Bahir Dar University

Institute of Technology
Faculty of Electrical and Computer
Engineering
Eeng-4183 : Introduction to Instrumentation

Sep, 2016
1

3. Signal conditioning & Conversion

Outlines
Deflection Bridge
Amplifiers
Filters
Attenuators
Oscillators

Introduction:
Signal conditioning element converts the
output of sensing elements into a form
suitable for further processing
This form is usually:
A DC voltage
A DC current
A variable frequency AC voltage

In general the action of:

conversion
filtration
amplification
modulation and demodulation takes place
3

 These are used to convert the out put of resistive,

capacitive and inductive sensors into a voltage signal.
The following figure shows general Deflection bridge net
work
Eth- thevenins voltage
A

------->

Vs

It is open circuit output voltage of the bridge

i.e when current through BD=0

i1

i2

Z1

Z2

Eth

<-------

i1
Z4

Z3

i2

C
4

u sin g KVL
Concider Loop PABCQ Vs i2 z2 i2 z3
Vs
i2
z2 z3
A

------->

Vs

i1

i2

Z1

Z2

Eth

<-------

i1
Z4

Z3

i2

Concider Loop PADCQ Vs i1 z1 i1 z4

Vs
i1
z1 z4
A

------->

Vs

i1

i2

Z1

Z2

Eth

<-------

i1
Z4

Z3

i2

Eth Eo EDB ED EB
But, ED

Vs z4

z1 z4

and

EB

z4
Vs
z1 z4

Eth Eo EDB

Vs z3

z2 z3

z3

z2 z3

Zth -is the impedance looking back into the circuit between the output
terminals BD, when the supply voltage is short circuited.

-------->

Then Zth- is the parallel combination of Z2 & Z3 in series with the

parallel combination of Z1 & Z4

Z4

Z1

Zth

<--------

Z2

Z3

z2 z3
z1 z4
Zth

z1 z4
z2 z3
7

 If a load ( voltmeter or amplifier) of

impedance ZL is connected across the output
terminals BD, then the current through the
load is:

Eth
i
,
zth zL
thu s in the lim it that :
Z L ? Z th , VL Eth
8

DC bridge: these are used for measuring very low and

medium resistance used as resistive sensor.
Works by deflection of Galvanometer connected
across the balanced point.

Example:
Wheatstone bridge
Kelvins bridge
9

AC Bridge includes:
Maxwells Bridge
Hay Bridge
Desauty Bridge

1. Maxwells Bridge:
It is suitable to accurate measurement of medium
inductance.
Unknown inductance is determined by comparing
with standard self inductance

10

Where,
L1-is unknown inductance
L3-is known variable
inductance
R2 & R4-arepure resistance
D- Detector can be balanced
by adjusting L3 or one of
R2 & R4

Exit

11

 When bridge is balanced:

I1=I2 & I3=I4
Potential difference across AB= Potential
difference across AD
I1Z1 I 3 Z 3 V1

I1 R1 j L1 I 3 R3 j L3 V1............(1)

Potential difference across BC= Potential

difference across DC
I 2 R2 I 4 R4 V2 ................................(2)
12

 Dividing equation (1) by equation(2)

I1 R1 j L1
I 2 R2
But I1 I 2

R1 j L1
R2

I 3 R3 j L3
I 4 R4

& I3 I 4

R3 j L3

R4

R3
j L3
R1
j L1

R2
R2
R4
R4
13

equating real parts

R3
R1

R2
R4

R3 R2
R1
R4

equating imaginary parts

j L3
L3
j L1
L1

R2
R4
R2
R4
L3 R2
L1
R4

14

2. Hay Bridge
This is used when phase angle of inductor
under taste is large
L
i.e. tan
is l arg e
R
1

The circuit arrangement is as shown below

Where,
L1-is inductance & R1 is
resistance of coil under taste
C4-is known variable
capacitance
R2,R3 & R4-are known pure
resistance
15

