47

NGA CULT IN INDIA

The beginning of Nga worship and the Nga cult is shrouded in obscurity in
India. As snakes are found across the country and people inhabited those regions, they
must have come in contact from a very early stage of human colonization. Snake bite
leading to death might have been treated like natural calamities, culminating fear and
subsequently revering it. Here an attempt has been made to look for references of
Ngas evidenced in various literary sources as well as in the archeological contexts.
This chapter takes a brief review of the mention of Ngas in various religious and
secular literatures. Besides taking a review of literature a brief description of the Nga
sculptures found from the archaeological excavation as well as from other
archeological contexts are documented. The attempt here is also taken to understand
the association of Nga cult with other major contemporary religions i.e. Jainism and
Buddhism, apart from other Brahmanical sects.
The evidences related to the worship of snakes, one of the most remarkable
and primitive forms of religion can be seen in various ways in earlier religious
institutions of India. Snakes got a powerful hold upon the imagination of people
because of several rituals and local customs are associated with this creature. The
origin and gradual development of thought and ritual through different ages is very
difficult to trace. Therefore, this practice has remained more or less mysterious among
different socio-cultural and religious beliefs of India. However, the human
psychology could perhaps provide reasons for the continuation of this practice even
today. Snakes have a ubiquitous distribution and the threat of the loss of life due to
these animals creates makes some sort of fear in human mind. This threat might have
been one of the reasons leading to the worship of this animal. While the animal is
dreaded on one side, it is admired on another side. This is because of the mysterious

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stories associated with this animal and also due to its unusual motion. People believe
that snakes are the symbol of immortality and purification as its habit of stripping its
skin on a regular basis. A closer analysis of Nga Cult can help to trace pertinent
Indian sources on the basis of its chronological. The snake as a symbol enters into the
various mythology of the world over (Hartel 1979).
The practice of snake worship in India is an age-old system and has lots of
stories to tell in the socio-religious aspect. During the earliest stages of the growth of
religious ideas, it seems, it was conceived that the animal world to be superior to
them. Naturally, snakes which are un-canniest of all animals became a symbol to
express their ideas of divinity.
NGA IN DIFFERENT RELIGIOUS TEXTS
The occurrences of the Nga worship can be seen in various ancient literatures
especially Vedas, Epics, Stras, Purns and other secular texts.

Vedas: Vedic texts mentions the word mostly used for snake is Ahi'. The
term Ahi stands for expressing the fear of the snake. Simultaneously it
wonders for its uncommon form and admires its beauty. These characters
might have been the reason for the beginning of the snake-worship or the
direct adoration of this animal. Rig-Veda mentions about the initial and
developing stages of Nga worship and it became a regular deity for worship
by Yajurvedic people (Pratap 1990). The Rig-Veda records the sacrificial
offerings that were started in the name of Nga during this period
(Arrowsmith 1972). Atharva Veda deals with numerous charms and prayers
against Ngas and also mentions a rite of propitiations on the full moon day of
Mrgara. Atharvaveda shows Ngas are associated with Vedic and post
Vedic divinities as the protectors of the quarters. Snakes have been identified

49

as divine beings and also expressed a desire for their destruction (Chand 1999;
Macdonell 2004; Vogel 1926). This shows that the Snake worship probably
originated out of fear.

Stra: The earlier sacred texts Stras contain instruction as to when and how
the offering to the snakes should be made. Grihya- Stras, a secular text gives
the details of annual ritual, Sarppabali. This ritual were conducted for two
purposes; first one related to the honouring the snake and the next related to
warding away of any kind of evils. Asvalyana Sutra says that offering the
sacrifices is the way to gratify the Nga. The Paraskara Grihya Stra also
gives the details of sacrificial rites to the Ngas (Sastri 1985).

Mai- tryani Samhit: It tells about homage to the snakes. It can move along
with the earth. It tells us that the snakes can live both on land and water. As
mentioned above snakes are called by specific names in the early group of
texts. The peculiar characterization leads to the adoration of snakes. The
worship of snakes as semi-divine beings stands as the deities of the waters,
springs and rivers. This development takes place in to the sub consciousness
of a popular myth of a big demoniacal as well as divine dragon which is
closely connected with the extensive myths of the storm and the struggle of
light with darkness (Keith 1986; Basu 1979).

