim)
*They turned Muslim, turnednt they?
They do not precede the adverbs (like lexical verbs)
11. *The river runs always dry in summer.
The river always runs dry in summer.
Unlike the copula BE, when the small clause contains two NPs, only the NP subject, that
is the one generated in [Spec, SC] position can raise to [Spec, IP].
12. My uncle remained a doctor all his life.
*A doctor remained my uncle all his life.
THE PREDICATIVE
THE ADJECTIVAL TYPE
Adjectives are heads that project structure according to X-bar, can be modified by an
adverb in the Spec position, can select a complement (PP , CP or IP), can also contain
adjuncts
13. (a)rather envious of Marys success
(b) glad that we were there
(c) very unvilling to come here
(d) rather discontent with me for my behaviour
They may have an exclusively attributive or a exclusively predicative use or both
14. Mary is beautiful.
I saw a beautiful woman.
ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES
They appear only in pre-nominal positions in English, unlike Romanian
15. an envious person / * a person envious
When used attributively, adjectives do not allow complements
16. * a very unwilling to come here person
* a rather discontent with me father
Nevertheles, there are a number of adjectives which appear post-nominally even when
used attributively - general, public, martial. laureate
17. secretary general, attorney general, notary public, court martial, poet laureate
There are adjectives which, under specific conditions, appear post-nominally even when
used attributively
18. The ships damaged by the strom were recovered yesterday.
Attributive adjectives have degrees of comparison, but only those which denote gradable
properties. They can be modified by degree words (quite, rather). Adjectives that denote
ungradable properties do not allow comparison or degree words.
19. (a) the most beautiful woman
(b) It isnt very hot.
(c ) *He is very alive.
When the occur in a string preceding the noun they are arranged on a very strict order
a) adjectives modifying object-denoting nominals
possessives>cardinal>quality>size>shape>color>nation
20. a beautiful red Persian carpet / * a Persian beautiful red carpet
b) adjectives modifying event nominals
possessives>cardinal>ordinal>speaker-oriented>subjectoriented>manner>thematic
21. his previous disgusting angry reaction to your demand
Their future possible friendly cooperation
Adjectives may denote temporary or permanent properties, and depending on that they
may appear in pre or post-modifying positions
22. the only navigable river (permanent property) / the responsible man (trustworthy)
The only river navigable (transient property) / the man responsible (to blame)
Exclusively modifying adjectives
They select internal arguments (like verbs) to which they assign theta roles. They
generally subcategorize for PP, but the preposition is idiosyncratic, that is it cannot be
predicted from the properties of the adjective. Some adjectives subcategorize for IP
(infinitives) or CPs.
30. capable of decision; conversant with the subject; lacking in intelligence; dependent on his
family; answearable to the Prime Minister
31. They were eager to succeed.
He is ready to leave.
IP
Spec
I
I0
VP
-ed
V0
Become
SC/AP
DP
He
AP
AvP
Very
A
A0
Angry
PP
For their
Attitude
PP
with his
Sisters
UNERGATIVE VERBS
a) predicates describing willed or volitional acts: work, play, speak, talk, smile,
grin, frown, grimace, think, mediate, cogitate, daydream, skate, ski, swim, hunt,
bicycle, walk, skip, jog, quarrel, fight, wrestle, box, agree, disagree, knock, bang,
hammer, pray, weep, cry, kneel, bow, laugh, dance, crawl.