 When bridge is balanced:

I1=I2 & I3=I4
Potential difference across AB= Potential
difference across AD

I1 R1 j L1 I 3 R3......................(1)
Potential difference across BC= Potential
difference across CD

j
I1 R2 I 3 R3
......................(2)
C4

16

 Dividing equation (1) by equation(2)

I1 R1 j L1
I1 R2

R1 j L1

R2

I 3 R3

j
I 3 R4

C4

R3

j
R4

j
R1 j L1 R4
R2 R3
C4

L1
R1
R1 R4
j L1 R4
R2 R3 ........(3)
C4
C4

17

equating real parts

L1
R1 R4
R2 R3 ..................(4)
C4
equating imaginary parts

R1
j L1 R4
0
C4

2
R1 L1C4 R4 ............................(5)
18

Substituting eq.(5) int o eq.(4) gives

R3 R2

R3 R2C4
L1
2
.........(6)
2
1 C4 R4 1
2
2
C4 R4
C4
Similarly Substituting eq.(6) int o eq.(5) gives
R3 R2C4
R1 2
R4C4 ....................(7)
2
C4 R4 1
2

19

3. Desauty bridge
It is used for determining the value of
unknown capacitance in capacitive sensor.
Where,
C1-is unknown capacitance
C2-is known standard capacitance
R1 & R2-are known pure resistance

20

 When bridge is balanced:

I1=I2 & I3=I4
Potential difference across AB= Potential
difference across AD

I1R1 I3 R2 ..............................(1)

Potential difference across BC= Potential

difference across CD

j
j
I2
I4

C1
C2
j
j
I1
I3
...........................(2)
C1
C2

21

 Dividing equation (1) by equation(2)

I 3 R2
I1 R1

j
j
I1
I3

C1
C2
R2C2
C1
...........................(3)
R1

22

Amplifier and filter

The voltages or currents obtained directly at
the output of a sensor are generally low level
and contain additive noise and coherent
interference, picked up from the environment
and from the sensor itself
Sometimes the measurement process or the
sensor introduces a nonlinear distortion which
must be linearized

23

 The analog signal conditioning module

following the sensor must therefore
amplify the sensor output voltage, as well
as perform linear filtering on it in order to
improve the signal to noise ratio (SNR)
Such amplification and filtration is usually
performed by a low noise instrumentation
amplifier, followed by op-amp active filters

24

operational Amplifier
It is a direct coupled high performance amplifier
containing several transistors.
It can amplify signals from DC level to several
MHz.
High performance indicates:
A very high voltage gain (Av)
High input impedance (Rin or Zin)
Low output impedance (Ro or Zo)

25

Where,
Vs-source voltage
Rs-source resistance
Rin -input impedance
Ro output impedance
RL load resistance
L
Vin & VTh input and output
voltage of the amplifier

Rs

Vin

Vs

VTh

AMP

Rin

R
Ro

Rs

Input side

Vs

Vin

Rin

1
Rin
Vin Vs
Vs
1 Rs
Rs Rin

Rin
R
sin ce R is very high,
0
s

in

Rin

output side

Vs

1
RL
Vo VTh
VTh
1 Ro
RL Ro

RL

This value depend

on the value of RL
26

The schematic symbol of Op-amp

3
Non Inv . Input

V+

+Vcc (12-15v)

11

Inverting Input 2

1
Output

V-

OUT

Vee(-12-(-(15v))

The Op- amps have three basic stages of

amplification
Stage I(Input stage)
Stage II (Intermediate stage)
Stage III(Output stage)
27

 Stage I (Input stage)

This is a differential amplifier
Has two inputs
Provide high gain for signal difference & low gain for
common signals applied to two inputs.
It provides high input impedance

Stage II (Intermediate stage)

Provide high voltage needed to drive output stage
without loading down the input stage.