Epics and Purns: In the famous Indian epics, Mahbhrata and Rmyana
as well as in the Purns, genealogical stories about the divine origin of the
Ngas were mentioned. The narrations of the stories of famous Ngas were
also mentioned. The names of such famous Ngas vary and mentioned not
only with Ngaraja but also with Nga devas. They were considered as the
guardians of underworld wealth, health and offspring. It also tells us about the

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physical feature and the inviolability of the Nga. There are many stories
regarding the sanctity and the dreadful nature of the Ngas both in Ramayana
and Mahabharata. diparva, opening of epic Mahabharata, is rich in myths
and stories related to the Nga. This also discusses about the myth related to
the birth of Nga. It also explains the story of enmity between Garuda and
Nga. The story of Nga Padmanbha and the struggle between Krishna and
Kliya mentioned in Mahbhrata vividly show the characters of snake and
their both destructive and benevolent nature. The murders of King Parikit by
the Takakan, the hostility between the Nga and Pndava etc. are also
mentioned in Epic literature (Fausboll 1981; Nair 1993; Vogal 1926; Vitsaxis
1977).

Vainava mythology: Vyupurna mentions the name of some of the Ngas in

Ptla as Naimichi, Kliya, Hayagrva, Takaka, Hemaka, Kalanemi, and
Vasuki (Aiyar 1914). Ngas were also mentioned in Jtaka stories such as
story of Nga and the bird, Foolish rafts men and the angry Nga, and The
Nga Pandura who let his secret out. Ngas were also seen in different fable
and fairy tales like the stories of The Gold grading Snake and the poor
Brahmin, the maiden that wedded a Snake etc. The Bhgavatha and Vishnu
Purna also mention the cosmic snake Ananta being both the source and
physical support of all creation. Ananta means endless is also called ea or
Adiea. The Matsyapurna tells that when all creatures are consumed by
fire at the end of the Yuga, ea only will remain (Akhtar 1972; Banergea
1968; Mani 1999; Wilson 1986).

Jataka: Jataka is a story about the collection of tales of the repeated births and
deaths-of the Bodhisattva. Different types of Nga stories were mentioned in

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these tales. The stories were exclusively related to the Nga. These are,
virtuous Nga ankhapla, and Nga Champaka who were caught by a snake
charmer, the pious layman and the barbar, prince Padma sheltered by Nga,
Nga Pndra who let his secret out, the old well, the King Snaka received a
charm from a Ngaraja, the story of Drdara; the exiled Nga and the bird
(Oldham 1988; Vogel 1926).
Apart from these, some foreign writers have also dealt with the theme of Nga
worship in India. Writers mentioned that snakes were getting priority and treated
probably as a God during the invasion of Alexander. Such kinds of references also
help to provide evidences of the existence of Nga worship in India during the later
centuries before the Christian era. Some of these descriptions satisfy with the rites
which are still practised today at the Ngapanchami and yilyam ceremonies
(Bunce 2000; Rose 1986).
EVIDENCES OF NGA WORSHIP; ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES
The earliest evidences of snake representations in archaeological contexts can
be traced as early as to the prehistoric period as the evidence are found in paintings on
rock shelters in India found at Bhimbetka, Lekhania and Mahadaria (Wakankar 2005)
(Plate 3.1). The evidence of the snakes has also been found in a number of Harappan
sites. They appear at the archaeological sites in Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal.
The materials which were found from these sites include terracotta figurines,
depiction on potsherds and seals with the depictions (Kaul 2008) (Plate 3.2). Two of
such examples come from the site of Lothal. One of these specimens without head
and the other is a depiction of two upright snakes below a tree on a pottery fragment
(Hartel 1976; Ravindran 1993) (Plate 3.3). These two examples give the idea about
the probable relation between tree and Snake worship in India. In another depiction,