b) verbs denoting manners of speaking: whisper, shout, mumble, grumble, growl, bellow,
etc
c) predicates describing sounds made by animals: bark, neigh, quack, roar, chirp, oink,
mew, etc
d) verbs denoting involuntary bodily processes: cough, sneeze, hiccough, belch, burp,
defecate, urinate, sleep, cry, weep, etc
UNACCUSATIVE VERBS
A) burn, fall, drop, sink, float, slide, slip, glide, soar, flow, ooze, seep, trickle, drip, gush,
hang, dangle, sway, wave, tremble, shake, languish, flourish, thrive, drown, stumble, trip,
roll, succomb, dry, boil, seethe, lie(involuntarily), sit(involuntarily), bend(involuntarily),
B) inchoatives (verbs showing a process resulting in a change of state) : melt, freeze,
evaporate, redden, darken, yellow, rot, decompose, germinate, sprout, bud, wilt, wither,
increase, decrease, blush, explode, die, perish, choke, suffocate, scatter, disperse, vanish,
disappear
C) verbs of existing and happening: exist, occur, happen, result, take place
D) aspectual predicates: begin, start, stop, cease, continue, end, etc
E) duratives: last, remain, stay, survive, etc
F) verbs denoting a non-voluntary emission of stimuli that has an impact on the senses:
shine, sparkle, glitter, glow, jingle, clink, clang, snap, crackle, pop, smell, stink, etc
G) verbs of existence: blaze, bubble, cling, coexist, correspond, decay, depend, drift, dwell,
elapse, emanate, exist, fester, float, flow, fly, grow, hide, hover, live, loom, lurk, overspread,
persist, predominate, prevail, project, protrude, revolve, reside, rise, shelter, settle,
smoulder, spread, stream, survive, sweep, swing, tower, wind
H) verbs of appearance: accumulate, appear, arise, awake, awaken, break, burst, dawn, derive,
develop, emerge, ensure, evolve, exude, flow, follow, gush, happen, issue, materialize, occur,
plop, spill, steal, stem, supervene, surge
Remark: the basic meaning of the verbs in the last two categories may not be that of
existence or appearance, but, when used in the there-insertion construction, they will
show this sense.
Different D-structures
Unergatives : NP [VP V]
Unergatives
Unaccusatives
VP
NP
VP
V0
V0
NP
This D-structure is in accordance with the case-assigning properties of the two classes of
verbs. Following Burzios generalization, a verb which lacks an external argument, that
is does not assign an external theta role also fails to assign Accusative case.Therefore,
the internal argument of unaccusatives has to move out of the VP internal position in
order to be assigned case. On the contrary, unergatives, which have an external
argument, can assign Accusative case under specific conditions.
Eg. (change of state) *On the line there are drying a lot of clothes.
*There melted a lot of snow on the streets of the city.
I
I0
VP
T
-s
V
V0
BE
SC
A student in the room
Because of the Case Filter and the EPP, either the subject of the SC moves to [Spec,IP] or the
expletive there is inserted.
2. The VP adjunct analysis
The PP is an adjunct adjoined to V and there is assumed to be present at D-structure.
IP
There
I
I0
VP
-s
PP
In the room
V0
DP
BE
a student
IP
IP
I0
I0
p
there
VP
DP
A cry of
Anguish
0
V
V0
Came
VP
DP
a cry of
anguish
PP
from
Inside the
House
V0
came
V
PP
from
inside the
house
3.Definiteness
Definite NPs, proper names and pronouns cannot normally be used as subjects of the
there-insertion constructions.
Eg. *There is every student of mine in the room.
*There is John in the garden.
* There was him waiting for Mary.
Indefinites are allowed as subjects in there-insertion constructions, while the
postverbal NP had to denote a discourse referent that is new to the hearer.
Eg. There were flies in the room.
There remained a boy in the room.
Nevertheless, there may be other situations when not only indefinites are allowed as subjects of
a there-insertion construction:
Conclusion
There has no meaning of its own
It is a semantically empty element, required for structural reasons it fills the subject
position
Its presence in the sentence is dependent of the presence of its associate, the postverbal
NP, which must be indefinite
B. Intransitives and Locative Inversion
It is a non-canonical construction in which the the surface subject stays inside the VP and the
sentence initial position is occupied by a locative PP.It is a construction in which only
unaccusatives can appear, unergatives and transitives are ungrammatical. The most frequently
used verbs are underived unaccusatives, namely verbs of appearance and verbs of existence as
well as verbs denoting position in space. Derived unaccusatives denoting a definite change of
state cannot be used in this configuration
(locative) PP V NP
Eg. 1. On our left was the Mediterranean.
2. On the table sat a nervous cat.
3. Out of nowhere appeared a mysterious figure.
Eg. *In the dining-room drank John a glass of wine.
* In the hall talked many people.
*On the top floor opened many windows.
Nevertheless, some unergatives can also be used in this configuration, namely verbs of manner
of motion and verbs of emission.
Eg. Around them chattered and sang many girls.
Up the stairs bounded the President
C. The Resultative Construction
A resultative phrase is a phrase that denotes the state achieved by the NP argument of the verb
as a result of the action denoted by the verb. Such a phrase can be predicated only of the
immediately postverbal NP, namely the internal argument of the verb. In other words, only
those verbs that have an internal argument are compatible with Resultative phrases.