Stage III (Output stage)

Provides low output impedance
Responsible for developing current needed to drive
external load.
It is a power amplifier.
28

Characteristics of Op-amp
Open loop gain(AvoL)
Refers to an output that is developed when
only different voltage is applied to the input.
i.e. without feedback from the output to the input
V1
V2

Vo AvoL .Vin AvoL V1 V2

Vcc
Vin

+
-

Vo

AvoL ranges from 10, 000 to 200, 000

Open loop mode is not used because there may be

over heated.
OP-amp under goes saturation when Vo sat=90% of Vcc
29

Example:
How much Vin is needed to cause saturation
of op-amp with AvoL=100,000 & Vcc=15 v

30

Input offset voltage

Ideally output voltage of op-amp should be zero when
input voltage is zero.
In a practical case there is some output voltage ranges
from V to mV even input voltage is zero.
An input offsetting voltage is used to overcome the
unwanted output voltage of op-amp.
The net effect is zero at the output when there is no
input voltage.
This is called input offset voltage
+
-

Vcc

The lower input offset voltage the better the

quality of the op-amp

VEE
Offset adjustment
(potentiometer)
31

Input biasing current

It is the average current flowing into or out of
the two inputs
V1
V2

I1
I2

+
-

Vo

IB

I1 I 2

The smaller the value of IB the better the quality of Op-amp.

32

Input Impedance (Zin)

It is the equivalent resistance of the input of Op-amp.
Typical value ranges from 10K to 1 M
Output impedance is also ranged from 50 to 75

Slow rate
It is the rate at which its output changes from
one value into an other value in a given time.
This parameter is important extremely in high
frequency signal.
Depends on the amplifiers gain, the value of
compensating capacitor of Op-amp.
33

Application of Op-amp
It is applied for the construction of:
Inverting amplifier
Non inverting amplifier
Summing amplifier (adder)
Subtracting amplifier
Instrumentation amplifier
Differentiator
Integrator
comparator
34

Inverting amplifier
Figure below shows what is known as the inverting configuration.
With this circuit, the output is out of phase with the input.
The gain of this circuit is determined by the ratio of the resistors
used and is given by:
I g I f 0 I g I f
Ig

If

Rf
Vo Vin

Vo
Vin
Rf
Rg
Rg
AvcL

AvcL

Rf
Vo

Vin
Rg

Vo R f

Vin
Rg
35

Non-Inverting amplifier
Figure below shows what is known as the no inverting
configuration.
With this circuit the output is in phase with the input.
The gain of the circuit is also determined by the ratio of the
resistors used and is given by:
I g ( I f ) 0 I g I f

Vin Vo Vin

Rg
Rf

AvcL

If

Vin Vo Vin
Vo Vin Vin

Rg R f R f
R f Rg R f

Ig

Vo
AvcL R f
Vin

Rf

1
R

1 Rf

R
R
R
g
f
g

36

Summing amplifier (adder)

A summing amplifier is an op-amp circuit that
combines several inputs and produces an output that is
the weighted sum of the inputs
Application: Used to linear mixing of different signals.

If R f R1 R2 ... Rn
V0 (V1 V2 ... V )

37

Subtracting amplifier
A Subtracting amplifier is a device that amplifies
the difference between two inputs but rejects
any signals common to the two inputs.
VO VO1 VO 2
VO1

R2
V1 , due to V1 only
R1

R
R4
VO 2 1 2 Vb , Where Vb
*V2
R1
R3 R4

But given that R1 R3 & R2 R4

Substitute forVb gives,
R
VO 2 2 V2 , due to V2 only
R1
R2
Vo V2 V1
R1
38

Instrumentation amplifier
One of the most useful and versatile op-amp
circuits for precision measurement and
process control is the instrumentation
amplifier (IA)
Typical applications of IAs include isolation
amplifiers, thermocouple amplifiers, and data
acquisition systems.