52

the representation of two snakes entering and leaving an ant-hill was found on pottery
from the same site (Plate 3.4). This depiction shows that the snakes guard the
treasures of the earth or probably pot containing wealth. The theme resembles with
the concept of snake as a guardian of treasure. The worships of ant-hills in relation to
Nga worships can still be seen throughout India. The illustrations of Harappan
period showed theriomorphic or zoomorphic figure with a single hood (monocephalous) snake rather than multi hooded (poly-cephalous) mythical snakes has
evidenced. Other than terracotta and pottery, seals are the other objects that depict
snakes. The depictions on seals, sealing and amulets explain about Nga cult not
directly, but in an indirect way. One of the seals from Mohenjo-Daro shows a
divinity seating on a platform with its legs bent and is honoured by two kneeling
adorers and an erect mono-cephalous snake just behind the figure (Harlet1976, Kaul
2008; Suresh 2000; Nair 1993) (Plate 3.5).
However, the representation of snake during the above periods though does
not give the direct evidence of its association in religious aspect or worship of Nga
cult but suggest their presence of importance. Yet, it also cannot be denied that the
Nga association with culture was not prevailing in those periods.
The pictorial representations of snakes were rare during the second and first
millennium B.C. After the decline of Indus valley civilization, the material evidences
were very scarce and it is difficult to explain the religious background of Nga
worship in India on the basis of such evidences. On the other hand, this was the time
of the emergence of sacred secular texts like Vedas and Puranas. Such texts help to
draw cultural and historical events and the presence of Nga in the society (Nair
1993).

53

The earlier images of Nga after Indus valley civilization started to appear in
the second century B.C. in the form of stone reliefs of many Stpas. The snake
representations are found in the reliefs of Bharht Stupa of 2nd century B.C and Stpa
at Sanchi. The Ngas were revered by constructing huge stone images near to the
irrigation dam (Shaw 2000). All the depictions in Bharht Stupa belong to
anthropomorphic category. Depiction of Ngas can be seen in the railing, gateways,
bas reliefs and pillars of Bharht Stupa. One of the depictions is a standing five
hooded Nga with two female attendants in the shape of Nginis are seen in the
medallion relief on a railing pillar at Bharht (Plate 3.6).The female attendants to the
sides of the five hooded Nga are represented in Therio-anthropomorphic style. Both
were having Jatmakuta with necklaces and ear rings. Another depiction of Nga can
be seen in the pillar relief showing a male wearing dhoti with turban on his head. Five
snake hoods like a canopy were depicted at the back of the image. This typical
anthropomorphic Nga hooded figure is termed as Ngarja (Vogel 1926) (Plate 3.7).
The relief from Bharht as a whole can explain the importance of male Nga divinity
in all his dignity as a worshipper of Buddha (Plate 3.8). Sometimes these figures are
found directly related to plants and leaves. The Ngarja figure from the pillar relief
stand in a tree leaves basement. As a whole, Nga figures from Bharht Stupa have
shown in all three varieties like theriomorphic, anthropomorphic and therioanthropomorphic. So it can be assumed that these three image classification of Nga
figures started to become visible in the earlier periods of millennium B. C. Ngas as a
poly-cephalous with five hooded mythical snake can be seen in the tops of Bharht,
Sanchi, Amrvati and the frescoes of Ajanta (De 1954).
The next evidences are available from the region of Mathura, a home of most
popular art school of Ancient India and a great centre of Nga worship. Number of