Eg. The river froze [solid].
The door slid [open].
John laughed [himself sick].
The horse galloped [himself lame].
Unergatives and resultative phrases
Unaccusatives can appear with resultative phrases without the mediation of a fake
reflexive
Eg. * The water froze itself solid.
D. Intransitives and Past Participles
Generally speaking, the past participle of an unaccusative can be used as a noun modifier, both
pre and post-nominally, while the past participle of unergatives cannot.
Eg. A fallen leaf; vanished civilizations
*walked man, *slept children, *a worked man
Nevertheless, not all unaccusatives appear in a pre or post-nominal modifying position.
Eg. *A man lived in Paris, *an existed solution (atelic verbs)
The past participle of unaccusative describing atelic situations is incompatible with this position.
Telic unaccusatives are compatible with this construction.
Atelic unaccusatives verbs of appearance, verbs of disappearance, verbs of inherently
directed motion, verbs denoting an internally caused change of state.
Telic unaccusatives fall into two categories: firstly (a) verbs depicting a change of state which
can be interpreted as a property (eg. Fallen leaves, blistered feet) and which are freely used as
noun modifiers, and secondly(b) verbs depicting a change of location or of place (?a fallen child)
which are less felicitous as noun modifiers.
Phrasal intransitives
They are lexically complex verbs, made up of a verb and an Adverbial Particle. They evince a
high degree of idiomaticity. The transition from V AdvP to V Prt is made by a subgroup of
verbs that combine freely with a number of particles, mostly directional ones.
Eg. Puff across move across sending out smoke and/or panting noisily
Zoom across/along/away move across, etc swiftly with engine roaring
Eg. The rain came down.
It is an unaccusative phrasal verb, and if we resort to the VP-shell analysis, the d-structure
representation of the sentence is the following.
IP
I
I0
VP
DP
The rain
V0
Came
Prt
down
The Particles with the strongest meaning are the locative or directional ones. They preserve a
high degree of independence which is confirmed by their possible Preposing for emphasis
purposes.
Eg. The balloon went up. / Up went the balloon.
IP
I
I0
VP
DP
The balloon
V
V0
Go
Prt
up
With unaccusative verbs the [Spec, p] position is a non-thematic position, so the particle can
move to that position and later on to [Spec,IP] which is also a non-thematic position with such
verbs.
Aspectual particles refer to the temporal dimension of the event. They may render a variety of
meanings:
a) the incipient character of the event out, in, off
eg. They set out to win support for their cause.
A hostile reaction has set in.
The cars set off in a cloud of dust.
b) the durative aspect on, away (they indicate the continuation of the event)
Most verbs combine freely with on.
Eg. Speak / work / walk on
Away is more limited contextually.
IP
I
I0
VP
DP
The snow
V0
Come
Prt
down
Inherent reflexives
There are a number of verbs which are inherently reflexives. The reflexive is specified as an
inherent feature by the Lexicon. Some of these verbs can subcategorize for a prepositional
object.
Eg. Absent oneself; bestir oneself; perjure oneself
Avail oneself of something; pride oneself on something
Complex intransitives
Complex intransitives are two-argument verbs, which have an external argument and an
internal argument which is not a direct object, but it generally is a prepositional object or and
adverbial modifier.
1.Prepositional intransitives
Prepositional intransitives are not a homogeneous class, due to various factors such as:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Examples:
1. A gang of thieves broke into her house last night.
He glanced through the article quickly.
In the examples above, the preposition retains part of its meaning.
2. Adverbs of time or manner (carefully, easily, frequently) can be inserted between the verb and
the prepositional phrase.
We will go very carefully into these proposals.
If the combination is idiomatic, it is no longer possible.
She gets at her husband frequently. / *She gets frequently at her husband.
Relational
a) general relational verbs indicating possession belong, possess
Eg. It belongs to me.
b) relations of inferiority bow to smb, cringe to/before smb, defer to smd/smth, submit to
smd,
yield to smth
Eg. The girl bowed to the audience.
I shall always defer to my taste / to his experience.
As the prepositional object is generally an experiencer, it not possible to passivize any of the
verbs in these categories.
(NO Passive)