39

Fig. Instrumentation amplifier

Prove that!
40

Reading assignment
Read the details of Op-amp as:
Differentiator
Integrator
comparator

41

Filter circuits
Filter is a circuit that pass signals of frequency in the
pass band and rejects those which are in the stop
band.
In other word, Filter is frequency selective network.
It has a wide application in communication and
control system
There are four major classes of filter including
Based on frequency discrimination, filter circuits can be
classified as:

Low pass
High pass
Band pass
Band reject
42

>
Magnitude

Low Pass
>
High Pass
>
Band Pass
>
Band Reject
Frequency

>

43

 Depending on their construction, there are

two types of filters
Active Filter: constructed with active electronics
device.
Ex. Op-amp in conjunction with Inductor, capacitor
and resistor
Passive Filter: constructed with passive
electronics device.
Ex. Inductor, capacitor and resistor

44

Attenuator
An attenuator is an electronic device that reduces
the power of a signal without appreciably
distorting its waveform.
An attenuator is effectively the opposite of an
amplifier, though the two work by different
methods.
While an amplifier provides gain, an attenuator
provides loss, or gain less than 1.

45

 Attenuators are usually passive devices made from

simple voltage divider networks.
Switching between different resistances forms
adjustable stepped attenuators and continuously
adjustable
Basic circuits used in attenuators are pi pads (type) and T pads.
These may be required to be balanced or
unbalanced networks
For instance, attenuators used with coaxial lines
would be the unbalanced form while attenuators
for use with twisted pair are required to be the
balanced form
46

Types of Attenuator circuits

47

OSCILLATOR
Oscillators are electronic circuits that generate an
output signal without the necessity of an input
signal.
It produces a periodic waveform on its output
with only the DC supply voltage as an input.
The output voltage can be either sinusoidal or
non sinusoidal, depending on the type of
oscillator
Different types of oscillators produce various
types of outputs including sine waves, square
waves, triangular waves, and saw tooth waves.
48

 The basic oscillator concept showing three

common types of output wave-forms: sine
wave, square wave, and saw tooth.

49

Types of Oscillator Circuits

Phase-Shift Oscillator
Wien Bridge Oscillator
Tuned Oscillator Circuits
Colpitts tuned oscillator
Hartley tuned oscillator

Crystal Oscillators
Unijunction Oscillator
Read the details of each oscillator circuits !
50

4. Output presentation

indicators
Pointer-Scale
Alphanumeric

Recorders
Graphical Recorders
51

Electrical indicating and

testing instruments
The magnitude of voltage signals can be
measured by various electrical indicating and
test instruments,
such as meters (both analogue and digital),
the cathode ray oscilloscope and the digital
storage oscilloscope.
As well as signal-level voltages, many of these
instruments can also measure highermagnitude voltages, and this is indicated
where appropriate.
52

Pointer-Scale
Analogue meters are electromechanical
devices that drive a pointer against a scale.
They are prone/exposed to measurement
errors from a number of sources that include
inaccurate scale marking during manufacture,
bearing friction,
bent pointers and
ambient temperature variations.

53

Moving-coil meters:

54

Moving-iron meter:

Moving-iron meter: (a) attraction type; (b) repulsion type

55

Display of measurement signals

Measurement signals in the form of a varying
electrical voltage can be displayed either by an
oscilloscope or else by any of the electrical
meters described earlier.

However, if signals are converted to digital

form, other display options apart from meters
become possible, such as electronic output
displays or using a computer monitor.
56

Electronic output displays:

Character formats used in electronic displays: (a) seven-segment; (b) 7 x 5 dot matrix

57

Clamp-on meters:

58

Recording of measurement data:

Mechanical chart recorders

Simple galvanometric recorder.

59

Circular chart recorders:

60

Potentiometric recorders:

Servo system of potentiometric chart recorder.

61

Reading assignment
Read the details of :
Magnetic and Semiconductor recorders

62

63

64