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Nga sculptures had been evidenced during 1stcentury A.D. from this place. The
oldest Nga sculpture, belonging to 100 .. was found from Mathura and now
placed in State Museum, Lucknow. The particular oldest figure has lot of similarity
with famous old Yaksa image of that particular art school. The life sized figure is in a
standing posture with lower garment and edged by seven-snake hood at the back of
collapsed head. It might have been used for worship due to its independent pattern
and measurement. Another important Nga figure with seven-hood accompanied by
two female Nginis are preserved in State Museum, Mathura (Plate 3.9). A group of
four male and five female worshippers of completely human shape with two children
are depicted in a line. An interesting feature is that, all these anthropomorphic nga
figures are holding one third of snake body in their left arm. However it can be
explained as the particular figure deliberately wanted to attach a mythical Nga aspect
with his character (De 1954; Hartel 1976; Panda 1986; Nair 1993; Suresh 2000).
There are different types of Nga images in Mathura sometimes similar to life
size Nga image or sometime small and images depicted on railing or single figures.
Similarly this is the basic theme of Nga worship in Central Kerala. Here the southwestern portion of the house compound always left for the worship of snake Gods and
call it as sacred grooves or Sarppakkvu. Atmosphere of sacred groves include the
above mentioned water body (pond or kulam), garden (canopy of forest) and images
of Nga.
Nga and Ngini images became quite common in around 7th 8th century
A.D in northern and eastern part of India. The temples like Mukteswar and
subsequent temples have beautifully carved images of Nga and Nginis (Plate 3.10).
Besides this the depiction of Anantaayanam easyi at Deogarh temple during
Gupta period tells the affiliation of snake in Vainavite faith (Plate 3.11). The

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Tirthankara image (Plate 3.12) and the Ngarja image at Ajanta reveal their
popularity (Plate 3.13).
There are several inscriptions which explain different aspects of Nga worship
with different names (Sanskrit inscription preserved in Lucknow Museum). All these
different types of inscriptions give homage to Nga worship during the early centuries
of Christian era. On other hand, some inscriptions give the idea of a close connection
between Nga images and water bodies and also explain the donation of Nga
images. Several epigraphic and numismatic evidences clarify that the Northern and
Central India witnessed the establishment of kingdom associated with Nga cult after
the decline of the Kuana rule. Several coins of rulers like Virasena, Visakhadeva,
Dhanadeva and Kumundasena depicted a snake image during early years of Christian
era (Kaul 2008; Panda 1986).
Nga Cult was also prominent in Bihar during the early historic period. For
instance, a circular brick structure popularly known as the Maniyr - Math is situated
at Rajagriha in Bihar. It is a collapsed brick structure and ten stucco-images are
arranged around the base of this structure. Following figures are being represented:
iva-liga, Vinu, two Ngas, Ngini, Ganea, three Ngas again and Siva (Hartel
1976; Nayar 1993) (Plate 3. 14). These images belong to5th century A D and they
illustrate Nga cult as a part of the Hindu pantheon. But excavations in the peripheries
of the Maniyr Math unearthed two earlier structural phases below the circular brick
structure. The earliest structural phase belongs to the first century (Panda 1986).
Terracotta figures of snakes and other animals were found from the excavation. Most
important findings were that of a group of terracotta cobra hoods forms the necks of
vessels. The exact period of the particular figures has not been dated. Eight Nga in a
standing posture were found in the reverse side of a carved stone relief panel from the

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excavation. Ngini figures are also depicted in the left and niche of a stone relief.
Base of the panel has one inscription which extracted and explains the meaning that it
is dedicated to Mani-Nga. The particular mythical name of Nga also is very
common in almost all part of Central Kerala. Two Ngas in a standing posture
accompanied by attendants were also found from the obverse side of the stone relief.
The style of inscription suggested that it can be placed in the date of the second
century AD (Hartel 1976).
Another evidence of Nga image was found on an excavation done by the
archaeological team of the Berlin Museum of Indian Art at Sonkh, Mathura in 1971
(Kaul 2008). The excavation revealed stone image of mardevi, mund or Kli
with the representation of seven hooded Ngarja. A theriomorphic seven headed
snake depiction was shown on the reverse side. Another relief on stone was collected
from a private house near the temple was a piece of a carved door-relief. It shows a
mounting ornamented male figure and also holds a three-hooded snake with his right
arm. This depiction explains, the male figure is not fighting with snake whereas trying
to taking out from the hidden area (Plate 3.15).
Excavation of the temple at Sonkh also unearthed seven hooded Cobra image
on terracotta. Apart from this two more stone images were also recovered. First one
was three hooded image of Ngini; Abhaya-mudr on right hand and holds a snake in
the left hand (Plate 3.16). This terracotta Nga image is dated to early Kuana period
of 100 A D on the basis of some coins of Wima Kadphises and KanishkaI were
unearthed from this excavation (Hartel 1976; Panda 1989).
Northern and Central India had fallen under control of foreign invaders from
Bactria during Pre-Kuana period. These rulers had a better attitude towards a multi
religious tolerance. This freedom of worship becomes noticeable in the artistic

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innovations discovered in Pre-Kuana sites and this influences lead depiction of

anthropomorphic and theriomorphic figures of Ngas and Nginis together in an
elaborated canvas.
The snake deity worshipped as a tutelary god has been evidence from Odisha.
The images of Nga and Nginis were discovered from many parts of Odisha. Some
of these images are shown snakes in two hands. Female Nga images were holding
snake on left hand the right shows Varada mudra whereas some other deities holding
pot in left hand and Varada pose on right hand. In Mayurbhanj a dynasty is known by
the name of Virata Bhujanga or Virata. Evidences of Snake worship by this dynasty
are found many places of Mayurbhanj. In Orissa there is also mentioning of female
deity called as Ngamtha; holding a child in left and Nga on right hand (De 1954).
Ancient image of two armed seven-hooded Nga Goddess in a seating posture has
been discovered in the Tundara village at Balasore district (Panda 1986; Panda 2004).
The composite figure of snake (Therio-anthropomorphic) frequently appears in the
temples of Mukteswar dated to 8-9th century A.D (Plate 3.17). This depiction becomes
a regular feature in the subsequent temples in Odisha.
South India is famous for Nga worship in different forms, sacred grooves or
Sarppakkvs are used as a ritual space for all kind of Nga worship. Sacred grooves
in Kerala have a resemblance to Ngavana of North India. The prevalence of Nga
worship in South India in ancient times is known from different inscriptions at
Banavasi in Kanara which records the erection of Cobra stone in the middle of 1st
century A D (Vogel 1926). Such snake stones are common in every village in the
Bellary district, Gulbarga, Siddhapur and Sampgum in Karnataka (Bolchmann 1875).
Theriomorphic as well as anthropomorphic figures are also evidenced in the caves of
Badmi and one of the depiction in Badmi is showing the varha incarnation of

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Vinu (Plate 3.18) whereas a therio-anthropomorphic figure is shown in the medallion

of a pillar (Plate 3.19). Another deity (Vinu) is in a sitting posture which is depicted
in a highly ornaments and having seven cobra hoods caped behind the head and sitting
on a coiled snake body (PLATE 3.20). The following figure shows details of the ritual
spaces given for Nga worship in central Kerala (Fig 3.1).

Fig. 3.1 Ritual Space in association with the Nga Worship

ASSOCIATION OF NGA WITH DIFFERENT SECTS:
The Nga cult emerged in India as one of the most famous independent cult. It
is still noticed frequently to be associated with major religions like Buddhism and
Jainism along with other sub sects of Brahmanism.
Association of Nga cult with Buddhism:
Buddha is not an Nga descent but Ngas are associated with the life of
Buddha. According to the mythical stories, there are several mentioning about

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Buddha and Nga. Among this the story of two Ngaraja Nanda and Upananda are
connected with the birth of Bodhisattva Gouthama. Another story says the relation of
Nga, Mucchilinda with Bodhisattva. The story says Nga, Mucchilinda gives
protection to Buddha by capping his large hood over his head from the rain when he
got enlightenment. Moreover, it is believed that a stupa was constructed over his
relics after the Nirvana of Buddha and protection had given by the Ngas. It can be
seen in the Stpas of Amrvati, Bharht and Ngarjunknda. The frescos and
sculptural depiction of Ajanta has the evidences of Buddha with Nga. He is
represented as a five hooded Ngarja at the Ajanta cave number nineteen. Thus
Buddhist Art and literature symbolize and endorse Nga Cult and made a great mass
of Nga worshippers faithful to Buddhism. Most of the depictions in Bharht are also
explain the worship of Buddha by Ngas.
The adoration of the snakes has some differences in northern India and
southern India. The Buddhism itself has two sectarian categories such as northern
Buddhism (Mahayana) and southern Buddhism (Theravada). The canonical texts of
both these sects of Buddhism have mentioning about Ngas as wise and benevolent
animal. One of the myths of Mahyna Buddhist says that they are the guardian of
water and Stras. All over India Ngas are considered as water deity by almost all
Brahmanical religious sects. In Mahayana mythology, mentioned Nga-King Vsuki
treated as king of the snakes in the earth and also mentioned the details of eight great
Ngas. Ngas were considered as the protectors of the Dharma. Years after Buddhas
death, Mahyna Buddhism is still dealing with the Snake cult. The story of
Ngrjuna is justifying this statement (Jakson 2000; Warder 1970).
Infact, such kinds of myths gave a smooth way to incorporate lower
tradition cultic thoughts into large and great tradition. In the later stages of Buddhism,

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Ngas were started to consider as a protector of Buddha as well as Dharma. It is also

believed that Buddhism has been migrated to China and Japan from India through the
monks. In China Ngas are considered as Dragons whereas in Japan Kami is the name
used for denoting Naga or Dragon spirit.
Association of Nga cult with Jainism:
Ngas played a prominent role in Jainism. The important evidences are the
snake symbol of Prvantha and Suprasvantha. Ngas are also represented in Jain
sculptures as worshipping the Stpas. The sculpture of Prvantha is represented in
a standing posture with a multi-hooded snake covering his head (Plate 3.21). Ancient
Tamil country including Chra kingdom witnessed the spread of culture and
architecture of Jainism in the form of rock cut temples (Damodaran 2002). The
temples at the northern boundary of Kerala like the Chitharal rock temple
(Tirucharanthumala), Chathurmukha Basati, Manjeswaram and Ngarcovil temple at
the southern frontier along with Kallil in Ernakulam district and Kaviyoor rock temple
in Pathanamthitta district suggested the foundation of Jain culture together with the
presence of Nga Worship (Plate 3.22). There was a custom that the Nga images
were consecrating under the sacred trees and placed open to the nature (Nga Bana)
by a particular Jain community called Bunt. They admire Cobra greatly.
The most common and the popular festival for propitiating the Ngas is
Ngapanchami which is celebrated on the fifth lunar day of the month of Srvana
(JulyAugust). Apart from Ngapanchami, yilyam Pooja and Nagulachivathi are
other festivals which are celebrated in Kerala and Andhra Pradesh, respectively. It is
reported that the festivals are marked by rituals bathing and worship of the images of
the sacred Ngas. Even live Snakes (Cobra) and also ant hills are worshipped during

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this day (Plate 3.23). During this time, the sacred Nga images were worshipped by
ritual bathing and pious fasting.
Association of Nga cult with other religions:
The snake figures prominently showed in the art and narratives of
contemporary Saivism, Saktism, Vaishnavism, and even in Christian religion too. In
addition to these religions, many popular devotional practices of villages and ethnic
peoples throughout India worship snakes Gods in a separate ways. Commonly, Nga
images or sculptures were defied and set up in the shrines for worship. These images
are sometimes worshipped as a sub deity together with other Gods and Goddesses of
other Brahmanical religious sects. Ngas appear in association with the major Gods
of Brahmanical religion such as iva, Vinu, Subramanian, Bhadrakli, Swmi
Ayyappan or Dharma sta, Buddha and Jain. Additionally, there are some temples
which are dedicated to the worship of Ngas only. However, the number of such
temples is very less as compared to the other major religions. In Kerala, instead of
shrines, south western portion of the house compound were left for the consecration
of Nga images precisely under the pipal or nm trees for the worship. This particular
area is known by the name of Sarppakkvu. The snakes are known by different names
in different states of India. Such as Sarppam or Ngam in Kerala, Mnasa and
Vishahrs in West Bengal, Guja in Panjab, Basera in Shimla, MulNgand star Nga
in Chhamba, Ngadeo in Sagar, SubbaraYudu in Andhra Pradesh, Subbaraya in some
parts of Karnataka, Subbarama in Tamil Nadu and ea Nga in Chhatishgarh.
The place of Nga in the later orthodox cults like Brahmanical Hinduism,
Buddhism, Jainism and also regional cults and its presence in architecture, sculpture,
paintings, literature, tradition and folklore became prominent. On the whole, wide
distribution of the snakes deities, presence of Nga in art and architecture, worship of

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Nga by the followers of different religions in India suggests that it was one of the
most popular forms of worship in India. Some studies about the Nga worshippers
show that there are innumerable people from different areas like Punjab, Sambalpur in
Odisha, Agra etc. who are involved in Nga worships. The census report of 1891
showed the detailed report of the distribution and number of snakes worshippers in
different part of the country. James Fergusson in his book entitled Tree and Snake
Worship recounts the propitiation of live Snakes in Manipur and Sambalpur. A snake
temple at Calicut (Kerala) contained several live cobras which are feed by the priest
and worshippers. At Mysoor and Vaisar Padi, near Chennai, crowds used to assemble
on Sundays to see the snakes preserved in the temple ground (Vogel 1926).
Through the course of time, many new features and some adjustments were
occurring in the sphere of the Brahmanical religions as well as associated with Nga
worship. However, the ways the snakes were worshiped continued to be more or less
same except the change seen through economy and were not influenced much by
these developments of Brahmanism. The religious texts of the early period give
details of the early Gods. One can see that many of the Gods have been given many
new characters and become more tangible. This situation in the religion was leading
to the beginning of idea of anthropomorphism with the development of Yaksha on the
human attributes of early deities. Thereafter the figural representation of the Gods
became common and a regular Iconography began to develop (Panda 1986).
Gradually myths and legends emerged from various sources and lead to a
diversification of cults and deities. Slowly some sacred text like Dhynaslka and
ilpastras were introduced to explain the iconic characters of different deities
(Narayanan 2000; Bumer 1986). These developments in religion continued even after

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the rise of Buddhism and Jainism with a little variation. In-fact, the origin and
developments of religious forms and believes goes along with human developments.
The question like why, how and when the Nga worship has started in India
need an elaborated and exhaustive examination. Here, it is the only possible way to
recount and examine some of the basic and most essential information concerning the
Nga Cult in India. Apart from the ancient religious as well as secular literature from
Vedic Age down to the modern period, the details of Nga worship can be traced
from the following details and it will be helpful to draw the antiquity of Nga worship
in India as a whole and Central Kerala in particular.

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PLATES

Plate 3.1: Snakes depiction in Pre historic Rock Shelter

Courtesy Hartel 197

Courtesy Hartel 1976

Plate 3.2: Depiction of Snake in pottery and seal, Indus valley 6Civilisation

Courtesy Hartel 197

Plate 3.3: Depiction of snake in Pottery

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Courtesy Hartel 197

Plate 3.4: Two snakes entering and leaving the ant hill

Plate 3.5: Mono- Cephalous snake; Mohenjo-Daro

Courtesy Hartel 1979

Plate 3.6: Five Hooded Nga with two female attendants, Bharht

66

Courtesy Vogel 1926

Plate 3.7: Ngarja,

Bharht Plate 3.8: Ngarja worshipping Buddha, Bharht

Courtesy Hartel 1976

Plate 3.9: Seven hooded Nga with Nginis; Mathura Museum

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Plate 3.10: Nga figures from Mukteswar Temple

Plate 3.11: Anathasyi Vinu, Deogarh

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Plate 3.12: Tirthankars image with Nga, Ajanta, Cave no. 19

Plate 3.13: Ngarja image, Hindu cave no. 29

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Plate 3.14: Three stucco Nga image, Maniyar Math,

Courtesy Hartel 1979

Rajagriha

Plate 3.15: Depiction of Male and Nga; Temple at Sonkh

Courtesy Hartel 1979

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Courtesy Hartel 1979

Plate 3.16: Three Hooded Female Naga, Sonkh

Plate 3.17: Ngini; Mukteswara, Orissa Plate 3.18: Varha incarnation and Nga;
Badami

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Plate 3.19. Therio-anthropomorphic Nga

Badami

Plate 3.20 Vinu on seven hooded Cobra;

Badami

Plate 3.21: Prvantha in Standing Posture (Suprasvantha), Deogarh

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Plate 3.22: Jain Temple at Kallil, Perumbavoor, Ernakulam District

Plate 3.23: Worship of Ant-hill